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MANUAL 


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CLASSICAL  LITERATURE 


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MANUAL 


OF 


CLASSICAL  LITERATURE 


FROM  THE  GERMAN  OP 

J.  J.  ESCHENBURG, 

PROFESSOR  IN  THE  CAROLINUM,   AT  BRUNSWICK. 


WITH  ADDITIONS. 


By  N.   W.   FISKE, 

PROFESSOR  OF  MORAL  AND  INTELLECTUAL  PHILOSOPHY  (FORMERLY  OF 
THE  LATIN  AND  GREEK  LANGUAGES)  IN  AMHERST  COLLEGE. 


^^  of  uira^^j!'-';- 
[UFIVElsiTT] 

PHILADELPHIA: 

EDWARD  C.  BIDDLE,  No.  5  MINOR  STREET. 

184L 


4-Svj6-7 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  2836, 

By  Edward  C.  Biddle, 

In  the  office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Eastern  District  of 
Pennsylvania. 


university; 


PREFACE  BY  THE  TRANSLATOR. 


It  will  be  natural  to  ask,  why  this  book  is  offered  to  the  public, 
The  translator  knows  not  how  to  introduce  the  reasons,  in  a  better 
way,  than  by  first  allowing  the  author  himself  to  explain  the  design 
and  character  of  the  original  work.  For  this  purpose,  the  reader  is 
requested  to  peruse  the  following  extracts  from  the  Prefaces  of 

EsCHENBURG. 

From  the  Preface  to  the  fifth  Edition. — Twenty-seven  years  ago,  I  was  in- 
duced to  commence  a  revision  and  enlargement  of  that  portion  of  Hederick's 
Introduction  to  the  Historical  Sciences,  which  treats  of  Classical  Literature, 
Mythology  and  Roman  Antiquities.  In  doing  this  I  expected  to  aid  an  es* 
teemed  friend,  who  had  been  requested  by  the  booksellers  to  prepare  an  im- 
proved  edition  of  the  whole  work.  But  what  determined  me  to  the  attempt 
was  a  conviction,  that  it  was  undertaking  a  work  of  very  useful  tendency, 
and  a  hope,  that  by  it  a  want,  long  felt  in  elementary  instruction,  might  be 
supplied.  Other  duties  hindered  the  seasonable  accomplishment  of  this  pur- 
pose, and  I  was  led  to  enlarge  the  original  plan,  so  as  to  include  the  Grecian 
Antiquities,  and  what  is  embraced  under  the  head  of  Archaeology  of  Litera^ 
ture  and  Art.  Thus  it  formed  a  complete  Manual,  furnishing  the  most  es- 
sential aids  in  reading  the  classical  authors,  and  with  sufficient  fulness  for  all 
elementary  purposes.  My  work  so  designed  has,  therefore,  now  scarcely  a 
trace  in  it  of  the  treatise  of  Hederick. 

My  aim,  in  this  work,  was  to  furnish  both  Learners  and  Teachers  with  a 
book,  which  might  at  the  same  time  serve  as  a  general  introduction  to  the 
reading  of  classical  authors,  and  likewise  afford  further  and  constant  help  in 
understanding  and  explaining  them.  It  surely  is  unnecessary  to  prove,  that 
a  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Roman  Mythology  and  Antiquities,  and  some  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Archseology  of  Literature  and  Art,  and  also  with  the 
general  History  and  Criticism  of  the  Ancient  Authors,  are  not  only  useful, 
but  absolutely  indispensable,  in  the  pursuit  of  classical  study.  And  it  ap- 
pears to  me,  that  it  must  greatly  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  this  knowledge, 
to  have  the  whole  range  of  it  brought  into  one  collected  system,  as  it  is  in 
this  work,  and  all  digested  with  one  common  end  in  view,  and  reduced  as  far 
as  far  as  possible  to  one  uniform  method,  with  a  careful  selection  of  what  is 
most  essential,  and  omission  of  what  is  comparatively  unimportant,  and  a  con- 
stant reference  to  its  appropriate  use.  The  Teacher  will  find  presented  to 
him  throughout  the  work  occasions  and  hints  for  further  illustrations  and  ad- 
ditions ;  while  the  Learner  has;  in  the  book  itself  what  is  of  indispensable 
importance,  and  in  such  a  form,  that  he  may  easily  re-peruse  and  review  it. 

The  Archaeology  of  Literature  and  Art  had  never,  previously  to  the  attempt 
in  this  work,  been  exhibited  in  a  form  adapted  for  general  instruction.  Yet 
some  such  acquaintance  with  the  subject  as  this  work  may  furnish,  is  of  the 
highest  importance  to  the  scholar.  It  may  be  expected,  that  the  glance, 
which  he  will  here  obtain  of  the  rich  monuments  of  antiquity,  will  lead  him 
to  seek  the  pleasure  of  a  more  complete  and  full  knowledge,  especially  of 
Grecian  art.  And  certainly  the  classical  teacher  needs  to  be  in  some  degree 
familiar  with  the  objects  presented  in  this  field  of  study,  in  order  to  do  jus- 
tice to  his  pupils. — The  View  of  the  Classical  Authors  was  necessarily  con- 
fined within  brief  limits.  I  preferred  to  arrange  them  in  Departments,  in- 
stead of  following  purely  chronological  order,  because  I  could  thereby  more 
conveniently  introduce  the  brief  remarks  I  wished  to  offer  respecting  the 
form,  which  each  Department  of  writing  assumed  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.     In  giving  the  editions  of  the  classics,  and  the  works  helping  to  il- 

A 


tl  PREFACE. 

lustrate  them,  I  confined  myself  chiefly  to  such  as  are  most  suitable  for  schol- 
ars, and  best  calculated  in  my  view  for  their  advancement.  In  describing 
the  authors,  only  a  short  and  condensed  summary  could  be  given,  not  includ- 
ing a  complete  enumeration  of  their  works,  but  merely  naming  the  most  im- 
portant.— The  sketch  of  Greek  and  Roman  Mythology  is  that,  which  I  first 
drew  up  for  use  in  my  own  lectures,  and  which  has  been  separately  printed. 
Here  I  have  endeavored  to  separate  the  circumstances  most  important  for  the 
scholar's  notice  from  those  of  minor  consequence  ;  introducing  the  historical 
or  traditional  part  of  the  fables,  without  saying  much  of  the  theories  and 
speculations  employed  in  solving  them  ;  yet  presenting  hints  at  explanations, 
worthy  of  the  scholar's  notice.  The  references  to  the  Metamorphoses  of 
Ovid  are  added,  because  I  deem  it  highly  useful  to  connect  a  reading  of  these 
with  the  study  of  Mythology. — A  new  system  of  Greek  and  Roman  'Antiqui- 
ties might  s«em,  at  first  view,  less  needed  than  the  other  parts  of  this  work, 
since  there  are  other  systems  and  compends  easily  accessible,  especially  of 
Roman  Antiquities.  But  it  was  necessary  to  the  completeness  of  the  Manu- 
al to  include  these  branches.  Nor  was  this  all.  I  hoped  here,  as  in  the 
rest  of  my  work,  to  furnish  something  especially  valuable  on  account  of  its- 
embracing  all  that  is  most  essential  to  the  subject,  with  the  exclusion  of  ex- 
traneous and  unimportant  matter. 

Since  the  last  edition  of  this  Manual,  there  have  appeared  some  perform- 
ances of  a  similar  kind,  in  which  I  thankfully  find  evidence  of  the  utility  of 
my  own  work,  and  am  ready  to  acknowledge  their  excellence  in  some  partic- 
ulars. These  works  might  render  a  new  impression  of  mine  superfluous  ; 
but  the  very  frequent  call  for  the  Manual,  the  urgent  request  of  the  booksel- 
lers, and  the  apprehension  of  a  second  counterfeit  emission  of  the  work,  have 
persuaded  me  to  prepare  this  fifth  edition.  In  the  emendations  and  improve- 
ments I  have  been  guided  by  the  same  considerations,  which  controlled  me 
in  the  preceding  editions.  In  the  additions  in  the  part  treating  of  the  classic 
authors  I  have  received  very  friendly  assistance  from  Professor  Scheffler, 
of  this  place. 

From  the  Preface  to  the  Sixth  Edition. — In  a  former  preface,  the  occasion , 
design,  and  plan  of  this  Manual  have  been  stated.  In  each  successive  edi- 
tion, I  have  endeavored  to  make  useful  improvements  ;  but  have  throughout 
adhered  to  the  original  design,  and  confined  myself,  of  course,  to  substantial- 
ly the  same  limits.  Although  much  progress  has  been  made  in  classical  stud- 
ies in  Germany  during  the  last  thirty  years,  and  there  are  now  several  books 
of  great  merit,  which  may  serve  as  guides  and  introductions  to  such  studies, 
yet  the  demand  for  another  impression  of  this  Manual  has  compelled  me  again 
to  take  it  in  hand  and  to  perform  the  renewed  labor  of  revision.  In  this  labor 
I  must  again  gratefully  mention  the  assistance  kindly  rendered  me  by  Profes- 
sor SCHEFFLER. 

The  6th  edition  was  the  last  published  during  the  life  of  the  author.  But 
the  work  has  been  printed  once  or  twice  since  his  death.  The  following  is 
taken  from  the  Remarks  prefixed  to  the  seventh  edition  (Berlin,  Nov.  1,  1824). 
— The  continued  acknowledgement  of  the  great  excellence  of  this  Manual  of 
Classical  Literature,  which  is  proved  by  the  constant  demand  for  the  book, 
renders  it  unnecessary  to  say  much  by  way  of  preface  to  a  new  edition. 
After  the  death  of  Eschenburg,  the  society  of  booksellers  employed  a  well 
qualified  editor,  who  has  revised  the  work  and  superintended  it  with  great 
care  and  fidelity.  An  examination  will  show,  that  in  doing  this,  advantage 
has  been  taken  of  the  important  results  of  modern  classical  researches.  It  is, 
therefore,  confidently  believed,  that  this  work,  will  still  be  found  one  of  the 
most  useful  of  the  kind;  perhaps  the  very  best  Manual,  both  for  the  Gymna- 
Bia  and  other  Seminaries,  and  also  for  private  use. 

In  view  of  this  account  of  the  character,  design,  and  reputation  of 
the  original  work,  it  is  easy  to  see  the  reasons  why  it  should  be  pre- 
sented to  the  scholars  of  our  country.  Many  instructors  have  felt 
the  want  of  a  Comprehensive  Text-book  in  the  department  of  Clas- 
sical Literature  and  Antiquities.  After  much  inquiry,  the  transla- 
tor has  been  able  to  find  no  work,  which,  on  the  whole,  seemed  so 
well  adapted  for  the  object,  as  Eschcnburg's  Manual. 


PREFACE.  Vll 

It  will  be  seen,  by  a  mere  glance,  that  the  general  design  and 
plan  of  the  work,  in  its  present  form,  is  to  exhibit  in  a  condensed 
but  comprehensive  summary,  what  is  most  essential  on  all  prominent 
topics  belonging  to  the  department  of  Classical  Literature  and  Anti- 
quities, and  at  the  same  time  give  references  to  various  sources  of 
information,  to  which  the  scholar  may  go,  when  he  wishes  to  pursue 
any  of  the  subjects  by  further  investigations.  I  cannot  doubt,  that  a 
Manual  on  this  plan,  thoroughly  executed,  would  prove  one  of  the 
greatest  aids  to  the  classical  student,  which  it  is  possible  to  put  into 
his  hands  ;  and  I  cherish  the  hope  that  in  the  entire  want  of  a  book 
of  this  sort  not  only  in  our  country,  but  also  in  the  English  language 
hitherto,  the  present  attempt  to  introduce  one  from  abroad  will  meet 
with  a  candid  reception  ;  especially  as  it  is  one  whose  value  has  been 
so  fully  attested  in  the  land  most  of  all  celebrated  for  classical  at- 
tainments. 

Here  it  may  be  proper  to  mention,  that,  some  years  since,  this  work  was 
'  translated  into  the  French.  The  translator,  after  some  preliminary  remarks, 
says,  "  from  such  considerations,  I  supposed  I  should  render  the  public  a  ser- 
vice, by  making  known  in  France  a  series  of  elementary  works  universally 
esteemed  and  circulated  in  Germany.  I  begin  with  the  Manual  of  Classical 
Literature  by  Eschenburg.  This  author  is  Councillor  in  the  Court  of  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  Professor  in  the  public  Seminary  called  the  Caroli- 
num.  As  estimable  for  his  moral  character  as  for  the  variety  of  his  attain- 
ments, known  as  editor  of  the  posthumous  writings  of  Lessing,  and  dear  to 
all  the  celebrated  men  of  the  country  ;  living  also  in  the  vicinity  of  one  of 
the  richest  libraries;  he  united,  along  with  these  advantages,  all  the  light 
and  experience  derived  from  a  long  series  of  years  devoted  to  instruction,  and 
that  good  judgment,  admirable  but  rare,  which  knows  how  to  avoid  the  super- 
fluous without  omitting  the  necessary  and  the  useful.  I  shall  not  attempt  an 
encomium  on  the  book,  of  which  I  here  offer  a  translation  ;  it  is  sufficient 
to  refer  to  the  public  suffrage  and  decision,  by  which  this  Manual  has  been 
adopted  as  the  basis  of  public  and  private  instruction  in  a  major  part  of  the 
Universities  and  Colleges  in  Germany." — Subsequently  to  the  time  of  this 
translation,  in  a  Report  made  to  the  French  Institute  respecting  the  literary 
labors  of  the  Germans,  by  Charles  Fillers,  the  distinguished  author  of  the 
Essay  on  the  Reformation  of  Luther,  the  Manual  of  Eschenburg  was  noticed 
as  a  valuable  gift  to  the  world. 

I  feel  at  liberty  also  to  state,  as  evincing  the  value  of  this  work,  in  the  es- 
timation of  competent  judges,  that  the  present  translation  was  commenced 
with  the  warm  approbation  and  encouragement  of  Prof.  Stuart  of  Andover 
and  Prof.  Robinson  now  of  Boston.  In  fact,  under  the  advice  of  these  emi- 
nent scholars,  Mr.  Isaac  Stuart,  Professor  of  Languages  in  the  University  of 
S.  Carolina,  had  made  preparations  for  translating  the  same  work,  and  wholly 
without  my  knowledge,  but  had  been  compelled  to  renounce  the  design,  just 
before  I  consulted  their  views  of  the  utility  and  expediency  of  my  attempt. 
It  is  likewise  worthy  of  notice  here,  that,  from  a  conviction  of  the  great  value 
of  the  Manual  and  of  its  fitness  to  be  useful  in  our  country,  it  had  actually 
been  translated,  before  I  entered  upon  the  work,  by  Mr.  Cruse,  whose  trans- 
lation of  the  part  pertaining  to  Roman  Authors  is  introduced  into  the  present 
publication. 

No  more  needs  to  be  said  respecting  the  design  and  merits  of  the 
original  work  and  its  claims  to  be  introduced  to  the  knowledge  of 
American  scholars.  But  something  more  maybe  desired  respecting 
the  author  himself.  This  desire  I  am  able  to  gratify,  through  the 
friendship  of  Prof.  Robinson,  whose  repeated  advice  and  assistance 
in  the  present  work  I  here  gratefully  acknowledge,  and  who  has  fur- 
pished  the  following  brief  notice  of  Eschenburg. 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

"  The  name  of  Eschenburg  stands  high  in  Germany,  as  one  of  their  best 
writers  on  taste  and  the  theory  of  the  fine  arts,  including  fine  writing.  The 
article  [below]  is  condensed  in  the  Encyclopedia  Americana;  but  I  have  pre- 
ferred to  translate  the  original  [from  the  Conversations-Lexicon]  as  being 
more  full. 

John  Joachim  Eschenburg,  Professor  in  the  Carolinum  at  Brunswick,  was 
born  1743  at  Hamburg,  and  died  at  Brunswick,  1820.  This  distinguished 
scholar  and  writer  received  his  earliest  education  in  the  Johanneum  at  Ham- 
burg ;  afterwards  in  Leipzig,  where  Ernesti,  Gellert,  Morus,  and  Clodius, 
were  his  instructors  ;  then  under  Heyne  and  Michalis  in  Gottingen.  He 
then  came,  through  the  agency  of  Jerusalem,  as  a  private  tutor,  to  Bruns- 
wick ;  where  he  afterwards  received  the  Professorship  in  the  Carolinum,  va- 
cated by  the  death  of  the  poet  Zacharia.  This  post  he  held  during  his  life. 
To  him  Germany  is  indebted  for  a  nearer  acquaintance  with  many  good  Eng- 
lish writers  in  the  department  of  ^Esthetics  ;  e.  g.,  Brown,  Webb,  Burney, 
and  Hurd,  whom  he  translated  and  in  part  accompanied  with  notes  and  addi- 
tions. He  published,  moreover,  at  different  times  in  Journals  and  Magazines, 
accounts  of  the  most  remarkable  appearances  in  English  Literature,  by  means 
of  which  a  love  and  taste  for  the  literary  treasures  of  that  island  and  people 
were  greatly  promoted  among  the  Germans.  His  greatest  desert,  however, 
lies  in  his  translation  of  Shakpheare  (Zurich,  1775-87,  14  vols. ;  1798-1806, 
12  vols.).  Although  not  the  first  in  this  great  undertaking,  since  Wieland 
had  already  begun  a  similar,  yet  he  has  long  had  the  merit  of  being  the  most 
complete  ;  even  though  so  many  excellent  translations  of  the  great  tragic 
writer  have  been  since  begun.  Indeed  his  version  of  the  collected  works  of 
this  poet  is  to  this  moment  sought  after,  although  not  possessing  the  charm 
of  metre  nor  the  literal  fidelity,  which  others  exhibit.  In  making  his  trans- 
lation, moreover,  by  means  of  his  literary  and  social  connections,  he  enjoyed 
many  advantages,  which  another  would  with  difficulty  possess  in  an  equal 
degree  ;  and  his  own  private  library  contained,  so  long  ago  as  1807,  more  than 
400  volumes  in  reference  to  Shakspeare,  exclusive  of  Engravings,  &c.  An- 
other great  benefit,  conferred  on  the  public  by  Eschenburg,  was  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Lectures  in  the  Carolinum,  his  Theorie  unci  Literatur  der  schOnen 
Wissenschaften,  his  Lehrbuch  der  Wissenschaftskunde,  and  his  Handbuch  der 
CUissischen  Literatur ;  of  the  last  work  a  seventh  edition  was  published  in 
1825.  In  social  intercourse,  Eschenburg  was  exceedingly  amiable,  and,  not- 
withstanding his  occasional  satirical  remarks,  generally  beloved.  Three  years 
before  his  death  he  celebrated  his  official  jubilee  or  50th  anniversary.  He  was 
also  Senior  of  the.  Cyriacus-foundation,  and  a  knight  of  the  Guelphic  order. 
—  In  the  6th  Supplementary  Volume  of  Jorden's  Lexicon  deutscher  Dichter 
und  Prosaisten,  there  is  a  minute  catalogue  of  his  works,  both  original  and 
translated,  and  also  of  his  editions  of  other  authors  of  former  or  recent  times." 

It  remains  for  the  translator  to  speak  briefly  of  the  principles  and 
method  by  which  he  has  attempted  to  execute  his  task,  in  preparing 
the  work  in  its  present  form  ;  and  the  following  remarks  contain  all 
that  it  seems  important  for  him  to  say  on  this  point.  For  the  rest, 
those  who  use  the  book  must  judge. 

As  to  the  translation  itself,  my  aim  has  been  throughout  to  express  the  au- 
thor's meaning  with  strict  fidelity  ;  but  in  doing  this  I  have  endeavored  to 
avoid  the  long  periods  and  involved  arrangement  of  words  and  clauses,  for 
which  the  German  language  is  of  known  celebrity  ;  I  have  almost  uniformly 
employed  shorter  sentences,  and  have  sometimes  departed  very  much  from 
the  phraseology  of  the  original.  The  alterations  are  not  many  ;  in  some  in- 
stances I  have  omitted  a  clause  or  sentence,  and  in  a  few  a  whole  section  or 
paragraph,  without  any  notice  to  the  reader  ;  in  a  few  cases  also  I  have  al- 
tered the  arrangement  of  the  sections.  Otherwise,  wherever  I  have  not  pre- 
sented the  author  entire  and  unaltered,  a  distinct  intimation  of  some  change 
by  the  translator  is  given  to  the  reader,  by  one  of  the  marks  which  will  be 
explained  below.  —  The  additions  are  very  considerable;  and,  whatever  may 
be  their  pertinency  or  their  value,  they  certainly  have  cost  some  labor.  In 
making  them,  I  have  endeavored  to  keep  constantly  in  mind  the   grand  dot 


PREFACE.  IX 

sign  of  the  work,  and  to  render  it  more  complete  in  the  respects  which,  as; 
has  been  before  remarked,  constitute  its  peculiarity,  distinguishing  it  from 
every  other  work  on  these  subjects  in  our  language.  The  additions  may  gen- 
erally be  distinguished  from  the  original,  either  by  the  size  of  the  type  or  by 
particular  marks  ;  as  will  be  described  under  the  Explanations  below.  It  will 
be  seen,  that  large  additions  have  been  made  in  the  portion  relating  to  the 
Greek  Literature  and  Authors  ;  it  was  my  intention  to  make  similar  additions 
to  the  Viae  of  the  Roman  Authors;  but  the  design  was  renounced  for  the  rea- 
sons stated  in  the  Advertisement  on  page  290.*  I  regretted,  on  receiving 
Mr.  Gruse's  Translation,  to  find  that  it  did  not  include  thfe  notices  of  edi-. 
tions  and  illustrative  works  mentioned  by  Eschenburg;  and  should  the  pres- 
ent effort  meet  with  approbation,  it  is  my  purpose  to  prepare  for  separate  pub- 
lication something  more  complete  on, the  Roman  Literature.  I  flatter  myself, 
that  the  condensed  view  of  the  sacred  writings  and  the  writings  of  the  early 
Christians,  as  found  in  the  Greek  language,  will  be  considered  a  useful  addi- 
tion.—  The  whole  of  Part  V  is  also  added  by  the  translator,  as  explained  on 
page  572  t ;  only  it  ought  to  be  further  remarked,  that  a  few  paragraphs  per- 
taining to  the  remains  of  Athens  and  Rome,  placed  under  Antiquities  by  Es- 
chenburg and  omitted  in  the  translation,  are  introduced,  with  alterations,  in 
this  part  under  the  Topography  of  those  cities. 

The  work  is  now  offered  as  a  humble  contribution  to  the  service  of 
the  public,  and  commended  to  the  candid  examination  of  the  scholar  j 
in  the  hope,  that  under  the  blessing  of  Him,  in  whom  is  the  fountain 
of  all  wisdom  and  knowledge,  it  may  prove  an  auxiliary  of  some  value 
in  the  cause  of  liberal  and  good  education. 
Amherst  College,  April  12,  1836. 


EXPLANATIONS. 

The  following  statement  will  enable  the  reader  to  know  in  general  what  is  from  the  author, 
and  what  from  the  translator.  A  star  annexed  to  the  number  of  a  section  always  indicates 
that  the  section  is  added  by  the  translator.  The  Italic  letter  t  always  denotes  that  the  section 
or  paragraph  to  whose  number  it  may  be  annexed  is  altered  so  as  to  differ  more  or  less  from, 
the  original.  All  the  matter  in  the  largest  of  the  three  kinds  of  type  is  translated  directly  from 
Eschenburg,  excepting  such  sections  as  may  have  one  or  the  other  of  these  marks.  All  the 
matter  in  the  smaller  type  is  added  by  the  translator,  with  the  following  exceptions  ;  (1)  sec- 
tions or  paragraphs  having  the  Italic  letter  u  annexed  to  their  number,  which  are  all  translated 
from  Eschenburg  ;  (2)  the  first  paragraphs  of  the  several  sections  on  the  individual  Roman  aw- 
thors,  which  are  also  translated  from  Eschenburg,  unless  their  number  is  accompanied  by  a 
star,  or  the  letter  t,  as  above  described  ;  and  (3)  part  of  the  mere  references  to  books  and  au^ 
fchors,  a  majority  perhaps  of  which  are  taken  from  him.  As  to  these  references,  it  did  not 
seem  of  much  consequence  to  discriminate  carefully  between  what  was  put  in  by  the  author 
and  whatby(me  ;  if  any  oneshould  find  some  of  them  irrelevant  or  unimportant,  he  may  safe- 
ly charge  such  upon  me  rather  than  Eschenburg  ;  if  any  inquire  why  the  numerous  references 
to  German  works,  are  retained,  I  only  remark,  that  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  common  to 
import  such  works  into  this  country,  and  more  and  more  important  for  our  scholars  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  German  language  ;  and  if  any  deem  it  superfluous  to  have  given  so  many 
references,  let  such  consider,  that  the  same  books  are  not  accessible  to  all  students,  and  an  in- 
creased number  of  references  must  increase  the  probability  of  presenting  some  to  books  within 
the  reach  of  every  reader  ;  and  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  also,  that  so,me  references  are  giver* 
chiefly  as  bibliographical  statistics,  which  is  the  case  especially  with  respect  to  some  of  the  edi- 
tions of  Greek  and  Roman  classics,  • 

*  This  refers  to  page  290  of  the  first  edition,  The  advertisement  there  given  was,  in  sub- 
stance, that  the  present  translator,  when  his  work  was  far  advanced  in  the  printing,  entered 
into  an  arrangement  with  Rev,  C.  F.  Cruse,  in  consequence  of  a  notice  then  received  from  the 
latter,  that  he  had  already  translated  the  whole  of  Eschenburg,  with  the  previously  announced 
design  of  publishing  it.  By  this  arrangement  it  was  engaged  that  Mr,  Cruse's  translation, 
should  be  used  in  the  part  of  the  work  which  treats  of  the  Roman  Authors  ;  with  the  under- 
standing that,  if  a  new  edition  should  be  demanded,  the  present  translator  might  omit  or  ret 
tain  it,  according  to  his  own  choice. 

f  The  explanation  (here  referred  to  as  on  page  572  of  the  first  edition)  was  simply  an  ac-? 
knowledgement,  that  the  Epitome  of  Classical  Geography,  contained  in  Part  Fifth  of  this  Man-. 
ual,  is  chiefly  drawn  from  an  English  treatise,  bearing  the  same  title,  by  W.  C.  Taylor  ;  with, 
a  considerable  change  in  the  divisions  and  arrangement ;  and  with  more  full  descriptions  of 
ancient  Rome.  Athens,  and  Sparta,  collected  from  other  sources, 

A* 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 

When  the  second  edition  of  this  Manual  was  issued,  it  was  expected  that 
a  more  full  view  of  Roman  Literature  than  the  work  then  contained  would  be 
prepared  for  separate  publication  by  the  author.  Circumstances  which  it  is 
unnecessary  here  to  specify  delayed  the  execution  of  the  plan  until  the  last 
summer,  when  the  publisher  of  the  Manual  requested  an  immediate  prepara- 
tion of  a  third  edition.  The  design  of  a  separate  publication  was  then  re- 
nounced, from  a  conviction,  that  the  convenience  and  advantage  of  the  stu- 
dent would  be  better  served  by  incorporating  the  whole  into  one  work.  The 
present  edition,  accordingly,  contains  a  new  translation  of  that  part  of  Es- 
chenburg  which  relates  to  the  Roman  Authors,  with  large  additions. 

Besides  this  essential  improvement,  a  considerable  quantity  of  new  matter 
is  also  introduced  in  other  portions.  The  value  of  the  work  is,  moreover, 
augmented  by  the  insertion  of  numerous  illustrations.  These  are  carefully 
combined  in  Plates  to  avoid  the  loss  of  room  occasioned  by  scattering  single 
cuts  separately  over  the  pages  ;  and  the  whole  printing  is  executed  in  a  very 
compact  style  ;  so  that,  notwithstanding  all  the  additions  and  the  accession 
of  several  hundred  cuts,  the  sensible  bulk  of  the  volume  is  scarcely  increased. 

The  author  would  here  make  a  general  acknowledgement  to  those  friends 
who  have  favored  him  with  remarks  and  notes.  With  special  gratitude,  he 
mentions  the  very  valuable  assistance  received  from  Prof.  Sears,  of  the 
Newton  Theological  Seminary,  who  freely  furnished  critical  remarks,  cor- 
rections, and  additions,  for  the  whole  of  the  part  on  the  Archaeology  of  Liter- 
ature and  Art,  and  also  the  History  of  Greek  Literature ;  to  his  generous  at- 
tentions, much  of  the  improvement  in  these  portions"  of  the  work  is  entirely 
due. 

The  work  of  Eschenburg  still  enjoys  high  estimation  in  Germany,  as  is' 
evinced  by  the  fact  that  a  new  edition  has  very  recently  been  published  at 
Berlin.  It  is  believed,  that  the  American  Translation  is  not  rendered  less 
truly  valuable  by  the  large  amount  of  various  matter  which  it  now  contains 
in  addition  to  the  original. 

Amherst  College,  September,  1839. 


TABLEOF    CONTENTS 


PART  I. 


Archaeology  op  Literature  and  Art. 

pulse  to  Grecian  civilization.  41  In- 
fluence of  eastern  nations  on  the  reli- 
gion of  the  early  Greeks.  42  On  their 
arts.  43  Influence  of  the  Greek  bards. 
44  Of  the  Greek  games. 

//.   Of  the  Alphabet,  Method  of  Wri- 
ting and  Books,  p.  27 — 35. 

§§    45—60.  45  Letters   introduced 


Introduction,  p.  1 — 20. 
§§  1—32.  1.  The  original  capaci- 
ty and  knowledge  of  men.  2  Devel- 
opement  of  the  same.  3  Aided  by 
language.  4  Origin  of  arts  and  sci- 
ences. 5  First  character  of  the  same. 
6  Attainments  made  before  the  Del- 
uge.    7  Effects  of  the  dispersion   of 


the  human  family,  by  the  confusion  of    ,      Cadmus.    Resemblance  of  Grecian 

*~^.  „..,,-.„     n(      TJnU^I  fi        Pnrl'.Dct     Omn     ATT.  J      .        _.  ....  .  ,-.       -»T 


tongues  at  Babel.  8  Earliest  employ- 
ments ;  food.  9  Effect  of  climate  and 
other  causes  ;  influence  of  agriculture 
on  arts.  10  Rise  of  architecture  and 
use  of  metals.  Tools  of  stone.  11  Im- 
itative arts.  12  Origin  of  Language. 
13  Origin  of  Writing.  14  Previous 
methods  of  communicating  thought. 
15  Picture-writing;  by  Mexicans  ;  N. 
Am.  Indians.  16  Hieroglyphics  17 
Abbreviated  pictures,  18  Syllable- 
writing.  Chinese  ;  Cherokee  ;  Persian 
&c.  19  Alphabetic  writing.  20  Mate- 
rials and  implements.  21  Contents  of 
earliest  writings ;  writings  of  Moses 
and  Job  the  most  ancient ;  claims  of 
the  oriental  records.  22  The  earliest 
sciences.  23  Origin  of  Medicine.  24 
Of  Arithmetic.  25  Of  Astronomy.  26 
Of  Geometry.  27  Of  Geography.  28 
Egypt  and  Asia  the  cradle  of  the  sci- 
ences. 29  High  culture  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Importance  of  classical 
studies.  30  Object  of  the  present 
treatise.  31  Utility  of  the  same.  32 
References  to  works  illustrating  the 
subjects  included. 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


OF    GREEK 
TURE. 


LITERA- 


I.  Of  the  origin  and  first  steps  of 
Grecian  culture,  p.  23 — 28. 

§§  33—44.  33  First  population  of 
Greece.  The  Pelasgi.  34  Early  state 
of  society.  Colonies  from  the  east. 
35  Origin  of  Greek  language.  Vari- 
ous theories  on  the  subject.  36  Lan- 
guage of  Noah;  nature  of  the  Confu- 
sion of  tongues.  Languages  of  west- 
ern Asia.  Semitic  and  Sanscrit  fami- 
lies. 37  Japheth  and  descendants. 
33  The  probable  foundation  of  the 
Greek.  39  Causes  of  the  great  per- 
fection of  the   Greek.     40  First  inl- 


and Phoenician  alphabets.  46  Num- 
ber of  letters  in  the  alphabet  of  Cad- 
mus. 47  Changes  in  form  of  Greek 
letters.  48  Direction  of  letters  and 
lines  in  writing.  49  Uncial  and  Cur- 
sive characters.  Abbreviations.  50 
Breathings.  51  Accents.  52  Punc- 
tuation. 53  Materials  used  in  Greece 
for  writing.  54  Instruments.  55  Ma- 
terial used  for  ink.  56,  57  Form  of 
books.  58  Copyists.  59  Infrequent 
use  of  writing  in  early  times.  Wheth- 
er Homer  committed  his  poems  to  wri- 
ting (cf.  p.  179j.  60  Instruction  giv- 
en orally. 

III.  Of  the  most  flourishing  period 
of  Greek  Literature,  p.  36—43. 

§§  (31_77.  61  Circumstances  favor- 
able to  progress  in  letters.  Different 
characters  of  different  Hellenic  tribes. 
Actual  studies  and  attainments.  62 
Design  of  the  author  under  the  pres- 
ent head  of  the  subject.  63,  64  The 
Grecian  system  of  education ;  Gymna- 
sia; Music.  65,66  The  Musical  and 
Dramatical  contests.  67  Rehearsals 
public  and  private.  63  Professed 
Readers.  69  The  Symposia  or  lite- 
rary feasts.  70  No  learned  professions 
among  the  Greeks.  71  Grammar  as 
a  par t  of  education.  72  Philosophy, 
Esoteric  and  Exoteric.  73  Methods 
of  teaching;  Socratic.  74  The  great 
public  schools;  Academy,  Lyceum, 
Porch,  Cynosarges,  Garden.  75  Reg- 
ulations and  discipline  of  the  Gymna- 
sia and  schools.  76  Greek  libraries. 
77  Travels  of  learned  men. 

IV.  Of  the  decline  of  Greek  Litera- 
ture, p.  43—47. 

§  §  73—85.  78  Causes  of  its  decline. 
79  Greek  language  still  extensively 
used.     80  Greek  letters  cultivated  at 


xu 


CONTENTS. 


some  places  ;  Rhodes,  Pergamus,  Al- 
exandria, &c.  81  Greek  letters  pat- 
ronized by  some  of  the  Emperors.  82 
Schools  of  Athens  suppressed.  83  Op- 
position between  Christianity  and  pa- 
gan literature  ;  influence  of  Christian- 
ity. 84  Loss  of  Classical  manuscripts, 
in  various  ways.  85  Political  condi- 
tion of  the  Greeks  after^the  Christian 
era. 

V.  Of  the  Remains  and  .Monuments 
of  Grecian  Literature,  p.  47 — 63. 

§  §  86—108.  86  Division  of  these  in- 
to three  classes. — I.  Inscriptions. 
87  References  to  works  on  Greek  in- 
scriptions. 88  General  design  and 
character  of  inscriptions.  89  Qualifi- 
cations requisite  for  interpreting  in- 
scriptions. 90  Notice  of  some  of  the 
most  important  inscriptions  of  a  date 
prior  to  Alexander.  91  Of  those  of  a 
date  between  Alexander  and  the  Chris- 
tian Era.  92  Of  a  period  subsequent 
to  the  Christian  Era.  —  II.  Coins. 
93  Utility  of  an  acquaintance  with 
coins.  94  Uncoined  metal  first  used. 
95  Earliest  Greek  coins.  Chronolog- 
ical classification  of  Greek  coins.  96 
The  coins  in  most  common  use  among 
the  Greeks.  Number  of  ancient  coins 
preserved.  97,  98  Forms  of  letters  on 
Greek  coins.  99  References  to  works 
on  Numismatics.  —  III.  Manu- 
scripts. 100  Utility  of  them.  101 
Their  antiquity.  Palimpsesti.  102 
How  made  and  preserved.  103,  104 
Marks  by  which  the  age  of  a  Ms.  is 
known;  or  criteria  of  Palaeography. 
105,  106  Importance  and  advantages 
of  collating  manuscripts.  107  Notice  of 
some  of  the  oldest  and  most  curious 
manuscripts  extant  ;  Greek  Scrip- 
tures ;  Herculanean  Rolls  ;  Egyptian 
Papyri ;  Hebrew  Pentateuch.  108  Li- 
braries containing  Greek  manuscripts. 

ARCHEOLOGY    OF   ROMAN     LITERA- 
TURE. 

J.  Of  the  sources  of  Roman  culture. 
p.  65—68. 

§§  109—114.  109  Origin  of  the  Ro- 
mans. Two  different  theories  respect- 
ing the  inhabitants  of  Italy.  Early 
tribes.  Uncertainty  of  the  early  his- 
tory of  Rome.  110  Origin  of  Latin 
written  characters.  Ill  Intercourse 
of  the  Romans  with  the  Greeks.  112, 
113  State  of  culture  before  the  Punic 
wars.  114  Origin  and  progress  of  the 
Latin  Language.  Monuments  of  its 
early  character. 


//.  Of  the  Alphabet,  Writing  and 
Books,  p.  69—71. 

§115—118.  115  Number  of  origi- 
nal letters.  116  The  early  and  later 
orthography.  117  Forms  of.  letters. 
Abbreviations  ;  J\"ota  Tironianw.  118 
Form  of  books.  Materials  and  instru- 
ments for  writing.  List  of  names  and 
terms  used  in  relation  to  writing,  &c. 

///.  Of  the  most  flourishing  period 
of  Roman  Literature,  p.  71 — 75. 

§  119—127.  119  Influence  of  the 
Greek  colonies  in  Magna  Grascia.  120 
Introduction  of  the  Greek  philosophy. 
121  Most  brilliant  age  in  Roman  let- 
ters. Causes.  122  branches  cultiva- 
ted. 123  Change  in  the  system  of  ed- 
ucation. 124  Instructions  of  the 
Grammarians  and  Rhetoricians.  125 
Public  schools.  Atheneum.  Literary 
exercises  specially  practiced  by  the 
youth  in  the  course  of  education,  &c. 
126  Libraries  at  Rome.  127  Custom 
of  finishing  study  abroad.  Places  vis- 
ited for  the  purpose. 

IV.  Of  the  decline  of  Roman  Litera- 
ture, p.  76,  77. 

§  128  Causes  of  the  decline.  Com- 
mencement of  it.  Exertions  and  influ- 
ence of  some  of  the  Emperors.  Effect 
of  intercourse  with  provincials  ;  of  the 
removal  of  the  seat  of  government  to 
Constantinople.  Schools  of  learning 
in  the  empire  ;  Byzantium,  Berytus, 
Massilia,  Augustodunum. 

V.  Remains  and  Mom/me?its  of  Ro- 
man Literature,  p.  77 — 85. 

§  129_143.  129,  130  Roman  I  n- 
scriptions;  References  to  works 
on  the  subject.  131  Abbreviations 
and  initial  letters  on  Roman  coins.  132 
Peculiar  advantages  of  study  of  Ro- 
man inscriptions.  133  Notice  of  some 
of  the  most  important  inscriptions  that 
are  preserved.  134  Roman  Coins; 
when  first  struck.  Connection  be- 
tween poetry  and  medals.  135  Divis- 
ion into  Consular  and  Imperial.  136 
Legend  on  coins.  Peculiar  forms  of 
writing  on  early  coins.  137  False 
coins.  138  References  to  works  on 
Roman  coins.  139  The  most  valua- 
ble collections  of  ancient  coins.  Sym- 
bols on  coins  and  medals.  140  Roman 
Manuscripts;  few  existing  of  a 
very  early  date.  141  Successive 
changes  in  the  manner  of  writing.  142 
Zealous  search  for  manuscripts  on  the 
revival  of  letters.  Petrarch,  Poggio, 
and  others  interested  in  it.    Deposito- 


CONTENTS. 


X1H 


ries  of  Latin  manuscripts.  143  Some 
of  the  most  ancient  Latin  manuscripts 
known. 

ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

Preliminary  Remarks,  p.  87 — 90. 

§  144—153.  144  Meanings  of  the 
word  Art.  145  Division  of  the  arts  in- 
to the  Mechanical  and  the  Fine.  146 
The  plastic  arts.  147  Objects  repre- 
sented by  them.  Allegorical  images. 
148,  149  Requisite!  in  the  artist,  con- 
noisseur, and  amateur,  severally.  150 
Utility  of  some  knowledge  of  the  his- 
tory of  art.  151  Antiques  and  the 
study  of  them.  152  Original  design 
of  the  monuments  of  ancient  art.  Sci- 
ence of  ^Esthetics;  references  on  the 
same.  153  Object  of  the  present  trea- 
tise. Four  branches  of  art  particular- 
ly included. 

/.  Sculpture,  p.  90—108. 
§  154 — 191.  154  Comprehensive 
meaning  of  the  term.  155, 156  Origin 
of  Sculpture.  Character  of  the  first 
specimens.  Image  of  Cybele.  157 
The  materials  used.  158  First  soft ; 
clay  &c.  159  Various  kinds  of  wood. 
160  Ivory.  161  Marble  and  stone  of 
different  kinds.  162  Bronze.  163 
Classes  of  Statues ;  costume ;  atti- 
tudes. 164  Busts.  165  The  kind  of  fig- 
ure called  Hermes.  166  Bas-reliefs. 
167  Mosaic.  168  Inscriptions  on  stat- 
ues. 169, 170  Egyptian  sculpture.  171 
Sculpture  among  the  Asiatics.  172, 
173  Character  and  remains  of  Etrus- 
can Sculpture.  174  Rise  of  sculpture 
in  Greece ;  circumstances  favorable 
to  its  advancement.  Daedalus.  175 
The  four  periods  of  Grecian  sculpture. 

176  Its   character  in   the  first  period. 

177  Different  schools.  178  Frequent 
demand  for  statues  in  greece.  179 — 
181  Grecian  sculpture  in  its  subse- 
quent periods.  182 — 184  Sculpture 
among  the  Romans.  185  The  most 
celebrated  remains  of  ancient  sculp- 
ture. 186  Of  Statues.  187  Of  Busts. 
188  Of  Bas-relief.  189  Of  Mosaic.  190 
The  most  famous  collections  of  such 
remains.  191  References  to  works 
on  this  subject. 

//.  Lithoglyphy  or  Gem- Engraving. 
p.  108—120. 

§  192—213.  192  Explanation  of  the 
term.  193  Gems  early  known.  194 
Respecting  the  nature  and  classifica- 
tion of  gems.  195  Notice  of  some  of 
the  principal  gems  employed  in  this 
art.  Murra.  Alabaster.  1S6  Manner 
of  forming  the  figures  on  them  ;  in- 
taglios ;  cameos,    197,  198  Various  ob- 


jects represented.  199  Origin  and 
earliest  instances  of  the  art.  200,  201 
Gem-engraving  of  the  Egyptians. — 
Scarabai;  Abraxas.  202  This  art 
among  other  nations,  especially  the 
Etrurians.  203,  204  Among  the 
Greeks.  205  Among  the  Romans.  206 
Uses  made  of  sculptured  gems.  207 
Mechanical  operations  in  engraving. 
208  Fictitious  gems.  209  Advantages 
of  some  knowledge  of  ancient  gems. 

210  This  study  facilitated  by  the  use 
of  paste  imitations.  The  impressions 
of  Lippert;  of  Wedge  wood  ;  ofTassie. 

211  Some  of  the  most  remarkable  an- 
cient gems.  21 2  The  most  celebrated 
collections.  213  References  to  works 
illustrating  the  subject. 

III.  Painting,  p.  120—126. 

§  214—226.  214  Explanation  of  this 
art.  215  Date  of  its  origin.  216  Its 
early  existence  in  Chaldsea  and  Egypt. 
217  Earliest  pictures  among  the 
Greeks.  218  The  colors  employed  by 
Greek  painters.  219  Materials  and 
instruments  for  painting.  Fresco- 
painting.  220  Encaustic  painting. — 
Painting  on  glass.  Mosaic.  221  Merit 
of  ancient  painting.  Perspective.  222 
Schools  in  painting  among  the  Greeks. 
Celebrated  masters.  Four  periods. — 
Comparative  number  of  paintings  and 
statues.  Portraits.  223  Etruscan  paint- 
ings. 224,  225  Painting  at  Rome.  226 
Monuments  of  ancient  painting.  Ref- 
erences to  works  on  the  subject. 
IV.  Architecture,  p.  127—142. 

§  227—244.  227  Both  a  mechanic 
and  a  fine  art.  Its  origin.  228  Lead- 
ing principles,  or  causes  affecting  its 
character.  229  Materials  in  early 
times.  Influence  of  materials  on  the 
style.  230  The  grand  branches  of 
Architecture,  Civil,  Military,  jYaval. 
231  Egyptian  Architecture.  Cyclope- 
an. 232  Architecture  as  exhibited  in 
Homer.  233  Most  flourishing  period 
of  this  art  in  Greece.  234  Descrip- 
tion of  ancient  temples.  235  Of  The- 
atres and  Odea.  236  Of  Gymnasia. 
237  Of  Porticos.  238  Of  pHlars  and 
columns ;  and  the  several  orders  of 
Architecture.  239  Ornaments  of  an- 
cient Architecture.  Caryatides,  At- 
lantides,  &c.  240  Most  celebrated 
Greek  architects.  241  Tuscan  and 
Roman  Architecture.  Description  of 
ancient  Baths.  242  Remains  of  an- 
cient architecture.  243  Works  illus- 
trating the  subject.  244  Notice  of 
several  styles  of  Architecture,  more 
modern ;  Romanesque,  Saracenic, 
Chinese,  Gothic. 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 

PART  II. 


History  of  Ancient    Literature,  Greek  and   Roman. 


GREEK    LITERATURE. 

Introduction   p.  145 — 157. 

§§  1 — 10.  1  Circumstances  favor- 
able to  literature  among  the  Greeks. 
2  Excellence  of  Greek  classics;  import- 
ance of  acquaintance  with  them.  3 
Beauty  and  perfection  of  the  Greek 
language.  4  Its  dialects.  5  Pronun- 
ciation of  Greek.  6  Principles  and 
methods  in  studying.  Analytical  and 
Synthetical  methods.  Interlinear 
translations.  Grammatical  and  logi- 
cal analysis.  Other  exercises.  Use  of 
Reading-books.  System  in  the  Lon- 
don University.  7  List  of  various 
helps  in  the  study  of  Greek.  8  Plan 
to  be  pursued  in  the  present  view  of 
Greek  literature.  9  Six  periods  in 
Grecian  political  history ,  very  conven- 
iently applied  to  the  history  of  litera- 
ture. 10  The  several  departments  or 
classes  of  writers  to  be  noticed. 
J.  Poets,  p.  157—199. 

§§11—81.  11  Subjects  of  earliest 
Greek  poetry.  12  Poetry  first  culti- 
vated in  the  northern  provinces  of 
Greece.  13  Poetry  originally  connect- 
ed with  music  among  the  Greeks. 
References  on  the  origin  and  progress 
of  Greek  poetry.  14  Kinds  or  varie- 
ties of  Grecian  poetry.  15  Sacred. 
16  The  Sibyls.  17-20  Epic.  21  The 
Cyclic  poets.  The  Homeridae.  Iliac 
Table.  22-26  Lyric  poetry.  27  The 
Scolion.  28-29  Elegiac.  30  Bucolic 
or  Pastoral,  31 ,  32  Didactic.  33  Ero- 
tic. 34  The  Epigram.  35  Anthologies. 
36  Dramatic  poetry,  including  (37-40) 
Tragedy;  (41-43)  Comedy;  and  (44) 
Satyre.  45  Different  forms  of  Satire. 
46  Farces  and  Mimes.  47  Pomp  and 
expense  of  representation.  Instruct- 
ing of  the  actors.  47t  References  to 
works  treating  of  the  Greek  poets  gen- 
erally. 48  Orpheus.  49Musams.  50 
Homer.  51  Hesiod.  52  Archilochus. 
53  Tyrtams.  54  Sappho.  55  Solon.  56 
Theognis.  57  Phocylides.  58  Pytha- 
goras. 59  Anacreon.  60  Pindar.  61 
jEschylus.  62  Sophocles.  63  Eurip- 
ides. 64  Empedocles.  65  Aristoph- 
anes. 66  Menander.  67  Lycophron. 
68  Theocritus.  69  Bion ;  Moschus. 
70  Callimachus.  71  Aratus.  72Clean- 
thes.  73  ApolloniusRhodius.  74  Ni- 
cander.  75  Oppian.  76  Nonnus.  77 
Coluthus.  78  Quintus  Smyrnaus  or 
Calaber.  79Tryphiodorus.  80Theo- 
dorus  Prodromus.     81  Tzetzes. 


//.  Orators,  p.  199—207. 
§  §  82—107.  82  Oratory  as  an  art 
not  known  in  the  heroic  ages.  83  Elo- 
quence much  practiced  after  time  of 
Solon.  84  History  of  Grecian  elo- 
quence short.  85  Chiefly  confined  to 
Athens.  86  Three  aspects  in  three 
different  eras.  87,  88  Era  of  Them- 
istocles.  89-91  Era  of  Pericles.  92-94 
Era  of  Demosthenes.  95-97  Subse- 
quent  decline.       School    of    Rhodes. 

98  Three  branches  of  ancient  oratory. 

99  References  to  works  illustrating  the 
Greek  orators  collectively.  100  Anti- 
phon.  101  Andocides.  102  Lysias. 
103  Isocrates.  104  Isaeus.  105  Ly- 
curgus.  106  Demosthenes.  107  JEs- 
chines.  Hyperides.  Dinarchus. 

III.  Sophists  and  Rhetoricians. 
p.  207—215. 

§§  108—128.  108  Description  of 
the  Sophists.  109  Their  performan- 
ces. 110  Names  of  some  of  the  more 
eminent  in  different  periods.  Ill  Dis- 
tinction between  Sophists  and  Rhetor- 
icians. 112  Rhetoricians  in  different 
periods.  113  General  references. 
114  Gorgias.  115  Aristotle.  116  De- 
metrius Phalereus.  117  %  Dionysius 
Halicarnasseus.  118  Dion  Chrysos- 
tomus.  119  Herodes  Atticus.  120 
JEYius  Aristides.  121  L.ucian.  122 
Hermogenes.  123  Athenseus.  124 
Longinus.  125Themistius.  126  Him- 
erius.  127  Julian  the  Apostate.  128 
Libanius. 

IV.  Grammarians,  p.  215 — 219. 

§  §  129—147.  129  Time  when  writ- 
ers of  this  class  first  flourished  ;  place. 
130  Their  various  performances.  131 
Some  of  the  most  distinguished  be- 
fore the  time  of  Constantine.  132 
Grammarians  at  Constantinople.  133 
General  references.  134  Hephcestion. 
135  Apollonius  Dyscolus.  136  ^Elius 
Herodianus.  137  Julius  Pollux.  138 
JElius  Mceris.  139  Harpocration. 
140  Hesychius.  141  Ammonius.  142 
Photius.  143  Suidas.  144  The  Ety- 
mologium  Magnum.     145  Eustathius. 

146  Gregorius   Pardus,  or  Corinthius. 

147  Thomas  Magister. 

V.  Writers  of  Epistles  and  Roman- 
ces, p.  220—224. 

§  §  141  —165.  148  Extant  letters  as- 
cribed  to  ancients,   in   part  spurious. 

149  Romances  unknown  in  best  pe- 
riods  of    Greek    literature ;     reason. 

150  Erotic  and  Milesian  tales.     Irnag- 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


iliary  voyages.  151  Some  of  the  au- 
thors of  Romances.  152  References 
on  the  writers  of  this  division.  153 
Anacharsis.  154  Phalaris.  155  The- 
mistocles.  156  Socrates.  157  Chion. 
158  Aristaenetus.  159  Alciphron.  160 
Heliodorus.  161  Achilles  Tatius. 
162  Longus.  163  Xenophon  of  Ephes- 
us.  164  Chariton.  165  Eumathius. 
VI.     Philosophers,  p.  224—240. 

§§  166—201.  166  The  poets  of 
Greece  her  first  philosophers.  167 
The  next  her  priests  and  legislators. 
Subjects  of  speculation  in  the  early 
religious  philosophy.  Political  philoso- 
phy. Seven  Sages.  168  Origin  of 
schools  in  philosophy.  The  earliest 
of  celebrity.  169  The  Ionic.  170  The 
Italic.  171  The  Socratic.  172  Sects 
derived  from  the  Socratic.  Three 
Minor.  Cyrenaic.  Megaric.  Eliac. 
173  Four  Major.  Cynic.  174  Stoic. 
175  Academic.  176  Peripatetic.  177 
Sects  derived  from  the  Italic.  Eleatic. 
Heraclitean.  178  Epicurean.  179 
Sceptic.  180  Periods  of  Greek  litera- 
ture in  which  the  several  sects  arose. 
Grecian  philosophy  after  the  Roman 
supremacy.  181  The  New  Platonists. 
Eclectics.  182  Christian  philosophy. 
Peripatetic  philosophy  after  time  of 
Constantine.  Its  propagation  in  west- 
ern Europe.  183  References  to  sources 
of  information  on  the  Greek  philoso- 
phy. 184  jEsop.  185  Ocellus  Luca- 
nus.  186  Xenophon  the  Athenian. 
187  iEschines,  the  philosopher.  188 
Cebes.  189  Plato.  190  Timams  of 
Locri.  191  Aristotle.  192  Theophras- 
tus.  193  Epictetus.  194  Arrian.  195 
Plutarch.  196  Marcus  Antoninus. 
197  Sextus  Empiricus.  198  Plotinus. 
199  Porphyry.  200  Jamblichus.  201 
Stobseus. 

VII.  Mathematicians  and  Geograph- 
ers, p.  240—247. 

§  202—221.  202  Mathematics  re- 
duced to  scientific  form  by  Greeks, 
but  derived  from  other  nations. 
203  The  foundation  for  philosophy. 
Views  of  Plato.  204,  205  State 
of  Greek  mathematics  in  differ- 
ent periods.  206,  207  Degree  of 
knowledge  among  the  Greeks  respect- 
ing Geography.  208  Treaties  on  Tac- 
tics. 2Q8t  General  references.  209 
Euclid.  210  Archimedes.  211  Apol- 
lonius  Pergaeus.  212  Pappus.  213 
Diophantus.  214  Hanno.  215  Era- 
tosthenes. 216  Strabo.  217  Diony- 
eius  Periegetes.  218  Claudius  Ptole- 
my. 219Pausrnias.  220m  Stephanus 
of  Byzantium.     220   Cosmas    Indie o- 


pleustes.      221    Onesander.      Polyae 
nus. 

VII I.  Mythographers.  p.  247—249, 
§  221m— 231.  221u  Principal  sour- 
ces whence  the  traditionary  fables  of 
the  Greeks  may  be  learned.  222  Pal- 
aepbatus.  Euhemerus.  223  Heracli- 
tus.  224  Apollodorus.  225  Conon. 
226  Parthenius.  227  Phurnutus  or 
Cornutus.  228  Hephaestion.  229  An- 
toninus Liberalis.  230  Sallustius,  the 
Platonist. 

IX.  Historians,  p.  249—261. 
§  231—260.  231  Earliest  history  in 
a  poetical  form.  Earliest  writers  of 
history  in  prose.  232  The  composi- 
tions styled  logographies.  233  The 
distinguished  historians  in  the  bril- 
liant period  of  Greek  literature.  234 
Writers  on  Attic  history.  235,  236 
Chief  historians  between  Alexander 
and  the  Roman  supremacy.  237,  238 
Principal  writers  during  the  next  pe- 
riod until  time  of  Constantine.  239a 
Historical  authors  after  time  of  Con- 
stantine. The  Byzantine  Historians, 
239b  Grecian  Biography.  240  Gener- 
al references.  241  Herodotus.  242 
Thucydides.  243  Xenophon.  244 
Ctesias.  245  Polybius.  246  Diodorus 
Siculus.  247  Dionysius  Halicarnas- 
seus.  248  Flavius  Josephus.  249 
Plutarch.  250  Arrian.  251  Appian 
252  Dion  Cassius.  253  ^Elian.  254  He- 
rodian.  255a  Diogenes  Laertius. 
255b  Philostratus.  255c  Eunapius. 
256  Zosimus.  257  Procopius.  258 
Agathias.  259  Zonaras.  260  Dares 
Phrygius.     Dictys  Cretensis. 

X  Writers  on  Medicine  and  Natur- 
al History,  p.  262—267. 

§  §  261—277.  261  Greeks  less  emi- 
nent in  these  sciences.  JEsculapiua 
and  his  descendants.  Hippocrates  the 
first  author.  262  The  Dogmatic  school. 
263  Dissections.  Empiric  school. 
Medicine  first  practiced  at  Rome  by 
Greek  slaves.  264  The  Methodic 
school.  The  Eclectic  school.  Char- 
acter and  influence  of  Galen.  265 
State  of  medicine  after  time  ot  Con- 
stantine. 266  Physics  included  under 
studies  of  the  philosophers.  267  Ar- 
istotle founder  of  Zoology  :  Theo- 
phrastus,  of  Mineralogy  and  Botany. 
Cabinets  of  the  Ptolemies  at  Alexand- 
ria. Chief  writers  before  the  time  of 
Constantine.  268  State  of  natural 
science  under  the  emperors  of  Con- 
stantinople. 269  Collections  of  Greek 
writers  on  medicine  and  physics.  270 
Hippocrates.      271   Dioscorides.    272 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


Aretseus.  273  Galen.  274  Aristotle. 
275  Theophrastus.  276  Antigonus  of 
Carystus.  277  JEA'ian.  Apollonius 
Dyscolus. 

■ Notice  of  the  Hebrew-Grecian 

and  Christian  icritings.  p.  167 — 275. 

§  §  278—293.  278  The  Septuagint. 
279  The  Apocrypha.  280  Works  from 
Christian  authors.  281,  282  Books  of 
the  New  Testament.  Their  moral  au- 
thority.       Their    literary     influence. 

283  Works  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers. 

284  Spurious  or  Apocryphal  writings. 

285  Opinions  of  early  Christians  re- 
specting human  learning.  Christian 
seminaries.  Philosophy  adopted  by 
the  Fathers.  286  Biblical  writings. 
Versions  of  Bible  ;  Origen's  Hexapla. 
Harmonies.  Commentaries.  287 
Controversial  writings.  lrenseus,  Jus- 
tin Martyr,  Tatian,  Athenagoras.  288 
Historical  writings.  Eusebius.  289 
Doctrinal.  Origen  Athanasius.  290 
Homiletical.  Character  of  the  an- 
cient homily.  Few  remains  of  early 
sacred  oratory.  291  Homilies  of  Ori- 
gen. 292  Distinguished  Christian  ora- 
tors just  after  the  time  of  Constantine. 
Basil,  Gregory,  and  Chrysostom.  293 
References  to  works  giving  informa- 
tion respecting  the  Fathers. 

ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

Introduction,  p.  277—282. 

W  294—302.  194  Rank  of  the  Ro- 
mans in  literature.  295  Utility  of  study- 
ing their  language.  296  The  four  ages 
commonly  assigned  to  it.  297  Pronun- 
ciation of  Latin.  298  Methods  and  ex- 
ercises in  studying.  299  Various  works 
useful  as  helps.  300  Plan  followed  in 
this  treatise.  301  Five  periods  of  the 
history  of  Roman  literature.  302 
Classes  of  authors. 

1.     Poets,  p.  282— 321. 

S§  303—389.  303,  304.  Earliest 
poetry  of  the  Romans.  Hymns  of  the 
Fratres  Arvales  and  Salic  Priests. 
Fescennine  verses.  305  Tuscan  His- 
triones.  Atellane  Fables.  306  Early 
national  ballads.  307,  308  Introduc 
tion  of  regular  dramatic  forms.  309- 
312  Tragedy.  313-317  Comedy.  318 
Atellane  Fables.  319  Mimes.  Panto- 
mine.  320  Origin  of  modern  dramatic 
exhibitions.  Plays  at  fairs.  Holy 
farces.  Mysteries  and  Moralities. 
321-325  Epic  Poetry.  326-329  Lyric. 
330,  331  Bucolic.  332,  333  Elegiac. 
334-336  Didactic  337  The  Fable.  338- 
341  The  Epigram.  342  Anthologies. 
343-347   Satire.      348   General   refer- 


ences. Collections  of  Roman  Poetic 
349  Livius  Andronicus.  350  Naevius. 
351Ennius.  352Plautus.  353  Pacuvi- 
us.  354  Accius  or  Attius.  355  Ter- 
ence. 356  Lucilius.  357  Lucretius. 
358  Catullus.  359  Cornelius  Gallus. 
360  Tibullus.  361  Propertius.  362 
Virgil.  363  Horace.  364  Ovid.  365 
Cornelius  Severus.  366  Pedo  Albino- 
vanus.  367  Gratius  Faliscus.  368 
Publius  Syrus.  369  Marcus  Manilius. 
370  Csesar  Germanicus.  371  iEmilius 
Macer.  372  Phaedrus.  373  Persius. 
374  L.  Annosus  Seneca.  375  Lucan. 
376  Valerius  Flaccus.  377  Silius 
Italicus.  378  Statius.  379  Martial. 
380  Juvenal.  381  Flavius  Avianus. 
Festus  Avienus.  382  Dionysius  Cato. 
383  Nemesian.  384  Calpurnius.  385 
Ausonius.  Proba  Falconia.  386  Clau- 
dian.  387  Prudentius.  388  Sedulius. 
389  Rutilius  Numatianus. 

//.     Orators,  p.  321—328. 

§$  390—406.  390  Eloquence  in  the 
earliest  ages.  391'jlnfluence  of  Greek 
teachers.  392  Civil  honors  acquired 
by  oratory.  293  Eloquence  of  the 
Gracchi.  394  Increase  of  speakers. 
Eminence  of  Crassus  and  Antony  the 
Orator.  395  Study  of  the  art  of  speak- 
ing. Schools.  396  Two  eminent  ora- 
tors, Sulpitius  and  Cotta.  397  The 
two  great  rivals,  Hortensius  and  Cice- 
ro. 398  The  kinds  of  oratory.  399 
Decline  of  Roman  eloquence .  400, 401 
Principal  orators  in  the  later  ages. 
402  Panegyrical  oratory  of  the  Ro- 
mans. 403  General  references.  404 
Cicero.  405  Pliny  the  younger  (Caius 
Crecilius  Secundus).  406  The  Pane- 
gyrists ;  Claudius  Mamertinus,  Eume- 
nius,  Nazarius,  Pacatus,  Symmachus, 
III.     Rhetoricians,  p.  328—332. 

407—415.  407  Distinction  between 
Rhetoricians  and  Grammarians.  408 
First  rhetoricians  at  Rome.  Opposi- 
tion to  the  Grecian  teachers.  409 
Schools  of  Roman  freed-men.  410 
411  Principal  authors  in  this  depart- 
ment. 412  General  references.  413 
Cicero.  414  Marcus  Annseus  Seneca, 
415  Quintilian. 

IV.     Grammarians,  p.  332 — 338. 

416  Studies  and  influence  of  the 
Grammarian.  417  The  ancient  gram- 
marian and  modern  philologist.  418 
Principal  grammarians  down  to  the 
death  of  Augustus.  419  Chief  gram- 
marians of  the  next  period.  420  High 
rank  enjoyed  by  grammarians  in  later 
times.  421  Names  of  the  more  emi- 
nent.    422   General  references.     423 


CONTENTS. 


XVI 1 


Varro.  424  Asconius  Pedianus-  425 
Aulus  Gellius.  426  Censorinus. 
427  Nonius  Marcellus-  428  Pom- 
ponius  Festus.  429  iElius  Dona- 
tus.  430  Macrobius.  431  Charisi- 
us.  432  Diomedes.  433  Priscianus. 
434  Isidore. 

V.    Epistolizers  and  Romancers,  p. 


328—342 

§§  435 — 445.  435  Number  and  val- 
ue of  Roman  epistles  extant.  The 
earliest  specimens.  436 — 438-  The 
principal  authors.  439  Romance  scarce- 
ly found  in  Roman  literature-  Cicero- 
441  Pliny  the  younger  (C.  Coecilius 
Secundus).  442  Lucius  Annseus  Sen- 
eca- 443  Fronto-  444  Symmachus. 
445  Sidonius  Apollinaris- 

VI.  Philosophers,  p.  342—355- 
§§  446 — 474-  446  origin  of  Roman 
philosophy.  447  Numa  a  philosopher, 
448  Philosophers  introduced  by  Paulus 
jEmilius  and  Scipio  Africanus.  449 
Date  of  the  rise  of  philosophy  at  Rome. 
450  Difference  between  Greeks  and 
Romans  in  respect  to  philosophical 
studies-  451  comparative  number  of 
Roman  philosophers-  452  Patronage 
of  Lucullus.  453  Philosophy  in  the 
time  of  the  emperors-  Introduction 
of  oriental  views-  454  Example  of 
Marcus  Aurelius.  Influence  of  Chris- 
tianity. 455  Sects  of  philosophy  at 
Rome-  456  Academic.  457  Stoic 
458  Peripatelic.  459  Cynic  460  Ep- 
icurean. 461  Sceptic.  462  Pythago- 
rean. 463  New  Pythagorean.  464 
New  Platonists.  465  Eclectics-  466 
Philosophy  of  Christian  Fathers.  468 
Cicero.      469   Lucius   Ann.     Seneca. 

470  Pliny  the  elder  (Caius  Secundus). 

471  Apuleius.     472  Petronius  Arbiter. 
373  Capella.     474  Boethius. 

VII.  Mathematicians,  Geographers, 
and  ^Economists,  p.  355 — 364. 

§  §  475—501.  475,  476  Merit  of  the 
Romans  in  mathematical  science.  477- 
479  Principal  writers  in  this  depart- 
ment. 480  Knowledge  of  geography 
among  the  Romans.  Survey  of  the 
Empire-  481,  482  Principal  writers 
and  works.  483  Class  of  writers  term- 
ed (Economists.  Greek  and  Roman 
agriculture.  484,  485  Roman  writers 
on  husbandry.  486  The  Culinary  art. 
487  Surveying  of  land.  488  Treatises 
on  the  art  of  the  agrimensores  or  land- 
surveyors-  489  General  references. 
490  Vitruvius.  491  Frontinus.  492 
Vegetius.  492  Julius  Firmicus-  494 
Pomponius  Mela-  495  Solinus-  406 
Vibius  Sequester.  497  The  Roman 
B 


Itineraries.  498  Marcus  Porcius  Cato. 
499  Varro.  500a  Columella.  5006 
Palladius.  Martialis  Gargilius-  501 
Ccelius  Apicius- 

VIII.  Mythographers.  p-  364 — 366. 

§  §  502—509-  502  The  tales  of  Ro- 
man mythology  similar  to  those  of  the 
Grecian.  503  The  writers  few.  Col- 
lections- 504  Hyginus.  505  Fulgen- 
tius.  Albricus-  506  Lactantius  Pla* 
cidus- 

IX.  Historians  and  Biographers. 
p.  366—383- 

§  §  507—542.  507  Metrical  annals. 
508  The  Pontifical  Commentaries  and 
other  early  records-  509  Legal  docu- 
ments. Family  memoirs.  Funeral 
eulogies.  510  Loss  of  early  historical 
records-  Dispute^  respecting  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  common  history  of 
Rome.  511—  51 3  The  Annalists-  514, 
515  Principal  writers  in  the  third  peri- 
od of  Roman  Literature.  516  Official 
documents  in  this  period-  517 — 522 
Historical  writers  after  the  time  of 
Augustus.  523—526  Roman  biography. 
Several  classes  of  biographical  works. 
527  General  references.  528  Julius 
Caesar.  529  Sallust-  530  Cornelius 
Nepos."  531  Titus  Livius-  532  Vel- 
leius  Paterculus.  533  Valerius  Maxi- 
mus.  534  Tacitus.  535  Quintus  Cur- 
tries-  536  Florus.  537  Suetonius-  538 
Justin.  539  Sextus  Aurelius  Vic- 
tor- 540  Eutropius.  541  Ammianus 
Marcellinus-  542  Authors  of  the  Au- 
gustan History. 

X.  Writers  on  Medicine  and  Natur- 
al Science,  p.  383 — 388. 

§  §  543—557.  543  Science  of  Med- 
icine in  low  estimation  at  Rome.  544 
Early  notions  respecting  the  nature 
of  diseases-  545  Greek  slaves  the 
first  physicians.  546  Regard  paid  to 
the  Greek  physicians.  547a  Cato's 
book  of  medicine-  547J  Roman  med- 
ical authors,  from  the  time  of  Augus- 
tns  to  that  of  the  Antonines.  548  Med* 
ical  writers  in  later  times-  549  Rank 
of  physicians  under  the  emperors-  550 
Opportunities  for  advancing  natural 
science  enjoyed  by  the  Romans.  551 
Principal  authors  in  physics.  552  Gen- 
eral references.  553  Aulus  Cornelius 
Celsus.  554  Scribonius  Largus-  555 
Serenus  Sammonicus-  556  Theodorus 
Priscianus-    557  Marcellus  Lmpiricus. 

XL  Writers  on  Law  and  Jurispru- 
dence, p-  388—394- 

§§  558 — 571.  558  Number  of  works 
in  this    department  lost-  Reason  for  it 


XV111 


CONTENTS. 


559  Various  classes  of  works.  560  De- 
sign of  the  notice  here  to  be  taken- 
561  Earliest  collections.  The  Jus  Papir- 
ianum  ;  Twelve  Tables  ;  Jus  Flavian- 
um  ;  Jus  iElianum-  562  Writers  in  the 
second  period  of  Roman  literature ; 
Manilius,  Mucius  Scaevola.  563  Emi- 
nent writers  of  the  next  period  ;  Sul- 
picius  Rufus  ;  Cicero;  Alfenus  Varus  ; 
Cascellius ;  ^Elius  Tubero,  &c-  564, 
565  Chief  civilians  and  authors  in  the 
period  between  Augustus  and  the  An- 
tonines  ;  Masurius  Sabinus,  and  Sem- 
pronius  Proculus  ;  Cocceius  Nerva  , 
Juventius  Celsus  ;  Neratius  Priscus  ;. 
Salvius  Julianus ;  Gaius,  &c-  566 
Rank  of  the  legal  profession  in  the 
time  between  the  Antoninesand  Con- 
stantine-  Encouragement  under  the 
system  of  Constantine.  Law-School 
of"  Berytus.  567  Papinian ;  Ulpian  ; 
Julius  Paulus.    568  Codex  Hermogen- 


ianus.  Codex  Theodosianus.  Code  of 
Theodoric  Breviary  of  Alaric.  569 
Arrangements  of  Theodosius  for  re- 
ducing to  order  the  Roman  law-  La- 
bors of  Tribonian.  Constituent  parts 
of  the  Body  of  Roman  Law-  570  In- 
fluence of  the  system  of  Justinian, 
Revival  and  sway  of  Roman  Jurispru- 
dence.    571  General  refences. 

Christian  Writings  in  the  Latin  Lan- 
guage, p-  394- 

§  §  572.  Names  of  some  of  the  au- 
thors-  References  on  the  subject. 

Appendix  to  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Literature-  p-  394—396- 

§  §  573—575.  573  Editions  of  the 
Classics  in  regular  sets.  574  Collec- 
tions of  Translations.  575  History  of 
classical  studies- 


PART  III. 

Mythology  of  the  Greeks  and   Romans. 


Introduction,  p.  399 — 406. 

§  §  1 — 12.  1  Circumstances  calcu- 
lated to  give  a  fabulous  character  to 
early  traditions.  2  Mythology  in  the 
Greek,  and  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
term.  3  Different  points  of  view  in 
contemplating  mythological  fables. 
4  Changes  and  additions  in  mytholog- 
ical stories.  5  Different  sources  of 
mythological  fabrications.  6  Advan- 
tages of  an  acquaintance  with  mythol- 
ogy- X  Eastern  origin  of  the  Grecian 
deities.  8  The  Roman  gods  borrowed 
from  the  Greeks.  9  The  Greek  and 
Roman  system  of  classifying  their 
gods.  10  The  four  classes  under 
which  they  are  arranged  in  this  work. 
11  The  notions  of  deity  entertained 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Abode 
of  the  gods.  12  References  to  works 
treating  on  the  subject. 

J.  Mythological  History  of  the  Supe- 
rior gods.  p.  407 — 429. 

§§  13—67.  13  Gods  included  in  this 
class.  14-17  Saturn.  18  Janus.  19- 
21  Cybele  or  Rhea.  22-25  Jupiter. 
26-28  Juno.  29-31  Neptune.  32-34 
Pluto.  35-37  Apollo.  38-40  Diana. 
41-43  Minerva.  44-46  Mars.  47-50 
Venus.  51-54  Vulcan.  55-56  Mer- 
cury. 57-60  Bacchus.  61-64  Ceres. 
65-67  Vesta. 

//.  Mythological  History  of  the  In- 
ferior gods.  p.  429 — 442. 

§§  68 — 96.  68  Gods  included  in  this 
class.  69,70  Ccelus.  71,72  Sol  or 
Helius.  73  Luna.  74,75  Aurora. 
76  Nox.     77  Iris.     78  iEolus.     79,80 


Pan.  81,82  Latona.  83  Themis, 
Asttea.  Nemesis.  84  iEsculapius, 
85  Plutus.  86  Fortune.  87  Fame. 
88  Terminus.  Priapus.  89  Vertum- 
nus.  90  Flora.  91  Feronia.  92  Pales, 
93  Gods  presiding  over  various  condi- 
tions or  pursuits  of  men.  Bellona. 
Victoria,  «fcc.  94  Deified  Roman  em- 
perors. 95  Virtues  and  Vices.  96 
Egyptian  deities  worshiped  among  the 
Romans. 

777.  Mythical  beings,  whose  history 
is  intimately  connected  with  that  of 
the  gods.  p.  442 — 451. 

SS  97—117.  97  Titans.  98  Giants. 
99  Tritons.  100  Sirens.  101  Nymphs. 
102, 103  Muses.  104  Graces.  105 
Hours.  106  Fates.  107  Furies.  108 
Harpies.  109  Daemons.  110  Manes. 
Ill  Lares.  112  Penates.  113  Sleep, 
Dreams,  and  Death.  114  Satyrs  and 
Fauns.  115  Gorgons.  116  Amazons, 
117  Minotaur,  Chimaera,  and  various 
other  monsters. 

IV.  Mythical  History  of  Heroes,  p. 
451—456. 

§  §  118—133.  118  Three  periods  of 
Grecian  story.  119  General  cause  of 
the  deification  of  heroes.  120  Two 
classes  of  venerated  heroes.  121  In- 
achus,  Oxgyges,  Cecrops  and  several 
others,  honored  specially  among  their 
own  people.  122  Perseus.  123,124 
Hercules.  ]  25,  126  Theseus.  127, 
128  Jason  and  the  Argonauts.  129 
Castor  and  Pollux.  130  Heroes  of 
the  Theban  war.  131  Pelops  and  his 
descendants.  132  Heroes  of  the  Tro- 
jan war.   133  Deified  Roman  emperors. 


CONTENTS. 


XIX 


PART  IV. 

Greek  and    Roman  Antiquities. 


GRECIAN     ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction,  p.  459 — 464. 
§§  1 — 14.  1  Origin  of  the  name 
Grsecia.  2  Countries  indluded  under 
it.  3  Most  important  Grecian  cities. 
4  Political  changes.  5  First  inhabit- 
ants. 6  Their  early  intercourse.  7 
Early  forms  of  government.  8  The 
Spartan  system.  9  Athens.  10  Caus- 
es of  Grecian  improvement. 


tality.  58  Employments;  agriculture  I 
hunting.  59  Employments  of  wo- 
men. 60  Amusements.  61  Marriage. 
62  Education  of  children.     63  Slaves. 

II.  Of  the  Later  and  more  flour- 
ishing Ages,  p.  482 — 552. 

(1)  Religious  Affairs. 

§§  64 — 90.  64  Number  of  gods  in- 
creased. 65  Temples  more  splendid. 
66  Sacred  groves.     Asyla.     67  Class- 


ity    of  study   of    Antiquities,   and   of    es  of  priests.     Purification.     68  Sac 


Grecian  in  particular.  12  Original 
sources  of  knowledge  on  the  subject. 
13  References  to  authors.  14  Defects 
in  the  common  treatises  on  Greek  an- 
tiquities. Early  and  later  ages  distinct. 

/.  Of  the  Earlier  and  less  cultivated 
Ages.  p.  464—482. 

§  15  The  period  included.  Subject 
divided  into  four  brances. 

(1)  Religious  Affairs. 

§  §  16—32.  16  First  traces  of  the 
religion  of  the  Greeks.  17  Form  and 
mode  of  religious  instruction.  18  In- 
fluence of  the  poets.  19  Number  and 
character  of  the  gods.  20  Temples 
and  sacred  places.  21  Images  and 
statues.  22  Priests  and  Priestesses. 
23  Rites;  ablutions.  24  Prayers.  25 
Sacrifices;  the  materials  ;  the  origin. 
26  Altars.  27  Sacrifices ;  the  cere- 
monies. 28  Gifts  and  offerings.  29 
Worship  rendered  to  heroes.  30  Fu- 
neral solemnities.  31  Burning  of 
corpse  ;  monuments.  32  Oracles  and 
divination.  ^ 

(2)  Civil  Affairs. 

§§33—41.  33  Early  rudeness.  34 
Power  of  the  kings.  35  Their  retinue 
and  councillors.  36  Courts  of  justice. 
37  Laws  and  punishment.  38  The 
Cretan  laws.  39  Successive  forms  of 
government  at  Athens.  40  At  Sparta. 
41  Commerce  and  Navigation. 
(3)  Military  Affairs. 
§  §  42—51.  42  Early  Greeks  warlike. 
43  Their  armies,  how  composed.  44 
Weapons;  Defensive.  45  Offensive. 
49  The  materials  of  which  made.  47 
War-galleys.  48  Camps.  49  Order 
of  Battle.  50  Division  of  Spoils. 
Barbarous  stripping  of  the  slain.  Com- 
bat of  chiefs.     51  Treaties. 

(4)  Domestic  Affairs. 

§§  52 — 63.  52  Common  food.  Dai- 
ly meals.  53  Social  repasts.  54  Dress. 
£5  Practice  of  bathing.  Cultivation 
cf  the  IJair.     56  Houses,     57  Hospi- 


rifices  and  attendant  ceremonies.  69 
Oaths.  Leagues.  70  Oracles.  Im- 
posture at  Argos.  71  Oracles  of  Ju- 
piter; at  Dodona  ;  in  Crete  ;  African 
desert.  72,  73  Of  Apollo  at  Delphi. 
74  Of  Trophonius ;  and  others.  75 
Arts  and  methods  of  divination.  76, 
77  Festivals  ;  notice  of  the  principal ; 
of  Adonis,  of  Bacchus,  of  Ceres,  of 
Minerva.  78  Games.  79  The  race. 
80  Leaping.  81  Wrestling.  82  The 
discus.  83  Boxing.  84  Four  sacred 
games.  Olympic.  85  Pythian.  86 
Nemean.  87  Isthmian.  88  System 
of  athletics.  89  Theatres,  and  dram- 
atic representations.  90  Chorus. 
Theoric  money  at  Athens. 

(2)  Civil  Affairs. 
§§  91—134.  91  Athens  and  Sparta 
distinguished  by  pecularities.  92  Dra- 
co and  Solon  at  Athens.  93  The 
tribes  and  classes  at  Athens.  94  Pis- 
istratus,  and  his  sons.  95  The  thirty 
tyrants.  Form  of  government  after 
them  until  death  of  Alexander.  96 
Buildings  of  Athens.  97  The  free 
citizens  of  Athens.  98  The  foreign 
residents.  99  The  slaves.  100  Mag- 
istrates. The  Archons.  102  The 
Eleven.  Orators.  Ambassadors.  No- 
taries. 103  Athenian  revenues.  104 
Officers  of  the  revenue  and  treasury. 
Expenditures.  105  Amphictyonic 
council.  106  Assemblies  of  the  peo- 
ple. 107  Athenian  senate.  108  Ar- 
eopagus. 109  Athenian  courts  of  jus- 
tice. TheEphetse.  110  The  Heliaea. 
Ill  The  Forty.  The  Disetetae.  112 
Different  kinds  of  actions.  113  Pun- 
ishments. 1 14  The  Ostracism.  115 
Modes  of  inflicting  death.  116  Pub- 
lic rewards  and  honors.  117  Attic 
laws.  118  Natural  situation  of  Spar- 
ta. 119  Spartan  tribes.  120  Treat- 
ment of  children  at  Sparta.  121  Spar- 
tan slaves.  122  The  kings  of  Sparta. 
123  The  Senate.  Ephori.  124  No- 
mophulakes  and  other  magistrates. 
125  Assemblies  of  the  people.     126 


XX 


CONTENTS. 


Public  repasts.  127  Judicial  affairs. 
123  Punishments.  ]29  Laws  of  Spar- 
ta. 130  Cretan  constitution.  131 
Cretan  laws ;  public  meals  ;  slaves. 
132  Constitution  of  Thebes.  133 
Constitutions  of  Corinth  and  Syra- 
cuse. 134  Of  Argos;  of  iEtolia,  and 
Achaia. 

(3)  Military  Affairs. 
$$  135—160.  135  The  warlike  char- 
ter retained  ;  especially  by  the  Spar- 
tans. 136  Persons  liable  to  military 
duty.  Their  support.  137  Classes  of 
troops.  The  infantry.  138  Cavalry. 
Use  of  Elephants.  139  Armor.  140 
Various  officers.  141  The  divisions  of 
the  army.  142  Forms  of  Battle-array. 
Manoeuvres.  143  Declaration  of  war. 
Treaties.  144  Camps.  145  Standards 
and  ensigns.  Signals  for  battle.  146 
Art  of  besieging.  147  Military  en- 
gines. 148  Defence  of  cities.  149 
Treatment  of  captures  places.  150 
Division  of  spoils.  151  Military  re- 
wards and  punishments.  152  Means 
of  conveying  intelligc  nee.  153  Cross- 
ing of  rivers.  154,  155  Ships.  Names 
of  their  principal  parts.  Vessels  of 
war.  156  Rowers,  sailors  and  ma- 
rines. Manner  of  placing  the  seats  of 
rowers.  157  Instruments  employed 
in  naval  battle.  158  Naval  officers. 
159  Manner  of  naval  battle.  160  Na- 
vul  victories  and  monuments.  Naval 
punishments 

(4)  Affairs  of  Private  Life. 
S$  161—187.  161  Food.  Use  of  wines. 
162  The  different  meals.  Manner  of 
spending  the  day  at  Athens.  163  En- 
tertainments or  feasts.  164  Customs 
at  table.  165  Substances  eaten  at 
the  principal  meal.  166  Officers  and 
attendants  at  an  entertainment.  167 
Customs  in  drinking.  Amusements 
accompanying  a  feast.  168  Customs 
of  hospitality.  -Officers  called  Proxe- 
ni.  Inns.  169  Dress,  for  the  body, 
head,  and  feet.  Use  of  silk.  Adorn- 
ing of  the  person.  170  Bathing  and 
anointing.  171  Houses.  172  Com- 
merce and  Agriculture.  173,  174  Gre- 
cian money  and  coins.  Ratio  of  Gold 
and  silver.  175  Greek  system  of  no- 
tation. 176  Grecian  weights.  177 
Measures.  178  Social  amusements. 
179,  180  Music  and  musical  instru- 
ments. 181  Condition  of  females. 
182  Laws  and  customs  respecting 
marriage.  183 — 186  Funeral  rites. 
Anniversaries  held  in  honor  the 
dead,  with  orations  and  games.  187 
Sepulchral  monuments, 


ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Introduction,  p.  55^—557. 
§§   188—198.  188  Origin  of  Rome. 
189  Principal  events   which    affected 
the  appearance  of  the  city.     Compar- 
ative splendor  of  ancient  and  modern 
Rome.    190  Population  of  Rome.    191 
Extent  of  the  Roman  empire.   192  Pro- 
portion of  soldiers  and  other  citizens. 
193  The   time   of  the  regal   govern- 
ment.    194  Most  brilliant  era  of  Ro- 
man  history.     195    Condition    under 
the  emperors.    196  Utility  of  studying 
Roman  antiquities.     Original  sources 
of  information  on    the   subject.     197 
Referencesto  modern  works  and  au- 
thors.    198  Division  of  the  subject. 
(I)  Religious  Affairs,  p.  557 — 578, 
§$  199—239.  199  Use  of  the  term  re- 
ligio.     200  Origin  of  the   religion  of 
the  Romans.    201  Its  connection  with 
politics.     202  Design  of  Romulus  and 
Numa.    Gods   of    the    Romans.     203 
Temples.     204  Statues  and  offerings. 
Groves.     205    Altars.      206    Vessels 
employed  in    sacrifices.     207  Several 
orders  of  priests.    208  Pontifices.    209 
Augurs.     Various  methods  of  augury. 
210  Haruspices.     2ll   Epulones.  2l2 
Feciales.     213    Rex    sacrorum.     214 
Flai   ;nes.     215    Salii.     216  Luperci. 
217  Galli  and  others.    218  Vestal  vir- 
gins.    219  Fratres  Arvales,  Curiones, 
and  others.     220  Customs  in  offering 
prayers.     221    Sacrifices  and   attend- 
ant  rites.     222    Vows.     223  Dedica- 
tion of  sacred  buildings.    224  Expia- 
tions.    The  lustrum.    225  Oaths.  226 
Oracles.     227    Lots.     228    Divisions 
of  time.  229,  230  Festivals.    231  Pub- 
lic games.     232,  233  Ludi  Circenses. 
Naumachia.      234     Ludi     Seculares. 
235  Ludi  Gladiatorii.     236  Ludi  Flo- 
rales.     237  Ludi  Megalenses,  Cerea- 
les,  and  others.    238  Theatres,  Masks 
&c.     239  Amphitheatres. 

(2)  Civil  Affairs,  p.  578—601. 
§  §  240—274.  240  Regal  government. 
241  Consuls.  242  Imperial  govern- 
ment. 243  Praetors,  244  iEdiles.  245 
Tribunes.  246  Quaestors.  247  Cen- 
sors. 248,  249  Extraordinary  magis- 
trates; Dictator;  Decemviri;  Military 
Tribunes  ;  Praefects.  Interrex,  &c. 
250  Proconsuls,  and  other  provincial 
magistrates.  251  Tribes.  252  Six 
classes  of  citizens.  Centuries.  253 
Patricians  and  plebeians.  254  The 
populace.  Patrons  and  clients.  255 
Roman  nobility.  Right  of  images. 
Curule  office,      256  The  Equites  or 


CONTENTS. 


XXI 


Knights.  257  The  Senate.  258,  259 
The  Comitia.  260  Right  of  citizenship. 
Government  of  conquered  cities  and 
nations.  261  Judicial  proceedings. 
Public  actions  and  trials.  262  Private 
actions.  263  Penal  offences.  264  Pun- 
ishments. 265  System  of  laws.  Body 
of  Roman  civil  law.  266  Regulations 
respecting  grain.  267  Revenue.  268 
Commerce.  Mechanic  arts.  269  Agri- 
culture. Carriages.  270  Money. 
Coins.  271  System  of  reckoning  and 
notation.  272  Modes  of  acquiring 
property.  273  Auctions.  Confisca- 
tions. 274  Measures  of  extent,  &c. 
Modesof  determining  the  Roman  foot. 
(3)  Affairs  of  War.  p.  601—619. 
§  §  275—309.  275  Authorities  on  the 
subject.  276  Military  establishment 
of  the  kings.  277  Persons  liable  to 
duty.  Time  of  service.  278  Consu- 
lar army.  Exempts.  279  System  of 
levy.  280  Classes  of  troops.  281  Sub- 
division into  maniples,  &c.  282  Stand- 
ards. Music.  283  Weapons.  284 
Wages.  Rewards.  285  Punishments. 
286  Order  of  battle.  287  Modes  of  at- 
tack. 288  Light  troops.  289,  290  Cav- 
alry. 291  Cohorts.  292  Auxiliaries. 
293  Attendants  upon  the  army.  294 
Order  of  march.  295  Forms  of  array. 
296,  297  The  Camp.  298  Watches. 
Exercises  of  soldiers.  299  Sieges. 
Engines.  Mounds  and  towers.  Bat- 
tering ram  and  other  engines  300 
Modes  of  defence  in  a  siege.  301  The 
fleets.  302  Method  of  naval  battle. 
303  Construction  and  parts  of  Roman 
ships.     304  Different  kinds  of  vessels. 


305  Rewards  of  generals.  306  Laws 
on  the  subject.  307  The  triumph.  308 
The  ovation.  309  Military  system  un- 
der the  emperors. 

(4)    Affairs  of  Private  Life. 
p.  620—640. 

§§  310—343  .3lOThe/ree-iornand 
the  free-made  discriminated.  311  Sys- 
tem of  applying  proper  names.  312 
Regulations  respecting  marriage.  313, 
314  Marriage  contracts.  315  Nuptial 
ceremonies.  316  Divorces.  317  The 
right  and  power  of  the  father  over  his 
children.  318  Emancipation  of  sons. 
319  Adoption.  320  Legitimation.  321 
Education  of  youth.  322  Slaves.  323 
Slave  trade.-  324  Emancipation  of 
slaves.  325  Dwellings.  Parts  and 
ornaments  of  a  Roman  house.  326 
Country  seats  or  villas.  327  Manner 
of  life.  Morals.  328  Daily  Routine  of 
employment.  329  Fobd  and  meals. 
Furniture  for  eating.  330  Different 
courses  at  supper.  Roman  hospitality. 
331aDrinkino-  and'games  at  banquets. 
Dice.  3316  Wines.  332  Dress.  The 
toga.  333.  The  tunic.^&rtfges.  334 
The  stola  and  other  garments  of  wo- 
men. 335  Various  outer  garments. 
Use  of  silk.  336  Coverings  for  tho 
head  and  feet.  337,  338  Dress  of  the 
hair.  Personal  ornaments.  339  Fu- 
neral customs.  Exposure  of  the  corpse. 
340  Funeral  processions.  Eulogy.  341 
Burning.  Place  of  burial.  Tombs. 
Phials  of  tears.  342  Mourning  for  the 
deceased.  Games  and  sacrifices.  343 
Consecration 
ed  emperors. 


PART  V. 


Classical  Geography  and   Chronology. 


EPITOME   OF    CLASSICAL    GEOGRA- 
PHY. 
Introduction,  p.  643,  644. 
§  §  1-5.    1-3  Portion  of  earth  known 
to  ancients.     4,  5  Ancient  divisions. 

It  Of  Europe,  p.  644—688. 
§  §  6—148.  6,  7  Extent  and  bounda- 
ries.    8  General  subdivisions.     9.  15 


56  Streets.  57  Fora.  58-60  Temples 
and  groves.  61-63  Curiae,  basilicas, 
circuses  ;  theatres  &c.  64  Baths.  65 
-67  Schools,  porticos,  columns,  tro- 
phies &c.  68  Aqueducts.  Sewers.  69 
Monuments  to  the  dead.  70  Dwellings. 
71  Villas.  Suburbs.  72-75  Thracia. 
76  Four  natural  divisions  of  Grsecia. 
77-81  Macedonia.  82-88  Thessalia. 
Epirus.     89-103  Hellas.     104-116  To- 


JYorthern  countries  of  Europe  ;    Scan-    pographij  of  Athens.     104,  105  Its  sit- 
uation.   106  The  Acropolis.    107  Par- 


dinavia,  Cimbrica,  Sarmatia,  Germa- 
nia,  &c.  16-26  Middle  countries  of 
Europe ;  Gallia,  Rhsstia,  Noricum, 
Pannonia,  Illyricum,  Moesia,  Dacia. 
27-29  Southern  countries  of  Europe. 
29-31  Hispania.  32-50  Italia.  51-71 
Topography  of  Rome.  51,  52  Gates 
and  roads.  53  Bridges  and  hills.  54 
Districts.  References  to  writers  on 
the  topography  of  the  city.    55  Campi. 


thenon  and  other  buildings  of  the  cit- 
adel. 108-110  The  lower  city  and  its- 
temples.  Ill  Porches.  Odea.  Cer- 
amicus.  112, 113  Forums.  Aqueducts. 
Stadium.  114  Areopagus.  Pnyx.  115 
Theatres.  Choragic  monuments.  116 
Harbors.  References  to  writers  on 
the  topography  of  Athens.  117-125 
Peloponnesus.      126-129   Topography 


XX11 


CONTENTS. 


of  Sparta.  126  Form  and  situation. 
127  Forum.  128  Columns  and  statues. 
129  Hippodrome.  Harbor.  Refer- 
ences to  writers.  130-148  European 
Islands  130-136  Britannia  and  adjoin- 
ing islands.  137  Balearic®.  Corsica 
and  Sardinia.  138-140  Sicilia.  141.142 
Ionian  islands.  143-148  .Egean  islands. 
II.     of  asia.  p.  683—692. 

§  §  149—172.  149,  150  Extent  and 
general  division  of  Asia.  151-155 
Countries  of  the  Eastern  division. 
Scythia,  Singe,  India,  Persia,  Media, 
Parthia.  156-171  Countries  of  the  West- 
ern division.  156  Sarmatia,  Colchis, 
Albania,  Iberia.  157  Armenia.  158 
-165  Asia  Minor.  166-169  Syria  in- 
cluding Palsestina.  170  Mesopotamia, 
Babylonia  and  Assyria.  171  Arabia. 
172  Asiatic  islands. 

III.      OF   AFRICA,   p.  692—696. 

§§  173—183.  173  Extent  and  di- 
visions of  Africa.  174-176  Egypt. 
177  Ancient  ruins  and  remains  of 
Egypt.  Works  on  the  subject.  178 
^Ethiopia.  179  Libya.  180  Africa 
Propria.  181  Numidia.  182  Mauri- 
tania.    183  Africa  Interior.     Atlantis. 

INTRODUCTION    TO    CLASSICAL 

CHRONOLOGY. 

Preliminary  Remarks,  p.  697- 

$$  184.  Importance  of  the  subject* 
Design  of  present  sketch-    Two  parts. 

J.  Of  measuring  time  and  adjusting 
its  divisions-  p.  697 — 702. 

$$  185—196-  185  The  three  natural 
divisions  of  time  ;  day,  month,  and 
year-     186,  187  Ancient  customs  as  to 


beginning  and  dividing  the  day.  188 
Devices  for  marking  and  making 
known  the  parts  of  the  day.  Dial, 
Clepsydra.  189  190  The  month.  The 
Grecian  system.  191  Roman  method 
of  reckoning  the  months,  and  the  days 
of  the  month.  The  week-  Names  of 
the  days-  192  The  year-  The  Gre- 
cian ;  Roman ;  Julian.  The  Gregori- 
an Calendar.  Old  and  new  style-  193 
Cycles.  194  The  lunar  cycle-  195 
The  solar.  196  The  cycle  of  indiction. 
Julian  Period. 

//•  Of  fixing  the  dates  of  historical 
events  and  arranging  them  in  order. 
p.  702—720. 

§§  197—215-  197  Topics  noticed 
in  this  part-  198—  201  Methods  of  as- 
certaining dates.  1.  Successive  gen- 
erations ;  and  successive  reigns  of 
kings-  2-  Celestial  appearances.  3. 
Coins,  inscriptions  &c-  4.  Historical 
testimony.  202,  203  Epochs  and  eras. 
Era  of  Olympiads ;  of  Rome  ;  the 
Christian  ;  the  Mahometan  ;  of  the 
French  Republic.  204 — 207  Systems 
and  tables.  204  Claims  of  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Babylonians.  205  The  He- 
brew and  the  Septuagint  chronology. 
Newton's.  Usher's.  206,  207  Various 
plans  for  charts-  The  best-  208-215 
Actual  dates  of  most  prominent  events. 
208  Common  complaint  of  students. 
Remedy.  209  Brief  outline  of  general 
Chronology.  210  Systems  of  artificial 
memory-  211  Chronology  of  ancient 
states  •  eight  principal  states  of  Asia  ; 
references  to  works  on   their  history. 

212  Of  the  two  principal  in   Africa. 

213  Of  Greece-    214,  215  Of  Rome. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

[Reference  from  one  place  to  another  in  this  Manual  is  commonly  made  by  specifying  the 
number  of  the  Part,  and  Section,  and  Subdivision  of  the  section.  Thus,  (in  the  following  col- 
umns, or  any  where  in  the  work,)  the  reference  cf.  P.  IV.  §  44. 2,  directs  the  reader  to  Part  IV. 
section  44,  paragraph  numbered  2. —  Sometimes  the  P.  and  the  $  may  be  omitted  ;  as  thus,  cf. 
IV.  77.  4.  which  would  refer  to  Part  IV.  section  77,  paragraph  4.] 


1.  Frontispiece.  View  of  Delphi  and  the 
Heights  of  Parnassus,  as  given  by  Bocage  in 
Bartheletny,s  Anacharsis  ;  cf.  the  volume  of 
Plates,  p.  71,  as  cited  P.  II.  $  153.  2.  —  P.  V. 
$97. 

2.  Reverse  of  Title-page.  View  of  Ath- 
ens, reduced  from  Hobhouse's  Albania. 

3.  Plate  I.  (Page  2.)  Ancient  Books,  and 
Implements  used  in  Writing  and  in  the  Arts.  — 
Fig.  1.  A  painting  on  the  wall  of  a  chamber, 
found  at  Herculaneum  ;  it  shows  a  bag  of 
money,  tied,  lying  on  a  table  between  two 
heaps  of  coins,  with  an  inkstand  and  reed,  a 
parchment  or  papyrus  manuscript  with  its  ti- 
tle appended,  a  style,  and  tablets.  —  Fig.  2. 
Tablets  connected  by  a  rina,  pugillares;  cf. 
P.  I.  $  56.2,$  118.  3.  —  Figs.  3  and  -1.  BtJ  lea  ; 
cf.  P.  I.  $  54.  —  Fig.  9.  A  reed.  —  Fig.  ...  A 
roll  showing  the  manner  of  writing.  —  Fig.  6. 
Two  tablets,  and  the  capsa,  or  bookcase  ;  cf. 
P.  I.  <S  118.  3.—  Figs.  7  and  8.  Tools  employed 
in  architecture  &.c. :  cf.  P.  I.  $  229.  2. 

4.  Ppate  la.  (Page  29.)  Ancient  Writing, 
Manuscripts,  and  Inscriptions.  —  Fig.  a.    Fine 


specimen  of  the  ancient  Ms.  roll ;  it  is  a  H-e 
brew  Synagogue  roll,  belonging  to  the  British 
Museum  ;  said  to  consist  of  40  brown  African 
skins  attached  together  ;  written  in  153  col- 
umns, 22  inches  deep  and  5  wide  ;  each  col- 
umn having  63  lines.  The  reader  passed  from 
column  to  column,  unrolling  the  volume  from 
one  stick  and  rolling  it  upon  another,  the  or- 
namented ends  of  the  sticks  serving  for  han- 
dles. —  Figs,  d,  e,  f,  are  from  remains  found 
at  Pompeii ;  e,  a  boy  holding  a  closed  roll  or 
volume  ;  d,  a  girl  with  a  set  of  pugillares  (cf. 
P.  I.  $  118.  3.)  and  a  style  ;  /,  another  reading 
a  roll  partly  opened. Figs.  i.  ii.  iii.  speci- 
mens of  writing  in  Greek  Mas.,  cf.  P.  I.  $104.2. 
Fig.  D.  Inscription  copied  from  a  Baby- 
lonian brick  lately  deposited  in  the  Boston 
Atheneum  ;  the  brick  is  about  11  inches  square 
and  3  inches  thick  ;  it  is  here  (merely  for  the 
sake  of  convenience  in  forming  the  Plate)  ex- 
hibited so  that  the  lines  are  perpendicular,  but 
their  actual  direction  is  horizontal ;  they  are 
to  be  read  from  left  to  right,  the  bottom  of  the 
figure  being  the  left,  and  the  top  the  right 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


XX111 


Cf.  P.  I.  §  18.  4.  — Fig.  G.  Several  specimens 
of  writing  in  the  arrow-head  character  :  No.  1, 
part  of  an  inscription  found  on  a  pillow  near 
Murehab  or  Mourgaub,  supposed  by  Morier  to 
be  the  site  of  the  ancient  Pasargada  ;  it  is  the 
name  of  Cyrus,  Kusruesh,  in  Hebrew  Koresh, 
in  Greek  Kuros:  No.  2,  part  of  an  inscription 
on  a  monument  at  Persepolis  ;  the  name  of 
Darius,  Darheusch,  in  Hebrew,  Dariavish,  in 
Greek,  Dareios .-  No.  3,  part  of  another  in- 
scription, containing  a  title  often  assumed  by 
Persian  monarchs,  Khschehioh  Khschehi- 
ohtch,  i.  e.  King  of  Kings  (cf.  Ezra,  vii.  12) : 
No.  4,  the  name  of  Xerxes,  in  the  alphabet  of 
the  Zend  language,  Khschheesche  :  No.  7, 
the  same  name  in  the  alphabet  considered  that 
of  the  Peldvi  language  :  No.  8,  the  same,  in  a 
character  supposed  to  be  more  modern  :  No.  5, 
Hieroglyphic  inscription  noticed  by  Champol- 
lion,  on  an  Egyptian  alabaster  vase,  as  being 
the  name  of  Xerxes,  and  read  by  him  Khsche- 
arscha;  No.  6,  the  same  name  in  the  Perse- 
politan  character,  as  found  on  that  vase.  See 
P.  I.  $  18.  4. Fig.  H.  Specimen  of  phonet- 
ic hieroglyphical  writing  ;  two  cartouches  of 
hieroglyphics,  from  one  of  the  colonnades 
adorning  the  first  court  of  the  palace  of  Kar- 
nac,  a  part  of  Egyptian  Thebes  ;  the  name  of 
an  Egyptian  king,  supposed  to  be  the  one 
called  "in  the  Bible  Shishak  (1  Kings,  xiv.  5) ; 
the  left  cartouch  expresses,  it  is  supposed,  the 
surname,  interpreted  as  signifying  "  approved 
of  the  sun  "  ;  the  other  on  the  right  (in  which 
the  corresponding  Roman  letters  are,  in  the 
cut,  attached  to  the  hieroglyphics  by  way  of 
explanation,  is  read  Amnmai  Shshnk,  and  in- 
terpreted '•'■Dear  to  Amnion,  She  s  honk";  this 
name  is  thought  by  some  to  be  the  same  as 
the   Sesonchis  (^>'ia°YXl?)  of  Manetho.     Cf. 

P.  I.  $1£.  1;   $91.7.8. Fig.  B.    Ancient 

British  writing  on  moveable  sticks  ;   cf.  P.  I. 

$53. Fig.  C.    The  papyrus,  growing  on 

the  banks  of  the  Nile  ;  cf.  P.  I.  $  118.  1. 

Fig.  E.  Comparative  view  of  several  corre- 
sponding letters  in  eight  different  alphabets 
(cf.  P.  I.  $  45.  2) ;  forming  as  nearly  as  the  al- 
phabets will  allow,  the  words  of  the  Hebrew 
inscription,  Holiness  to  the  Lord,  which 
was  engraved  on  the  golden  plate  attached  to 
the  mitre  of  Aaron  (Exod.  xxviii.  36,  37) ; — 
the  line  a  is  in  Hebrew  old  coin  letters  ;  b,  in 
the  Hebrew  common  letters,  as  in  the  modern 
printed  Hebrew  Bible  ;  c,  in  the  Egyptian  hie- 
ratic or  priest's  letters  ;  d,  in  the  Samaritan  ; 
e,  in  the  Egyptian  phonetic  hieroglyphics  ;  /, 
in  the  Coptic  ;  the  next  line  gives  the  corre- 
sponding Roman  letters,  as  formed  in  modern 
printing,  being  the  same  as  ours;  g,  the  com- 
mon Greek,  as  nearly  as  the  alphabet  seems 
to  allow  ;  the  last  line,  h,  is  the  Septuagint 
version  of  the  inscription.  This  cut  may  serve 
also  to  illustrate  the  ancient  custom  of  engrav- 
ing an  inscription  in  different  languages  on 
the  same  monument ;  as,  e.  g.  the  Rosetta 
etone  (cf.  P.  I.  $91.  7) ;  the  Egypto-Persian 
Vase  noticed  above  in  explaining  fig.  G;  and 
the  memorable  three-fold  inscription  placed 
by  Pilate  over  the  head  of  the  Savior  upon  the 
cross  (Luke,  xxiii.  38 ;  John,  xix.  19). 

5.  Plate  II.  (Page  53.)  Grecian  Coins.— 
For  particulars,  see  P.  I.  ft  93.  2,  $  95.  1,  P.  IV. 
$  173.  3. 

6.  Plate  III.  (Page  64.)  Roman  Coins.— 
For  the  details,  see  P.  I.  $  134.  1,  $  139.  2,  P. 
IV.  $  270.  3. 

7.  Plate  IV.  (Page  86.)  Specimens  of  An- 
cient Sculpture.  —  Fie.  1.  Dving  Gladiator;  cf. 
P.  I.  $  186.  9.—  Fie.  2.  Head  of  Antinous  ;  cf. 
P.  I.  $  186.  10.  —  Fig.  3.  Apollo  Belvidere  ;  cf. 
P.  I.  $  186.  4.  —  Fie.  4.  Gladiator  Borghese  ; 
cf.  P.  I.  $  186.  8.  —  Fig.  5.  Laocoon  ;  cf.  P.  I. 
$  186.  1.  —Fig.  6.  Hercules  Farnese  ;  cf.  P.  I. 
$  186.  6. 

3.  Plate  V.  (Page  109.)  Jewels  and  Sculp- 
tured Gems.  —  Figs.  1  and  2.  Specimens  of  the 
Abraxas  ;  cf.  P.  I.  ft  200.  2,  $  198  ;  P.  III.  $96. 
(6).  —  Fig.  3.    A  Roman  seal ;   cf.  P.  I.  $  20fi. 


— Fig.  4,  and  figs.  g.  h,  i,  o,  and  r.  Jewels  for 
the  ear  and  breast ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $  338.  —  Fig.  5. 

Cupid,  ason  an  ancient  gem  ;  cf.  P.  I.  $  198. 

Fig.  6.  Daedalus,  as  on  an  ancient  gem  ;  cf.  P. 
I.  $  198.  —  Figs.  7  and  8.  Gems  bearing  a  Her- 
mes and  Herrneraclcs  ;  cf.  P.  1.  $  164.  2.—  Figs, 
a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f.  Finger-rings,with  eems  inserted; 
cf.  P.  I.  $206. 

9.  Plate  VI.  (Page  121.)  Illustrations  per- 
taining to  the  Theatre.  —  Fig.  1.  Plan  of  the 
Greek  theatre  ;  cf.  P.  1.  ft  235.  — Fig.  2.  Plan 
of  the  Roman  theatre;  cf.  P.  IV.  $238.—  Fig. 
A.  Edifice  called  Choragic  Monument  of  Thra- 
syllus  ;  cf.  P.  I.  $  66.  3  ;  P.  V.  $  115.  —Fig.  C. 
Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  called  also 
Lantern  of  Demosthenes.  —  Fig.  B  B.  A  repre- 
sentation in  Mosaic,  found  at  Pompeii  :  cf.  P. 
I.  $  189.  1.  V      ' 

10.  Plate  Via.  (Page  128.)  Architectural 
Illustrations.  —  Figs,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e.  Columns, 
Egyptian  &c.  ;  cf.  P.  I.  $  238.  3.  —  Figs.  /,  g, 
h,  hi,  h,  I.  Grecian  and  Roman  columns,  ex- 
hibiting the  different  orders  &c.  ;  cf.  P.  I. 
$238.  1.  —  Figs,  m  and  n.  Arches  upon  pil- 
lars ;  cf.  P.  I.  $244.  — Figs.  p,q,  s,  u.  Grecian 
capitals ;  cf.  P.  I.  $  238.  1.  —  Figs,  o,  r,  t,  v. 
Pillars  i  r  and  v,  Gothic  ;  o,  Saracenic  ;  t,  Chi- 
nese ;   cf.  P.  I.  $  245. 

11.  Plate  VII.  (Paee  134.)  Comparative 
View  of  celebrated  Edifices  and  other  Structures. 
See  bottom  of  the  Plate. 

12.  Plate  VIII.  (Page  144.)  Grecian  Busts, 
with  names  annexed  ;  taken  from  the  Historic 
Gallery,  cited  P.  I.  $  187. 

13.  Tlate  IX.  (Page  276.)  Roman  Busts, 
with  names  annexed  ;  taken  from  the  Historic 
Gallery  and  Landun,  as  cited  P.  I.  $  1S7. 

14.  Plate  X.  (Page  398.)  Mythological  Il- 
lustrations.—Fig.  1.  Saturn  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  14- 
17.  — Fig.  2.  Cybele;  cf.  P.  III.  $19-21.— 
Fig.  3.  Pluto;  cf.  P.  III.  $32-34.  —  Fig.  4. 
Vulcan;  cf.  P.  III.  $51-54.  — Fig.  5.  Nep- 
tune; cf.  P.  III.  $29-31.  — Fig.  6.  Venus, 
with  attendants  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  47-49.  —  Fig.  7. 
Diana  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  38-40.  —  Fig.  8.  Bacchus  ; 
cf.  P.  III.  $57-60. 

15.  Plate  XI.  (Page  408.)  Mytholocrical  Il- 
lustrations. —  Fig.  1.  Juno  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  26-28. 

—  Fig.  2.  Mercury  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  55,  56.'—  Fig. 
3.  Jupiter ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  22-25.  —  Fig.  4.  Apol- 
lo ;  cf.  P.  III.  $35-37.  —  Fig.  5.  Ceres  ;  cf.  P. 
III.  $61-64.  —  Fie.  6-  Minerva;  cf.  P.  III. 
$  41-43.  —  Fig.  7.  Mars  ;  cf.  P.  III.  ft  44-46.  — 
Fig.  8.  Janus  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  18.  —  Fig.  9.  Cu- 
pid ;  cf.  P.  III.  $50.  — Fig.  10.  Vesta;  cf.  P, 
III.  $65-67. 

m.  Plate  XI  a.  (Page  415.)  The  Hindoo 
Triad.    Cf.  P.  III.  $  25.  4. 

17.  Plate  XI  b.  (Page  431.)  The  Avatars 
of  Vishnu.     Cf.  P.  III.  $  25.  4,  $  376. 

18.  Plate  XII.  (Page  439.)  Mythological 
Illustrations.  —  Fig.  1.  Soi,  as  represented  on 
a  coin  of  the  Rhodians  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  71-73.  — 
Fig.  2.  Nox,  as  represented  on  a  gem  ;  cf.  P, 
III.  ft  76. —  Fig.  3.  Luna;  cf.  P.  III.  $  73. — 
Fig.  4.  Hebe  ;  P.  III.  $  27.  —  Fig.  5.  Flora  ; 
cf.  P.  III.  $  90.  —  Fig.  6.  jEsculapius  ;  cf.  P. 
III.  ft  84.  —  Fig.  7.  Pan;  cf.  P.  III.  $79.— 
Fie.  8.  Spes,  or  Hope  ;  cf.  P.  III.  $95.  1.  — 
Fig.  9.  Fortuna;  cf.  P.  III.  ft  8^.  — Fig.  10. 
Victoria;  cf.  P.  III.  $93.  — Fig.  11.  Concor- 
dia ;  cf.  P.  III.  $  95.  1.  —  Fig.  12.  Pax,  or 
Peace;  cf.  P.  HI.  ft  95.  1. 

19.  Plate  XIII. '  (Page  458.)  Crowns,  Gar- 
lands, <$-c— Figs.  1,2,3,4,  5.  Roman  crowns 
or  wreaths,  bestowed  as  military  rewards, 
Fig.  6.    Imperial   crown.    Cf.  P.  IV.  $284.  1. 

—  Figs.  7,  8,  9,  10.  Crowns  or  garlands  re- 
ceived by  victors  in  the  games  ;  cf.  P.  IV. 
$84-87,  $233. —  Fig.  A.  Plan  of  a  Gymna- 
sium or  Palaestra  after  Vitruvius,  as  given  in 
Barthelemifs  Anacharsis  ;  cf.  P.  I.  $236.— 
Fie.  B.  Victorious  charioteer  ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $233. 
— Fig.  C.  A  golden  crown  found  in  Ireland  ; 
cf.  P.  IV.  $  34. 

20.  Plate  XIV.  (Paee  475.)  Military  Weap- 
ons,St'c.  For  particulars^see  P.  IV.  $45,137,283, 


XXIV 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


21.  Plate  XV.  (Page  483.)  Tombs  and  Se- 
pulchral Remains. —  Figs.  1,2,  3.  Tomb  of 
Cyrus,  Absalom's  pillar,  and  Pvramid  of  Ces- 
tiiis  ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $  187.  4.  —  Fig.  4.  Gates  of  a 
tomb  ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $  187.  4.  — Figs,  a  and  dd. 
Lachrymatory  and  'unguentary  vases  ;  cf.  P. 
IV.  $341.  7. —  Fig.  B.  Egyptian  Psych^stasy, 
or  weighing  of  the  soul ;  "cf.  P.  III.  $  34.  2.  — 
Fig.  c.  Funeral  couch  ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $  340. 1.  — 
Fig.  hh.  Coffin  and  urns,  &.c. ;  cf.  P.  IV. 
$341.6. 

22.  Plate  XVI.  (Page  505.)  Temple*.  — 
Fig.  I.  Parthenon  ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $96,  P.  I.  $234.3, 
P.  V.  $  107.  —  Fig.  2.  Temple  of  the  Winds  ; 
cf.  P.  IV.  $  96,  P.  V.  $  110.  —  Fig.  3.  Temple 
of  Theseus  ;  cf.  P.  I'V.  $  96,  P.  V.  $  109.  — 
Figs,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  /,  g,  A.  Ground-plans  of  the 
different  kinds  of  temples  :  cf.  P.  I.  $234.  2. 

23.  Plate  XVII.  (Page  522.)  Various  Arti- 
cles of  Armor.  —  Figs,  a,  b,  c,  <fcc.  Helmets  ; 
cf.  P.  IV.  $  45.  —  Figs,  r,  s.  Mail  and  breast- 
plate ;  cf.  P.  IV.  §  45,  138.  —  Fig.  w.  Greaves  ; 
cf.  IV.  $44,  45.  —Figs.  1,  2,  7.  Grecian  war- 
riors ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $45.  —  Fig.  3.  Persian  war- 
rior ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $45.  — Fig.  4.  Trophy;  cf. 
P.  IV.  $  150.  —  Fig.  5.  Warrior  in  mail,  with 
an  armor-bearer  ;  ■  cf.  P.  IV.  $  283.  —  Fig.  6. 
Egyptian  archer  ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $  45,  238.  1.  — 
Fig.  8.  Soldier  in  complete  mail ;  cf.  P.  IV. 
$283. 

24.  Plate  XVIII.  (Page  531.)  Naval  Illus- 
trations. —  Fig.  1.  Pinnace  or  light  boat  for 
rapid  moving;  cf.  IV.  304.  — Fig.  2.  Vessel 
from  a  painting  at  Pompeii ;  cf.  IV.  304.  — 
Fig.  3.  Liburnian  galley  ;  cf.  IV.  304.— Fig.  4. 
Merchant  vessel  ;  cf.  IV.  155.  —  Fig.  5.  War- 
galley  ;  cf.  IV.  155. —  Fig.  A.  Hexirerne  as  ex- 
plained by  Hohvell  ;  cf.  IV.  155,  156.  —  Fig. 
B.  Views  of  the  relative  position  of  the  row- 
ers, according  to  the  explanations  of  some ; 
cf.  IV.  156.  2.  —  Figs,  a,  b,  c.  Different  forms 
of  prows  ;  cf.  IV.  155.  3. 

25.  Plate  XIX.  (Page  535.)  Pertaining  to 
Household  Affairs.  —  Fig.  1.  Plan  of  a  Grecian 
bouse;  cf.  IV.  171.1. —  Fig.  2.  A  Grecian 
key  ;  cf.  IV.  171. 2.  —  Fig.  3.  Young  man 
wearing  the  petasus  ;  cf.  IV.  169.  3.  —  Fig.  4. 
A  bride  sitting  with  a  mirror  held  before  her  ; 
cf.  IV.  169.  6,  171.  2.  —  Figs.  5  and  10.  Gre- 
cian sofas  ;  cf.  IV.  171.  2.  —  Fig.  6.  Peculiar 
head-ornament,  worn  in  oriental  countries  ; 
cf.  IV.  34.— Fig.  7.  Grecian  lady,  from  Bovd's 
Potter  ;  cf.  IV.  169.  5,  171.  2,  52.  —  Fias.  8,  9. 
Chairs  ;  cf.  IV.  171.  2.  —  Figs,  a,  b,  c,  &c.  Va- 
rious forms  of  coverings  for  the  feet ;  cf.  IV. 
169.  2,  336. 

,  26.  Plate  XX.  (Page  541.)  Costume.  — 
Figs,  a,  b,  c,  a\  Modern  Egyptian  and  oriental 
dresses. ;  e,  /,  Greek  Bacchantes ;  g,  an 
Egyptian  spinner  ;  A,  i,  Grecian  female  fluters; 
k,  Grecian  lady  in  the  more  ancient  costume  ; 
w,  peculiar  head-dress  ;  n,  o,  Egyptian  princ- 
ess and  priestess  in  transparent  garments  ; 
y,  w,  veils  and  head-dresses.  See  P.  IV.  $  169. 
6.  —  Fig.  1.  A  box  worn  on  the  neck  ;  cf.  IV. 
337.  —  Fig.  2.  A  lady's  purse,  from  Egyptian 
monuments  ;  figs.  3,4,  toilet-table  and  mirror; 
cf.  IV.  338. 

27.  Plate  XXI.  (Page  549.)  Musical  In- 
struments.   For  particulars,  see  P.  IV.  $  180. 

28.  Plate  XXII.  (Page  561.)  Altars  and 
Sacrificial  Apparatus.  —  Figs,  a,  b,  c,  &c.  Vari- 
ous articles  as  given  in  Montfaucon  ;  fig.  A, 
including  1,  2,  &c,  articles  drawn  from  sculp- 
tures found  at  Pompeii  ;  fig.  B,  representation 
of  a  sacrifice  from  the  same  source  ;  cf.  P.  IV. 
§206.  — Fig.  C.  Sacrifice  to  Bacchus  ;  cf.  IV. 
205.1,  $67.  —  Fig.  D.  Sacred  utensils  from 
Egyptian  remains  ;  cf.  IV.  206.  —  Figs.  E,  H. 
Altars  ;  cf.  IV.  205.  1. 

29.  Plate  XXIV.  (Page  577.)  Gladiatorial 
Contests.  —  Fig.  1,  two  andabata  or  horsemen  ; 
fig.  2,  a  horseman  and  footman  (cf.  P.  IV. 
§283)  ;   figs.  3,  4,  two  gladiators  on  foot ;  fig. 


5,  wounded  bull ;  fie.  6,  two  secutores  and  two 
rctiarii ;  see  P.  IV.  $  235.  2.  —  Fig.  7.  Plan  of 
an  amphitheatre  at  "Pompeii  ;  cf.  IV.  239.  — ■ 
Fig.  n.  A  Dacian  horseman  in  scale-armor  ; 
cf.  IV.  283. 

30.  Plate  XXIV.  (Page  587.)  Pertaiuing 
to  topics  noticed  under  the  head  of  Roman  Civil 
Affairs.  —  Figs.  1  and  3.  Roman  fasces  and 
Egyptian  sceptres  ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $  240.  1.  —  Figs. 
2  and  9.  Roman  official  chairs  ;  cf.  IV.  255.2. 
~  Figs.  4,  5,  6.  Chariots  ;  cf.  IV.  269.  3.  — 
Figs.  7  and  8.  Steelyard  and  weight ;  cf.  IV. 
270.  1.  —  Fig.  10.  Sedan  ;  cf.  IV.  255. 2.—  Fig. 
A,  a  kind  of  stocks  ;  fiir.  B,  the  Mamertine 
prison  at  Rome  ;  cf.  IV.  264.  1. 

31.  Plate  XXV.  (Page  599.)  Pertaining 
to  Household  and  Agricultural  Affairs. —  Fig.  1, 
plan  of  a  Roman  house  ;  figs,  a  and  b,  a  key 
and  bolt  from  Pompeii;  cf.  P.  IV.  $325.  6. — 
Fig.  c.  Egyptian  door  ;  cf.  I.  231.  1.—  Figs,  d 
and  E  (including  1,  2,  3,  &c).  Couch  and 
lamps;  cf.  IV.  325. 7.— Fig.  ii.  Roman  plough; 
fig.  iii.  Syrian  ploughs  ;  figs.  iv.  6,  7,  instru- 
ments for  threshing  ;  figs.  5,  8,  sickle,  prun- 
ing-knife,  &c.  See  IV.  269.  2. 

32.  Plate  XXVI.  (Page  605.)  Armor,  Mil- 
itary Standards,  fyc.  —  Figs.  1  and  2.  Legiona- 
ry soldiers  with  shield  and  sword,  baggage 
&lc.  cf.  P.  IV.  $283.  — Fig.  3.  A  Medo-Per- 
sian,  from  sculptures  at  Persepolis  ;  bearing  a 
sort  of  hammer,  or  battle-axe,  probably  a  token 
of  some  military  rank,  perhaps  however  of  a 
some  civil  office  ;  the  two  hands  of  another 
are  seen  bearing  the  same  token  ,•  fig.  4,  an- 
other from  the  sculptures  at  Persepolis,  with  a 
sword  and  other  accoutrements.  Cf.  I.  171.  — 
Fies.  A,  B,  C,  &c.  A  variety  of  standards  and 
Hags  ;  cf.  IV.  282. 1.  —  Fig.  E.  Part  of  the  tri- 
umphal procession  represented  on  the  Arch  of 
Titus  ;  cf.  I.  188.  2. 

33.  Plate  XXVII.  (Page  615.)  War-engines, 
Roman  Camp  fyc. — Fig.  1,  testudo;  fig.  2,  ainea  ; 
3,  moveable  tower  ;  4,  5,  10,  battering-ram  ;  6, 
scorpio  ;  7,  balista ;  8,  pluteus ;  9,falx  muralis  ; 
see  P.  IV.  $299.  —  Figs,  a,  b.  Archer  and 
slinger;  cf.-  IV.  288.  1.  — Fig.  P,  plan  of  a 
consular  camp  ;  R,  sectional  view  of  the  ag- 
ger and  fossa  ;  see  IV.  297  t. 

34.  Plate  XXVIII.  (Page  635.)  Pertain- 
ing to  Feasts  and  the  use  of  Wine.  —  Fig.  1. 
Plan  and  view  of  a  triclinium  found  at  Pom- 
peii ;  cf.  P.  IV.  $  329.  2.  —  Fig.  2,  carriage  and 
vessel  for  transporting  wine  ;  fig.  3,  a  patera  ; 
cf.  IV.  331  b.  —  Fig.  4.  Two  persons  inter- 
changing the  pledge  of  hospitality  ;  cf.  IV. 
330.  3.  —Fig.  5,  a  Bacchanal  reveling  alone  ; 
taken  from  remains  at  Pompeii ;  fig.  6,  a  wine 
press,  from  Egyptian  monuments  ;  fig.  7,  two 
glass  cups  elegantly  cut  or  cast  ;  figs,  a,  b,  c, 
d,  e,  f,  &.c,  various  cups  and  vessels  ,•  cf.  IV. 
331b. 

35.  Plate  XXIX.  (Pace  642.)  Plans  of 
Athens  and  Rome.     See  P.  V.  $  52-71,  104-116. 

36.  Plate  XXX.  (Page  665.)  Cabirian 
Temple  at  Thessalonica.  See  P.  III.  $  129.  2  ; 
V.  80. 

37.  Plate  XXXI.  (Page  685.)  Plain  and 
Acropolis  of  Philippi.    See  P.  V.  $  80. 

Note.  It  is  but  justice  here  to  make  men- 
tion of  the  courtesy  of  the  Publishers  of  the 
Comprehensive  Commcntai-y,  and  the  Publishers 
of  the  Missionary  Herald,  in  allowing  a  num- 
ber of  cuts  originally  executed  for  those  works 
to  be  used  in  preparing  some  of  the  above 
specified  Plates.  It  is  known  that  the  engrav- 
ings  for  the  former  work  were  executed  under 
the  judicious  and  tasteful  supervision  of  Rev. 
Dr.  Jkmks  and  his  son,  Mr.  W.  Jenks. 
Through  the  liberality  hereby  acknowledged, 
this  Manual  has  a  greater  number  and  variety 
of  illustrations  than  could  otherwise  havs 
been  afforded. 


PART  I. 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


OP 


LITERATURE  AND   ART 


<^>>  OF  THB     x4*! 

uhiveesitt; 


PLATE    I. 


ImSMT-^JL^, 


INTRODUCTION 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   LITERATURE   AND   ART. 


1. —  The  origin  of  human  knowledge,  and  its  advancement  into  the 
form  of  sciences  and  arts. 

§  1.  Man  in  his  first  state  had  the  natural  capacity  for  acquiring 
a  great  variety  of  knowledge,  by  reason  of  those  superior  faculties, 
which  distinguished  him  from  irrational  animals.  But  he  had  then 
no  actual  store  of  innate  knowledge  and  skill.  Much  less  had  he 
any  comprehension  of  those  rules  and  precepts,  which  guide  us  in 
the  arts  and  sciences,  and  which  are  the  result  of  long  observation 
and  mature  reflection. 

All  that  is  known  respecting  the  first  state  of  man  is  contained  in  the  ac- 
count given  by  Moses  respecting  Adam  and  Eve,  who  were  the  first  human 
pair,  and  were  formed  by  direct  creation.  This  account  gives  little  informa- 
tion as  to  the  degree  or  the  nature  of  their  actual  knowledge.  Certain  it  is, 
however,  that  Adam  was  created  a  man;  he  was  not  created  a  child,  infant  or 
embryo,  and  left  to  advance  to  manhood  by  the  gradual  steps,  which  are  requi- 
site by  what  we  call  the  laws  of  nature  in  the  formation  of  every  other  man. 
It  can  be  little  else  than  a  dispute  about  words  to  contend,  whether  he  had  or 
had  not  innate  ideas  and  actual  knowledge  before  the  exercises  of  mind  which 
were  first  occasioned  by  surrounding  circumstances.  For  these  exercises  of 
his  mental  powers,  if  truly  the  exercises  of  a  man,  and  not  of  a  child,  must 
have  been  such  as,  in  all  other  cases  but  his  own,  could  have  arisen  only  after 
obtaining  previous  ideas  or  actual  knowledge  to  some  extent ;  and  in  fact,  as 
plainly  exhibited  in  the  account  of  Moses,  they  were  such  as,  in  other  cases, 
presuppose  a  maturity  of  intellect.  It  seems  an  evident  conclusion,  therefore, 
that  Adam  either  possessed  by  creation  the  requisite  knowledge,  or  was 
caused  to  put  forth  without  it  the  same  exercises  as  if  he  had  it.  On  either 
supposition  (if  any  can  adopt  the  latter)  some  degree  of  the  knowledge,  which 
is  now  acquired  gradually  in  the  progress  from  infancy  to  manhood,  came  at 
first  directly  from  God.  God  implanted  it  in  some  way  or  other  ;  man  did 
not  acquire  it  by  the  gradual  process  which  we  now  term  natural.  This 
knowledge,  skill,  attainment,  intellectual  power,  or  whatever  any  may  choose 
to  call  it,  was  the  original  stock  or  germ,  from  which  every  subsequent  acqui- 
sition sprang. 

Such  a  view  of  the  original  maturity  of  the  first  man  by  no  means  supposes 
Adam  to  have  possessed  the  extensive  knowledge  imagined  in  the  fabulous 
tales  of  the  Jewish  Rabbins,  or  in  the  descriptions  of  some  theologians.  It 
only  represents  him  as  a  man  literally  and  truly,  instead  of  a  child  ;  as  cre- 
ated at  once  a  moral  and  intellectual  man  ;  instead  of  being  formed  a  sort  of 
animal  in  human  shape,  and  left  to  grow  into  an  intelligent  being  under  ac- 
cidental influences. 

See  O.  C.  Knapp,  Lectures  on  Chr.  Theology,  Tr.  by  L.  Woods,  N.  Y.  1831.  2  vols.  8  vo. 
B.  I.  P.  ii.  Art.  6. — Cowpcr's  description  of  Adam,  in  the  verses  entitled  Yardly  Oak;  given  in 
rfUtia's  British  Poets,  Phil.  1831,    p.  96", 


4  .-.riCIIJEOLOGl'    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART, 

§  2.  There  was  a  gradual  development  of  his  faculties,  through 
the  impulse  of  his  wants,  favored  sometimes  by  accident,  and  aided 
by  experience  and  repeated  efforts.  Thus  he  acquired  a  multitude 
of  ideas  about  himself  and  the  objects  of  nature  around  him,  which 
were  successively  enriched,  corrected,  and  engraved  upon  his  mem- 
ory. By  degrees  meditation  led  him  from  the  visible  to  the  invisible, 
and  from  observing  actual  operations  and  appearances  he  proceeded 
to  conjecture  and  contemplate  secret  causes  and  powers. 

§  3.  By  means  of  language  the  communication  of  knowledge  be- 
came more  easy  and  rapid.  Then  this  knowledge  was  no  longer 
confined  to  the  isolated  observations  and  partial  experience  of  each 
individual  observer.  The  ideas  of  many  were  collected  and  com- 
bined. The  amount  of  acquisition  was  increased  more  and  more, 
as  men  united  themselves  in  social  bonds,  and  as,  in  the  progress  of 
population  and  civilization,  there  was  a  tendency  to  the  same  com- 
mon aims,  and  modes  of  living,  and  mutual  interests.  (See  remarks 
under  §  12.  1,  2.) 

§  4.  The  knowledge  of  the  arts  was  acquired  sooner  than  that  of 
the  sciences,  because  the  wants  that  gave  them  birth  were  more  ur- 
gent, and  the  difficulty  of  acquiring  them  was  not  so  great,  since 
they  were  chiefly  the  fruit  of  experience  rather  than  of  reflection. 
And  among  the  arts  themselves,  the  mechanical  or  those  of  common 
life,  must,  for  the  same  reasons,  have  appeared  first.  It  was  only  at 
a  late  period y  when  man  began  to  think  on  the  means  of  a  nobler 
destiny,  and  to  feel  a  desire  and  relish  for  higher  pleasures,  that  the 
fine  arts  took  their  rise.  Necessitatis  invent  a  antiquiora  sunt  quam 
voluptatis.     (Cicero.) 

§  5.  We  must  not  imagine  the  first  notions  concerning  the  arts  to 
have  constituted  any  thing  like  a  system  reduced  to  a  regular  form 
and  fixed  principles.  With  regard  to  the  theory,  there  were  at  first 
only  disconnected  observations  and  isolated  maxims,  the  imperfect 
results  of  limited  experience.  As  to  the  practice,  there  was  little 
but  a  mechanical  routine,  some  process  marked  out  by  chance  or 
imperious  necessity.  The  principal  object  was  to  secure  the  satis- 
fying of  wants,  the  preservation  of  life,  and  the  convenience  of  a  so- 
cial state,  which  men  sought  to  accomplish  by  reciprocal  aid,  and  by 
communicating  to  each  other  their  experience  and  acquirements. 

§  6.  Before  the  great  catastrophe  of  the  Hood,  men  had  already 
acquired  much  practical  knowledge ;  such  as  the  first  elements  of 
agriculture,  architecture,  and  the  art  of  working  metals  ;  these  arts 
were  practiced,  although  in  an  imperfect  manner.  But  in  that  singu- 
lar revolution  of  nature,  which  caused  the  destruction  of  nearly  the 
whole  human  family,  the  greatest  part  of  this  knowledge  was  lost. 

Respecting  the  number  of  people  existing  on  the  earth  before  the  flood,  and 
the  state  of  art,  science,  and  literature  among  them,  nothing  is  known  be- 
yond mere  conjecture. — The  following  remarks  on  the  subject  are  from  Shuck- 
ford's  Sacred  and  Profane  History  connected.  "  The  number  of  persons  in 
this  first  world  must  have  been  very  great ;  if  we  think  it  uncertain,  from 
the  differences  between  the  Hebrew  and  the  Septuagint  in  this  particular,  at 
what  time  of  life  they  might  have  their  first  children,  let  us  make  the  great- 
est allowance  possible,  and  suppose  that  they  had  no  children  until  they  were 
ft  hundred  years  old,  and  none  after  five  hundred,  yet  still  the  increase  of  this 


INTRODUCTION.       ANTEDILUVIAN    SCIENCE.  O 

world  must  have  been  prodigious.  There  are  several  authors,  who  have 
formed  calculations  of  it,  and  they  suppose,  upon  a  moderate  computation, 
that  there  were  in  this  world  at  least  two  millions  of  millions  of  souls.  It 
would  be  very  entertaining,  if  we  could  have  a  view  of  the  religion,  politics, 
arts  or  sciences  of  this  numerous  people." — After  pursuing  some  hints  re- 
specting their  religion,  he  adds,  "  we  can  only  guess  at  the  progress  they 
might  make  in  literature  or  any  of  the  arts.  The  enterprising  genius  of  man 
began  to  exert  itself  very  early  in  music,  brass- work,  iron-work,  in  every  ar- 
tifice and  science  useful  or  entertaining  ;  and  the  undertakers  were  not  lim- 
ited by  a  short  life,  they  had  time  enough  before  them  to  carry  things  to  per- 
fection J  but  whatever  their  skill,  learning,  or  industry  performed,  all  remains 
or  monuments  of  it  are  long  ago  perished.  We  meet  in  several  authors  hints 
of  some  writings  of  Enoch,  and  of  pillars  supposed  to  have  been  inscribed  by 
Seth.  The  Epistle  of  St.  Jude  seems  to  cite  a  passage  from  Enoch  ;  but  the 
notion  of  Enoch's  leaving  any  work  behind  him  has  been  so  little  credited, 
that  some  persons,  not  considering  that  there  are  many  things  alluded  to  in 
the  New  Testament,  which  were  perhaps  never  recorded  in  any  books,  have 
gone  too  far,  and  imagined  the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude  to  be  spurious,  for  its  seem- 
ing to  have  a  quotation  from  this  figment. — There  is  a  piece  pretending  to  be 
this  work  of  Enoch,  and  Scaliger,  in  his  annotations  upon  Eusebius's  Chron- 
icon,  has  given  us  considerable  fragments,  if  not  the  whole  of  it.  It  was 
vastly  admired  by  Tertullian  and  some  other  fathers  ;  but  it  has  since  their 
time  been  proved  to  be  the  product  of  some  impostor,  who  made  it,  according 
to  Scaliger,  Vossius,  Gale,  and  Kircher,  some  time  between  the  captivity  and 
our  Savior's  birth. — As  to  Seth's  pillars,  Josephus  gives  the  following  account 
of  them.  '  That  Seth  and  his  descendants  were  persons  of  happy  tempers 
and  lived  in  peace,  employing  themselves  in  the  study  of  astronomy,  and  in 
other  researches  after  useful  knowledge  ;  that  in  order  to  preserve  the  knowl- 
edge they  had  acquired,  and  to  convey  it  to  posterity,  having  heard  from 
Adam  of  the  Flood,  and  of  a  destruction  of  the  world  by  fire,  which  was  to 
follow  it,  they  made  two  pillars,  the  one  of  stone,  the  other  of  brick,  and  in- 
scribed their  knowledge  upon  them,  supposing  that  one  or  the  other  of  them 
might  remain  for  the  use  of  posterity.  The  stone  pillar,  on  which  is  inscribed, 
that  there  was  one  of  brick  made  also,  is  still  remaining  in  the  land  of  Seriad 
to  this  day.'  Thus  far  Josephus  ;  but  whether  his  account  of  this  pillar  may 
be  admitted,  has  been  variously  controverted ;  we  are  now  not  only  at  a  loss 
about  the  pillar,  but  we  cannot  so  much  as  find  the  place  where  it  is  said  to 
have  stood." 

For  further  remarks  on  the  pillars  of  Seth  :  Shuckford,  Sac.  &  Prof.  Hist,  connected,  Vol.  I. 
p.  55.  Phil.  1824.  2  vols.  8.—E.  Stilling-fieet,  Origines  Sacrae,  B.  i.  c.  2.  Lond.  1662.  4.— Re- 
specting the  book  of  Enoch,  cf.  P.  II.  $  279.— On  the  attainments  of  antediluvians,  also  Du. 
Pin  (as  cited  P.  II.  §240),  B.  I.  Sect.  1. 

§  7.  Subsequently  to  the  deluge,  the  free  communication  and  pro- 
pagation of  knowledge  was  hindered  by  the  confusion  of  tongues, 
and  the  consequent  dispersion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  into 
many  countries.  Thereby  the  progress  of  human  acquirements  was 
retarded  in  a  very  sensible  manner  during  the  first  ten  centuries. 
For  a  long  time  men  were  destitute  of  some  particulars  of  knowl- 
edge almost  essential  to  life ;  as,  for  instance,  the  use  of  fire. 

However  incredible  it  may  at  first  seem,  that  any  part  of  mankind  should 
have  been  ignorant  of  the  use  of  fire,  it  is  attested  by  the  most  ancient  and 
unanimous  traditions.  (See  references  in  proof  of  it,  in  De  GogueVs  Origin 
of  Laws,  Arts,  &c.  P.  I.  B.  ii.  as  cited  §  32.) — Modern  discoveries  have  con- 
firmed the  same.  "  The  inhabitants  of  the  Marian  Islands  [Marianas  or  La- 
drones],  which  were  discovered  in  1521,  had  no  idea  of  fire.  Never  was  as- 
tonishment greater  than  theirs,  when  they  saw  it,  on  the  descent  of  Magellan 
on  one  of  their  islands.  At  first  they  believed  it  to  be  a  kind  of  animal  that 
fixed  itself  to  and  fed  upon  wood.  Some  of  them,  who  approached  too  near, 
being  burnt,  the  rest  were  terrified,  and  durst  only  look  upon  it  at  a  dis- 
tance."    (Goguet.) 

1* 


6  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART. 

Respecting  the  effect  of  the  dispersion  on  civilization,  cf.  §  12.  2. 

§  8.  The  food  of  man  in  the  first  ages  was  extremely  simple,  and 
consisted  in  a  great  measure  of  the  spontaneous  productions  of  the 
earth.  The  use  of  animals  for  nourishment  was  very  limited,  from 
want  of  means  to  domesticate  or  capture  them.  The  art  of  prepar- 
ing food  of  either  kind  was  likewise  very  imperfect.  But  the  neces- 
sity of  taking  nourishment  was,  doubtless,  the  most  imperious  of 
wants ;  and  hence  it  is  not  only  probable,  but  certain  from  the  testi- 
mony of  sacred  and  profane  authors,  that  tilling  the  ground  and 
tending  herds  and  flocks  were  the  first  and  most  general  occupations 
of  men,  and  that  the  knowledge  relating  to  these  objects  was  the 
first  acquired  and  the  most  extensive.  A  proof  of  the  antiquity  of 
agriculture  is  found  in  the  fact,  that  almost  all  the  ancient  nations 
ascribe  its  invention  and  introduction  in  their  country  to  some  divin- 
ity, or  some  deified  founder  of  their  state,  or  early  sovereign  of  their 
land. 

§  9.  According  to  the  difference  of  country,  climate,  manner  of 
living,  and  habits,  there  was  a  difference  likewise  in  these  simple  at- 
tainments, and  in  the  steps  of  their  progress.  With  some  nations 
agriculture  was  the  most  common  occupation,  with  others  the  rais- 
ing of  cattle,  and  with  others  hunting  and  fishing  ;  and  by  natural 
consequence,  among  each  people,  the  experience  relating  to  their 
own  occupations,  and  the  observations  and  acquirements  resulting 
from  it,  were  the  most  generally  diffused  and  the  most  perfect.  Com- 
pared with  the  other  modes  of  subsistence,  agriculture  has  an  im- 
portant advantage  in  promoting  various  arts,  because  it  compels  men 
to  renounce  a  wandering  life,  and  settle  in  fixed,  permanent  abodes  : 
thus  it  increases  the  demand  for  conveniences,  and  furnishes  an  oc- 
casion for  inventions,  which  may  help  to  facilitate  and  carry  to  per- 
fection the  culture  of  the  soil. 

§  10.  Among  the  inventions  which  resulted  from  this,  we  may  no- 
tice especially  architecture  and  the  working  of  metals.  The  first 
arose  from  the  necessity  of  procuring  a  shelter  from  the  inclemency 
of  the  seasons  and  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts.  Rude  in  its  origin,  it 
hardly  deserved  the  name  of  an  art ;  but  under  the  influences  of 
social  life,  it  made  a  progress  considerably  rapid.  The  metals  were 
probably  discovered  to  man  by  some  accident.  For  the  art  of  work- 
ing them  we  may  be  indebted  to  operations  perceived  in  nature,  vol- 
canic eruptions,  e.  g.,  or  casual  fires. 

1.  The  art  of  working  metals  is  alluded  to  by  Moses  (Gen.  iv.  22)  as  ex- 
isting before  the  deluge,  but  was  lost  probably  in  the  dispersion  of  Noah's 
descendants,  except  among  those  who  remained  near  the  spot  where  man  was 
first  located.  (Comp.  §  12.)— The  same  authority  shows  the  use  of  metals 
established  a  few  ages  after  the  flood.  Gen.  xxii.  6,  xxxi.  19,  xxxiii.  12, 
Levit.  xxvi.  19,  Deut.  xxix.  16,  17.     Comp.  Job  xxviii.  1,  2,  17. 

2.  Goguet  remarks  that  the  use  of  iron  probably  was  not  so  early  as  that  of 
other  metals,  and  that  tools  of  stone  preceded  those  made  of  iron.  "  Ancient- 
ly they  employed  copper  for  all  the  purposes  for  which  we  now  make  use  of 
iron.  Arms,  tools  for  husbandry  and  the  mechanic  arts  were  all  of  copper 
for  many  ages.  The  writings  of  Homer  leave  no  room  to  doubt  of  this.  We 
see,  that  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war,  iron  was  very  little  used.  Copper 
supplied  its  place.  It  was  the  same  for  ages  amongst  the  Romans." — "A 
kind  of  stones,  commonly  called  thunder-stones  (Ceraujiia),  are  still  preserved 


INTRODUCTION.       ORIGIN    OF    LANGUAGE,  7 

in  a  great  many  cabinets."  They  have  the  shape  of  axes,  plough-shares,  ham- 
mers, mallets,  or  wedges ;  for  the  most  part,  they  are  of  a  substance  like  that 
of  our  gun-flints,  so  hard  that  no  tile  can  make  the  least  impression  upon 
them.  It  is  evident  from  inspection,  that  these  stones  have  been  wrought  by 
the  hands  of  men.  The  holes  for  inserting  the  handles  prove  their  destina- 
tion and  the  several  uses  that  were  made  of  them.  It  is  well  known,  that 
tools  of  stone  have  been  in  use  in  America  from  time  immemorial.  They  are 
found  in  the  tombs  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Peru,  and  several  nations 
use  them  at  this  day.  They  shape  and  sharpen  them  upon  a  kind  of  grind- 
stone, and  by  length  of  time,  labor  and  patience,  form  them  kito  any  figure 
they  please.  They  then  fit  them  very  dexterously  with  a  handle,  and  use 
them  nearly  in  the  same  manner  we  do  our  tools  of  iron.  Asia  and  Europe1 
are  strowed  with  stones  of  this  sort.  They  are  frequently  found.  There 
must  then  have  been  a  time,  when  the  people  of  these  countries  were  igno- 
rant of  the  use  of  iron,  as  the  people  of  America  were  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Europeans." 

Ooguet,  Or.  of  Laws,  &c.  P.  I.  B.  ii.  c.  4. — Cf.  Dictionn.  Class.  d'Hist  Nattirelle  (cited 
$  1(J4),  article  Ceraunias.—Mahudcl,  Des  pretendes  pierres  de  foudre,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xii.  163w 

§  11.  The  arts  of  imitation  had  a  later  origin,  because  they  were 
not  produced  by  an  equally  urgent  want,  and  require  more  deep  med- 
itation and  some  abstraction  of  mind.  In  their  commencement  they 
were,  however,  merely  the  developments  of  superior  mechanical 
dexterity,  rather  than  what  may  properly  be  called  fine  arts,  and 
the  first  attempts  were  but  rude  and  defective.  Among  these  we 
number  whatever  belongs  to  sculpture,  or  the  art  of  imitating  fig- 
ures in  relief;  for  which  purpose  it  is  probable,  that  soft  materials, 
as  earth  and  clay,  were  at  first  employed.  The  proper  art  of  draw- 
ing presupposes  more  abstraction  ;  probably  it  was  first  practiced 
in  tracing  the  outlines  of  shadows  cast  from  different  objects  and 
bodies.  Music,  which,  independent  of  any  natural  pleasure  in 
rhythm  and  melodious  sounds,  might  originate  from  the  songs  of 
birds,  must  be  regarded  as  among  these  early  arts  of  imitation.  With 
it,  if  not  before  it,  was  invented  poetry,  which,  in  its  origin  and  its 
first  advances,  was  joined  inseparably  with  something  of  musical 
accompaniment. 

§  12.  We  have  already  (§  3)  mentioned  Language  as  the  princi- 
pal means  of  communication  among  men.  Respecting  its  origin, 
we  only  observe,  that  the  first  men  possessed  by  creation  the  faculty 
of  speech,  although  language  itself,  most  probably,  was  not  an  im- 
mediate gift  of  the  Deity,  but  a  gradual  invention  of  man;  the  natu- 
ral expressions  of  feeling,  which  he  had  in  common  with  other  ani- 
mals, being  by  degrees  formed  into  articulate  sounds  and  signs  of 
thought.  Not  necessary  to  him  in  the  isolated  state  of  nature,  it 
was  yet  so  essential  to  the  social  state  as  to  call  into  exercise  the  im- 
planted faculty  of  speech,  and  constantly  and  rapidly  increase  the 
stock  of  words.  But,  as  the  ideas  were  few  and  confined  chiefly  to 
objects  of  sense,  the  original  language  needed  neither  great  compass 
nor  high  improvement. 

1.  The  remarks  of  the  author  in  this  section  indicate  too  much  agreement 
with  the  common  error  of  considering  a  state  of  barbarism  as  the  natural  and 
original  state  of  man.  Philosophers  in  tracing  the  progress  of  human  know- 
ledge have  often  founded  their  speculations  on  this  supposition,  that  men  at 
first  were  but  a  number  of  ignorant  savages,  not  joined  by  any  social  ties,  a 
mere  mutum  ac  turpe  pccus,  scarcely  elevated  above  the  beasts  of  the  forests 
through  which  they  roamed.     Dr.  Fergurson  has  the  following  judicious  ob- 


8  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART. 

servations  on  this  topic.  a  The  progress  of  mankind  from  a  supposed  state  of 
animal  sensibility,  to  the  attainment  of  reason,  to  the  use  of  language,  and  to 
the  habit  of  society,  has  been  painted  with  a  force  of  imagination,  and  its  steps 
pointed  out  with  a  boldness  of  invention,  that  would  tempt  us  to  admit  among 
the  materials  of  history  the  suggestions  of  fancy,  and  to  receive  perhaps  as  the 
model  of  our  nature  in  its  original  state  some  of  the  animals  whose  shape  has 
the  greatest  resemblance  to  ours.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to  affirm,  as  a  dis- 
covery, that  the  species  of  the  horse  was  probably  never  the  same  with  that  of 
the  lion  ;  yet,  in  opposition  to  what  has  dropped  from  the  pens  of  eminent 
writers,  we  are  obliged  to  observe  that  men  have  always  appeared  among  ani- 
mals a  distinct  and  superior  race  ;  that  neither  the  possession  of  similar  organs, 
nor  the  approximation  of  shape,  nor  the  use  of  the  hand,  nor  the  continued  in- 
tercourse with  this  sovereign  artist,  has  enabled  any  other  species  to  blend 
their  nature  or  their  inventions  with  his  ;  that  in  his  rudest  state,  he  is  found 
to  be  above  them,  and  in  his  greatest  degeneracy,  he  never  descends  to  their 
level.  He  is,  in  short,  a  man  in  every  condition  ;  with  him  society  appears  to 
be  as  old  as  the  individual,  and  the  use  of  the  tongue  as  universal  as  that  of 
the  hand  or  the  foot.  If  there  was  a  time  in  which  he  had  his  acquaintance 
with  his  own  species  to  make,  and  his  faculties  to  acquire,  it  is  a  time  of 
which  we  have  no  record,  and  in  relation  to  which  our  opinions  can  serve  no 
purpose  and  are  supported  by  no  evidence." 

See  A.  Fergurson's  Ess.  on  History  of  Civ.  Society,  Bost.  1809.  8vo.  The  allusion  of  the 
author,  in  the  passage  quoted,  is  to  such  theorists  as  Rousseau  and  Monboddo. — See  Rousseau, 
sur  l'origine  de  l'inegalite  parmi  les  hommes,  in  his  Ouevrcs,  Par.  1823.  25  vols.  18.  vol.  1st. — 
Jfonboddo  (J.  Burnet ),  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language,  Edinb.  1774,  6  vols.  8vo. — Also,  Bozy 
de  St.  Vincent,  L'Homme,  Essai  Zoologique  sur  le  genre  humain.  Par.  1827.  2  vols.  16mo. 
This  author  attempts  to  prove  that  there  are  several  species  of  human  kind,  and  that  Adam 
was  the  father  of  but  one  species.  For  more  correct  views,  see  S.  S.  Smith,  Essay  on  the 
cause  of  variety  in  the  complexion  and  figure  of  the  Human  Species.  N.  Brunsw.  1810.  8. — 
J.  C.  Prishard',  Researches  into  the  Physical  History  of  Mankind.     Lond.  1826.  2  vols.  8vo. 

2.  The  whole  history  of  the  world  is  opposed  to  the  hypothesis  of  a  gradual 
advancement  of  the  human  race  from  a  condition  of  barbarism.  In  the  first 
place,  all  the  nations  which  are  known  to  have  risen  from  barbarism  to  culti- 
vation have  been  thus  raised  by  coming  into  contact  and  intercourse  with 
other  nations  more  civilized  and  cultivated  than  themselves,  and  not  by  the 
natural  progress  of  their  own  independent  steps  towards  perfection.  In  the 
next  place,  a  nation  or  society  once  merged  in  barbarism  is  found  in  fact  to 
sink  into  deeper  and  deeper  degradation  when  separated  from  the  influence  of 
more  enlightened  nations,  instead  of  rising  gradually  from  its  depression  and 
gaining  the  rank  and  happiness  of  a  civilized  people.  So  great  is  this  tenden- 
cy to  deterioration,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  exceeding  difficulty,  even  with  all 
the  aids  which  the  most  cultivated  nation  can  furnish,  to  introduce  and  per- 
petuate among  savage  tribes  the  manners,  intelligence  and  blessings  of  civili- 
zed life.  But  the  truth  on  this  subject  is,  that  the  natural  and  original  state 
of  man,  that  in  which  he  was  first  placed  by  his  benevolent  Creator,  was  a 
state  combining  all  the  blessings  of  civilization  needed  in  a  single  holy  family. 
Man  was  at  his  creation  put  at  once  into  the  social  and  family  condition,  and 
if  before  the  deluge  there  was  any  such  state  of  things  as  existed  after  it  in  the 
savage  and  barbarous  tribes,  it  was  a  state  into  which  man  plunged  himself, 
by  not  choosing  to  retain  God  in  his  knowledge.  It  was  in  this  way  that  man 
was  thrown  into  the  savage  state  after  the  deluge.  The  family  of  Noah  was 
a  civilized  family,  in  which  were  preserved,  no  doubt,  all  the  useful  know- 
ledge and  arts  of  the  antediluvian  world,  as  well  as  the  true  religion.  There 
is  no  evidence,  that  there  was  any  state  of  barbarism  among  their  descendants 
until  after  the  dispersion.  So  far  as  history  and  tradition  cast  any  light  on 
this  subject,  they  point  to  that  portion  of  the  earth,  where  the  subsiding  flood 
left  the  family  of  Noah,  as  the  region  of  earliest  civilization  and  refinement. 
Every  search  after  the  primary  sources  of  intellectual  culture  conducts  the 
inquirer  towards  this  quarter,  as  the  original  centre  of  light.  The  families  and 
tribes,  which  remained  nearest  this  centre,  retained  most  of  the  arts,  sciences, 
and  religion  of  their  ancestors.  Those  which  removed  the  farthest  retained 
the  least,  and  gradually  lost  nearly  all  resemblance  to  their  primitive  charac- 
ter, and  finally,  in  the  course  of  their  various  and  distant  migrations,  sunk  to 
the  manners  and  spirit  of  savages. 


INTRODUCTION.       ORIGIN    OF    LANGUAGE.  If 

"  It  is  customary  to  begin  history  with  hypothesis  ;  to  seek  the  history  of  religion,  or  of  socie- 
ty, for  instance,  in  the  savage  state  ;  in  that  state  which  historical  criticism  cannot  reach  ;  among 
the  shadows  which  lie  beyond  all  history.     I  shall  do  otherwise."        *        *        * 

"  Whence  comes  modern  history  ?  It  is  clear  that  there  was  something  before  it  and  I  need 
not  insist  upon  demonstrating  that  its  real  and  well  known  roots  lie  in  the  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man world  ;  to  this  parentage  all  kinds  of  evidence  lead  us.  And  this  world  of  classical  antiq- 
uity, does  it  not  suppose  a  previous  world  ?  It  is  perfectly  well  known  that  if  the  roots  of  the 
modern  world  lie  in  classical  antiquity,  those  of  classical  antiquity  may  be  found  on  the 
coasts  of  Egypt,  the  plains  of  Persia,  and  the  high  lands  of  Central  Asia.  It  is  evident  in  at 
word,  that  the  East  preceded  Greece.  Ml  evidence  brings  us  to  this  i  but  does  it  carry  us  far- 
ther?"— V.  Cousin's  Introduct.  to  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  Lect.  2nd.  Transl.  by  H.  6.  Linberg, 
Bost.  1832.  8. 

See  Zimmerman,  Geograph.  Geschichte  de  Menschen. — Meiners,  Gesch.  der  Menscheit, 
and  Bailly,  sur  l'origine  des  Sciences,  cited  §  32. —  Tytler's  History,  P.  II.  S.  50. — Prichard,  as 
above  cited,  Vol.  I.  p.  86.— Bibl.  Repos.  and  Quart.  Obs.  No.  xvii.  p.  261.— Faber's  Difficulties 
of  Infidelity,  Sect.  III. 

3.  As  to  the  origin  of  language,  the  question  has  been  fully  discussed  by 
theologians,  grammarians  and  philosophers.  Many  have  maintained  that  it 
was  of  human  invention.  But  the  advocates  of  this  opinion  have  advanced 
the  most  diverse  and  contradictory  conjectures  as  to  the  mode  and  process. 

Lord  Monboddo,  for  instance,  supposes  the  original  form  of  language  to  have 
been  the  inarticulate  cries,  "  by  which  animals  call  upon  one  another,  and  ex- 
hort or  command  one  another  to  do  certain  things,"  and  adduces,  apparently 
to  illustrate  what  he  means,  such  exclamations  as  Hi  ha,  Ho  ho,  Halouet,  used, 
he  says,  among  the  Hurons  of  North  America,  and  quite  analogous  to  our  own 
halloo,  huzza,  hurra,  u  which  are  no  other  but  cries,  calling,  or  exhorting,  a 
little  articulated  !  " — Dr.  Murray,  who  died  in  the  year  1813,  then  Professor 
of  Oriental  Languages  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  imagined  all  language- 
to  be  derived  from  nine  barbarously  rough  monosyllables.  "  Taste  and  phi- 
losophy," says  he,  "  will  receive  with  aversion  the  rude  syllables,  which  are 
the  base  of  that  medium  through  which  Homer,  and  Milton,  and  Newton,  have 
delighted  or  illumined  mankind.  The  words  themselves,  though  inelegant,  are 
not  numerous  :  each  of  them  is  a  verb  and  name  for  a  species  of  action.  Pow- 
er, motion,  force,  ideas  united  in  every  untutored  ^mind,  are  implied  in  them 
all.  The  variation  of  force  in  degree  was  not  designated  by  a  different  word, 
but  by  a  slight  change  in  the  pronunciation.  Harsh  and  violent  action,  which 
affected  the  senses,  was  expressed  by  harsher  articulations. 

1.  To  strike  or  move  with  swift,  equable,  penetrating  or  sharp  effect  waa 
Ag  !  Ag  !  If  the  motion  was  less  sudden,  but  of  the  same  species,  Wag. 
If  made  with  force  and  a  great  effort,  Hwag.  These  are  varieties  of  one  word, 
originally  used  to  mark  the  motion  of  fire,  water,  wind,  darts. 

2.  To  strike  with  a  quick,  vigorous,  impelling  force,  Bag  or  Bwag,  of  which 
Fag  and  Pag  are  softer  varieties. 

3.  To  strike  with  a  harsh,  violent,  strong  blow,  Davag,  of  which  Thwao 
and  Twag  are  varieties. 

4.  To  move  or  strike  with  a  quick,  tottering,  unequal  impulse,   Gvvag  or 

CWAG. 

5.  To  strike  with  a  pliant  slap,  Lag  and  Hlag. 

6.  To  press  by  strong  force  or  impulse  so  as  to  condense,  bruise  or  compel, 
Mag. 

7.  To  strike  with  a  crushing,  destroying  power,  Nag,  Hnag. 

8.  To  strike  with  a  strong,  rude,  sharp,  penetrating  power,  Rag  or  Hrag. 

9.  To  move  with  a  weighty,  strong  impulse,  Swag. 

These  nine  words  are  the  foundations  of  language,  on  which  an  edifice 
has  been  erected  of  a  more  useful  and  wonderful  kind,  than  any  which  have 
exercised  human  ingenuity.  They  were  uttered  at  first,  and  probably  for  sev- 
eral generations,  in  an  insulated  manner.  The  circumstances  of  the  actionst 
were  communicated  by  gestures,  and  the  variable  tunes  of  the  voice  ;  but  the 
actions  themselves  were  expressed  by  their  suitable  monosyllable." 

Such  theories  seem  scarcely  less  absurd  than  that  of  the  Italian,  who  con- 
sidered the  Greek  as  the  original  language,  and  traced  its  rise  to  a  few  vowet 
sounds  gradually  generated  in  the  family  of  Adam.  "  When  Adam  opened 
his  eyes  on  the  beauties  of  creation,  he  very  naturally  exclaimed,  O  !,  which 
gave  birth  to  Omega.  When  Eve  was  taken  out  of  his  ribs,  he  uttered  oo  ! 
or  u  !,  Upsilon.    The  first  child  as  soon  as  born  cried  out  e  !    e  !,  and  this 


10  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART. 

formed  Epsilon  or  Eta.  The  next,  probably,  had  a  little  shriller  note  i !  i  !,  and 
furnished  the  parents  with  a  fourth  vowel,  Iota." — Rousseau  represents  man 
as  originally  without  language  and  without  society,  and  having  started  the  en- 
quiry how  language  was  invented,  soon  "  stuck  in  the  difficulty,  ichether  lan- 
guage icasmore  necessary  for  the  institution  of  society,  or  society  for  the  inven- 
tion of  language."  But  Maupertuis  leaps  the  obstacle  bravely,  and  "  conjec- 
tures that  language  was  formed  by  a  session  of  learned  societies  assembled  for 
the  purpose  !  " 

Other  writers  speak  more  rationally,  although  agreeing  with  our  author,  that 
the  faculty  of  speech,  and  not  any  language  itself,  was  the  immediate  gift  of  God 
to  man.  "  The  theory  which  derives  the  most  support  from  history,"  says  Dr. 
Knapp,  "  is  that  the  roots,  the  primitive  words,  were  originally  made  in  imita- 
tion of  the  sounds  we  hear  from  the  different  objects  in  the  natural  world,  and 
that  these  original  sounds  become  less  and  less  discernible  in  languages  in  pro- 
portion as  they  are  improved  and  enlarged." — But  it  is  surprising  that  any  per- 
son, pretending  to  receive  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation  of  man,  should 
attempt  to  explain  the  origin  of  language  in  any  such  way.  In  that  account 
Adam  is  represented  as  using  language  immediately  on  his  creation,  not  only 
giving  names  to  objects,  but  assigning  reasons  for  the  names,  and  reasons  too 
which  have  not  the  least  connection  with  the  sounds  of  the  words,  or  any 
sounds  in  nature.     (  Gen.  ii.  19 — 23.  iii.  20.) 

Men  have  been  led  into  their  speculations  on  this  subject,  because,  on  a  superfi- 
cial view,  it  seems  difficult  to  suppose  God  to  create  a  man,  or  any  thing  else,  in 
^mature  state.  A  little  reflection  might  convince  us,  that  it  is  just  as  difficult 
to  suppose  him  to  create  a  man  in  an  immature  state.  The  real  difficulty  lies 
in  conceiving  any  sort  of  creation.  All  the  evidence  we  have  as4  to  the  actual 
state,  in  which  God  did  in  fact  create  man,  is  the  testimony  of  Moses,  and  that 
is  no  evidence  at  all,  beyond  that  of  obscure  ancient  tradition,  unless  it  is  sanc- 
tioned by  divine  inspiration.  Those  who  believe  it  to  be  thus  sanctioned,  it 
would  seem,  ought  to  abide  by  its  facts.  And  is  it  not  the  simple,  undisguis- 
ed representation  of  Moses,  that  Adam  had  from  the  first  a  real  and  adequate 
language,  consisting  of  articulate  sounds  ?  As  to  the  extent  of  his  vocabula- 
ry, nothing  is  directly  told  us  ;  but  is  it  not  as  obvious  that  he  had  literally  a 
language,  as  that  he  had  literally  a  hand,  a  tongue,  or  an  eye  ? 

Whatever  mode  of  expression,  therefore,  any  may  choose  to  adopt  in  refer- 
ence to  this  matter,  whether  to  say  that  language  was  of  divine  origin,  or  that 
Adam  was  created  with  a  language,  or  that  language  was  an  immediate  gift  of 
God  to  him,  or  that  God  created  him  with  a  faculty  immediately  to  form  artic- 
ulate sounds  significant  of  thought,  it  is  certain  that  a  spoken  language  exis- 
ted immediately  after  the  creation  of  Adam. — If  any  languages  besides  this 
original  were  in  use  before  the  flood,  they  were  doubtless  derived  from  it. 
From  the  flood  until  the  confusion  of  tongues,  Moses  explicitly  testifies,  there 
was  but  one  language  in  the  world.  As,  then,  Adam  was  the  father  of  the 
many  millions  that  have  peopled  the  earth,  so  his  language  was  the  parent  of 
the  thousands  of  dialects,  by  which  they  have  carried  on  the  mutual  inter- 
change of  thought  and  feeling. 

See  Knapp,  Lectures  (cited  $  1),  B.  I.  P.  ii.  Art.  6.  §  55.— Herder,  ueber  den  Ursprung  der 
Sprache.  Berl.  1789. — Monboddo,  Or.  and  Prog,  of  Lang,  above  cited. — Maupertuis,  Reflections 
on  the  Origin  of  Languages,  in  his  Works,  1756.  4  vols.  8. — Ad.  Smith,  Considerations  on  the 
first  formation  of  Lang,  (in  Tfieo.  of  Mot.  Sent.  Bost.  1817.  8.)—Shuckford,  Sac.  and  Prof. 
Hist,  connected.  II.  B.—  Warburton,  Divine  Legation  of  Moses.  B.  IV.  Sect.  4.  Lond.  1741. 
—  Good,  Book  of  Nature,  Lect.  IX.— Blair,  Lect.  on  Rhetoric,  Lect.  VI.— A.  Murray,  Hist,  of 
the  European  Languages.  Edinb.  1823.  2  vol.  8 — Condillac,  Ess.  sur  l'orig  des  Connois.  Hum. 
(in  1st  vol.  of  his  Works.  Par.  1821.  23  vols.  8.)—Arndt,  ueber  den  Ursprung  der  Europ. 
Sprachen.  Frankf.  1827.  8.—T.  C.  Upham,  Mental  Philosophy.  Port.  1837.  2  vols.  8  (vol  2nd. 
p.  431.) 

§  13.  The  invention  of  Writing  belongs  to  a  period  subsequent  to 
the  origin  of  language.  By  this  invention  the  sounds,  which  had 
hitherto  been  only  audible,  were  rendered,  as  it  were,  visible,  and  ac- 
quired a  much  more  extensive  and  more  permanent  utility  as  signs 
of  thought.  It  was  an  invention  in  the  highest  degree  important  to 
the  communication  of  human  knowledge,  and  still  remains  essential- 


INTRODUCTION.      ART    OF   WRITING.  11 

]y  necessary  for  its  advancement.  As  it  stands  in  so  close  and  uni- 
versal connection  with  literature  and  science,  we  ought  not  merely  to 
mention  it,  but  to  consider  ks  origin,  and  the  successive  steps  of  its 
progress. 

§  14.  Previously  to  the  art  of  writing,  there  were  other  methods  of 
representing  thoughts  to  the  eye,  and  thus  imparting  them  to  a  great- 
er number  of  individuals,  and  even  to  posterity.  They  were,  how- 
ever, very  inadequate  methods,  and  were  chiefly  employed  to  pre- 
serve the  memory  of  some  remarkable  event  or  person.  Of  this 
kind  are  monumental  structures,  pillars,  or  even  rude  masses  of 
stone.  Established  festivals,  and  historical  ballads  transmitted  orally, 
might  give  to  such  monuments  a  significancy,  otherwise  not  belonging 
to  them.  On  the  return  of  a  festival,  the  occasion  in  which  it  origin- 
ated and  its  history  would  be  sung  or  rehe.arsed.  Traces  of  such 
methods  may  still  be  found  among  savage  or  but  partially  civilized 
tribes. 

§  15.  Superior  to  any  such  mode  was  the  imitation  or  picturing 
of  objects,  which  is  considered  as  the  first  step  towards  a  written  lan- 
guage. This  presupposes  some  idea  of  the  art  of  drawing,  or  a  rude 
sort  of  painting.  Such  imitation,  however,  could  express  only  sepa- 
rate individual  thoughts  without  their  connections  and  relations,  and 
must  be  limited  to  visible  objects.  It  is  chiefly  mere  actions  and 
events,  that  can  in  this  way  be  made  known,  and  even  of  these  only 
what  transpires  at  a  particular  instant  can  be  represented  by  each  sin- 
gle picture. 

1m.  There  are  vestiges  of  this  mode  of  writing  in  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, 
which,  we  remark,  however,  received  various  successive  changes  in  form  and 
signification  (  §  16  ).  It  was  in  use  among  the  Mexicans,  who  apprised  their 
king  Montezuma  of  the  landing  of  the  Spaniards  by  means  of  a  linen  cloth, 
on  which  this  event  was  represented  by  pictures  of  visible  objects. 

See  Warburton,  Div.  Leg.  (as  cited  $  12.  3.)  Bk.  IV.  Sect.  4.  where  he  gives  a  curious  speci- 
men of  Mexican  picture- writing. — For  a  notice  of  other  specimens,  see  Astle  cited  §  32. — 
Edinb.   Encyclop.  under  Alphabet. 

2.  This  mode  is  said  to  have  been  practiced  by  some  of  the  North  American 
Indians.  "  In  Schoolcraft's  Journal  of  Travels  through  the  North-western 
regions  of  the  U.  S.  we  are  told  that  the  party,  in  passing  from  the  river  St. 
Louis  to  Sandy  Lake,  had,  with  their  Indian  attendants,  gotten  out  of  the 
way,  and  could  not  tell  where  they  were.  The  Indians,  not  knowing  what 
might  be  the  result,  determined  to  leave,  at  a  certain  place,  a  memorial  of  their 
journey  for  the  benefit  of  such  of  their  tribe  as  might  come  in  that  direction 
afterwards.  In  the  party  there  was  a  military  officer,  a  person  whom  the  In- 
dians understood  to  be  an  attorney,  and  a  mineralogist ;  eight  were  armed  ; 
when  they  halted  they  made  three  encampments.  The  savages  went  to  work 
and  traced  with  their  knives  upon  a  piece  of  birch  bark  a  man  with  a  sword 
for  the  officer,  another  with  a  book  for  the  lawyer,  and  a  third  with  a  hammer 
for  the  mineralogist;  three  ascending  columns  of  smoke  denoted  the  three  en- 
campments, and  eight  muskets,  the  number  of  armed  men." 

Upham's  El.  Int.  Phil.  First  Ed.— For  specimens  of  the  picture-writing  of  N.  Am.  Indians, 
see  Jirchceclogia,  vol.  6th.  p.  159,  as  cited  below  (  $  242.  3). 

§  16.  These  imitations  or  pictures  afterwards  became  symbolical, 
and  represented  not  so  much  the  objects  pictured,  as  others  having 
some  resemblance  to  them,  and  incapable  of  imitation  by  painting. 
In  this  way  many  spiritual  and  invisible  things  might  be  indicated 
by  bodily  and  visible  signs.  The  necessity  of  something  of  the  kind 
must  soon  appear  among  a  people,  not  wholly  occupied  with  impres- 


12  ARCHEOLOGY    CF   LITERATURE    AND    ART. 

sions  en  the  senses,  but  engaging  in  reflections  upon  God  and  nature, 
Accordingly  the  Egyptians,  especially  their  priests,  at  a  very  early 
period  employed  the  hieroglyphics  in  a  symbolical  and  allegorical 
manner.  The  eye,  for  instance,  became  a  symbol  of  providence,  the 
bird  an  emblem  of  swiftness,  the  scaling  ladder  a  representative  of  a 
siege. 

1.  The  late  discoveries  of  Champollion  respecting  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics 
have  awakened  much  interest.  The  following  short  account  is  from  the  Am. 
Quart.  Reg.  vol.  iv.  p.  52. 

"  According  to  Champollion,  the  hieroglyphics  are  divisible  into  three  dis- 
tinct classes  :  1.  Figurative  signs  ;  2.  Symbolic  ;  3.  Phonetic,  or  expressive  of 
sound.  The  figurative  occur  often,  either  in  an  entire  or  an  abridged  form. 
Thus  the  sun  is  represented  by  an  exact  image  >  the  firmament,  by  the  section 
of  a  ceiling  with  or  without  stars.  The  first  is  termed  figurative  proper,  the 
second  figurative  conventional.  The  plan  of  a  house  is  given  instead  of  the 
house  itself.  This  is  termed  figurative  abridged.  The  second  form  of  hiero- 
glyphics is  the  symbolical.  These  are  the  characters  generally  alluded  to  by 
the  ancients,  when  they  speak  of  hieroglyhics.  Two  arms  stretched  up  to- 
wards heaven  expressed  the  word  offering  ;  the  four  quarters  of  a  lion,  strejigth; 
an  asp,potcer  of  life  and  death.  As  the  Egyptians  were  a  very  civilized  na- 
tion, it  is  clear  that  hieroglyphics  like  those  described  were  not  by  any  means 
sufficient  to  designate  their  various  wants,  occupations,  and  ideas;  and  this 
want  may  have  led  to  the  invention  of  what  Champollion  calls  the  third 
class  of  hieroglyphics,  phonetic,  or  designating  a  sound.  He  has  also  dis- 
covered the  principle,  on  which  these  signs  were  chosen  to  express  one  cer- 
tain sound  ;  it  is  this,  that  the  hieroglyphic  of  any  object  might  be  used  to  rep- 
resent the  initial  sound,  or  as  ice  should  say,  the  initial  letter,  of  the  name  of 
that  object.''  [E.  g.  the  picture  of  an  eagle  stood  for  the  sound  or  letter  A  the 
first  letter  or  sound  in  the  word  Ahom,  the  Egyptian  name  for  eagle  ;  and  the 
picture  of  a  mouth  for  R,  the  first  sound]in  Ro,  the  Egyptian  name  for  mouth.} 
"  As  the  great  number  of  hieroglyphics,  which  this  principle  would  assign  to 
each  of  the  29  elementary  sounds  (the  number  in  the  Egyptian  alphabet), 
would  have  been  a  continual  source  of  error,  the  characters  were  soon  reduc- 
ed to  a  few.  As  far  as  ascertained,  18  or  19  is  the  largest  number  assigned  to 
any  one  letter,  while  few  have  more  than  five  or  six  representatives,  and  sev- 
eral only  one  or  two." 

For  farther  information  see  J.  G.  H.  Greppo,  Essay  on  the  Hieroglyphic  System  of  M". 
Champollion,  &c.  Translated  hy  /.  Stuart.  Bost.  1830.  12mo.  Noticed  in  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrim*. 
iv.  98,  197.—  M.  Champollion,  2d  ed.  Par.  1828.— see  also  $  91.  7. 

The  following  notice  of  the  views  of  Seyffiarth  respecting  the  hieroglyphics  is  from  the  Chri.-t. 
Sped.  Vol.  viii.  p.  433.  "  These  venerable  characters  have  lately  found  another  erudite  ex- 
positor in  Professor  Seyffarth,  of  Leipsic.  From  the  celebrated  inscription  on  the  Rosetta 
Stone,  and  from  examining  many  rolls  of  papyrus,  this  laborious  inquirer  is  of  opinion  that  the 
liieroslyphics  in  general  are  simply  hieratic  letters,  ornamented  agreeably  to  a  calligraphic 
principle.  He  also  infers,  that  both  the  hieratic  and  demotic  letters  had  their  origin  in  the 
most  ancient  Phoenician  alphabet.  The  Leipsic  Literary  Journal,  which  contains  a  notice  of 
this  theory,  mentions  farther  that  the  learned  professor  reckons  the  hieroglyphic  signs  or  char- 
acters to  amount  to  about  6000,  as  four  or  more  figures  are  frequently  conjoined  in  the  forma- 
tion of  one  of  them.  We  feel  more  and  more  convinced  that,  by  arranging  and  comparing  the 
multitude  of  ancient  Egyptian  records,  inscriptions  on  stones  and  monuments,  sarcophaguses, 
papyri,  mummy  cases,  &c.  &c.  which  now  abound  in  Europe,  we  shall  at  length  be  enabled 
to  decipher  this  long  buried  language  of  the  early  world." 

An  Italian  scholar,  by  the  name  of  Jannelli,  has  attempted  a  new  method  of  interpreting 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  altogether  different  from  that  of  Champollion.  Not  much  expecta- 
tion ofhis  success  seems  to  have  been  awakened  in  others. — See  /.  Cullimorc,  on  the  system  of 
Hieroglyphic  Interpretation  proposed  by  Signor  Jannelli ;  in  the  Transactions  of  Vie  Royal  Su- 
ciety  of  Literature,  vol.  3d.  Lund.  1837. 

2.  A  hieroglyphic  system  of  writing,  itis  said,  was  possessed  by  the  Tultecans^ 
a  nation  formerly  existing  in  the  southern  part  of  North  America. — See  Amer. 
Bibl.  Repos.  No.  xxvii,  July,  1837.  p.  229.— 

§  17.  In  proportion  as  these  pictnral  signs  became  more  common 
and  familiar,  curtailments  or  abbreviations  of  them  were  introduced, 
for  the  sake  of  convenience.  The  figure  was  made  in  a  more  sim- 
ple form.     Often  particular  parts  were  substituted  for  the  whole,  espe- 


INTRODUCTION.       IDEOGRAPHIC    WRITING.       SYLLABIC.  13 

cially  such  parts  as  were  most  essential  to  the  significancy  of  the  pic- 
ture, and  most  important  for  its  present  use.  For  example  two  hands 
and  a  bow  might  take  the  place  of  the  full  image  of  an  archer.  The 
picture  of  an  effect  might  be  employed  to  represent  its  obvious  cause, 
or  that  of  an  instrument  to  represent  the  person  customarily  using  it  ; 
thus,  in  an  abridged  image,  rising  smoke  might  denote  a  conflagra- 
tion, and  an  eye  and  sceptre  might  signify  a  monarch.  To  these 
were  added  doubtless  many  other  signs,  wholly  arbitrary  in  their  na- 
ture, and  obtaining  a  definite  meaning  by  agreement  and  frequent  use. 

§  18.  But  all  these  means  served  only  to  represent  things,  not  the 
words  and  sounds,  by  which  we  express  them  in  speech.  At  length, 
men  began  to  apply  the  simple  figures,  which  by  a  course  of  abbre- 
viation had  taken  the  place  of  the  original  pictures,  to  spoken  lan- 
guage and  its  separate  organic  elements.  Probably  it  was  first  done 
with  whole  words,  to  each  of  which  was  appropriated  a  certain  sign, 
as  in  the  written  language  of  the  Chinese ;  and  afterwards  with  sylla- 
bles, as  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  same  syllables  in  different 
words  was  observed,  and  so  certain  common  signs  were  applied  to 
represent  them.  These  signs  expressed  at  the  same  time  both  vowels 
and  consonants.  Among  the  Ethiopians  and  several  people  of  the 
East  there  was  some  such  system  of  syllable-writing,  and  it  is  found 
at  the  present  day  among  the  Siamese. 

1.  The  first  information  received  by  Europeans  respecting  the  written  lan- 
guage of  the  Chinese  was  from  the  Catholic  missionaries.  They  represented 
it  as  comprising  80,000  arbitrary  characters.  Later  researches  have  shown 
that  the  elementary  characters  are  much  fewer.  In  an  account  of  this  lan- 
guage published  in  ]825,  Dr.  Morrison  gives  first  a  collection  of  373  ancient 
symbols,  with  explanations  of  their  meaning  and  origin.  These  ancient  sym- 
bols are  said  to  constitute  the  first  principles  of  the  language.  From  them 
were  derived  214  characters,  which  are  the  leading  ones,  or  heads  of  classes, 
in  modern  usage,  and  are  called  radicals.  He  next  gives  a  table  of  411  sylla- 
bles, of  which,  exclusive  of  tones  and  accents,  the  spoken  language  consists. 
The  21 4  radicals  and  411  syllables  are  considered  as  forming  the  materials  of 
the  whole  written  language.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  idea  of  its  hav- 
ing a  distinct  character  for  every  word  cannot  be  correct,  and  yet  it  is  wholly 
unlike  to  an  alphabetic  or  syllabic  system.  "  Its  characters  are  not  intended 
to  be  the  signs  of  simple  articulate  sounds.  They  are  sometimes  denominated 
hieroglyphic  and  symbolical.  It  originated  in  a  sort  of  picture-writing,  from 
which  it  has,  after  the  lapse  of  many  years,  become  what  it  now  is.  In  its 
present  state,  the  best  idea  of  its  character  would  be  derived  from  comparing 
it  with  the  Arabic  figures.  These  figures,  characters,  or  symbols,  are  now  al- 
most universally  understood  throughout  the  world,  however  differently  named 
by  the  people  of  different  nations,  and  the  primitive  signs  are  now  to  most  na- 
tions quite  arbitrary,  whatever  the  reasons  of  their  first  formation  may  have 
been.  But  supposing  2  and  3  to  be  entirely  arbitrary,  the  union  of  these  two, 
23  or  32,  presents  to  the  eye  a  definite  idea,  which  is  the  result  of  combination, 
and  which  remains  the  same  whether  pronounced  by  an  Englishman,  a  Hin- 
doo, or  a  Chinese,  in  the  spoken  language  peculiar  to  each  nation."  It  has 
been  asserted,  that  in  consequence  of  this  peculiarity  of  the  Chinese  written 
language,  it  is  understood  and  read  in  all  the  regions  of  eastern  Asia,  by  peo- 
ple whose  spoken  languages  are  very  different,  and  who  cannot  maintain  the 
least  oral  intercourse  with  each  other.  Duponceau,  however,  denies  this  as- 
sertion, in  his  work  below  cited. 

See  Chinese  Miscellany,  &c.  By  Morrison,  Lond.  1825.  4. — Chinese  Repository,  (published  at 
Canton,)  vol.  3d  No.  10.  Cf.  Miss.  Herald,  vol.  xxxi.  197.  387.— P.  L.  Duponceau,  Dissertation 
on  the  Nature  of  the  Chinese  system  of  writing  &c.  Phil.  1838.  8.  Cf.  For.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  xlii. 
p.  316. — In  a  recent  German  work,  by  C.  F.  Neumann,  entitled  Asiatic  Studies,  (1837.)  is  a 
Dissert,  on  the  Chinese  language,  and  on  the  history  of  writing  among  the  Tartar  Tribes. 

2 


14  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART. 

2.  Respecting  the  written  language  of  the  Siamese,  the  knowledge  of  Eu> 
ropeans  does  not  appear  to  have  been  hitherto  very  exact.  According  to 
the  most  recent  account,  which  has  been  noticed  and  which  is  from  Mr  Rob- 
inson, an  American  missionary  in  Siam,  the  system  of  writing  is  not  properly 
speaking  syllablic.  The  characters  do  not  individually  represent  the  sounds 
of  syllables.  The  alphabet  is  said  to  consist  of  thirty-five  characters  which 
represent  consonant  sounds,  and  a  small  number  of  points  or  marks  which  rep- 
resent vowel  sounds  ;  and  different  syllables  are  formed  according  as  the  latter 
are  placed  before  or  after,  above  or  below,  the  former. 

See  Missionary  Herald,  vol.  xxxii.  p.  177. — Rees'  Cyclopaedia,  under  Siam. — Asiatic  Researches, 
vol.  x.— An  imperfect  copy  of  the  Siamese  alphabet  is  given  in  Greg.  Sharpens  Syntagma  Dis- 
sertationum. — Founts  of  type  in  this  alphabet  have  recently  been  cut  for  the  use  of  the  Amer- 
ican mission  in  Siam.  Ms." letter  of  Rev.  Dr.  Anderson. 

3.  A  most  remarkable  instance  of  the  syllabic  alphabet  is  found  in  that  of 
the  Cherokee  Indians.  This  was  invented,  about  the  year  1824,  by  a  Chero- 
kee named  Guess  or  Guyst,  who  was  notable  to  speak  English,  or  read  a  word 
in  any  language. 

Having  learned  the  principle  of  alphabetic  writing,  viz.  that  certain  characters  are  signs  of 
sound,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  expressing  all  the  syllable-sounds  of  his  native  language  by 
separate  marks.  On  collecting  the  different  sounds  which  he  could  recollect,  he  found  the 
number  to  be  eighty-two.  Four  others  were  afterwards  discovered  by  himself  or  some  one  else  ; 
making  all  the  known  syllables  of  the  language  only  eighty-six  ;  a  very  curious  fact ;  especial- 
ly when  it  is  considered  that  the  language  is  very  copious,  a  single  verb  undergoing,  it  is  said, 
some  thousands  of  inflections.  The  syllables  ail  terminate,  as  in  the  Polynesian  languages, 
with  a  vowel  sound.  To  represent  these  sounds,  Guyst  took  the  English  Capital  letters  from 
a  spelling-book  in  his  possession,  and  combining  them  with  other  marks  of  his  own  invention, 
formed  his  alphabet  consisting  of  eighty-six  characters.  With  this  alphabet  he  commenced 
Writing  letters,  and  a  great  interest  Was  soon  awakened  thereby  among  the  Cherokees.  The 
youth  of1  the  land  traveled  a  great  distance  to  learn  the  new  art  of  writing  and  reading,  which, 
from  the  peculiarity  of  the  alphabet  and  language,  they  could  acquire  in  three  days  sufficient- 
ly to  practice  themselves  and  to  teach  others.  Types  for  printing  in  this  character  have  been 
cast.  A  newspaper,  partly  in  the  Cherokee  language  with  the  same  character,  was  sustained 
among  that  unfortunate  people  for  a  short  time.  The  appearance  of  the  language  thus  printed 
is  singularly  uncouth  and  barbarous.--See  Missionary  Herald,  vol.  xxii.  p.  47.  xxxii.  p.  269. 
also  Encyclopedia  Americana,  under  Indian  Languages. 

4.  There  are  extant  some  remains  of  an  ancient  system  of  writing  in  which 
all  the  characters  are  formed  by  different  combinations  of  one  simple  element* 
The  character  has  been  very  commonly  termed  arrow-headed  from  the  form 
of  this  elementary  sign,  which  in  most  specimens  is  shaped  almost  exactly  like 
the  head  of  an  arrow  or  spear.  It  is  also  called  Persepolitan,  because  it  is 
found  chiefly  in  inscriptions  on  the  ruins  of  Persepolis.  The  inscriptions  upon 
the  bricks  brought  from  the  site  of  ancient  Babylon  are  evidently  in  the  same 
general  character,  although  marked  by  considerable  variations.  Different  con- 
jectures respecting  the  principles  of  this  method  of  writing  had  been  thrown 
out,  but  no  attempt  at  an*  interpretation  of  it  had  been  made,  it  is  believed,  be- 
fore Champollion's  discoveries  in  reference  to  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 
Some  had  thought  it  to  be  an  alphabet  of  syllables  j  and  some  had  supposed 
it  must  consist  of  signs  of  words  or  of  ideas. 

The  first  hint  towards  deciphering  the  character  seems  to  have  been  obtained  by  Champollion 
from  a  twofold  inscription  upon  an  Egyptian  alabaster  vase,  presenting  the  name  of  Xerxes, 
one  part  having  it  in  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  and  the  other  in  the  Persepolitan  arrow  heads. 

Since  that  discovery  several  scholars,  especially  Lichtenstein,  Grotefend,  and  Dr.  Lasseri  of 
Bonn,  have  turned  their  attention  to  the  subject  ;  and  although  De  Sacy  asserted  in  1833,  that 
no  satisfactory  method  of  interpretation  had  then  been  suggested,  yet  it  is  said,  that  many 
orientalists  both  of  Germany  and  France  have  received  the  method  of  Grotefend.  This  de- 
cipherer makes  three  varieties  of  the  arrow-headed  or  wedge-shaped  alphabet ;  all  of  which  are 
found  in  the  inscriptions  at  Persepolis.  The  oldest  character  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  Zend 
language,  the  sacred  idiom  of  the  Magians  ;  the  characters  of  the  second  kind  are  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  Pehlvi  language  ;  and  those  of  the  third,  to  the  Babylonian  or  Assyrian. 

'Our  Plate  I  a.  presents,  in  fig.  d,  an  inscription  taken  from  a  Babylonian  brick  ;  and,  in  fig.  g, 
the  inscription  on  the  vase  above  mentioned,  and  several  other  specimens  of  the  arrow-headed 
character  from  Median  or  Persian  monuments,  with  Grotefend's  interpretation.  See  Descrip- 
tion of  Plates.— Cf.  Calmefs  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  with  Fragments  &c  vol.  4th.  p.  198.  as  pub- 
lished, Charlestown,  1814.  4  vols.  4. — Dr.  Jcnks,  in  the  Comprehensive  Commentary,  Vol.  ii.  p.  533. 
— Licber,  Encyclopedia  Americana,  under  Persepolis.— American  Bib.  Repository,.  No.  xxvii. 
July,  1837.  p.  248.— G.  F.  Grotefend,  Neue  Beitrage  zur  Erklarung  der  Persepolitanischen  Keil- 
Schrift.  Hannov.  1837.  4. 

§  19.  The  last  step  in  bringing  this  art  to  its  maturity  was  alpha- 
betic or  letter  writing.  This  method  combines  the  use  of  the  eye 
and  the  ear,  in  as  much  as  it  represents  not  the  objects  of  thought 


INTRODUCTION.       ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  15 

themselves,  but  the  sounds  by  which  these  objects  are  indicated  to 
the  ear  in  our  spoken  language.  The  exact  time  of  this  most  useful 
invention  cannot  be  ascertained  ;  but  passages  in  the  Bible,  in  the 
writings  of  Moses  (Ex.  xvii.  14),  and  the  book  of  Job  (xix.  23,  24), 
where  it  is  spoken  of  as  well  known,  prove  its  existence  at  a  very 
early  period.  It  is  impossible  to  decide  who  was  its  author,  or  even 
to  what  people  the  honor  of  its  origin  belongs.  Probably  it  may  be 
claimed  by  the  Assyrians  or  the  Egyptians,  their  social  organization 
having  been  the  most  ancient.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  generally 
ascribed  the  invention  of  letters  to  the  Phoenicians. 

"Some  think  letters  were  perfectly  known  before  the  confusion  of  Babel, 
and  imagine  them  to  have  been  in  common  use  in  the  antediluvian  world  (cf. 
§  6),  and  that  Noah  and  his  family  brought  them  into  the  new  world,  in  which 
they  have  been  continued  through  a  vast  variety  of  changes  until  now.  Some 
attribute  the  invention  to  Moses,  others  to  Abraham,  others  to  Abel,  and  some 
of  course,  to  Adam.  The  Jewish  Rabbins  say,  God  created  them  on  the  even* 
ing  of  the  first  Sabbath." 

Adam  Clarke,  Succession  of  Sacred  Literature.  Lond.  1830.  2  vols.  8.— This  writer  main- 
tains, that  alphabetic  writing  was  of  divine  origin  ;  heing  taught  to  Moses  by  God  when  he 
wrote  with  his  own  finger  the  Decalogue  on  the  tables  of  stone.— Rollin  also  considers  the  art 
of  writing  as  of  divine  origin.  "  Only  God  could  teach  mankind  to  establish  certain  figures 
to  signify  all  sounds  or  words."  See  vol.  2d,  p.  459,  of  his  Ancient  Hist,  as  cited  §  32.  1.— 
Cf.  Murphy's  Tacitus,  vol.  2d,  p.  416  of  ed.  Boston,  1832.— Also  Astle  and  Hug,  as  cited  §  32.2. 

§  20.  While  the  art  of  writing  was  known  to  but  few  nations,  and 
only  to  particular  individuals  in  these,  its  use  was  rare,  except  upon 
public  monuments,  where  the  letters  were  generally  engraved  on 
stone,  metal,  or  wood.  Such  substances  were  the  first  employed  for 
the  purpose  of  writing  ;  afterwards  were  used  skins,  bark,  leaves 
(especially  of  the  palm-tree),  tablets  covered  with  wax,  ivory,  linen, 
parchments,  and  the  Egyptian  papyrus,  prepared  from  the  fibres  of 
the  plant  of  that  name.  The  chisel,  style,  pencil,  and  reed  were  an- 
ciently the  most  common  instruments  for  writing  ;  the  place  of  the 
last  was  first  yielded  to  the  quill  in  more  recent  times.  It  was  com- 
mon to  proceed  from  right  to  left,  rather  than  from  left  to  right  as  in 
modern  practice. 

§  21.  The  contents  of  the  first  writings,  both  on  monuments  and 
in  books,  were  historical.  Letters,  on  their  invention,  were  natural- 
ly applied  to  commemorate  remarkable  events  upon  pillars,  altars, 
pyramids,  obelisks,  and  the  like,  and  to  record  the  sayings  and  tales 
which  had  hitherto  been  transmitted  orally  from  one  generation  to 
another.  As  this  historical  matter  generally  received  something  of 
the  form  of  poetry  in  oral  communication,  it  resulted  of  course  that 
poetical  tales  were  written  earlier  than  narratives  in  prose.  Even 
moral  and  political  maxims  were  framed  into  song,  and  accompanied 
with  music.  Of  all  books  now  in  existence,  the  writings  of  Moses 
and  the  book  of  Job  are  the  most  ancient,  although  many  probably 
were  written  before  these.  Whatever  claims  have  been  urged  for  the 
antiquity  of  any  other  books,  they  are  all  certainly  of  later  origin. 

Much  has  been  said  by  some  respecting  the  high  antiquity  of  the  records 
among  oriental  nations.  But  more  full  investigation  proves,  that  there  is 
nothing  authentic  in  their  histories  belonging  to  a  very  early  date.  A  dis- 
tinguished scholar,  Klaproth,  has  given,  as  the  result  of  a  thorough  examina- 
tion of  the  subject,  that  there  is  no  hope  of  finding,  among  the  Asiatics,  ma- 
terials for  the  early  history  of  man,  beyond  what  is  found  in  the  books  of 
Moses.     He  remarks,  that  the  history  of  ancient  nations  is  naturally  divided 

>v   OF  THtt         •$«<% 

XV  EI 


16  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART. 

into  three  parts ;  (1)  mythological,  which  may  contain  some  portion  of  truth 
enveloped  in  an  impenetrable  veil  of  allegories  and  fables ;  (2)  uncertain, 
in  which  the  main  facts  are  true  and  the  personages  real,  but  the  chronology 
undetermined ;  and  (3)  true,  in  which  the  facts  and  the  time  are  clearly 
and  satisfactorily  recorded.  The  true  or  certain  history  of  the  Hindoos  does 
not  reach  back  so  far  as  the  time  of  Christ,  and  that  of  China  extends  not 
quite  800  years  before  Christ,  and  even  the  uncertain  history  of  these,  which 
are  the  most  ancient  of  the  Asiatic  nations,  does  not  go  much  beyond  the 
time  of  the  Mosaic  deluge,  or  between  2000  and  3000  years  before  Christ. 
See  Christian  Spectator,  vol.  vii.  p.  544. 

§  22.  By  the  aid  of  these  and  other  helps,  scientific  knowledge 
among  ancient  nations  gradually  became  more  various  and  general. 
But  not  until  a  comparatively  late  period  could  it  receive  a  systemat- 
ic form,  in  which  general  principles  were  separated  from  particular 
facts  and  perceptions,  and  arranged  according  to  some  regular  meth- 
od or  properly  scientific  classification.  Here  necessity  was  the  first 
teacher,  and  conducted  human  intelligence  to  those  truths  and  sci- 
ences, which  were  most  indispensable  to  the  supply  of  human  wants, 
and  most  useful  in  advancing  the  improvement  of  social  life.  Such 
were  especially  medicine,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  geometry,  and  ge- 
ography. 

§  23.  The  natural  instinct  for  self-preservation  and  for  guarding 
against  every  thing,  which  threatens  danger  to  health  and  life,  occa- 
sioned the  first  observations  and  rules  of  medicine.  Various  acci- 
dental opportunities  for  such  observations  and  experience  as  consti- 
tuted its  original  foundation,  were  presented  while  men  used  only 
vegetable  food.  It  was  long,  however,  before  the  art  of  medicine 
was  reduced  to  definite  principles,  and  became  an  object  of  special 
attention  by  a  particular  class  or  profession.  The  Assyrians,  Egyp- 
tians, and  Phoenicians  were  the  first  to  cultivate  it ;  although  the 
time  of  its  being  brought  into  any  regular  or  scientific  form,  cannot 
be  accurately  determined.  The  art  was  at  first  directed  more  espe- 
cially to  external  maladies,  and  anatomy  probably  owes  its  origin  to 
the  care  and  healing  of  wounds. 

Th.  Sprengel,  Versuch  einer  pragmatischen  Geschichte  der  Arzneykunde.  Halle,  1821-28. 
5  vols.  8.  3d  ed.  There  is  a  French  translation  (from  the  2d  ed.)  entitled  Histoire  de  la  Medi- 
cine, &c.  Par.  1815.  9  vols.  8.—  W.  Royston,  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Medical  Arts.  Lond.  1818. 
8. — Le  Clerc,  Histoire  de  la  Medicine.  Amst.  1723.  4. —  T.  Mason  Good,  History  of  Medicine. 
Lond.  1795.  12.—  Win.  Hamilton,  History  of  Medicine,  Surgery,  and  Anatomy.  Lond.  1831. 
2  vols.  12. 

§  24.  Of  mathematical  sciences  arithmetic  seems  to  have  been  the 
most  ancient.  It  probably  consisted  at  first  only  of  a  few  simple  op- 
erations, of  which  no  theory  had  been  formed.  The  first  organiza- 
tion of  civil  society  and  division  of  property  required  the  use  of  num- 
bers, weight,  and  measure.  The  practical  part  of  this  science  there- 
fore unquestionably  must  be  very  ancient,  and  probably  existed  first 
among  the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians,  whose  commerce  and  naviga- 
tion rendered  its  assistance  indispensable.  This  must  have  been  the 
case  also  with  the  Babylonians,  on  account  of  their  early  attention 
to  astronomy  and  chronology.  Pebbles,  seeds  of  grain,  and  the 
like,  were  used  as  the  first  helps  in  enumeration;  but  ere  long  cer- 
tain written  characters  were  employed  as  indicative  of  numbers  ;  of 
which  there  are  various  traces  upon  the  earliest  Egyptian  monuments. 

See  Montucla,  Histoire  des  Mathematiques.— Ch.  Bossut,  Histoire  des  Mathematiques,  Par, 
1810.  2  vols.  8.    Translated  by  Bonnycastle,  Lond.  1803.  8, 


INTRODUCTION.       ORIGIN    OF    SCIENCES.  17 

§  25.  The  origin  of  astronomy  likewise  belongs  to  the  earliest  pe- 
riods, since  some  of  its  truths  are  necessary  for  the  dividing  and 
reckoning  of  time,  and  not  only  in  the  management  of  navigation, 
but  also  in  the  orderly  arrangement  of  civil  business,  and  in  all  the 
labors  of  agriculture.  The  Egyptians,  and  the  Babylonians  and  Chal- 
deans especially,  were  allured  to  the  study  of  the  heavens  by  the 
mildness  of  their  climate  and  the  extent  and  openness  of  their  hori- 
zon. The  early  origin  of  astrology,  which  was  so  prevalent  among 
the  Chaldeans,  is  full  proof  of  their  early  observation  of  the  stars. 
And  the  most  ancient  civil  histories  show,  that  the  idea  of  the  con- 
stellations, and  even  the  discovery  of  the  planets  was  a  very  early 
attainment  of  man. 

See  Ideler,  Untersuchung  ueber  d.  Ursp.  und.  d.  Bedeut.  d.  Sternnamen.  Berl.  1809.  8. — J.  S. 
Bailly,  Histoire  de  l'Astronomie  ancienne.  Par.  1781.  4.—Dclambre,  Histoire  de  l'Astronomie. 

Par.  1817.  2  vols.  4 Cassmi,  on  the  origin  of  Astronomy,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Sciences, 

vol.  viii. — History  of  Astronomy,  in  the  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge. 

§  26.  Geometry,  in  its  practice,  is  very  old,  but  was  originally  lim- 
ited to  a  few  elementary  principles  and  manual  operations.  It  was 
at  first  probably  confined  to  longimetry,  or  the  measuring  of  lengths 
and  straight  lines,  which  would  be  indispensable  in  the  rudest  at- 
tempts at  building.  Planimetry,  or  the  measuring  of  surfaces,  was 
more  difficult,  and  required  for  its  discovery  a  greater  degree  of  im- 
provement and  attention.  The  first  occasion  for  it  seems  to  have 
been  the  division  of  lands.  Stereometry ,  or  the  science  of  measur- 
ing solid  bodies,  was  probably  last  in  the  order  of  discovery,  although 
the  invention  of  the  balance,  early  in  use,  presupposes  it.  In  these 
branches  of  science,  the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Phoenicians 
also  led  the  way.  Several  mechanical  instruments  must  undoubtedly 
be  referred  to  a  very  high  antiquity,  as,  for  instance,  the  balance,  the 
lever,  and  also  the  sledge  and  the  wheel  carriage. 

§  27.  The  origin  of  geography  must  be  ascribed  to  the  necessity, 
which  would  soon  be  felt,  of  determining  the  situations  and  distance 
of  countries  already  known  and  inhabited.  The  use  of  certain  marks 
or  memorials  for  recognizing  places  visited  and  left,  the  tracing  of 
journeys  from  one  spot  to  another,  and  the  establishing  of  public 
routes,  all  conduced  to  a  development  of  this  branch  of  knowledge. 
Of  its  existence  to  some  extent,  there  is  proof  both  in  the  conquests, 
and  in  the  travels  by  sea  and  by  land,  which  took  place  in  the  earli* 
est  times.  It  was  however  then,  as  in  fact  it  was  in  the  later  and 
more  enlightened  periods  of  antiquity,  exceedingly  limited  and  defect- 
ive. Neither  the  historical  and  statistical,  nor  the  physical  and  math- 
ematical parts  of  this  science  were  so  regularly  and  carefully  cultivate 
ed  as  were  other  sciences. 

J.  Blair,  History  of  Geography.  Lond.  1784,  12. — J.  R.  Johj,  Ancienne  Geographie,  comp, 
a  la  moderne.  Par.  1801.  2  vols.  8. —  W.  Vincent,  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  Ancients 
in  the  Indian  Ocean.  Lond.  1807.  2  vols.  4. — C.  Hawkins,  Observations  on  the  Tin  Trade  of 
the  Ancients,  Lond.  1811,  B.—JlPPherson's  Annals  of  Commerce.  Lond.  1805,  4,  vols.  4. — 
J.  P.  Gosselin,  Recherches  sur  la  Geographie  Systematique  et  positive  dea  anciens,  pour  ser^ 
vir  de  base  a  1'histoire  de  la  Geographie  Ancienne.  Par,  1794.  4.  vols,  4.— Also,  Recherches 
sur  la  Geographie  Ancienne,  in  the  Mem.  de  PInstitvt  Royal,  Xlasse  d'  Hist,  et  Lit.  Jlncienne^ 
vol.  i.  p.  41. — Especially,  M.  C.  Sprcngcl,  Geschichte  der  wichtigsten  geouraphischen  EnU 
deckungen.     Halle,  1792,    2d,  ed, 

§  28.  It  appears  irom  the  foregoing  remarks,  that  the  first  seat, 
and,  as  it  were,  the  cradle,  of  the  sciences  was  in  Asia  and  Egypt. 
The  cause  is  to  be  found   in  the   numerous  population  of  the  coun- 
ty* 


18  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART. 

tries,  and  the  early  organization  of  their  civil  state,  so  that  the  pri- 
mary wants  of  life  were  easily  supplied,  and  the  human  mind  enjoyed 
freedom  and  leisure  for  improvement.  These  countries  also  were 
not  disturbed  by  tumult  and  war ;  Egypt  particularly  enjoyed  a  long 
period  of  happy  tranquillity.  The  intercourse  of  the  Phoenicians  with 
other  people,  by  means  of  their  commerce  and  navigation,  was  pecu- 
liarly favorable  to  their  advancement  in  knowledge.  In  general, 
however,  the  progress  in  the  arts  and  sciences  was  far  less  rapid  in 
the  first  ages,  than  afterwards.  The  proper  helps  were  comparative- 
ly few,  and  there  was  especially  wanting  the  means  of  an  easy  and 
ready  intercommunication  of  knowledge,  until  the  invention  of  alpha- 
betic writing  furnished  one  so  appropriate  and  so  useful. 

II. —  TJie  importance  and  usefulness  of  a  knowledge  of  classical 
literature  and  art. 

§  29.  From  Asia  and  Egypt  the  arts  and  sciences  were  introduced 
into  Greece.  Here  they  attained  that  culture  and  perfection,  which 
renders  ancient  history  and  literature  so  agreeable  and  so  valuable  a 
branch  of  modern  knowledge.  Through  the  Greeks,  the  Romans 
afterwards  came  into  possession  of  the  same  treasure.  These  two 
nations  preeminently  distinguished  themselves  by  their  merits  and 
accomplishments  in  literature  and  the  fine  arts.  Hence  it  is  that 
there  is  so  much  in  what  pertains  to  Greece  and  Rome,  that  is  wor- 
thy of  our  admiration  and  study. 

Much  has  been  written  both  for  and  against  classical  studies.  The  various 
arguments  cannot  be  presented  here.     But  some  references  ought  to  be  given. 

1.  Shortly  after  the  revival  of  letters  the  famous  question  respecting  the 
comparative  merits  of  the  ancients  and  moderns  began  to  be  agitated.  The 
earliest  writers  were  Italian.  In  France  the  controversy  began  in  1687,  and 
advocates  were  found  for  both  sides.  In  England  the  discussion  commenced 
shortly  after  the  formation  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  soon  called  forth  emi- 
nent writers.  In  Germany  the  subject  has  not  been  much  canvassed,  except 
as  involved  in  the  controversy  of  the  Humanists  and  Philanthropists. 

The  following  references  pertain  to  the  controversy. — In  Italy;  A.  Tassoni,  Pensieri  di- 
versi.  Carp.  1620.  4.  (10th  B.) — S.  Lancelotto,  L'oggidi,  ovvero  gl'ingegni  moderni  non  inferi- 
ori  a'passati.  Ven.  1658.  8.— P.  Beni,  Comparazione  di  Tasso  con  Homero,  &c.  Pad.  1612.  4. 
— In  France.  Ch.  Perrault,  Le  Sieclede Louis le  Grand.  1687.  By  Same,  Parallele  des  Anc. 
et  Modernes.  Par.  1688.— Longepierre,  Disc,  sur  les  Anciens.  Par.  1687.  12.— P.  D.  Htiet, 
Lettre  sur  le  merite  des  Anc.  et  Mod.  (in  his  Pieces  fug.  d'Hist.  et  de  Lkt.  Par.  1702.  12.) — 
Boileau,  Reflex.  Crit.  in  his  Trans,  of  Longinus.  Par.  1694.  12. — Tourneil,  Disc,  de  la  fameuse 
Cluest.  sur  le  Mer.  des  Anc.  et  des  Mod.  (in  his  Works.  Par.  1721.  4.)— La  Matte,  Disc,  sur 
Homere,  (in  his  Works.  Par.  1754.  12.) — Gedoyn,  Comp.  merits  of  ancients  and  moderns,  in  the 
Mem.  Acad,  fnscr.  xii.  80. — Mad.  Dacier,  Des  causes  de  la  corrupt,  du  gout.  Par.  1714.  12. — 
In  England.  Sir  Wm.  Temple,  Essay  upon  the  ancient  and  modern  learning,— in  his  Mis- 
cellanies. Lond.  1696.  8.—  Wm.  Wotton,  Reflect,  on  anc.  and  mod.  Learning.  Lond.  1705.  8. 
— Swift,  Battle  between  ancient  and  modern  Books,  in  his  Works.  N.  York.  1812.  24  vols.  12. 
(3d  vol.  p.  200.) — Addison,  Disc,  upon  anc.  and  mod.  Learning.  Lond.  1739.  4. — See  also  J. 
Dennis,  Advancement  and  Reformation  of  mod.  poetry.  Lond.  1701.  8.  In  Germany. 
Haller,  Quantum  Antiqui  eruditione  et  ihdustria  anteceilant  Modernos.  Bern.  1734.  4. — J.  B. 
Carpzow,  De  antiq.  et  recent,  doctrinae  compar.  Helmst.  1748.  4. — O.  E.  Oroddeck,  Ueb.  d. 
Vergleich.  d.  alter,  besond.  d.  griech.  mit  der  deutschen  und  neuern  schcenen  Lit.  &.c.  Berl. 
1788.  8. 

2.  Liberal  learning  was  designated  among  the  Romans  by  the  term  human- 
itas.  Hence,  on  the  revival  of  letters,  the  study  of  classical  literature  was 
very  naturally  called  studivm  humanitatis.  In  Germany  the  lovers  and  advo- 
cates of  the  ancient  classics  received  the  name  of  Humanists  (Humanisten)  ; 
and  their  views  on  this  subject  were  followed  in  the  general  system  of  educa- 
tion, until  the  middle  of  the  last  century.     After  that  period,  different  views 


INTRODUCTION.       VALUE    OF    CLASSICAL    STUDIES.  19 

were  advocated  by  a  class  of  reformers  in  education,  who  obtained  the  name 
of  Philanthropists  ;  several  of  whom  established  schools  on  their  peculiar  prin- 
ciples and  called  them  Philanthropina.  Basedow,  the  leader  of  the  Philan- 
thropists, opened  his  school  at  Dessau  in  1774.  Salzmann  opened  another  at 
Schnepfenthal  in  1784.  Classical  studies  were  nearly  excluded  from  their 
system.  In  other  respects  also  they  proposed  to  amend  the  former  modes  of 
instruction. 

The  views  of  the  Philanthropists  are  presented  and  advocated  in  the  following  works  ; 
Basedoic's  Elementarwerk,  1774. — Campe's  Revisionswerk.  Hamburg,  1785  ss.  16  vols.  8.  (a 
sort  of  periodical.) — Trapp's  Paedaeogik,  1780.  and  Ueber  der  Unterrichf  in  Sprachen.    Brunsw. 

1788.  8.— Cf.  J.   Weitzel,  Was  socman  lernen  ?     Oder  Zweck  des  unterricht.  Lpz.  1828.  12. 

contending  that  in  European  schools,  too  much  time  is  devoted  to  Latin  and  Greek. The 

views  of  the  Humanists  in  the  following  ;  Funk,  Ueber  den  Nutzen  richtig  getriebener  Phi- 
lologie.  1784. — Nictliammer,  Streit  des  Philanthropismus  und  des  Humanismus.  Jena,  1808.8. — 
For  a  fuller  notice  on  this  subject,  Schwartz's  Erziehungs-lehre,  vol.  2d. — Cf.  American  Journal 
of  Education,  New  Series,  vol.  i.  No.  6. 

3.  The  utility  of  classical  studies  has  been  strongly  controverted  in  this 
country.  But  the  public  conviction  is  evidently  settling  firmly  in  their  favor. 
The  Greek  and  Latin  classics  are  now  considered  as  indispensable  in  a  good 
education,  more  generally  than  before  the  recent  discussions  of  the  question. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  many  pieces  relating  to  this  topic.  T.  Orimke,  Address  bef . 
Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc.  of  S.  Carolina.  Charleston,  1827. — Rumford,  (signature  of  unknown  writ- 
er) in  the  Boston  Centiael,  1825,  or  6. — Pax  (signature  of  an  anonymous  writer),  on  the  Course 
of  Study  in  the  Oneida  Institute,  JV*.  Y.  Observer,  Vol.  XII.  1834.-5(6.  Repository,  Oct.  1832. 
Amer.  Jour,  of  Science,  Vol.  XV.  p.  297. — Chris.  Spec.  1826,  p.  456.—  M.  Stuart,  Quar.  Journal 
Amer.  Ed.  Soc.  July,  1828.-5.  B.  Patton,  in  the  Bib.  Repository,  No.  xxv.  Jan.  1837.  p.  46.— 
J.  Packard,  in  Bib.  Repository,  No.  xxix.  Jan.  1838.  p.  28. — See  also  Beecher's  Plea  for  Colleges. 
1836.  18. 

For  an  account  of  classical  learning  in  this  country  in  the  last  century,  see  Miller,  Retro- 
spect of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  New  York,  1803.    2  vols.  8. 

4.  Respecting  the  peculiar  excellence  and  spirit  of  the  ancient  classics,  we 
refer  to  the  following. 

Abbe  Dubos,  Reflections  critiques  sur  la  Poesie  et  la  Peinture.  Transl.  by  Nugent.  Lond. 
1743.  3  vols.  8. — 1.  Blackball,  Introduction  to  the  classics.  Lond.  1727.  8  ;  publ.  also  in  Latin 
under  the  title,  De  Prmstantia  Class.  Auct.  Lips.  1735.  8. —  O.  Manwaring,  On  the  Classicks. 
Lond.  1737.  8 6.  F.  Oellert,  sammtl.  Schriften.  Th.  5th.— D.  Jenisch,  Geistder  Alten.     Berl. 

1789.  8. — We  may  add  also,  on  the  utility  of  classical  learning, — Gregory's  Letters,  Phil.  1809. 
— Vic.  Knox,  Liberal  Education,  or  Pract.  Treatise  on  the  methods  of  acquiring  useful  and  po- 
lite learning.  Lond.  1789.  2  vols.  8.  (in  the  Introduction.) — D.  O.  Hubler,  Werth  der  class. 
Schriftsteller  in  Rucksicht  auf  Bildung  des  Geistes,  &c.  Bresl.  1800.  8. — Bitaube,  Sur  l'etude 
des  anciens,  Man.  de  VInstitut,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts.  Vol.  i.  p.  259. — Fuhrmann,  Kl. 
Handbuch,  p.  5 — 9,  as  cited  below  (P.  II.  $  7.  9). 

§  30.  In  what  we  term  the  Archaeology  of  Literature  and  Art, 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  it  is  not  designed  to  enter  into  very 
minute  details.  The  object  will  be  to  give  a  correct  general  view  of 
the  subject,  presenting  the  most  important  circumstances  of  the  ori- 
gin and  progress  of  refinement  in  these  nations,  and  enabling  the 
reader  to  form  a  just  idea  of  the  actual  state  of  letters  and  arts 
among  them,  as  well  as  of  the  monuments  which  they  have  left  to 
posterity.  This  object  cannot  be  accomplished  fully,  if  the  history 
of  knowledge  and  art  is  wholly  separated  from  what  may  be  called 
their  antiquities. 

§  31.  The  utility  of  such  archaeological  information  cannot  be 
questioned.  It  furnishes  us  with  the  best  illustrations  of  many  pas- 
sages and  allusions  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors.  It  helps  us  to 
understand  the  peculiar  excellences  and  beauties  of  their  writings 
and  those  also  of  the  works  of  art.  It  puts  us  in  a  situation  to  form 
more  correct  opinions  on  these  and  kindred  topics.  In  short,  it 
serves  in  respect  to  our  own  literary  taste,  not  only  to  secure  to  it  a 
solid  basis,  but  to  impart'refinement  and  delicacy. 

§  32  u.  The  following  works  may  be  consulted  for  farther  details  on  the 
subjects  presented  in  this  introduction,  and  likewise  on  some  of  the  topics  of 
the  subsequent  archaeological  sketches. 


20  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART. 

1.  On  the  origin  and  progress  of  civilization  and  knowledge  ;  Ant.  Y.  Goguet,  De  POrigine 
des  Loix,  des  Arts  et  des  Sciences  chez  les  anciens  Peuples.  Par.  1758.  3  vols.  4.  6rne  ed.  corr. 
Par.  18-20.  3.  vols.  8.  Ens.  Transl.  Edinb.  1775.  3  vols.  8.— Schiller's  Thalia,  vol.  9.  p.  3,  ss. 
— Adelung,  Versuch  einer^Geschichte  der  Cultur  des  menschlichen  Geschlechts.  Lpz.  1800.  8. 
— Christ Jph.  Meincrs,  Geschichte  des  Urspru  gs,  Fortgangs  und  Verfalls  der  Wissenschaften 
in  Griechenland  und  Rom.  Lemgo,  1781.  2  vols.  8.  Not  finished.— By  Same,  Grundriss  der 
Geschichte  der  Mensehheit.  Lemgo,  1786.  8.  "  Not  Critical."— Le  Tens,  Recherches  sur 
l'origine  de  decouvertes  attribues  aux  Modernes,  fcc.  Par.  1766. — Bailly,  Lettres  sur  l'Origine 
des  Sciences.  Par.  1777.  8. — Irwing,  Versuche  ueber  den  Ursprung  der  Erkenntniss  d.  Wahr- 
lieit  u.  d.  Wissenschaften.  Berlin,  1781.  8.—  Virey,  Hist.  Natur.  du  Genre  Humain.  Bruxelles, 
1827.  3  vols.  12.— Rio,  L'Histoire  de  l'Esprit  Humain  dans  l'Antiqnite.  Par.  1829.  2  vols.  8. 
— Cramer,  Geschichte  der  Erziehung  und  des  Unterrichts  im  Alterthume.  1836.  2  vols.  8. — 
C.  Rollin,  History  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  of  the  Ancients,  in  his  Ancient  History,  New  York, 
1835.  2  vols.  8.—Beckmann,  Hist,  of  Inventions  and  Discoveries.  Lond.   1814.   4  vols.  8. 

2.  On  language  and  writing  ;  Herm.  Hugo,  De  prima  scribendi  origine  ;  cui  notas  adj.  Tro- 
tzius.  TrajTadRh.  1738.  8.—Ch.de  Brosses  (le  President),  Traite  de  la  formation  mechan- 
ique  des  langues.  Par.  1801.  2  vols.  12. —  Tho.  Astle,  The  Origin  and  Progress  of  Writing. 
Lond.  1803.  4. —  T.  L.  Hug,  die  Erfindungder  Buchstabenschrift,  ihr  Zustand  und  fruehester 
Gebrauch  im  Alterthum.  °  Ulm.  1801.  A.—Chr.  Fried.  Weber,  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  der 
Schreibkunst.  Goett.  1807.  8. — J.  L.  Saalschuti,  Forschnngen  in  Gebiete  der  Heb.  -Egypt. 
Archaeologie.  First  Part,  on  the  History  of  Letters,  the  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  Greek,  and  Egyp- 
tian.   Konigsb.  1838. 

3.  On  various  topics  of  Archaeology  ;  T.  H.  Christ,  Abhandlungen  ueber  die  Literatur  und 
Kunstwerke,  vornehmlich  des  Alterthums,  durchgesehen  und  mit  Anmerkungen  begleitet  von 
I.  K.  Zeune.  Lpz.  1775.  8. — /.  A.  Emesti,  Archaeologia  literaria.  Ed.  II.  emendata  atque  aucta 
opera  et  studio  G.  H.  Martini.  Leipsia?,  1790.  8. — LI.  Rambach,  archaeologische  Untersuchun- 
gen.  Halle,  1778.  8.  As  third  volume  to  his  Translation  of  Potter's  Archaeol.  Graeca. — /.  C. 
L.  Schaaf,  Encyklopaedie  der  classischen  Alterthumskunde.  Magdeb.  1826.  2  vols.  8.  3d  ed. 
'*  Very  valuable." 

4.  On  art  more  particularly  :  Jbh.  Winckelmar.n,  Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Alterthums.  Neue 
Aufl.  Wien,  1776.  4. — Same  in  French,  Histoire  de  l'Art  chez  Les  Anciens  avec  des  notes  his- 
toriques  et  critiques  de  differens  auteurs.  Paris.  An  2e  la  Rep. —  Winckelmann,  Stemtliche 
Werke,  ed.  by  Fernow,  Meyer,  and  Schtdze.  Dresd.  1808-17.  7.  vols.  8,  with  an  Index  by  Sie- 
belis.  Dresd."  1820.  8.  and  Supplement  by  Forster.  Berl.  1825.  3  vols.  8.  "  Winckelmann 
the  greatest  critic  in  ancient  art  in  his  time,  but  now  surpassed." — Serouz  </'  Agincourt,  His- 
toire de  l'Art  par  les  Monuinens  depuis  la  decadence  au  IVme  Siecle  jusqu'  a  son  renouvelle- 
ment  au  XVIme  pour  servir  de  suite  a  l'histoire  des  Arts  chez  les  anciens.  Paris,  1810-23. 
6  vols,  fol.— C.  G.  Hcyne,  Einleitung  in  das  Studium  der  Antike.  Gott.  1772.  8.— A.  F.  Bues- 
ching,  Entwurf  einer  Geschichte  der  zeichnenden  Kunste.  Hamburg,  1791.  8. — Orbis  An- 
tiqui  Monumentis  Suis  Illustrati  Prima?  Lineae.  Iterum  duxit  /.  /.  Oberlinus.  Argentor. 
1790.  8. — P.  F.  A.  Nitsch,  Einleitung  in  das  Studium  der  alten  Kunstwerke  fuer  Kuenstler  und 
Kunstliebhaber.  Leipz.  1792.  8.— A.  L.  Millin,  Introduction  a  PEtude  des  Monuinens  An- 
tiques, ed  2.  Par.  1798.  8.— Same,  Monuinens  Antiques  Inedits.  Par.  1802-4.  2  vols.  4.— 7\ 
Ph.  Siebenkees,  Handbuch  der  Archaeologie,  oder  Anleitung  zur  Kenntniss  der  Kunstwerke  des 
Alterthums  und  zur  Geschichte  der  Kunst  der  alten  Voelker.  Zwei  Abtheilungen.  Nuernb. 
1799.  u.  1800.  8.  "  Uncritical."—  T.  Ourlitt,  Einleitung  in  das  Studium  der  schoenen  Kunst 
des  Alterthums.  Maedeb.  1799.  4. — Petersen,  Allg.  Einleit.  in  das  Stud,  der  Archaeol.  &c. 
trans,  from  the  Danish.  Lpz.  1829.— AT.  O.  Mueller,  Denkmaeler  der  alten  Kunst.  Gott.  1834-7. 
2  vols.  4.— K.  O.  Mueller,  Handbuch  der  Archaeologie  der  Kunst.  Lpz.  1835.  8.  2d  ed.—Same, 
translated  into  English.  Lond.  1837.  8.  "  Best  Manual  by  far."— A.  Hirt,  Geschichte  der  bild- 
ende  Kuenste  bey  d.  Alten.  Berl.  1833.     "  Very  valuable." 

5.  There  are  some  periodical  works  to  which  there  will  be  occasion  to  refer  in  the  Part  of 
the  Manual  treating  of  the  Archaeology  of  Literature  and  Art,  and  also  in  other  Parts. 

The  Society  of  Antiquaries  at  London  was  incorporated  in  1751.  One  of  the  works  pub- 
lished by  them  is  entitled  Vetusta  Monumcnta.  Another,  which  was  commenced  in  1770,  and 
is  still  continued,  is  entitled  Archceologia,  or  Miscellaneous  Tracts  pertaining  to  Antiquity, 
comprising  26  volumes,  quarto,  from  1770  to  1836. 

The  Royal  Society  of  Literature  for  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  was  established 
about  the  year  1830.  Its  periodical  publication  is  entitled  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Literature,  &c,  comprising,  down  to  1838,  5  volumes,  quarto. 

The  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres  at  Paris  was  commenced  in  1663,  and  sup- 
pressed by  the  national  assembly  in  1793.  We  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  refer  to  its  pub- 
lication under  the  title,  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  Inscriptions,  which  consists  of  50  volumes  in  the 
Paris  edition  in  quarto.  The  Jnstitut  de  France  was  established  in  1795,  and  is  still  continued, 
consisting  of  five  branches  or  classes,  each  of  which  publishes  its  labors  under  the  general  title 
of  Memoires  de  VInstitut. 

A  glance  at  the  progress  of  archaeological  studies  may  be  found  in  the  following  work ; 
Rapport  Histuriquc  sur  le  Progres  de  I'Histoire  et  de  la  Literature  Ancienne  depuis  1789,  &c 
Par.  1810.  4.  It  belongs  to  the  Memoires  de  VInstitut  de  France  ;  having  been  presented  to  the 
Institute  in  1808. 

The  Classical  Journal,  an  English  publication  of  considerable  value  to  the  scholar,  was  com- 
menced in  1810,  and  issued  in  numbers,  forming  usually  two  volumes  a  year.  For  the  first  20 
volumes,  there  is  a  separate  Index. 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 


/. — Of  the  origin  and  first  steps  of  Grecian  culture. 

§  33.*  The  most  ancient  traditions,  that  have  been  preserved  re- 
specting the  first  population  of  Greece,  exhibit  the  country  as  occu- 
pied in  various  parts,  by  a  race  called  Pelasgi.  There  is  some  con- 
currence of  testimony,  that  they  were  the  primitive  inhabitants.  (Stra- 
bo,  I.  viii.  §  10.)  According  toother  accounts,  they  were  emigrants 
from  Asia,  located  first  in  Thrace,  afterwards  extending  themselves 
through  Thessaly  even  to  the  Peloponnesus.  Almost  impenetrable 
darkness,  however,  hangs  over  their  origin.  But,  whether  they  were 
originally  natives  of  the  land  (avr6/6ortg),  or  emigrants  primarily 
from  countries  beyond  the  Mediterranean,  it  is  certain,  that  more 
than  1800  years  before  Christ  they  were  dispersed  over  Greece,  and 
a  part  of  Italy.  They  consisted  of  a  great  number  of  independent 
tribes. 

See  Herbert  Marsh,  Horse  Pelasgicre.  Camb.  1815. — Raoul-Rochette,  Histoire  Critique  de 
l'etablissement  des  Colonies  Grecques. — Gibert,  Les  premiers  habitants  de  la  Grece,  in  the 
Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  25.  p.  1. —  Ge'tnoz,  Origine  des  Pelasges,  in  the  same,  Mem.  &c.  vol.  14. 
p.  154,  and  16.  p.  106. — Dupuis,  Sur  les  Pelasges,  Mem.  de  Vlnstitut,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux 
jlrts,  vol.  ii.  44,  and  iii.  37. — Karl.  Ottf.  Mueller,  Geschichte  d'  hellenischer  Sta^mme.  Breslau, 
1828.  3  vols.  8. — Clavier,  Histoire  des  premiers  temps  de  la  Grece,  &c.  Par.  1822.  3  vols.  8. — 
Prkhard,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Mankind  (cited  $  12,  1),  B.  5.  Ch.  A.—H.  Leo,  Lehrbuch  der  Univer- 
sal Geschichte.  Lpz.  1835.  8.—//.  G.  Plass,  Vor-  und  Or-  geschichte  der  Hellenen.  Lpz.  1831. 
S.—Schlosser,  Univers.  Uebersicht  d.  Geschichte  d.  alter  Welt,  &c.     Cf.  P.  II.  $  7.  7.  (d). 

§  34.*  It  is  the  general  representation  of  the  ancient  writers,  that 
the  inhabitants  of  Greece,  in  the  earliest  periods  to  which  tradition 
extended,  were  in  a  condition  of  extreme  barbarism.  Their  food  is 
said  to  have  been  the  fruit  of  the  earth  spontaneously  produced  and 
gathered  by  accident  or  under  the  impulse  of  hunger ;  their  sexual 
intercourse  to  have  been  regulated  by  no  law  but  animal  passion  ;  and 
their  science  and  art  insufficient  even  to  direct  them  to  the  use  or 
discovery  of  the  common  element  of  fire  (§  7).  There  is  no  evi- 
dence, that  they  made  any  advances  from  such  a  state,  independently 
of  the  colonies  from  Egypt,  or  Phoenicia,  or  other  eastern  countries, 
which  ere  long  were  planted  among  them.  There  seem  to  have  been 
two  periods  of  this  colonization,  somewhat  distinct  ;  the  first  about 
1800  years,  and  the  other  about  1500,  before  Christ. 

1.  From  the  first  of  these  periods  civilization  began  to  advance.  If  the  Pe- 
lasgi were  the  original  inhabitants  represented  as  once  so  barbarous,  they 
were  from  this  period  elevated  somewhat  above  their  previous  state.  If  the 
term  Pelasgi  was  a  common  name  to  designate  all  the  early  occupants  of 
Greece,  that  had  come  from  beyond  the  sea2  and  so  included  the  colonists  of 


22  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

this  very  period,  then  we  must  say,  that  the  Pelasgi  from  about  1800  B.  C. 
were  in  a  state  more  elevated  than  the  previous  inhabitants.  Or,  whatever 
may  be  the  truth  as  to  the  Pelasgi,  some  advancement  in  civilization  aciually 
took  place  among  the  people  of  Greece  not  far  from  this  time. 

By  some  writers  on  this  subject,  especially  the  more  recent,  the  Pelasgi  are 
described  as  possessing,  before  the  arrival  of  the  later  colonies,  a  system  of 
religion,  with  priests  and  mysteries  ;  as  having  some  knowledge  of  architec- 
ture, navigation,  and  military  arts,  particularly  fortification;  and  even  using 
some  sort  of  written  language,  if  not  an  actual  alphabet  of  letters. 

For  such  views  of  the  culture  of  the  Pelasgi,  see  Schlosscr  and  Leo,  as  referred  to  above, 
$  33  ; — also  Wachsmuih,  and  Hermann,  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  13  and  33. — Compare  $  45.  1. 

2.  The  second  period  alluded  to  was  distinguished  by  the  colony  of  the 
Phoenician  Cadmus,  who  settled  in  Bceotia,  B.  C.  1493,  and  founded  the  city 
originally  bearing  his  own  name,  afterwards  called  Thebes.  This  colony  is 
the  most  celebrated  of  all,  as  having  contributed  more  than  any  other  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  Greeks.  The  greatest  benefit  conferred  by  it  was  the  art  of 
alphabetic  writing,  which,  according  to  the  common  opinion,  was  introduced 
by  Cadmus  (§  45). 

Schoell,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque,  L.  I.  Ch.  I.  as  cited  P.  II.  §  7.  9. — Larcher,  Hist, 
de  Cadmus,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  48.  p.  37. 

The  following  passage  from  Wachler  may  he  pertinent  here ;  it  indicates  his  opinion  re- 
specting the  Pelasgi,  while  it  confirms  the  remarks  above  respecting  the  influence  of  the  colo- 
nies on  Greek  civilization.  "  The  early  history  of  Greece  is  obscure,  and  depends  mostly  on 
historical  combinations  and  conjectures.  Its  inhabitants  came  from  Asia  through  Thrace. 
The  first  emigrants  were  called  Pelasgi,  and  appear  to  be  connected  with  the  original  inhabit- 
ants, who  had  already  received  something  in  their  culture  and  language  from  Asia.  They 
were  followed  by  the  Hellenes,  probably  a  kindred  tribe  from  the  Caucasus.  By  the  contempo- 
raneous settlement  of  foreigners  more  civilized,  in  different  places,  the  foundations  of  social 
order  and  civil  government  were  laid;  as  by  the  Egyptian  Cecrops  (B.  C.  1530),  in  Attica  j 
by  Danaus  (B.  C.  1500),  in  Argos  ;  by  the  Phosnician  Cadmus  (about  B.  C.  1500),  in  Boeotia  ; 
and^the  Phrygian  Pelops,  in  Peloponnesus." — Wackier'' s  Geschichte  der  Literatur,  vol.  i.  p.  99. 
Lpz.  1833.  4  vols.  8. 

§  35.*  Respecting  the  origin  of  the  Greek  language,  it  must  be 
remarked,  that  there  has  been  much  discussion,  with  comparatively 
little  light.  Various  theories,  conflicting  with  each  other,  and  some 
of  them  sufficiently  absurd,  have  been  advocated.  Nothing  very  defi- 
nite and  satisfactory  has  yet  been  adduced.  The  researches  made 
within  a  few  years  past,  in  what  has  been  called  the  science  of  com- 
parative philology,  have  enabled  the  later  critics  to  class  many  of 
the  ancient  languages,  including  the  Greek,  in  families,  on  the 
ground  of  certain  common  resemblances.  But  it  seems  beyond  the 
reach  of  learning  to  determine  precisely  the  descent  of  the  Grecian 
tongue. 

There  are  two  facts  recorded  in  the  Bible,  which  must  be  kept  in 
view,  in  every  just  inquiry  respecting  the  origin  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Greece  and  the  descent  of  their  language  ;  viz.  the  confusion  of 
tongues  at  Babel  (B.  C.  2247),  and  the  consequent  dispersion  of  the 
human  family. 

Before  we  notice  the  bearing  of  these  facts,  we  will  advert  to  some  of  the 
accounts  which  have  been  given  of  the  origin  of  the  Greek  language. 

1.  The  following  are  the  remarks  of  Eschenburg,  presented  in  the  original 
of  this  work  in  another  place,  but  appropriate  here. 

Of  the  origin  of  the  Greek  language  it  may  he  said,  that  it  was  partly  domestic  and  partly 
foreign.  Its  origin  was  domestic  in  as  much  as  its  basis  and  primary  stock  was  the  vernacu- 
lar tongue  of  the  earliest  inhabitants,  who  are  by  many  considered  to  have  been  the  Pelasgi, 
although,  as  has  been  suggested,  this  may  be  a  name,  under  which  were  comprehended  all 
the  early  occupants  of  Greece  that  had  come  from  beyond  the  sea.  But  the  language  must 
have  experienced  a  very  great  foreign  influence  not  only  from  the  colonies  successively  plant- 
ed in  Greece,  but  from  the  intercourse,  by  commerce  and  otherwise,  with  the  people  occupy- 
ing the  coasts  of  Asia,  with  the  Phoenicians  and  the  Egyptians.  In  the  most  ancient  monu- 
ments of  the  language,  especially  the  poetical,  and  in  some  very  old  proverbial  fragments, 
there  are  evident  traces  of  orientalism.     (Comp.  §  38.  1.) 

2.  Some  of  the  various  theories  are  glanced  at,  in  the  following  extract  from 


ORIGIN    OF   THE    GREEK    LANGUAGE.  23 

€i  "  Synopsis  of  a  course  of  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Greek  Literature,"  by 
Edward  Everett;  which,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted,  he  did  not  complete  and 
publish. 

"  1.  The  descent  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  has  naturally  led  to  inquiries  into  the  descent 
of  their  languages.  The  permanence  of  the  radical  forms  of  language,  amidst  the  changes  of 
What  is  external,  has  encouraged  these  inquiries. 

"  2.  In  inquiring  after  the  supposed  original  language,  various  theories  have  respectively 
ascribed  that  character  to  the  Hebrew,  the  Teutonic,  the  Celtic,  the  Flemish,  the  Gothic.  A 
writer  of  the  present  day  maintains,  that  German  was  the  court  language  of  Rome  in  the  time 
of  Augustus.  (Cf.  Postellus  de  originibus  seu  de  Hebraic^  lingure  et  gentis  antiquitate  et  de 
variorum  linguarum  affinitate,  &x.     V.  Mueller,  ueber  die  Ursprache.) 

"  3.  The  Greek  has  been  derived  by  some  from  the  Asiatic,  and  by  others  from  the  northern 
languages  ;  and  by  a  third  hypothesis  has  been  made  itself  the  original  language.  The  de- 
fenders of  this  last  opinion  are  Von  der  Hardt  and  Ericus.  (Cf.  Harlesii  Intro,  in  Histor.  Ling. 
Grsc.  i.  12,  13,  and  Davies'  Celtic  Researches,  p.  243.) 

"  4.  Descent  of  the  Greek  from  the  Scythian  or  Gothic  maintained  by  Ihre.  (Cf.  Dissertate 
de  originibus  ling.  Lat.  et  Grsec.  inter  Meeso-Gothos  reperiundis.  Also  Analecta  Ulphiana.) 
From  the  Egyptian  by  Marsham,  (Cf.  Canon.  Chronic,  p.  119.)  and  Lord  Monboddo.  From 
the  Hebrew  by  Kcenig,  Oger,  and  many  others.  From  the  Ethiopian  by  Allwood.  (Cf.  Liter- 
ary Antiquities  of  Greece,  by  P.  Allwood,  Lond.  1799.  4to.  p.  344.)  By  Nils  Iddman  from  the 
Finnish.     By  Linhard  from  the  Sclavonian.     By  Webb  from  the  Chinese. " 

For  a  notice  of  some  of  these  theories,  see  also  Harles,  Introduction,  &c.  (as  cited  P.  II. 
$  7.  9.)     Prolegomena,  $  4. 

§  36.*  The  vernacular  tongue  of  the  first  inhabitants  of  Greece 
was  somehow  formed  from  that  one  language  which  survived  the 
deluge  and  was  the  sole  language  of  the  earth  until  the  confusion  of 
tongues  at  Babel.  (Cf.  Gen.  xi.  1.)  This  must  be  admitted  in  all 
correct  reasoning  on  the  subject.  The  confusion  of  tongues  and 
the  consequent  dispersion  of  the  human  family  occurred  only  about 
300  years  earlier  than  the  period  to  which  the  traditions  already 
mentioned  respecting  the  population  of  Greece  must  be  referred.  It 
is  not  certain  precisely  what  changes  took  place  in  that  language  at 
the  confusion ;  but  probably  no  one  will  suppose  them  to  have  been 
such  as  to  form  several  absolutely  new  and  essentially  different 
tongues.  The  effect  of  confounding  and  separating  the  people  sure- 
ly might  be  accomplished  by  such  changes  in  pronunciation  and 
structure  as  would  leave  the  original  language  remaining  substan- 
tially the  same  in  all  the  new  ones,  as  their  basis. 

1.  The  languages  of  western  Asia,  although  differing  from  each  other  in  va-- 
rious  particulars,  are  found  to  constitute  a  family  possessing  some  radical  char- 
acteristics in  common.  There  can  be  little  doubt,  that  a  resemblance,  some- 
what analogous  to  this,  although  less  obvious,  and  confined  probably  to  the 
roots  in  their  simplest  forms,  may  be  traced  among  all  the  early  oriental 
tongues. 

Whether  the  "  one  language  and  one  speech,"  that  underwent  the  changes- 
of  the  confusion,  was  the  language  of  Adam  altered  and  improved  by  the 
successive  generations  of  the  Antediluvians,  all  using  the  same  tongue,  or 
Was  one  of  several  varieties  formed  out  of  it  before  the  flood,  is  of  no  great 
importance  to  decide,  even  if  we  had  the  means  of  doing  it  with  certainty. 
Nor  does  it  seem  of  much  consequence,  whether,  or  not,  we  consider  the  He- 
brew as  the  best  representative  of  the  language  of  JSoah  and  his  descendants 
previous  to  the  Confusion.  It  is,  at  least,  quite  certain  that  the  Hebrew  is  one 
of  the  earliest  of  the  languages  known  to  have  existed  in  western  Asia.  Ma- 
ny have  believed  it  the  original  language  of  Eden,  preserved  from  age  to  age 
in  those  families,  that  maintained  in  the  greatest  degree  the  fear  of  God  and 
cherished  most  the  arts  and  duties  of  social  life. 

See  Shuckford  (as  cited  §  6),  Bk.  ii. The  Armenians  have  a  notion,  that  they  still  speak 

the  language  of  Notih.— Smith  and  Dwight,  Researches  in  Armenia.     Bost.  1833.   2  vols.   12, 
(i.  p.  16.) 

2.  It  may  be  important  to  remark  here,  that  since  the  modern  researches  in 
comparative  philology,  and  the  investigations  made  by  Bopp  and  others  in  re- 
lation to  the  Sanscrit  language,  the  critics  have  discriminated  particularly  two 
classes  or  families  among  the  languages  of  Asia.  One  is  called  the  Semitic 
family,  and  the  other  the  Sanscrit  family,  or  the  Indo- Germanic. 


24  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

Striking  affinities,  it  is  asserted,  unite  together,  in  each  of  these  families,  their  respective 
members.  It  is  also  admitted  that  some  resemblances,  although  slighter,  may  be  traced  be- 
tween the  two  families. Cf.  EwaWs  Hebrew  Grammar,  1835.  (pp.  4-8.)— Robinson's  He- 
brew Lexicon  of  Gesenius.    Boston,  1836.    (p.  iv.) 

3.  The  Semitic  or  Shemitish  family  comprehends  the  Hebrew  and  Syriac  and 
other  languages  of  southwestern  Asia.  All  these  are  supposed  by  most  of  the 
German  philologians  to  have  been  derived  from  one  common  original.  Some 
imagine  this  original  to  have  been  richer  than  any  of  its  offspring,  and  think 
that  the  Arabic  has  preserved  more  of  the  character  of  the  primitive  stock 
than  any  other  member  of  the  family. 

Cf.  M.  Stuart,  on  the  Shemitish  languages,  in  his  Hebrew  Grammar  (Introduction).  Ando. 
1823.  8.— J.  Perkins,  in  the  Bib.  Repository.  Oct.,  1837.  p.  489.—Hengstenberg  is  said  (A.  D. 
1835)  to  teach  in  his  lectures,  that  the  Arabic  is  the  oldest  language  of  the  Semitic  family,  and 
most  resembles  the  supposed  original  (Ursprache). 

4.  The  Sancrit  family  includes  the  languages  of  India  and  Persia.  The 
Latin  and  Greek  are  assigned  to  the  same  family,  on  account  of  certain  affin- 
ities which  are  pointed  out ;  and  likewise  the  Teutonic,  by  which  term  the 
whole  stock  of  German  languages  has  been  designated.  This  family  is  some- 
times called  also  Indo-  Germanic,  because  it  includes  languages  thus  traced 
from  India  to  Germany.  The  Sanscrit  is  considered  as  the  oldest  of  the  fam- 
ily ;  the  Persian  and  Latin  are  ranked  next ;  and  then  the  Greek. — The  Chi- 
nese is  not  included  in  this  family. 

F.  Bopp,  System  of  the  Sanscrit  Language,  &c.  Berlin,  1825.  4.— Cf.  Bib.  Repertory,  vol. 
ii.  1826. — F.  Bopp,  Vergleichende  Grammatik  des  Sanskrit,  Zend,  Griechischen,  Lateinischen, 
Gothischen,  &c.  Berlin,  1833.  4. — Encyclopedia  Americana,  articles,  Indian  Languages,  German 
Language,  Teutonic,  See. — A  classification  of  all  the  known  languages  of  the  world  is  given  in 
the  work  entitled  Mithridates,  by  J.  C.  rfdelung  and  J.  S.  Vater.—A  brief  view  of  the  various 
languages  is  also  given  in  Balbi's  Atlas  Ethnographique  du  Globe.    Par.  1826.  fol. 

§  37.*  The  fact  of  the  dispersion  mentioned  by  Moses  must  also 
be  kept  in  view  in  our  inquiries  respecting  the  first  inhabitants  of 
Greece  and  the  origin  of  the  Greek  language.  The  common  opin- 
ion ascribes  the  first  settling  of  Asia  Minor,  the  isles  of  the  ^Egean, 
and  the  coasts  of  Greece,  to  the  descendants  of  Japheth.  These 
families  or  tribes,  of  course,  carried  with  them  their  languages  as 
modified  by  the  confusion.  How  soon  some  of  these  families  may 
have  reached  the  southern  parts  of  Greece  cannot  be  known.  Some 
etymologists  have  supposed  the  name  Ionians  ("i<ore?)t  by  which  the 
Greeks  were  very  early  designated,  to  be  derived  from  Javan,  the 
son  of  Japheth  (Gen.  x.  2).  The  name  Javan  was  used  by  the  He- 
brews to  designate  the  people  and  country  of  the  Ionians.  And  it  is 
admitted  by  some  who  place  no  confidence  in  this  etymology,  that 
the  Greeks  were  called  Ionians  before  the  time  of  the  Ion  (3im) 
mentioned  in  the  Greek  traditions. 

See  J.  Parsons,  Remains  of  Japhet,  or  Historical  Enquiries  into  the  Affinity  and  Origin  of 
the  European  Languages.  Lond.  1767.  4. — Jamieson,  Dissertat.  on  the  Origin  of  the  Greeks. 
— Shuckford,  Conn.  Sac.  and  Prof.  Hist.  B.  iii. —  Gesenius,  Heb.  Lex.  by  E.  Robinson,  Boston, 
1836. — Cf.  Rosenmuller,  Schol.  in  Vet.  Test.  Gen.  x.  2;  and  his  Biblische  Geographie,  vol. 
3.  p.  389. 

§  38.*  The  various  and  learned  researches  into  the  origin  of  the 
Greek  language  seem  to  furnish  nothing  more  satisfactory  than  is 
suggested  by  these  few  facts  and  considerations.  From  the  seats  oc- 
cupied by  the  human  race  immediately  after  the  flood  in  a  central 
part  of  Asia,  the  families  of  Japheth  migrated  towards  the  northwest 
to  their  assigned  portions  of  the  earth,  carrying  with  them  a  language 
or  languages  radically  the  same  with  those  left  in  Asia  in  the  fami- 
lies of  Shem.  Whatever  length  of  time  therefore  might  elapse  be- 
fore the  rich  vales  of  Greece  were  occupied  by  them,  or  whatever 
family  may  have  first  entered  them,  the  real  basis  of  the  language 
may  be  considered  the  same.     In  this  view  of  the  subject,  some  va- 


ORIGIN    OF    THE    GREEK    LANGUAGE.  25 

ri'Cty  of  the  language  of  Noah,  kindred  to  the  early  languages  of  cen- 
tral Asia,  and  possessing  a  radical  resemblance  to  them,  was  the 
foundation  on  which  was  built  the  beautiful  and  polished  superstruc- 
ture of  the  Greek. 

It  is  easy  to  account  For  the  disappearance  of  a  great  part  of  the  original 
resemblance  between  the  Greek  and  the  oriental  dialects.  The  tribes  of 
Greece,  being  removed  from  the  centre  of  civilization,  gradually  sunk  down 
to  a  state  of  almost  perfect  barbarism,  and  in  this  state  their  own  traditions 
first  present  them  to  us.  And  after  they  began  to  awake,  under  the  impulse 
from  the  colonies  already  spoken  of,  there  were  frequent  emigrations,  revolu- 
tions, amalgamations,  and  other  changes  of  society,  calculated  greatly  to  mod- 
ify the  language.  So  that,  admitting  a  much  greater  degree  of  resemblance 
to  have  once  existed,  the  subsequent  traces  of  it  might  not  be  more  numerous 
than  are  actually  found. 

Bopp,  as  above  cited  §  36. — Barthelemy,  Sur  les  rapports  des  langues  Egyptienne,  Phenici- 
enne,  et  Grecque.  Mem.  Acad.  Inscrip.  xxxii.  '212. — J.  A.  Ernesti,  de  Vestigiis  linguae  Hebrai- 
cre  in  lingua  Grasca  ;  in  bis  Opuscula  Philolog-ica,  Leyden,  Bat.  1764.  8< — Mitford's  Hist.  vol.  i. 
p.  122.  ed.  Bost.  1823. 

§  39.*  The  causes  of  the  great  perfection,  to  which  the  Greek 
language  attained,  are  in  vain  sought  for.  No  theory  of  its  first  ba- 
sis and  origin  affords  an  answer  to  the  question,  how  it  acquired,  in 
form,  harmony,  and  power,  that  wonderful  degree  of  excellence, 
which  it  has  universally  been  acknowledged  to  possess.  This  it  cer- 
tainly gained  at  a  very  early  period,  for  the  language  existed  in  all  its 
essential  perfection  in  the  time  of  Homer  ;  this  it  gained  also  in  cir- 
cumstances apparently  not  very  favorable  to  the  refinement  of  lan- 
guage, in  the  midst  of  the  migrations,  the  wars,  the  conquests  and 
expulsions,  the  enthusiasm  and  lawlessness,  of  the  heroic  ages. 

1.  Some,  in  explaining  this,  refer  to  the  delightful  climate  and  beautiful 
scenery  of  Greece,  as  these  undoubtedly  tended  to  soften  the  character  of  the 
inhabitants  and  inspire  them  with  delicate  sensibilites,  and  so  indirectly  to 
mellow  and  adorn  their  language.  Another  source  of  improvement  to  it  has 
been  pointed  out  in  the  early  rise  of  republican  institutions,  and  the  obvious 
advantages  enjoyed  by  a  speaker  in  the  popular  assemblies,  who  could  best 
win  attention  and  sway  the  judgment  by  the  superior  excellence  of  his  dic- 
tion. Some  regard  is  likewise  due  to  the  conjecture,  which  ascribes  much  of 
the  polish  of  the  Grecian  tongue  to  those  bards  of  the  heroic  ages,  who  cele- 
brated with  poetry  and  music  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors,  or  of  bold  and  en- 
terprising chieftains,  or  sung  the  praises  of  the  gods  ;  as  their  rythmical  effu- 
sions, their  hymns  and  invocations,  might  naturally  promote  the  flexibility 
and  sweetness  of  the  language.  But  after  all  that  can  be  said,  the  perfection 
of  this  language  remains  an  unexplained  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  letters. 

2.  It  is  not  more  so,  however,  than  the  wonderful  copiousness,  flexibility, 
and  apparently  artificial  structure,  of  several  of  the  aboriginal  languages  of 
America.  The  truth  is,  no  theoretical  reasoning  can  be  relied  on  in  rela- 
tion to  a  subject,  which  in  its  nature  is  so  changeable  as  human  language, 
a  thing  so  airy  and  fleeting  as  "  winged  words  "  and  sounds  of  breath.  We 
may  explain  facts  if  we  can,  but  as  in  all  other  cases,  so  here,  whether  we  can 
explain  them  or  not,  we  must  take  them  as  they  are. 

See  Barton,  New  Views  on  the  Origin  of  the  American  Aborigines.— Duponceau,  Prelim. 
Dissertation,  Transactions  of  Lit.  and  Hist.  Depart,  of  American  Phil.  Soc.  vol.  i.  Cf.  North. 
Amer.  Review,  vol.  ix.  first  Series,  p.  179. — Prichard,  Phys.  Hist.  B.  viii. 

§  40.*  It  has  already  been  remarked,  that  the  first  impulse  that 
served  to  rouse  the  Greeks  from  the  torpor  of  barbarism,  was  given 
by  colonies  from  the  east  planted  among  them.  Various  descriptions 
and  allusions  in  Homer  make  it  evident,  that  a  very  considerable  im- 
provement had  taken  place  in  the  condition  of  Grecian  society  ante- 

3 


26  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

cedently  to  his  time.  The  general  source  of  this  culture  was  the 
knowledge  and  civilization  of  the  east.  The  influence  upon  the 
Greeks  from  the  east  was  felt  in  other  ways,  besides  through  the  col- 
onies just  mentioned ;  and  particularly  by  means  of  commerce.  Com- 
merce was  at  this  early  period  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians. This  adventurous  people  carried  their  merchandize  to  the 
western  extremities  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  surely  could  not  over- 
look the  numerous  islands  and  cities  of  Greece.  Nor  is  it  improb- 
able that  some  of  those  bold  enterprises  against  the  people  of  the 
east,  which  are  related  of  the  heroic  ages,  exerted  upon  the  Greeks 
some  favorable  reflex  influence,  especially  the  siege  and  capture  of 
Troy. 

See  A.  H.  L.  Heeren,  Reflections  on  the  Politics  of  Ancient  Greece,  translated  by  G.  Ban- 
croft.   Bost.  1824.  8.  (ch.  iii.) 

§  41.  The  influence  of  eastern  nations  upon  the  early  culture  of  the 
Greeks  manifests  itself  in  several  particulars.  It  appears  in  their  religion,  in 
one  point  especially  ;  and  that  is,  the  fact,  that  the  gods  of  Greek  mythology 
were  at  first  viewed  merely  as  symbols,  or  representatives  of  sensible  objects, 
such  as  rivers,  mountains,  the  sun,  &c.  or  of  the  invisible  powers  of  nature. 
As  such  symbols,  these  gods,  under  the  same  or  similar  names,  existed  in  the 
eastern  nations,  especially  the  Egyptians.  In  the  same  sense,  that  is,  as  de- 
signed to  represent  allegorically  the  appearances  and  changes  of  the  material 
world,  they  were  first  used  by  the  Greeks  ;  but  afterwards  came  to  be  consid- 
ered as  possessing  personal  attributes,  and  at  length  the  popular  creed  em- 
braced them  as  beings  having  a  real  and  present  existence. 

Some  of  the  peculiar  early  institutions  of  the  Greeks,  as  the  mysteries 
and  the  oracles,  show  also  this  influence  of  the  east.  Great  as  is  the  obscu- 
rity hanging  over  the  nature  and  design  of  the  Greek  mysteries,  their  foreign 
origin  is  not  doubted,  and  the  prototypes  of  many  of  them  are  found  in  the 
rites  and  superstitions  of  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Crete.  To  such  a  source  may 
be  traced  the  mysteries  of  Bacchus  and  Adonis,  the  rites  of  the  Curetes  and 
Pactyli,  and  the  Eleusinian,  most  celebrated  of  all.  One  of  the  earliest  ora- 
cles, that  of  Dodona,  seems  to  have  been  started  by  a  female  slave  once  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  an  Egyptian  temple  ;  and  that  of  Delphi,  which 
gained  the  highest  renown,  is  ascribed  to  the  artifice  of  a  company  of  Cretan 
priests. 

See  Heeren,  as  cited  §  40.— Mitford,  History  of  Greece,  ch.  iii.  $  2.  cited  P.  II.  $  7.  7.  (d). — 
F.  Schlegel,  Lect.  ii.  cited  P.  II.  $  7.  8. 

§  42.  The  influence  of  eastern  cultivation  may  be  noticed  likewise  in  re- 
lation to  the  arts.  Even  in  the  time  of  Homer,  Phoenician  artists  were  con- 
sidered by  the  Greeks  as  superior  in  skill  and  elegance.  Whenever  the  poet 
speaks  of  an  article  of  peculiar  beauty  and  excellence,  it  is  usually  said  to  be 
of  Phoenician  workmanship  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  silver  bowl  which  Achilles 
proposed  as  a  prize  in  the  games  at  the  funeral  of  Patroclus  (II.  W.  743)  ; 
"  Sidonian  artists  wrought  it,  and  Phoenicians  brought  it  over  the  sea." 
Hence  it  is  obvious  where  Grecian  artists  were  looking  for  patterns  and 
models. 

It  also  may  be  worthy  of  remark,  that  we  perceive  an  oriental  stamp  in  the 
subjects  and  spirit  of  the  fragments  of  the  earliest  Greek  poetry.  They  are 
chiefly  hymns  to  the  gods,  or  metrical  fables  respecting  the  origin  of  the 
world,  the  formation  of  man,  the  primeval  happiness,  the  subsequent  aposta- 
cy,  and  the  miseries  which  soon  overwhelmed  the  race.  They  exhibit  views 
respecting  the  nature  and  attributes  of  one  supreme  God  much  more  spiritual 
than  subsequently  prevailed,  and  more  consonant  with  the  truths  of  revelation. 
They  seem  to  be  tinctured  with  traditionary  recollections  of  the  patriarchal 
and  antediluvian  ages  of  Asiatic  society. 

See  F.  Schlegel,  Lect.  on  Hist.  Lit.  (Lect.  ii.)— Cf.  P.  II.  $  12,  15.— Also,  on  various  coinci- 
dences in  Grecian  fiction  with  facts  in  Scripture  history,  see  references,  P.  III.  §  5.  1. 

§  43.*  In  alluding  to  the  circumstances  connected  with  the  early 


ORIENTAL    INFLUENCES.  27 

culture  of  the  Greeks,  it  is  proper  to  notice  the  bards  or  minstrels, 
yAoi8bi,  already  mentioned  (§  39).  They  were  of  a  class  such  as  is 
generally  found  in  every  age  of  semi-barbarous  heroism  and  chivalry. 
They  strolled  from  one  prince's  hall  to  another's,  or  were  attached 
to  a  favorite  chieftain  and  family,  or  employed  and  supported  in  con- 
nection with  the  temples  and  worship  of  the  gods.  They  either  sung 
their  own  verse,  or  recited,  as  was  generally  the  practice  of  those 
called  rhapsodists  ('Paytodbi),  the  compositions  of  others.  Greek  lit- 
erature had  its  origin  in  these  performances.  After  the  time  of  Ho- 
mer, his  poems  were  the  principal  theme  of  the  rhapsodists,  who 
rehearsed  his  poetry  accompanying  it  with  music,  and  sometimes  add- 
ing comments  or  explanations  of  their  own. 

§  44.*  Nor  should  we  overlook  here  those  meetings  for  purposes 
of  festivity,  and  trial  of  bodily  strength  and  activity,  to  which  the 
Greeks  were  very  early  accustomed.  They  exerted,  beyond  doubt, 
some  influence  on  Grecian  culture,  especially  when  they  became  such 
illustrious  occasions  as  were,  in  particular,  the  four  national  games. 
It  is  only  necessary  here  just  to  advert  to  these,  as  having  their  rise 
in  this  early  period.  The  Olympian,  after  many  years  of  occasional 
suspension  and  renewal,  were  at  last  solemnly  established  776  B.  C, 
and  were  subsequently  supported  with  increasing  splendor.  The 
other  three,  Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemean,  were  not  fully  estab- 
lished as  regular  festivals  until  a  much  later  time  ;  but  still  had  been 
long  in  existence,  and  occasionally  much  frequented. 

The  Amphictyonic  Council,  which  was  of  very  early  origin,  may 
also  be  supposed  to  have  exerted  some  influence  upon  the  general 
improvement  of  the  Greeks.  It  has  commonly  been  considered  as 
from  the  beginning  an  institution  more  strictly  of  a  political  charac- 
ter than  the  festivals  just  named ;  and  as  probably  designed  to  sup- 
port a  kind  of  law  of  nations  among  the  different  states,  and  promote 
the  tranquillity  and  happiness  of  the  whole  country.  Some  writers, 
however,  have  maintained,  that  it  was  not  a  political  assembly  but 
wholly  a  religious  one. 

For  further  notice  of  the  four  national  games  and  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council,  see  P.  IV. 
$84— 87,  and  $   105. 


II. — Of  the  Greek  Alphabet,  Method  of  Writing,  and  Books. 

§  45.  Alphabetic  writing,  according  to  the  general  opinion,  was 
introduced  by  Cadmus,  a  Phoenician  leader  who  settled  in  Boeotia, 
and  founded  Thebes,  B.  C.  1493.  There  may  be  grounds  for  the 
conjecture,  that  the  Greeks  possessed  before  this  some  written  char- 
acters, or  at  least  a  sort  of  picture-writing.  Perhaps,  however,  these 
more  ancient  characters,  called  Pelasgic,  were  originally  Phoenician, 
since  the  Pelasgi  (cf.  §  33,  34)  were  probably  of  Phoenician  origin. 
There  is  an  obvious  resemblance  between  the  letters  of  the  Phoeni- 
cian and  those  of  the  Grecian  alphabet.  Indeed  the  Phoenician  may 
be  considered  as  the  primary  source  of  all  the  European  alphabets, 


28  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

ancient  and  modern.  We  need  not,  from  this,  suppose  the  Phoeni- 
cians to  have  been  the  actual  inventors  of  alphabetic  writing,  which 
perhaps  had  its  origin  in  Egypt  (cf.  §  19),  commencing  in  an  abbre- 
viation of  hieroglyphics. 

1.  The  common  opinion  ascribing  to  Cadmus  the  introduction  of  letters  is 
founded  upon  an  assertion  of  Herodotus  (1.  v.  28,  58).  But  it  is  contradicted 
by  Diodorus  Siculus  (1.  v.  57,  74),  who  relates  that  the  Greeks  possessed  letters 
several  generations  before  Cadmus,  and  used  them  for  public  monuments,  and 
that  a  deluge  destroyed  these  first  elements  of  civilization.  Pausanius  (1.  i.  43.) 
speaks  of  an  inscription  read  by  him  at  Megara,  on  the  most  ancient  monu- 
ment in  Greece.  The  date  of  this  monument,  according  to  Larcher,  was  1678 
B.  C.  The  inscription  was  therefore  anterior  to  Cadmus,  and  of  course  Pe- 
lasgic. 

But  the  alphabet  of  the  Greeks  bears,  in  the  names,  order,  and  forms  of  its 
letters,  a  striking  resemblance  to  those  of  nations  belonging  to  the  Semitic 
race,  i.  e.  the  Phoenicians.  Samaritans,  and  Jews.  How  is  this  to  be  reconciled 
with  the  idea,  that  the  Pelasgi  had  an  alphabet  before  the  arrival  of  Cadmus  ? 
Or  if  there  was  a  previous  alphabet  in  Greece,  was  it  given  up  on  the  arrival 
of  Cadmus,  and  the  Phoenician  adopted  in  its  place  ?  It  is  conjectured  by 
some,  that  the  Pelasgi  had  the  Phoenician  alphabet  from  the  first,  and  that 
Cadmus  only  introduced  a  new  material  for  writing.  Before  him,  stones  and 
metals  were  the  chief  materials.  If  he  introduced  the  art  of  writing  on  the 
palm-leaf,  which  was  used  for  the  purpose  by  the  Egyptians  before  the  papy- 
rus, it  would  very  naturally  be  adopted  instead  of  the  more  difficult  and  la- 
borious use  of  metals.  And  the  letters  traced  on  the  palm-leaf  might  with 
propriety  be  termed  yoauuuTa  <£>oivixaia,  the  epithet  referring  not  to  the  form, 
or  nature,  or  originof  the  letters  (those  of  Cadmus  being  the  same  with  those 
of  the  Pelasgi),  but  to  the  material  on  which  they  were  written. 

Schoell,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.  L.  iii.  ch.  3.— Cf.  Weber,  Geschichte  der  Schreibkunst,  cited  §  32.— 
Renaudot,  Sur  l'origine  des  lettres  Grecques,  in  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  Jnscr.  vol.  ii.  p.  231. 

2.  Respecting  the  origin  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  see  Hug-,  Erfindung 
der  Buchstabenschrift  (cited  §  32).--"  This  writer,"  says  Schoell,  "  has  shown 
that  the  Phoenician  letters  are  hieroglyphic,  and  the  hieroglyphics,  Egyptian. 
Aleph  signifies  ox,  and  its  primitive  form  resembles  the  head  of  that  animal. 
Beth  signifies  house,  and  its  first  form  represents  an  Egyptian  house  or  hut 
pointed  at  the  top.  Gamel  (gimmel)  would  signify  a  camel,  and  this  letter 
was  originally  the  head  of  the  same."  The  reader  will  not  fail  to  perceive, 
that  in  each  of  these  the  principle  of  Champollion's  system  of  interpreting 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  (cf.  §  16.  1)  is  exactly  exemplified. 

For  a  comparison  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  alphabets,  see  Buttmayi's  Gram,  by  Robinson, 
p.  459  ;  Stuart's  Heb.  Gram.  p.  385  ;— of  the  Greek  and  Phoenician,  Shuckford,  Sac.  and  Prof. 
Hist.  B.  iv.— See  also  Plates  in  Astlc,  cited  §  32,  and  those  in  Edinb.  Encyclojxedia,  illustrating 
alphabets ;  and  table  of  Alphabets  in  O.  Higgins,  The  Celtic  Druids.  .Cf.  Southern  Reciew, 
Aug.  1829.  p.  1.— Also  E.  Fry,  cited  §  47.— In  our  illustrations,  Plate  1  a,  fig.  e.  a  few  corre- 
sponding letters  of  several  alphabets  may  be  compared.     Cf.  Explanation  of  Plates. 

On  the  Phoenician  language  and  writings,  see  W.  Gesenius,  Palatograph.  Studien  uebei 
Phoenische  und  Punische  Schriften,  &c.  Lpz.  1835.  4.— Same,  Scripturte  LinguEeque  Phoenicia 
Monumenta,  &c.     Lpz.  1837.  4.— Cf.  For.  Quar.  Review,  No.  xlii.  p.  445. 

On  the  hieroglyphic  origin  of  alphabets,  see  Lamb's  Hieroglyphical  Alphabet  of  the  He- 
brews.— J.  O.  L.  Koscgarten,  De  Prisca  ^Egyplorum  literatura,  cum  tabulis.     Vimar.  1828.  4. 

§  46.  The  alphabet  of  Cadmus  was  incomplete,  consisting,  as  is 
commonly  thought,  of  only  sixteen  letters,  viz.  A,  B,  r,  J,  E,  7,  k, 
A,  31,  N,  o,  n,  P,  2,  T,  y.  Soon  after,  z,  0,  H,  and  X.  were  added, 
and  subsequently,  <*>,  x,  lF,  and  n.  The  former  were  termed  Ka9/i*ta 
or  ipoiviztia  yquuuara,  Cadmean  or  Phoenician  letters.  The  addition- 
al characters  are  ascribed  to  Palamedes,  Simonides,  and  Epichar- 
mus.  These  letters  soon  were  received  among  thelonians,  and  being 
somewhat  changed  by  them,  formed  what  was  called  the  Ionian  al- 
phabet, which  contained  twenty-four  letters,  and  of  which  Callistra- 
tus  the  Samian  is  considered  as  the  author.  The  Ionians  imparted 
these  improvements  to  the  other  Grecian  nations,  and  after  the  mid- 


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30  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

die  of  the  94th  Olympiad,  about  B.  C.  403,  the  Athenians  made  use 
of  this  alphabet  in  the  public  writings  of  the  state. 

1.  "  The  common  assertion  of  writers  on  the  old  Greek  alphabet  has  been, 
that  it  consisted  originally  of  only  sixteen  letters.  But  this  assertion  is  built 
upon  no  definite  and  certain  testimony.  The  oldest  writers,  Herodotus  (v.  58) 
and  Diodorus  Siculus  (v.  24),  who  relate  the  story  of  Cadmus,  say  nothing  of 
the  number  of  letters  ;  and  the  accounts  of  later  times  disagree.  Aristotle 
makes  eighteen  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  7.  56)  ;  another  account  seventeen  (Plut. 
Sympos.  8.  quaest.  3.  Isidor.  Orig.  I.  3^" 

Stuart's  Heb.  Gram.  p.  385.— See  Wolf,  Proleg.  Horn.  §  70.— Hug's  work  before  cited  ($  45, 
32)  p.  15. — Also  Buttmann's  Gram,  by  Robinson,  p.  459. ' 

2u.  Cadmus  is  also  said  to  have  introduced  the  art  of  reckoning,  and  the 
use  of  several  important  signs  (inia^ua)  to  express  number  ;  as  pud  (gcr  f") 
for  the  number  6,  y.onna  (  9  or  q)  for  90,  and  oauni  (  3  )  for  900. 

Respecting  the  use  of  letters  to  designate  numbers,  see  P.  IV.  §  176. 

§  47.  The  exact  form  of  the  earliest  Greek  letters  cannot  be  de- 
cided, because  there  are  now  no  written  monuments  of  so  high  an- 
tiquity. That  they  underwent  many  changes  in  shape  is,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  in  the  highest  degree  probable,  and  it  is  possible 
that  characters,  afterwards  supposed  to  be  new,  were  merely  inten- 
tional changes  of  this  kind.  Their  resemblance  to  the  Phoenician  in 
form  was  no  doubt  greater  at  first  than  at  a  later  period.  Indeed 
evidence  of  various  changes  is  still  found  upon  existing  medals  and 
inscriptions,  although,  in  a  matter  where  so  much  may  be  arbitrary, 
the  epoch  of  the  changes,  or  the  age  in  which  each  different  form 
was  used,  cannot  be  accurately  determined. 

Buettner,  Vergleichungstafeln  der  Schriftarten  verschiedner  Voelker.  Goetting.  1771.  4. — 
Astle,  before  cited. — Edm.  Fnj,  Pantographia,  containing  copies  of  all  the  known  alphabets, 
&.c.  Lond.  1799.  8.— Knight's  Analyt.  Ess.  on  the  Greek  Alphabet.  Lond.  1791.  4.  §  26.— 
Montfaucon,  Palseographia  Graeca.  Par.  1708. —  Wilson's  Essay  on  Grammar.   Phil.  1817.  Ch.  I. 

§  48.  The  direction  of  the  letters  and  lines  in  the  writing  of  the 
most  ancient  Greeks  was  the  same  as  among  the  eastern  nations,  from 
right  to  left.  This  might  be  expected  if  their  alphabet  came  from 
Phoenicia.  Ere  long  the  direction  was  in  the  first  line  from  right  to 
left,  in  the  second  from  left  to  right,  and  so  on  in  alternation,  each 
line  being  connected  to  the  next  by  a  curve.  This  method,  as  it 
represents  the  course  of  the  ox  in  ploughing,  was  termed  povoTnoyrfiov . 
In  this  manner,  for  example,  the  laws  of  Solon  were  written,  and  ma- 
ny public  monuments,  of  which  some  yet  remain.  Another  mode 
was  termed  y.iovijdov,  in  which  the  letters  were  arranged  perpendicu- 
larly, as  by  the  modern  Chinese,  in  the  form  of  a  pillar  ;  there  was 
another,  in  which  the  lines  were  successively  shortened,  in  the  form 
of  a  basket,  otvvqiSov  ;  these,  however,  were  only  for  amusement  and 
scarcely  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  At  length  came  into  general  use 
the  method  followed  by  the  moderns,  of  writing  wholly  from  left  to 
right ;  its  introduction  among  the  Greeks  is  ascribed  to  Pronapides, 
who  according  to  some  was  a  preceptor  to  Homer.  (Diod.  Sic. 
iii.  66.) 

§  49.  In  more  ancient  times  the  large  form  of  the  letters,  or  the 
uncial  character  (liter a  majuscules,  or  quadrates,  capitals),  was  al- 
ways used  in  writing.  It  constantly  appears  on  the  old  Greek  coins 
and  inscriptions,  and  is  found  also  in  the  earliest  manuscripts.  The 
smaller  form,  or  the  cursive  (literce  semi-quadrates),  became  common 


FORM  OF  LETTERS.   ACCENTS.  31 

first  in  the  middle  ages,  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  and  grew,  it 
is  likely,  out  of  abbreviations  and  alterations  of  the  larger  letters, 
which  were  always  written  singly,  with  no  grouping  or  contracting. 
An  earlier  use  of  this  character  is,  however,  proved  by  some  remain- 
ing specimens;  it  is  found  on  a  roll  of  papyrus,  to  which  a  date  as 
early  as  104  B.  C.  has  been  conceded.  Abbreviations  of  words  were 
rarely  made  in  ancient  writing,  although  not  altogether  unusual  upon 
coins  and  inscriptions.  Such  as  were  used  were  termed  a^fttta,  oiylai, 
and  uoroyQuyuara.  They  consisted  chiefly  in  this ;  that  sometimes,  and 
principally  in  writing  proper  names,  only  the  initials  were  employed; 
or  the  middle  of  a  word  was  omitted,  and  either  written  over  it,  or 
the  omission  indicated  by  a  small  dash  :  or  several  letters  were  com- 
bined into  a  single  figure. 

J.  Nicolai,  Tractatus  de  siglis  Veterum.  Lugd.  Bat.  1706.  4. — Corsini,  Notae  Grscorum. 
Flor.  1749.  A.—Placentinius,  de  siglis  Vet.  Gnec.  Opus.  Rom.  1757.  Fol.— A.  Bccckh,  Erklarung 
einer  iEgyptischen  Urkunde  auf  Papyrus  in  griech.  Cursivschrift.  Berl.  1621.  4. — Cf.  §107.  4. 

On  the  origin  and  form  of  the  Greek  letters,  and  the  modes  of  writing,  see  also  Harles,  In. 
in  Ling.  Gr.  §  A.—Ooguet,  Or.  Laws,  &c.     P.  ii.  B.  2.  Ch.  6.— Cf.  $104. 

§  50.  The  breathings,  as  they  are  now  called,  were,  in  the  most 
ancient  writing  of  the  Greeks,  characters  occupying  a  place  in  the 
line  along  with  the  letters.  Among  the  Ionians  the  character  was  H, 
and  among  the  ^Eolians  it  was  F,  or  what  is  called  the  Digamma. 
The  former  was  joined  to  the  smooth  consonants  to  render  them  as- 
pirates, as  in  khpoNos  for  XQovog.  Subsequently,  two  smaller  signs 
were  formed  out  of  H  by  dividing  it,  K  and  4,  and  these  were  used  to 
indicate  respectively  the  presence  and  absence  of  aspiration.  After- 
wards they  were  changed,  by  transcribers  for  the  sake  of  conve- 
nience, into  another  form,  L  and  J,  and  again  after  the  ninth  centu- 
ry into  a  form,  '  and  ',  still  easier  for  writing.  The  ancient  Greek 
grammarians  sometimes  introduced  the  breathing  into  the  middle  of 
a  word,  on  the  ground  of  its  derivation  or  composition,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, nwg,  nXifilaXof.  This  practice  Mazochi  observed  in  the  Her- 
culanean  inscriptions,  and  Villoison  also  in  a  valuable  manuscript  of 
Homer  which  was  found  in  the  library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice,  be- 
longing to  the  tenth  century. 

See  Lemgoisch.  Auserles.  Bibliothck.  V.  iii.  p.  78. — Knight,  Analyt.  Ess.  on  Greek  Alphabet. 
Dawes,  de  Consonantis  sive  Adspirationis  VAU  virtute, — in  his  Miscellanea  Critica.  Lpz. 
1800.  8.     (Sect.  iv.  p.  89.  332.) 

§  51.  The  marks  called  accents  were  not  commonly  used  by  the 
Greeks,  because  the  true  intonation  of  the  language  was  sufficiently 
known  to  them,  and  of  course  such  helps  were  unnecessary.  There 
is,  at  least,  no  mention  of  them  in  the  ancient  authors,  nor  any  trace 
of  them  in  the  oldest  monuments  of  Greek  writing.  But,  when  in 
the  speech  of  common  life  many  words  received  wrong  tones,  the 
grammarians  began  in  such  cases  to  use  signs  to  indicate  the  correct 
utterance.  About  the  year  200  B.  C.  the  present  accentual  system 
was  introduced  by  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium  ;  yet  considerable  time 
elapsed  before  it  came  into  general  use.  Upon  inscriptions  belonging 
to  the  first  century  after  Christ,  the  accents  have  been  found,  but 
rarely.  Perhaps  these  marks  were  not  wholly  unknown  to  the  more 
ancient  Greeks,  being  designed  not  to  point  out  tones  for  the  reader, 
but  to  serve  as  musical  notes  for  the  singer. 

The  accented  verse  on  a  wall  in  Herculaneum,  adduced  by  Winckelmann,  [cf.  his  Works, 


32  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

(cited  §  32),  ii.  p.  124.— Cf.  Pittureant.  d'Ercol.  II.  p.  34,]  is  not  considered  genuine.     Harles, 
Int.  in  Ling.  Gr.  Supp.  I.  p.  9. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Greek  accents  is  amply  treated  by  Prof.  K.  F.  Chr.  Wagner  (Helmst. 
1807.  8),  who  refers  also  to  the  principal  works  on  the  subject.— See  Villoisori1 s'Anecd.  Graec. 
II.  131. — Harles,  Int.  in  Ling.  Gr.  §J6. — Arnaud,  Sur  les  Accents  de  la  langue  Grecque.  Mem. 
Acad.  laser,  xxxii.  432.— For  other' references,  see  P.  II.  §  5.  2,-   $7.  4.  (g). 

§  52.  Originally,  likewise,  sentences  and  their  constituent  mem- 
bers were  not  distinguished  by  any  interpunction  or  intervening  signs 
of  separation.  Not  only  were  the  sentences  without  punctuation, 
but  the  words  themselves  were  often  as  near  each  other  as  the  several 
letters  of  a  single  word.  Sometimes,  however,  on  inscriptions  the 
words  are  separated  by  points  placed  between  them.  The  invention 
of  marks  for  punctuation  is  to  be  ascribed  to  Aristophanes,  the  Greek 
grammarian  before  mentioned. 

1m.  The  whole  system  consisted  in  the  different  locations  of  a  point  or  dot ; 
if  placed  after  the  last  letter  at  the  top  or  above  it  (rslita  oriyiuf),  the  dot  in- 
dicated the  close  of  a  sentence,  or  a  period  ;  if  placed  after  the  last  letter  of  a 
word  at  the  bottom  or  under  it  (ynoariyu^),  then  the  dot  was  equivalent  to  a 
comma  ;  and  if  placed  after  the  last  letter  in  the  middle  (oTtyiuj  uiotj),  it  cor- 
responded to  a  colon  or  semicolon.  The  comma  or  hypodiastole  was  by  the 
grammarians  often  placed  between  words  which  otherwise  might  be  incor- 
rectly divided,  as,  for  example,  tanv,  iiziog,  with  the  sign  between,  that  they 
might  not  be  read  tan  ru^iog;  and  the  hyphen,  a  curved  stroke  under  the  line, 
was  sometimes  used  to  indicate  that  two  words  constituted  one  compound 
word,  as  in  xsiQioocpog.  Breaking  off  the  lines  was  sometimes  made  to  serve 
instead  of  punctuation  ;  in  this  method  (oTi/rtocog,  oti^^Sov)  every  complete 
sentence  was  made  to  begin  a  new  line,  and  often  even  the  several  members 
of  the  sentence  were  thus  arranged,  in  a  form  like  that  of  verse. 

2.  Interpunction  is  not  found  in  the  earlier  manuscripts  now  extant,  although 
written  some  centuries  after  the  time  of  Aristophanes.     Cf.  §  104  below. 

In  modern  printing,  the  following  signs  of  interpunction  are  used ;  viz. 
comma  ( — ,),  colon  ( — •),  period  ( — .),  interrogation  ( — ;),and  lately,  exclam- 
ation ( — !).  The  diastole,  or  hypodiastole,  is  used  in  some  cases  ;  asino,Tt 
(neuter  of  oarig)  and  to,  ts  (article)  to  distinguish  them  from  ore  and  tots. — 
For  other  marks,  see  Robinson  s  Translation  of  Buttmann's  Gr.  Grammar,  §15, 
29,  30. 

§  53.  The  materials,  on  which  it  was  customary  to  write  in  Greece, 
were  different  according  to  the  different  purposes  of  the  writing. 
Stone,  brass,  lead,  wood,  and  the  like,  were  employed  when  the  de- 
sign was  to  record  memorable  events  for  posterity,  or  to  promulgate 
public  decrees  or  laws.  For  common  and  private  purposes,  the  more 
usual  materials  were  leaves,  inner  bark  of  trees  ((p?.oibg) ;  afterwards, 
parchment,  wooden  tablets  simple  or  covered  with  wax,  ivory,  linen 
cloth,  and  Egyptian  paper.  The  latter,  formed  from  the  fibres  or 
bark  of  the  papyrus  (pi§?.og),  was,  according  to  the  opinion  of  some, 
first  used  in  Greece  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  but  most 
probably  earlier.  There  was  also  another  variety  of  paper  formed  of 
the  layers  of  inner  bark  (£u;.o/uotiot'),  and  another  made  from  cotton 
(yixoriov  pou%vxiag,  charta  gossypina  or  bombycina).  These  two  how- 
ever were  common  only  in  the  later  ages.  Still  later  was  the  inven- 
tion of  paper  made  from  linen  (charta  lintca)  and  from  rags  as  at  the 
present  day,  belonging  perhaps  to  the  middle  of  the  13th  century. 

The  laws  of  Solon  were  inscribed  on  tablets  of  wood,  called  u|ovtc,  which 
are  said  to  have  been  of  a  pyramidal  shape,  and  so  fixed  as  to  turn  on  a  pivot 
or  axis.  (Gellius,  Noct.  Att.  ii.  42.)  The  term  y.io%ng  was  also  applied  to 
such  tablets. — The  term  X"QT,IS  was  general,  designating  any  substance  em- 
ployed for  writing.     Skins  of  animals  rudely  prepared  (oup&iqai,  oxvrog)  seem 


MATERIALS  USED  IN  WRITING.  33 

to  have  been  used  at  an  early  period. — Parchment  was  first  prepared  at  Per- 
gamos,  whence  its  name  JJtQyauijvij.  Three  kinds  are  mentioned  ;  "that  of 
the  natural  color;  the  yellow,  the  bicolor  membrana  of  Persius  (Sat.  iii.  10), 
which  seems  to  have  been  so  called  because  one  side  of  the  leaf  was  white 
and  the  other  yellow  ;  and  the  purple,  the  parchment  being  tinged  with  that 
color,  when  silver  or  golden  letters  were  to  be  used."     Cf.  §  55. 

The  pyramidal  or  triangular  tablets  above  mentioned,  said  to  have  been  turned  upon  a  pivot 
or  axis,  may  be  illustrated  by  a  specimen  of  ancient  British  writing,  which  our  Plate  la.  pre- 
sents, in  fig.  B,  taken  from  Fry's  Pantographia  (cited  §  47).  It  exhibits  a  method  practiced  by 
the  aboriginal  Britons.  The  letters  were  cut  on  sticks,  most  commonly  squared,  sometimes 
triangular  ;  so  that  one  stick  had  three  or  four  lines.  The  triangular  sticks  were  specially  used 
for  a  peculiar  khid  of  metre,  called  triban  or  triplet,  three  lines  forming  a  stanza.  Several 
sticks  were  put  together  in  a  frame,  and  fitted  so  that  they  could  be  turned  on  their  axes  ;  thus 
each  side  might  be  easily  read. Something  similar  to  this  method  was  practiced  in  the  Ru- 
nic wands,  which  were  sticks  of  willow  inscribed  with  certain  characters,  and  used  by  the 
heathen  tribes  of  the  north  of  Europe  for  magical  ceremonies.  The  Runic  almanacs  are  simi- 
lar wands  or  sticks  used  by  the  peasants  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  for  noting  time  or  keeping 
accounts.  Cf.  W.  C.  Grimm,  Ueber  Deutsche  Runen.  Gcett.  1821.— J  Warton,  Hist.  Eng.  Po- 
etry.    Lond.  1824.  4  vols.  8.     (i.  p.  xxvi.  ss.) 

A.  II.  L.  Heeren,  Geschichte  des  Stud,  der  griech.  und  rcem.  Litteratur.  Goett.  1797-1801. 
2  vols.  8. — O.  F.  fVehrs,vom  Papier  und  den  vor  der  Erfindung  desselben  ueblich  gewesen 
Screibmassen.  Halle,  1789.  8.— Supplement.  Han.  1790.  8.— A.  F.  Pfeiffer,  Ueber  Buecher-Hand- 
schriften.  Erlang.  1810.  8. — CayJLus,  Mem.  de  1'  Acad,  des  Inscr.  xxvi. — For  an  account  of 
the  ancient  materials  for  writing,  see  also  Amer.  Quart.  Rev.  vol  u.  p.  307. —  Taylor,  as  cited 
$  58. — Schwartz,  as  cited  §  118.  1. 

§  54.  The  usual  instrument  for  writing  on  the  harder  materials, 
and  also  on  the  tablets  covered  with  wax,  was  the  style  (ori/.og,  yna- 
iftiuv,  y).vyiiov).  This  was  pointed  at  one  end,  and  broad  at  the  other 
for  the  purpose  of  erasing  letters  and  smoothing  the  surface  of  the 
wax,  if  a  mistake  were  made,  or  the  writer  for  any  reason  wished  an 
alteration.  It  was  usually  made  of  iron,  sometimes  of  ivory.  For 
drawing  the  letters  with  colors  or  some  sort  of  ink,  sometimes  a  pen- 
cil (yqacpig)  was  employed,  but  more  commonly  a  reed  (y.ai.auoc,  Sl>vu%). 
The  reed  or  cane  chiefly  used  was  that  from  Egypt  or  Cnidus.  It 
was  sharpened  and  split  for  the  purpose,  like  our  pen,  which  was  not 
known  to  the  ancients,  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century  being  the 
earliest  period  of  its  use. 

Persons  of  fortune  and  rank  often  wrote  with  a  calamus  of  silver  ;  some- 
thing probably  like  cur  silver  pens.     Both  the  styles  and  the  reeds  were  kept 

in  cases. The  earliest  evidence  of  the  use  of  the  quill  is  given  by  Isidorus, 

a  Latin  writer  of  the  7th  century,  who  employs  the  word  penna  to  designate 

a  writing  pen. The  pencil  (called  by  the  Romans  penicillus  or  ptniculus) 

was  properly  an  instrument  for  painting.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Apollo- 
dorus,  an  Athenian  painter,  B.  C.  408.     Cf.  §  222. 

Beckmann's  History  of  Inventions   (cited  §  32). — Isidorus,  Origines.  lib.  vi.   c.  13. For 

different  forms  of  the  style  and  reed,  see  Plate  I.  fig.  3,  4,  9 ;  also  in  fig.  1. 

§  55.  The  ink  was  commonly  black  (f,i/.«r,  iiikav  yQa<ptx6v)  ;  and 
was  prepared,  according  to  Pliny  and  Vitruvius,  from  soot  and  gum. 
Among  the  ancients,  the  titles  of  books  and  sometimes  of  particular 
sections  were  written  in  red  ink  (inkrog,  minium,  rubrica).  In  the 
middle  ages,  red  ink  was  much  used,  particularly  for  initial  letters, 
signatures,  borderings,  and  ornaments;  a  superior,  very  brilliant 
kind,  called  iyy.avoTov  (encaustum),  was  used  in  the  signatures  to  the 
public  documents  of  the  Greek  emperors.  The  practice  of  adorning 
the  large  initials  with  gold,  silver,  and  images,  and  of  writing  upon 
purple  or  violet-colored  parchment  with  letters  of  gold  or  silver, 
seems  to  have  commenced  in  the  later  ages,  introduced  perhaps  by 
the  Byzantines.  With  the  ancients,  however,  it  was  customary  to 
polish  the  parchment  or  paper  with  pumice-stone,  and,  for  the  sake 
of  durability  as  well  as  fragrance,  to  spread  over  it  the  oil  of  cedar, 


34  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

"  From  ancient  authors,  as  well  as  from  the  figures  in  manuscripts,  we  learn 
that  they  used  a  sponge  to  cleanse  the  reed,  and  to  rub  out  such  letters  as  were 
written  by  mistake  ;  a  knife  for  mending  the  reed ;  pumice  for  a  similar  pur- 
pose, or  to  smooth  tbe  parchment;  compasses,  for  measuring  the  distances  of 
the  lines  ;  scissors  for  cutting  the  paper ;  a  puncher,  to  point  out  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  each  line  ;  a  rule,  to  draw  lin;s  and  divide  the  sheets  into 
columns  ;  a  glass  containing  sand,  and  another  glass  filled  with  water,  proba- 
bly to  mix  with  the  ink." 

On  ink,  &c.  F.  A.  Ebert,  zur  Handschriftenkunde.  Lpz.  1825.  8.— Cf.  Horace,  Art.  Poet.  331. 
Pliny,  1.  xvi.  c.  39. 

§  56.  The  ancient  form  of  books  was  that  of  Rolls  (hk^uara),  re- 
sembling modern  charts  or  maps  when  rolled  up,  with  writing  only 
on  the  inner  side.  The  several  strips  or  leaves  of  the  parchment  or 
paper  were  glued  to  each  other  at  the  ends,  either  before  or  after  the 
writing ;  from  this  circumstance  the  first  strip  or  leaf,  that  uppermost 
on  the  roll,  was  called  rt^orroxoXlov,  and  the  last  ioyaroxoUov.  The 
whole  was  then  wound  upon  a  rod,  or  cylinder  (uaTQuklaxog,  6i<<pa?.6g), 
which  was  ordinarily  made  of  wood,  or  ivory,  and  had  at  both  ends 
projecting  ornaments,  knobs  or  the  like,  called  &xoou<p<i;Ua,  or  y.iqara. 
The  title  (tftUJto/tof)  was  written  on  the  back  of  the  protocol  visible 
after  the  winding  of  the  roll,  or  on  a  small  separate  strip  (jtittuxiov) 
attached  to  the  edge  of  the  roll.  The  book  itself,  or  whole  roll,  was 
encompassed  with  bands,  or  enclosed  in  a  case. 

Heeren  and  Gibbon  allude  to  a  singular  manuscript,  said  to  have  existed  in 
the  library  at  Constantinople  (§  76) :  "  an  ancient  manuscript  of  Homer,  on 
a  roll  of  parchment  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  length,  the  intestines,  as 
it  was  fabled,  of  a  prodigious  serpent.' — Gibbon,  Dec.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp. 
ch.  liii.  (N.  York,  1822,  vol.  v.  p.  367.; 

§  57  u.  Although  the  roll  was  the  most  common  form,  yet  the  Greeks  had 
books  of  a  quadrangular  form,  with  the  writing  on  both  sides  of  the  leaves 
(oTiiaduyocc(poi).  Such  were  termed  diJ.rot,  a  name  first  applied  to  tablets  or 
pieces  of  writing,  resembling  in  shape  the  letter  Delta.  The  invention  of  the 
quadrangular  form  is  generally  ascribed  to  Attalus  king  of  Pergamus,  but  came 
into  general  use  first  in  the  5th  century  after  Christ.  Several  leaves  or  sheets, 
folded  double,  were  placed  in  layers  one  upon  another  and  joined  by  thread  or 
strings ;  and  these  were  said  to  be  tqioou,  rsTQadia,  TitvruSia,  terniones,  quater- 
naries, &c.  according  to  the  number.  The  term  rtTQadax,  quaterniones,  was 
also  used  sometimes  to  signify  whole  books  of  this  form.  The  kind  just  de- 
scribed was  different  from  the  folded  tablets,  called  SLitv/u  (cf.  diploma,  §  118), 
which  became  specially  remarkable  in  connection  with  affairs  of  state. 

1.  The  writer  has  in  possession  a  manuscript  copy  of  the  Syriac  New  Testament,  on  parch- 
ment, of  unknown  but  very  ancient  date,  procured  by  Rev.  J.  Perkins,  from  the  Nestorians  of 
Persia.  The  form  is  quadrangular:  the  leaves  are  folded  and  placed  in  layers  in  the  manner  abovo 
described.  Generally,  four  leaves  or  sheets  are  folded  together  double,  making  eight  pages  ; 
sometimes  tliere  are  five,  making  ten  pages  ;  sometimes  but  tiiree.  These  are  stitched  together, 
and  the  layers  united  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  a  modern  book. 

2.  Tablets  of  wood  or  metal  were  often  connected  together  by  means  of  rings 
or  parchment  bands,  thus  forming  a  book  of  several  leaves. — •*'  In  the  year  1699, 
Montfaucon  purchased,  at  Rome,  a  book  of  eight  leaden  leaves  (including  two 
which  formed  the  cover),  four  inches  long  and  three  inches  wide.  Leaden 
rings  were  fastened  on  the  back,  through  which  a  small  leaden  rod  ran  to  keep 
the  leaves  together." 

The  terms  p'ip.oQ  and  ftiftliov  designated  a  book  or  volume  of  papyrus,  and 
fifuSnura  a  book  of  parchment,  when  they  were  used  distinctively.  Cf.  2  Tim. 
iv.  13. 

For  the  forms  of  rolls,  books,  and  tablets,  see  Plates  I.  and  I  a.  — Cf.  Calmefs  Dictionary  (as 
cited  $  18.  4.),  vol.  hi.  p.  93. 

§  58.  There  were  among  the  Greeks  copyists,  who  made  it  their 
business  to  transcribe  books.     Those,  who  had  distinguished  skill  in 


FORM  OF  BOOKS.   COPYISTS.  35 

writing,  were  called  xalliyqaipoi.  Those,  who  applied  themselves  to 
take  down  discourses  or  addresses,  and  so  made  use  of  notes  and  abbre- 
viations, were  named  a»;u£K>you<pi  and  ra/vy^tfoi.  Such  as  wrote  in 
golden  letters,  or  ornamented  with  golden  initial  letters  manuscripts 
in  which  places  had  been  left  for  that  purpose,  were  termed  xovooynuipoi. 
Among  the  later  Greeks,  transcribers  received  the  Roman  appellation 
of  notaries  (jiotarii).  In  the  middle  ages,  the  work  of  transcribing 
was  especially  the  employment  of  ecclesiastics  and  monks  in  the  con- 
vents and  abbeys,  in  which  there  was  usually  an  apartment  expressly 
fitted  for  the  object,  called  the  scriptorium. 

Alexandria  was  the  principal  resort  of  the  copyists  in  the  later  periods  of 
Grecian  literature.  In  the  same  edifice  with  the  celebrated  library  in  this  city 
(cf.  §  76),  were  extensive  offices  completely  fitted  up  for  the  business  of  trans- 
cribing books.  Here  the  Calligraphi  were  very  numerous  even  until  the  irrup- 
tion of  the  Arabs.  About  thirty  years  before  that  event,  the  circumstance  is 
mentioned  by  an  eye-witness.  (Theophyl.  Simocatta,  Hist.  viii.  13.) 

See  I.  Taylor,  History  of  the  Transmission  of  ancient  books  to  modern  times.  Lond.  1827.  8. 
Cf.  Jfeto  York  Review,  No.  vi.  Oct.  1838. 

§  59.  In  the  most  ancient  times,  in  Greece,  the  use  of  writing  was 
infrequent.  Many  affairs  of  civil  life,  afterwards  transacted  in  writing, 
were  then  conducted  orally;  as,  for  example,  judicial  causes,  contracts, 
and  treaties.  The  earliest  written  laws  were  those  of  Draco.  Even 
inscriptions  upon  public  monuments  and  tombs  were  very  rare  in  the 
first  ages. 

1  u.  There  is  scarcely  a  trace  in  Homer  of  written  orders  or  despatches  ;  every 
thing  of  the  kind  being  transacted  by  oral  intercourse  or  messages.  In  a  sin- 
gle instance  only,  does  he  allude  to  a  written  communication  (Iliad,  vi.  168 — 
178),  where  Prcetus  is  represented  as  sending  something  like  a  letter  with 
written  characters  (oijiara  yquxf-'ag  sv  niraxi  jcrvxrco)  by  Bellerophon  to  Jo- 
bates;  but  there  are  different  explanations  of  this  passage. 

2  u.  The  writing  of  books  seems  to  have  commenced  in  the  time  of  Pisistratus 
and  Solon,  and  its  first  fruits  were  perhaps  merely  the  recording  of  traditionary 
poetry.  It  is  not  an  improbable  supposition,  that  the  poetry  of  Homer  was  not 
committed  to  writing  by  himself,  but  that  this  was  first  done  at  a  later  period, 
and  with  the  insertion  of  many  passages  not  belonging  to  it. 

Quarterly  Review,  No.  lxxxvii. — Qoguet,  Or.  Laws,  &c.  P.  n.  bk.ii.  $6. — Mitford's  Greece, 
ch.  ii.  $3.  (note  p.  132.  vol.  t.  Bost.  ed.  1823).— On  the  question  whether  Homer  committed  his 
poems  to  writing,  cf.  also  P.  II.  §50.  4. 

§  60.  Instruction  in  the  early  periods  was  also  of  course  chiefly  oral. 
The  name  of  sages,  or  wise  men  (ooy of,  ooyiarai),  was  conferred  on  all 
who  were  distinguished  for  their  knowledge  and  thereby  enjoyed  a 
conspicuous  rank  and  influence  in  the  state.  These  men  delivered 
orally  their  doctrines  and  precepts,  which  in  later  periods  were  col- 
lected and  recorded.  In  the  first  ages,  when  the  compass  and  sum 
of  all  known  attainments  was  not  very  great,  many  and  various  kinds 
were  united  in  one  individual,  who  was  at  once  theologian,  physiolo- 
gist, speculative  and  practical  philosopher,  statesman,  lawgiver,  poet, 
orator,  and  musician.  The  subsequent  division  and  separation  of  the 
branches  of  knowledge,  contributed  to  its  advancement  and  perfection, 
although  probably  not  to  any  increase  of  its  direct  and  immediate  in- 
fluence. 


36  ARCH.EOLOGY    OF    LITERATURE    AND    ART. 


IIL—Of  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Greek  Literature, 

§  61.  During  the  time  intervening  between  Solon  (B.  C.  594)  and 
Alexander  (B.  C.  336),  Greek  literature  rose  to  its  greatest  splendor. 
In  this  period,  the  circumstances  of  the  Greeks  generally,  and  of  the 
Athenians  in  particular,  were  such  as  very  happily  conspired  to  pro- 
mote literature  and  the  arts.  Among  the  causes  which  contributed 
to  their  progress,  may  be  mentioned,  in  addition  to  the  circumstances 
already  noticed,  the  native  disposition  of  the  people,  favorably  influ- 
enced by  the  climate  and  the  physical  features  of  the  country,  the  free 
and  republican  form  of  the  government,  the  general  influence  of  their 
customs  and  usages,  their  commerce  with  other  nations,  especially  the 
Egyptians,  and  their  system  of  education,  which  was  expressly  adapted 
to  the  public  interests  of  the  community,  and  which  cultivated  in  for- 
tunate harmony  both  body  and  mind,  With  such  advantages,  the 
Greeks  became  highly  distinguished  in  the  arts,  and  were  the  first  to 
place  them  on  established  principles,  and  reduce  them  to  appropriate, 
consistent,  and  useful  rules. 

1  u.  Their  language,  which  had  already  acquired  so  much  flexibility,  copi- 
ousness, and  harmony,  was  carried  to  its  highest  perfection  in  the  period  of 
which  we  now  speak.  From  the  works  of  their  best  writers,  they  deduced  a 
system  of  rhetorical  truths  and  precepts,  embodied  with  great  discrimination 
and  skill,  and  taught  both  orally  and  in  writing.  Eloquence  and  poetry  they 
raised  to  the  greatest  eminence.  They  composed  history  with  taste,  judgment, 
and  fidelity.  Philosophy  was  one  of  their  favorite  studies,  and  was  taught  in 
various  schools  with  order  and  precision.  They  discussed  with  much  pene- 
tration many  of  the  principles  of  government  and  public  economy.  They  cul- 
tivated likewise  with  great  success  the  mathematical  sciences.  And  their 
good  taste,  the  elements  of  which  they  possessed  as  it  were  by  nature,  and 
which  was  highly  improved  by  their  devoted  attention  to  the  fine  arts,  enabled 
them  to  impart  to  the  sciences  generally  a  livelier  aspect,  and  to  render  them 
more  attractive  and  useful. 

2.  "  The  opposite  character  of  different  Hellenic  tribes,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon 
the  culture  and  literature  of  the  Greeks.  This  appears  the  most  striking  in  the  case  of  the  Io- 
nians  and  Dorians,  both  externally  and  internally.  Ionian  republicanism  and  Dorian  aristocracy 
were  long  arrayed  in  hostility  against  each  other,  and  contended  desperately  in  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war.  The  views  of  life  entertained  by  each  were  widely  different.  The  sprightly  Ionian 
sought,  with  a  light  heart,  to  clothe  life  with  various  forms  of  beauty,  and  enjoyed  the  pleasure 
of  the  moment,  and  readily  exchanged  what  Was  old  for  something  new.  The  Dorian,  reared 
among  mountains,  loved  repose  and  time-hallowed  usages  ;  enjoyed  contemplation  and  serious 
enjoyments,  and  strove  for  the  vast  and  the  sublime.  Among  the  Ionians  sprung  up,  from  real 
impressions,  the  plastic  form  of  epic  poetry  ;  from  tradition,  epic  history  ;  from  reflection  upon 
experience,  moral  sayings,  scornful  iambics,  and  elegy  ;  and,  from  pleasurable  emotions,  the 
sensual,  mirthful  song.  To  the  Dorians,  the  higher  lyric  poetry  is  indebted  for  its  formation 
and  culture  ;  it  originated  in  a  fine  sensibility  j  and  rose  to  an  earnest  enthusiasm  and  a  deep 
contemplation  of  the  divine  and  the  human.  Tne  Ionian  philosophy  commenced  with  the  ma- 
terial world  and  its  origin  ;  the  Dorian,  with  the  spiritual  world  and  with  essential  existence, 
and  separated  the  mental  phenomena  from  physics  ;  the  former  applied  itself  to  the  real  world, 
the  latter,  to  the  ideal.— Between  the  two  stood  the  ^Eolians,  with  a  lax  political  constitution, 
tending  to  disorder.  With  them  originated  the  didactic  form  of  poetry  ;  and  their  tumultuous 
passions  were  poured  forth  in  lyrics  of  a  fervid  character,  accompanied  by  similar  music. — The 
Athenians  united,  in  part,  (as  far  as  their  public  life  and  their  original  character  would  allow,) 
the  peculiarities  of  the  Ionians  and  the  Dorians, — a  lively  imagination  and  a  lofty  earnestness, 
'—carrying  both  to  the  highest  pitch  of  perfection."      Wachler,  Literatur-geschicftte,  i.  p.  103. 

§  62.  It  is  not  designed  here  to  give  a  minute  history  of  the  progress 
of  the  various  branches,  or  to  specify  and  describe  particularly  the 
writers  in  the  different  departments.  On  these  subjects  something 
more  full  will  be  given  in  another  place  (Part  II).  It  is  only  pro- 
posed now  to  point  out  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  and  fea- 
tures of  this  illustrious  period,  and  mention  the  principal  institutions 


SYSTEM  OP  EDUCATION.       GYMNASIA.  37 

and  customs,  which  served  to  awaken  intellectual  activity,  and  call 
forth  talents  of  every  kind,  and  employ  them  in  the  most  successful 
manner. 

§  63.  The  whole  system  of  education  among  the  Greeks,  was  pe- 
culiarly calculated  for  the  development  and  improvement  of  the  powers 
of  the  mind  and  of  the  body  in  common.  Gymnastics  (yvuraonxi,)  con- 
stituted an  essential  part  of  it,  and  was  taught  and  practiced  in  the 
Gymnasia  (yvuvuoia),  or  schools  for  bodily  exercise.  All  that  part  of  it, 
which  related  more  especially  to  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  went  un- 
der the  term  music  (uovoi%\)\  and  in  this  comprehensive  sense,  the 
term  is  used  by  Plutarch  and  other  ancient  writers,  when  they  speak 
of  music  as  so  indispensable  in  the  education  of  the  young,  and  as 
exerting  so  great  an  influence  on  the  temper  and  character. 

"  Plato  (Leg.  6.  Rep.  2. 17.)  includes  the  whole  of  education  (yiaidtla)  under 
the  two  parts  above  named  ;  (to  [ladi/furra  eiai  dirra  ;  )  ij  utv  ini  owuaoi,  yv^i- 
vaarixtj  ;  ij  d'  Ittl  ipv/y  uovoixir  The  former  was  divided  by  him  into  7iu).rt  and 
vQ/tjaig.  The  latter  embraced  all  the  arts  and  sciences  over  which  the  muses 
presided.  The  term  uovotxlj  was  sometimes  used,  especially  in  later  times,  in 
the  restricted  sense."  — It  may  be  important  to  remark,  that  the  Spartans  and 
Athenians  differed  very  much  as  to  their  grand  aim  in  education. 

On  the  education  of  the  Athenians,  see  Barthelemy,  Anacharsis,  ch.  xxvi.  —  On  that  of  Sparta, 
and  other  states,  Mueller,  History  and  Ant.  of  the  Doric  Race,  bk.  iv.  ch.  v.  and  vi.  —  On  the 
schools  of  the  Greeks,  see  Schwartz,  as  cited  below,  §  75. — Perizonius  ad  JElian.  V.  Hist.  n.  16. 

Respecting  the  music  of  the  Greeks,  and  its  connections,  see  O.  A.  Villoteau,  Recherches 
sur  l'Analogie  de  la  Musique  avec  la  Language.— i?.  J.  Burette,  Sur  l'ancienne  Musique,  in  the 
J\Iem.  Acad,  des  Inscr.  vol.  iv.  p.  116,  v.  133,  vm.  27,  x.  p.  111.  xv.  xvn.  61. —  Chabanon,  in  the 
same  Memoires,  vol.  xxx  v.  p.  360.  xlvi.  p.  285. — F.  Nolan,  on  the  Theoretical  Music  of  the  Greeks; 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Soc.  of  Literature,  vol.  n.  Lond.  1834.— C.  Burney,  History  of 
Music.  Lond.  1776.  3  vols.  4. — Barthelemy,  Anach.  ch.  xxvii. — For  a  notice  of  the  works  which 
treat  of  the  music  of  the  ancients,  see  J.  JV".  Forkel,  Allgem.  Geschichte  der  Musik.  Leipz.  1792. 8. 
— Sulzer's  Allg.  Theor.  der  schcen.  Kunste,  art.  Musik. 

§  64.  The  following  remarks  on  the  Gymnasia,  are  from  Barthelemy'1  s  Travels 
of  Anacharsis,  cited  P.  II.  §  153.  2. 

"  A  magistrate,  named  the  gymnasiarch,  presides  at  [has  the  charge  of]  the 
different  gymnasia  of  the  state.  It  is  his  duty  to  furnish  the  oil  made  use  of 
by  the  athletoe  to  give  suppleness  to  their  limbs.  He  has  under  him,  in  each 
gymnasium,  several  officers  ;  such  as  the  gymnastes  [who  attends  to  the  health 
and  diet  of  the  youth,  and  is  sometimes  called  iccroog]  ;  the  paidotribes  [whose 
duty  is  to  teach  the  arts  exercised  in  the  palaestra],  and  others  :  some  of  whom 
maintain  order  among  the  youth,  and  others  teach  them  different  exercises. 
At  the  head  of  these  are  ten  sophronists,  nominated  by  the  ten  tribes,  to  whom 
the  superintendence  of  the  morals  of  the  youth  is  more  especially  committed, 
and  all  of  whom  must  be  approved  by  the  Areopagus. 

As  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  confidence  and  scrutiny  should  pre- 
vail in  the  gymnasium,  as  well  as  in  all  numerous  assemblies,  thefts  committed 
there  are  punished  with  death,  when  they  exceed  the  value  of  ten  drachms. 
The  gymnasia  being  deemed  the  asylum  of  innocence  and  modesty,  Solon  had 
prohibited  the  people  from  entering  them  at  the  time  when  the  scholars,  cele- 
brating a  festival  in  honor  of  Mercury,  were  less  under  the  eye  of  their  pre- 
ceptors ;  but  this  regulation  has  fallen  into  disuse. 

The  exercises  practiced  there  are  ordained  by  the  laws,  subject  to  certain 
regulations,  and  animated  by  the  commendations  of  the  masters,  and  still  more 
by  the  emulation  that  subsists  among  the  scholars.  All  Greece  considers  them 
as  the  most  essential  part  of  education,  as  they  render  men  active,  robust,  and 
capable  of  supporting  military  labors,  as  well  as  the  leisure  hours  of  peace. 
Considered  relatively  to  health,  physicians  prescribe  them  with  success.  Of 
their  great  utility  in  the  military  art,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  higher  idea  than 
by  citing  the  example  of  the  Lacedemonians.  To  these  exercises  were  they 
indebted  for  those  victories  which  once  made  them  so  formidable  to  other  na- 
tions ;  and,  in  later  times,  in  order  to  conquer,  it  was  first  necessary  to  equal 
them  in  the  gymnastic  discipline,  —  But  if  the  advantages  resulting  from  this 
4 


38  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

institution  be  eminent,  its  abuses  are  not  less  dangerous.  Medicine  and  phi- 
losophy both  concur  in  condemning  these  exercises,  when  they  exhaust  the 
body,  or  give  more  ferocity  than  courage  to  the  mind. 

The  gymnasium  of  the  Lyceum  has  been  successively  enlarged  and  embel- 
lished. The  walls  are  enriched  with  paimings.  Apollo  is  the  tutelary  deity 
of  the  place.  His  statue  is  at  the  entrance  ;  and  the  gardens,  ornamented  with 
beautiful  alleys,  were  restored  in  the  last  years  of  my  residence  in  Greece. 
Those  who  walk  there,  are  invited  to  rest  themselves,  by  seats  placed  under  the 


§  65.  The  fact  that  the  term  music  was  used  in  the  comprehensive 
sense  above  noticed,  and  was  united  with  poetry,  rehearsals,  and  imi- 
tative gestures,  will,  if  properly  considered,  help  us  to  appreciate  more 
justly  the  musical  contests  of  the  Greeks.  These  were  regarded  as 
among  the  most  valuable  means  of  intellectual  improvement.  The 
love  of  glory  was  stimulated  by  them,  and  became  the  moving  spring 
of  the  most  intense  efforts.  They  exerted  the  greater  influence  from 
the  circumstance  of  their  being  usually  connected  with  public  and 
festival  occasions,  especially  with  the  four  solemn  games  of  the  Greeks, 
the  Olympian,  Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemean.  At  Athens  they  were 
united  with  the  Panatheneen  festival,  one  of  the  highest  interest,  and 
attended  by  vast  multitudes  of  people,  and  by  the  appointment  of  Peri- 
cles they  were  held  in  the  Odeum,  an  edifice  specially  appropriated 
for  the  purpose. 

1.  "  All  the  violence  of  the  early  ages  was  unable  to  repress  that  elegance  of 
imagination  which  seems  congenial  to  Greece.  Very  anciently  a  contention 
for  a  prize  in  poetry  and  music  was  a  favorite  entertainment  of  the  Grecian 
people  ;  and  when  connected,  as  it  often  was,  with  some  ceremony  of  religion, 
(Thuc.  3. 104.  Xen.  Mem.  Socr.  3.  c.  3,)  drew  together  large  assemblies  of  both 
sexes.  A  festival  of  this  kind  in  the  little  island  of  Delos,  at  which  Homer  as- 
sisted, brought  a  numerous  concourse  from  different  parts  by  sea;  and  Hesiod 
(Op.  and  Di.  1.  2.  v.  272)  informs  us  of  a  splendid  meeting  for  the  celebration 
of  various  games,  at  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  where  himself  obtained  the  prize  for 
poetry  and  song.  The  contest  in  music  and  poetry  seems  early  to  have  been 
particularly  connected  with  the  worship  of  Apollo.  When  this  was  carried 
from  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean  to  Delphi,  a  prize  for  poetry  was  instituted ; 
whence  arose  the  Pythian  games.  But  it  appears  from  Homer  that  games,  in 
which  athletic  exercises  and  music  and  dancing  were  alternately  introduced, 
made  a  common  amusement  of  the  courts  of  princes ;  and  before  his  time,  the 
manner  of  conducting  them  was  so  far  reduced  to  a  system  (Od.  8.  v.  258),  that 
public  judges  of  the  games  are  mentioned  as  a  kind  of  established  magistrate." 
Mltford,  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  iii.  §  4. 

2  m.  Shortly  after  the  time  of  Solon,  these  contests  existed,  under  systematic 
regulations.  They  were  termed  ayvvtc  uovac/.ol,  and  thus  distinguished  from 
the  corporeal  exercises,  which  were  called  ity&vtc  yvuvtxol.  Poets,  rhapsodists, 
actors,  pantomimes,  and  musicians  took  part  in  them.  The  judges,  uytot  otfixat, 
aywvo&ixai,  iucvftvijrat,  (iQapsvTai,  were  men  specially  distinguished  for  know- 
ledge and  taste.  They  assigned  the  theme  of  the  contest,  and  their  judgment 
on  the  comparative  merits  of  the  performers  was  decisive. 

See  Martini,  Abhandlung  von  der  Odeen  der  Alten.  Leip.  1767.  8.—B<Etligcr,  Andeutungen 
&c.  ueber  Archaeologie.  Dresden,1806.  8.— Aufsatz  von  d.  Musik.  Wettstr.  d.  Alten,  in  the  JV.  BibL 
der  sch.  Wisscnchaften,  7th  bk.  —  Du  Resnel,  Combats  et  Prix  proposes  aux  poetes  &c.  parmi  lea 
Grecs  et  les  Romains.  Mem.  Acad.  Insc.  xm.  331. 

§  66.  The  competitors  in  these  contests  were  required  to  possess 
natural  abilities,  long  and  laborious  preparation,  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  their  art,  a  well  modulated  voice,  and  skill  upon 
the  musical  instruments  which  accompanied  the  exercise,  usually  the 
lyre  or  harp.  The  order  in  which  they  performed  was  decided  by 
lot,  and  their  conduct  during  the  contest  was  prescribed   by  fixed 


LITERARY  CONTESTS.       REHEARSALS.  OVJ 

laws.  The  name  of  the  victor,  the  one  to  whom  the  judges  assigned 
the  prize,  was  proclaimed  by  a  herald.  His  reward  was  a  garland 
or  wreath  and  public  applause.  Sometimes  he  received  a  medal, 
statue,  or  poem,  dedicated  to  his  honor. 

\u.  On  these  occasions,  not  only  did  musicians  and  poets  contend,  but  ora- 
tors also  made  public  their  works  ;  as,  for  example,  Isocrates  recited  his  Pan- 
egyric at  the  Olympic  festival.  Such  recitals  were  sometimes  called  /.6y  ot 
blvuniY.di ;  among  them  may  be  included  what  were  called  fTtfot^ic,  public 
discussions  of  the  sophists.  Even  historians  were  allowed  to  engage  in  those 
exercises.  We  have  an  example  in  Herodotus,  who  is  said  to  have  recited 
his  history  at  the  Olympic  games,  in  the  hearing  of  Thucydides,  then  a  mere 
youth. 

2.  At  the  festivals  held  in  honor  of  Bacchus  at  Athens,  especially  those 
termed  Jiortiaia utjala  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  77.  3),  there  were  contests,  in  which  the 
representation  of  dramatical  pieces  had  a  place.  The  poet  who  sought  the 
prize  must  produce  four  or  at  least  three,  forming  together  one  complete  fa- 
ble, each  of  which  might  be  compared  to  a  single  statue  belonging  to  a  group. 
The  four  dramas  must  consist  of  three  tragedies  and  one  satyre.  The  com- 
plete suit  of  four  pieces  constituted  what  was  called  the  rtTQaXoyia  ;  the  three 
tragedies  formed  the  TQiZoyla.  On  the  days  of  the  exhibition,  the  theatre  was 
opened  at  sunrise,  and  it  seems  that  the  people  could  sit  out  all  the  pieces  of- 
fered, sometimes  to  the  number  of  nine  tragedies  and  three  satyres.  Five 
judges  then  decided  upon  the  merits  of  the  competitors  and  bestowed  the  prize. 

Schall,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  liv.  m.  ch.  2.—Barthelcmy,  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  90. 

3.  "  A  tripod  seems  to  have  been  the  peculiar  reward  bestowed  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Athens  on  that  choragus  [jgogqy&f,  cf.  P.  IV.  §  103],  who  exhibited  the 
best  musical  or  theatrical  entertainment ;  and  we  find  that  this  custom  ob- 
tained for  these  tripods  the  name  of  choragic  tripods.  It  was  customary  for 
the  victor  to  dedicate  the  tripod  he  had  won  to  some  divinity,  and  to  place  it 
either  on  one  of  the  temples  already  built,  or  on  the  top  of  some  edifice  erect- 
ed and  consecrated  by  him  for  the  purpose.  A  tripod  thus  dedicated  was  al- 
ways accompanied  with  an  inscription  ;  so  that  it  became  a  permanent,  au» 
thentic,  and  public  monument  of  the  victory,  and  of  the  person  who  ob- 
tained it." 

Stuart,  Diet,  of  Architecture.— Cf.  P.  V.  $  115. — For  choragic  monuments,  see  Plate  VI. 
fig.  a.  and  c.    Cf.  Description  of  Plates. 

§  67.  Usually  the  Grecian  writers  were  accustomed  to  make 
known  their  works  in  prose  and  poetry  by  recitation  or  rehearsal, 
rather  than  by  circulating  manuscripts.  They  read  or  rehearsed  them- 
selves, and  procured  it  to  be  done  by  others,  in  order  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  opinions  of  hearers  and  judges.  This  was  done  some- 
times publicly,  sometimes  privately.  When  it  was  public,  the  reader 
had  an  elevated  seat  (&o6voc),  and  the  hearers  sat  around  on  benches, 
They  communicated  their  judgment  of  his  work,  and  of  particular 
parts  of  it,  either  by  silence,  which  according  to  the  motions  and  ex- 
pressions of  countenance  connected  with  it,  might  signify,  on  the 
one  hand,  admiration  and  praise,  and  on  the  other,  censure  and  con- 
tempt ;  or  by  audible  testimonials  of  approbation,  with  the  words 
xa;.w$,  ao(pwc,  and  the  like,  and  by  loud  applause  (y.oLroz),  at  the  close 
of  the  reading.  They  sometimes  gave  more  decided  applause  by 
conducting  the  author  to  his  residence  with  marks  of  honor. — Some* 
times,  however,  the  author  submitted  his  manuscript  to  the  perusal 
of  others,  who  then  might  place  their  criticisms  and  remarks  upon 
the  margin. 

§  68.  It  was  very  common  for  the  Greeks  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  service  of  a  class  of  persons,  whom  they  called  umynio-Tcu,  read- 


40  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

ers,  who  made  it  their  business  to  read  aloud  or  recite  to  hearers  the 
works  of  the  more  distinguished  authors.  The  times  selected  for 
the  purpose  were  the  hours  of  the  greatest  leisure,  those  assigned  to 
meals,  or  for  bathing  and  so  forth.  These  readers  themselves  culti- 
vated letters,  and  especially  strove  to  acquire  a  correct,  agreeable, 
and  commanding  style  of  elocution.  They  usually  read  the  works 
of  poets,  orators,  and  historians.  Pythagoras  is  supposed  to  have  in- 
troduced this  practice.  It  doubtless  took  its  rise  from  an  early  Greek 
custom,  mentioned  by  Homer  ;  according  to  which,  lyric  songs  and 
epic  rhapsodies  were  sung  by  the  poets  themselves,  or  by  other  sing- 
ers, who,  as  well  as  the  poets,  played  upon  musical  instruments. 

The  custom  of  reading  at  meals  still  prevails  to  some  extent  in  the  east. — 
"  The  mind  was  also  fed  during  the  repast,  by  a  long  story  about  Echmiadzin, 
read  by  a  monk  from  a  sort  of  Orchestra  above  us.  A  still  longer  oration  fol- 
lowed, pronounced  from  a  manuscript,  by  the  vartabed  at  the  head  of  the  ta- 
ble."— See  account  of  convent  at  Echmiadz.  in  Smith  and  Dwight,  cited  §  36. 

§  69.  The  literary  feasts  of  the  Greeks,  termed  symposia  (ovu7i6oux)y 
are  evidence  that  they  sought  to  avail  themselves  of  every  opportuni- 
ty for  the  mutual  interchange  of  literary  acquisition,  even  in  the 
hours  of  recreation  and  social  amusement.  Such  table-intercourse 
the  philosophers,  especially,  maintained  with  their  young  scholars  in 
the  Prytaneum,  the  Academy,  the  Lyceum,  &c.  There  were  rules 
for  directing  the  conduct  and  conversation  at  these  repasts  of  the 
schools ;  as,  for  example,  a  code  or  system  of  the  kind  was  prepared 
by  Xenocrates  for  the  symposia  of  the  Academy,  and  by  Aristotle 
for  those  of  the  Lyceum.  Banquets  of  this  sort  were  also  adopted 
as  a  mode  of  celebrating  the  birth-day  and  memory  of  teachers  and 
founders  of  the  schools,  or  other  distinguished  persons.  The  excel- 
lent dialogues  of  Plato  and  Xenophon,  entitled  2v/nn6oiov,  and  2vtu- 
noaiov  ipi?.oo6(pix)v,  the  piece  ascribed  to  Plutarch  with  the  title  "Enia 
aotpcov  ovfi7c6aiov,  and  the  work  of  Athenaeus  styled  Jtuivoaocpiorai,  fur- 
nish the  reader  with  the  best  idea  of  this  form  of  social  entertain- 
ment among  the  wise  men  of  Greece. 

See  Eschenbach's  Diss,  de  Symposiis  sapientum,  in  his  Dissertt.  Jlcadem.  Norimb.  1795.  8. 
Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xx'iv.  p.  421. 

§  70.  Among  the  Greeks,  there  were  not,  as  in  modern  times,  sep- 
arate and  distinct  learned  professions,  or  faculties  as  they  have  been 
termed.  The  compass  and  objects  of  knowledge  were  far  less  de- 
fined, and  the  studies  and  attainments  of  the  individual  more  miscel- 
laneous. The  study  of  the  national  language,  the  constitution  of  the 
state,  and  the  nature  of  man,  constituted  the  main  scope  of  liter- 
ary exertion  ;  and  whatever  methods  of  discipline,  whatever  knowl- 
edge, or  whatever  practical  skill,  could  apparently  subserve  this,  was 
received  as  an  important  part  of  the  common  education  of  youth. 
There  was  constant  occasion  to  apply  the  general  knowledge  ac- 
quired, to  actual  life,  which  interfered  with  long  or  eager  pursuit  of 
theory  and  speculation  in  particular  branches. 

§  71.  In  the  system  of  mental  training  or  education  (naiSila  y  Inl 
ipvxy),  one  of  the  first  parts  was  grammar.  Although  this  had  ref- 
erence solely  to  the  native  tongue,  it  was  yet  a  study  comprehending 
much  more  than  is  now  usually  understood  by  the  term.     The  art 


METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION.       PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 


41 


of  speaking  and  writing  correctly,  which  was  made  a  primary  thing 
in  the  Grecian  system,  was  termed  rQauuariariy.i'h  and  the  teacher, 
rqauuarianlg.  But  under  rQauuaTixlj,  or  grammar,  was  included  not 
only  a  knowledge  of  the  language,  but  also  something  of  poetry,  elo- 
quence, and  history,  and  even  the  elements  of  philosophy,  at  least  in 
its  applications  to  these  branches ;  and  the  teachers,  who  were  called 
grammarians,  ryauuany.bi,  imparted  this  various  instruction.  Plato 
especially  called  the  attention  of  the  Greeks  to  the  necessity  and 
utility  of  such  knowledge.  The  usual  division  of  grammar,  in  its 
more  appropriate  sense,  was  into  two  parts ;  pe6o8ixlh  which  present- 
ed the  rules  and  principles,  and  ihiynny.]h  which  explained  the  nature 
and  meaning  of  words  and  phrases. 

See  C.  D.  Beck's  Commentar.  de  Uteris  et  auctoribus  Graec.  atque  Lat.    Lips.  1789.  8.  p.  47. 

§  72.  A  very  favorite  study  of  the  Greeks  was  'philosophy.  The 
name  of  philosophy  was  originally  applied  to  all  inquiries  about  the 
nature  of  the  Deity,  the  origin  and  destiny  of  men,  and  the  phenom- 
ena and  powers  of  the  physical  world.  Afterwards  the  consideration 
of  physical  topics  was  in  a  considerable  degree  excluded.  It  was  a 
special  effort  of  Socrates  to  direct  the  investigations  of  philosophy  to 
the  various  subjects  of  morals  and  religion,  to  questions  of  private 
and  public  virtue  and  right.  A  glance  at  the  several  sects  and 
schools  of  Greek  philosophy  will  be  given  (P.  II.  §  166,  ss.),  when 
we  speak  of  the  history  of  literature,  and  the  principal  writers.  But 
this  is  a  proper  place  to  notice  an  important  distinction  made  among 
the  philosophers,  between  their  exoteric  and  esoteric  doctrines,  X6yot 
Z$(aTsQiy.bi,  and  ioviTsoixbi.  The  exoteric  comprehended  only  the  prin- 
ciples and  precepts,  which  they  taught  publicly  to  all  their  hearers 
and  to  the  people  ;  the  esoteric  included  also  their  secret  views  and 
maxims  (ooo^to),  which  were  disclosed  only  to  their  particular  dis- 
ciples and  adepts,  and  upon  which  in  public,  both  orally  and  in  their 
writings,  they  expressed  themselves  obscurely  in  enigmatic  and  fig- 
urative language.     (Warburton,  Div.  Legat.  of  Moses.) 

§  73.  Various  methods  of  giving  instruction  were  employed  by 
the  philosophers.  The  one  most  adapted  to  their  object  was,  with- 
out much  doubt,  the  dialogistic,  the  form  of  an  actual  dialogue  be- 
tween the  teacher  and  pupil.  The  philosopher  beginning  with  the 
simplest  and  most  obvious  truths  or  admitted  principles,  advanced 
step  by  step  with  his  disciple,  hearing  and  answering  his  questions 
and  doubts,  and  thus  conducting  him  imperceptibly  to  a  conviction 
of  what  the  master  would  teach.  This  manner  was  first  used  by 
Zeno  of  Elea,  but  was  improved  by  Socrates  into  a  regular  and  skill- 
ful art,  and  is  thence  called  the  Socratic  method.  The  method, 
however,  was  employed  chiefly  with  such  disciples  as  were  supposed 
to  have  already  acquired  the  first  elements  of  philosophy,  and  to  be 
now  prepared  to  pursue  investigations  after  truth,  in  common  with 
their  teacher.  Plato  adopts  this  dialogistic  form  in  his  writings. 
Other  methods  were  used,  however,  in  philosophical  instructions,  as 
the  eristic  {ioian/.]),  the  syllogistic,  and  the  mathematical. 

§  74.  The  first  and  most  celebrated  public  school  at  Athens  was 
the  Academy,  a  building  which  belonged  to  the  Ceramicus  (/<>?«- 
fisixbg),  without  the  proper  limits  of  the  city,  surrounded  by  a  grove 
4* 


42  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

with  shady  walks.  Plato  was  the  first  teacher  here,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  various  disciples,  who,  from  the  place  of  instruction,  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Academics.  The  Lyceum,  the  school  of  Aris- 
totle, was  an  enclosure  on  the  banks  of  the  Ilyssus,  also  without  the 
proper  city,  and  sacred  to  Apollo ;  as  Aristotle  and  his  successors 
were  accustomed  to  give  instruction  in  the  place  for  walking  (moi- 
Trarog),  they  were  called  the  Peripatetics.  Another  building  in  the 
suburbs  of  Athens,  called  Cynosarges,  and  originally  a  gymnasium 
or  school  for  the  bodily  exercises,  was  the  place  where  philosophy 
was  taught  by  Antisthenes  and  his  followers ;  and  this,  without  re- 
gard to  their  doctrines,  may  have  given  them  the  name  of  Cynics. 
Within  the  limits  of  the  city  was  the  celebrated  portico,  called  Poe- 
cile  (noixtirj),  from  its  various  paintings,  and,  by  way  of  eminence, 
the  Stoa  (zroa) ;  here  Zeno  from  Cyprus  opened  his  school,  and 
thus  attached  to  his  disciples  the  appellation  of  Stoics.  The  garden 
of  Epicurus  should  also  be  mentioned  here,  as  it  was  in  this,  his  own 
private  retreat,  that  he  taught  his  disciples,  who  are  thence  sometimes 
called  philosophers  of  the  garden.  After  Greek  philosophy  was 
transplanted  to  Alexandria,  the  Museum,  in  the  part  of  the  city 
called  Bruchion,  was  famous  as  the  place  where  instruction  was  given 
by  numerous  teachers. 

Besides  these  public  schools  of  philosophy,  there  were  at  Athens  common 
schools,  established  at  an  earlier  period  by  Solon,  in  which  elementary  in- 
struction was  given  in  the  different  branches  of  education.  The  schools  of 
the  sophists  must  be  distinguished  from  both.     (Cf.  P.  II.  §  108.) 

§  75m.  The  teachers  in  these  and  other  schools  among  the  Greeks,  enjoyed 
unlimited  freedom  in  the  expression  of  their  views  and  principles,  both  upon 
theological  and  philosophical  subjects.  The  government  provided  for  the  ex- 
ternal management  and  discipline  of  the  schools  (§  64),  and  some  regulations 
on  this  subject  are  found  in  the  laws  of  Solon.  The  teachers  were  constant- 
ly attentive  to  the  preservation  of  this  discipline.  The  rigid  discipline,  es- 
pecially of  the  Lacedemonians  in  their  early  education,  was  celebrated  in  an- 
cient times,  although  it  was  sometimes  more  severe  than  judicious  ;  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  annual  scourging  (diauaoriywoic,)  of  boys  at  the  altar  of  Dia- 
na Orthia. 

See  Craqii  (Craig),  de  Rep.  Laced.  1670.— Potter,  Arch.  Grsc.  bk.  ii.  ch.  20.— Mueller,  Hist, 
and  Ant.  Doric  Race,  bk.  ii.  ch.  9.  §  G.—F.  H.  Q.  Schwartz,  Erziehungslehre—  (Geschichte  der 
Erziehung).     1829.     Vol.  i.  p.  231-430 Wachler,  Geschichte  der  Liter.     Vol.  i.  p.  105. 

§  76 1.  Among  the  means  of  promoting  knowledge  enjoyed  by  the 
Greeks,  we  must  mention  their  libraries,  some  of  which  are  celebrat- 
ed in  history. 

\u.  The  first  considerable  collection  of  books  at  Athens  was  made  by  Pis- 
istratus.  This  collection  is  said  to  have  been  borne  away  with  other  booty  by 
Xerxes  on  his  capture  of  that  city,  and  to  have  been  restored  by  Seleucus 
Nicator,  king  of  Syria.  Sylla  gained  possession  of  it  when  he  took  the  city 
of  Athens,  B.  C.  85,  and  removed  it  to  Rome. 

2u.  Another  library  of  much  value  is  said  to  have  been  gathered  by  Aris- 
totle aided  by  the  munificence  of  Alexander,  which  also,  after  many  accidents, 
according  to  the  account  of  Strabo,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sylla  at  the  same 
time,  and  was  carried  to  Rome. 

3  u.  King  Attalus  and  his  son  Eumenes  collected  a  large  library  at  their  cap- 
ital Pergamus.  This  contained  200,000  and  according  to  some  statements 
300,000  volumes,  most  of  which  were  conveyed  to  Egypt,  and  being  added, 
by  Cleopatra  or  Antony,  to  the  still  more  famous  library  of  Alexandria,  finally 
shared  in  its  miserable  fate. 

4.  The  library  of  Alexandria,  the  most  celebrated  of  ancient  times  ,was  com- 
menced by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  numbered  among  its  keepers   various 


LIBRARIES.       TRAVELS.  43 

distinguished  Greeks,  as  Demetrius  Phalereus,  Callimachus,  Eratosthenes, 
Apollonius  Rhodius,  and  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium.  It  suffered  repeated 
disasters  and  losses  and  was  again  improved  and  enlarged  ;  the  largest  number 
of  volumes  mentioned  as  belonging  to  it  is  about  700,000  ;  the  library  in  the* 
Bruchion  containing  about  400,000,  and  that  in  the  Serapeion  containing  about 
150,000.  Different  accounts  are  given  of  its  final  destruction,  some  ascribing 
it  to  the  mistaken  zeal  of  Christians  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  and 
others,  to  the  fury  of  the  Saracens  under  Omar,  A.  D.  642. 

5.  There*was  also  at  Constantinople  a  large  library  of  Latin  and  Greek 
authors,  commenced  probably  by  Constantius,  the  son  of  Constantine,  and 
greatly  augmented  by  Julian.  Its  contents  gradually  increased  to  120,000  vol- 
umes. It  was  finally,  with  valuable  collections  in  the  arts,  committed  to  the- 
flames  amid  the  dissensions  in  the  time  of  Zeno  and  Basiliscus  or  Basilices, 
about  A.  D.  477. 

Respecting  these  libraries,  see  Heeren's  Geschichte  des  Stud,  der  class.  Literat.  as  cited 
§  53. —  Wackier,  Geschichte  der  Literat.  I.  173. — Heyne,  de  Interim  Operum  artis  priscas  etc.  in 
Commentat.  Soc.  Oott.  vol.  xn. — "  Rheinisches  Museum,  No.  i." — Ch.  D.  Beck,  Specimen  His- 
toriae  Bibliothecarum  Alexandrinarum.  Lpz.  1779.4. — C.  Rcinhard,  ueber  die  juengsten  Schick- 
sale  der  Alex.  Bibliothek. — Banamy,  La  Bibliotheque  d'Alexandrie.  Mem.  Acad.  laser,  ix.  397. 
— Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xvi.329. — See  also  an  account  of  an  Athenian  Library  in  Barthclemy'a 
Anacharsis,  ch.  xxix. 

§  77.  Although  the  Greeks  were  exceedingly  jealous  of  their  na- 
tional honor,  and  were  especially  solicitous  to  secure  to  their  litera- 
ture the  merit  and  praise  of  being  an  original  possession  carried  to- 
perfection  by  native  resources,  yet  they  did  not  wholly  reject  the  ad- 
vantage resulting  from  acquaintance  with  the  arts  and  sciences  of 
other  lands.  They  frequently  traveled  in  those  countries,  which  were 
most  distinguished  for  their  advancement  in  knowledge,  especially  in 
Egypt*  To  the  latter  the  Greeks  were  much  indebted  in  matters  per- 
taining to  intellectual  culture,  as  well  as  in  reference  to  their  civil 
and  religious  institutions.  Nor  did  the  Greeks  neglect  domestic 
travel ;  they  were  accustomed  to  visit  the  most  distinguished  provinces, 
regions  and  cities,  to  gain  personal  knowledge  of  what  might  be  curi- 
ous or  useful,  and  their  observations  were  sometimes  committed  to 
writing.  By  such  travels  at  home  and  in  foreign  lands,  most  of  the 
distinguished  men  of  Greece  sought  to  increase  and  perfect  their  at- 
tainments. Here  might  be  named,  as  instances,  Homer,  Lycurgus, 
Thales,  Pythagoras,  Solon,  Herodotus,  Anaxagoras,  Hippocrates,  Pla- 
to, Aristotle,  Polybius,  Strabo,  Pausanias,  and  many  others. 

See  Francii  Exercitat.  Acad,  de  peregrinatione  veterum  sapientium,  eruditionis  ergo  suscep- 
ta.  Lips.  1679.  4. 


IV.     Of  the  decline  of  Greek  Literature. 

§  78.  From  its  brilliant  state  previous  to  the  time  of  Alexander, 
Greek  literature  gradually  declined.  Among  the  causes  were  the  in- 
creasing luxury  and  consequent  effeminacy  and  remissness  of  the 
people,  and  the  various  internal  political  commotions,  which  followed 
the  death  of  Alexander.  In  fact,  the  declension  began  with  the  first 
loss  of  their  independence  under  the  supremacy  of  Philip.  And 
when  at  last  they  became  a  prey  to  Roman  ambition,  at  the  fall  of 
Corinth,  and  when,  somewhat  later,  Athens  herself  was  plundered, 
partially  at  least,  of  her  stores  of  learning  and  art  by  Sylla,  the 
Greeks,  by  being  wholly  deprived  of   liberty,  were  bereft  of  their 


44  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

highest  motives  to  exertion.  Their  native  vigor  and  originality  nor 
longer  showed  itself,  except  in  a  few  single  efforts,  and  finally  sunk 
prostrate  under  foreign  oppression  and  domestic  corruption. 

§  79.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  knowledge  and  use  of  the  Greek 
language  was  greatly  extended  after  the  conquests  of  Alexander.  Many  cities 
were  built  by  him  in  the  east,  which  were  inhabited  chiefly  by  Greeks.  Be- 
fore the  time  of  Christ  the  language  had  become  familiar  throughout  Palestine. 
The  Latin  writers  bear  ample  testimony  to  the  general  diffusion  of  Greek. 
The  words  of  Cicero  are,  Grceca  leguntur  in  omnibus  fere  gentlbus.  The  Ro- 
mans were  obliged  to  adopt  this  for  their  official  laguage,  in  the  eastern  pro- 
vinces. Even  when  the  seat  of  the  Roman  government  was  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople and  a  special  effort  was  made  to  introduce  the  Latin,  it  was  but 
partially  successful.  The  emperor  Justinian  found  it  necessary  to  publish 
his  Institutes,  Code  and  Pandects  in  Greek,  as  well  as  Latin,  because  the  lat- 
ter was  so  imperfectly  understood  by  his  subjects  and  civilians. — In  the  fourth 
century  the  Greek  language  seems  to  have  been  employed  to  some  extent  in 
Nubia  and  Abyssinia. 

See  Gibbon'' s  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  liii.  (vol.  v.  p.  364,  N.  York,  1822.)— Home's  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  the  Scrip,  vol.  n.  P.  i.  ch.  i.  §  2. — Lctronne,  as  cited  §  92.  5.  Mem.  dc  VInst.  &c.  ix. 
p.  170. — The  Byzantine  Greek  was  corrupted  by  the  intermixture  of  many  words  from  the 
Latin  and  other  languages. — See  Ducange,  Diss,  de  causis  corruptee  Grrecitatis. —  Gibbon,  Hist, 
ch.  lxvi.  (vol.  vi.  p.  261.) — Sclucll,  Litt.  Gr.  l.  vi.  ch.  lxxi. 

§  80.  From  the  period  whence  we  date  the  decline  of  Greek  literature  it 
appears  less  national  in  its  character.  This  probably  was  not  owing  wholly 
to  the  circumstance  that  the  Greeks  were  no  longer  their  own  masters.  Some- 
thing must  be  allowed  for  the  fact,  that  the  literature  of  the  subsequent  peri- 
ods was  not  the  growth  of  the  native  soil  of  Greece,  but  the  product  of  places 
without  her  proper  limits  and  remote  from  the  scene  of  her  early  struggles 
and  successes.  It  was  chiefly  at  Rhodes,  Pergamus  and  Alexandria,  that  let- 
ters were  cultivated.  Athens  was  no  longer  the  capital  and  mistress  of  the 
literary  world  ;  although  for  a  long  time  after  her  submission  to  Rome  her 
schools  were  the  resort  of  youth  for  completing  their  education.  Even  in  this 
respect,  however,  she  had  rivals.  Apollonia  on  the  shore  of  the  Hadriatic  was 
celebrated  for  its  cultivation  of  Greek  literature,  and  honored  as  the  place 
where  Augustus  finished  his  studies.  Massilia  in  Gaul,  now  Marseilles,  a 
little  later  gained  still  greater  celebrity  for  its  schools  of  science.  Antioch, 
Berytus,  and  Edessamay  also  be  mentioned  as  places  where  Greek  was  studied 
after  the  Christian  era. 

See  SektcM,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  livre  v.  ch.  50. — Heereri's  Gesch.  des  Stud,  der  griech  und  roem.  Litt. 
$  28.  cited  §  53. 

§  81.  At  different  times  during  the  decline  of  Greek  letters,  royal  and  im- 
perial patronage  was  not  wanting.  Very  liberal  encouragement  was  afforded 
by  some  of  the  first  Ptolemies  at  Alexandria  to  all  the  arts  and  studies,  espec- 
ially by  Philadelphus  At  Pergamus,  also,  great  efforts  were  made  by  Attalus 
and  Eumenes  to  foster  learning.  Among  the  Roman  Emperors,  likewise,  there 
were  patrons  of  Greek  literature.  Under  the  Antonini  there  was  a  little  fresh 
blooming  both  in  Greek  and  Roman  letters  ;  and  Aurelius  Antoninus  espec- 
ially befriended  the  cultivation  of  philosophy  and  bestowed  privileges  upon 
Athens.  Julian  the  Apostate  cultivated  and  patronized  Greek  studies,  and 
allowed  considerable  stipends  to  teachers  in  the  schools  of  pagan  philosophy. 
He  is  said  to  have  erected  at  Constantinople  the  royal  portico,  where  was  lodg- 
ed the  library  already  mentioned  (§  76),  and  where  also  was  established  a  sort 
of  College  for  giving  instruction  in  the  arts  and  sciences.  At  a  later  period 
some  emulation  was  awakened  among  Greek  scholars  in  the  east  by  the  zeal 
and  inquiries  of  the  Arabian  Caliphs,  who  were  liberal  patrons  of  learning, 
especially  at  Bagdad. 

See  Gibbon,  Hist  Rom.  Emp.  ch  liii.  (vol.  v.  p.  367,  ed.  cit.1 — Herren,  Gesch.  des  Stud,  der 
griech.  und  roem.  Litter.  $70.— Berington,  Literary  History  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Lond.  1814. 4. 
Appendix  i. 

§  82.*  In  speaking  of  the  circumstances  connected  with  the  de- 
cline of  Greek  literature,  the  suppression   of  the  philosophical  and 


SUPPRESSION    OP   SCHOOLS.       LOSS    OF    BOOKS.  45 

rhetorical  schools  at  Athens,  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  is  usually 
mentioned  and  lamented. 

These  schools  had  existed  from  the  time  of  Socrates  and  Plato.  In  them  the 
most  distinguished  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  had  taught  numerous  disci- 
ples native  and  foreign.  While  sustained  they  kept  alive  a  taste  and  love  for 
Greek  literature  and  philosophy.  They  were  only  partially  interrupted  by  the 
subjection  of  Athens  to  Rome,  and  afterwards  were  warmly  supported  by  some 
of  the  Roman  emperors,  particularly  by  Julian,  who,  as  has  just  been  mention- 
ed, allowed  a  stipend  to  the  teachers  in  them.  Hadrian  also  is  said  to  have 
furnished  them  with  the  means  of  procuring  books.  But  they  were  entirely 
suppressed  by  Justinian,  A.  D.  529  ;  not,  it  is  said,  because  he  was  hostile  to 
schools  or  philosophy,  but  because  the  teachers  opposed  his  efforts  to  exter- 
pate  paganism.  Dimascius,  Simplicius,  and  other  philosophers  were  obliged 
to  leave  Athens,  and  fled  to  the  protection  of  Chosroes  king  of  Persia. 

Although  Greek  literature  had  been  declining  for  many  centuries,  and  these 
schools  had  not  hindered  its  wane,  still  their  suppression  probably  hastened  the 
entire  oblivion,  into  which  it  soon  fell  in  the  west  :  because  after  this  event 
there  was  less  literary  intercourse  between  the  west  and  the  east. 

See  Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy,  b.  ii.  ch.  ii.  (vol.  n.  p.  327.  Dubl.  1792.)  Gibbon's  Hist. 
Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xl.  7.  (vol.  iv.  p.  90.  N.  York,  1822.)—  Meursius,  Fortuna  Attica,  ch.  viii.  p.  59. 
in  his  Opera,  t.  i. — Ritter,  History  of  Philosophy,  as  cited  P.  II.  §  467.— JVeander,  Kirchenge- 
schichte,  bk.  ii.  Abth.  i. 

§  83.*  The  essential  and  fundamental  contrariety  of  the  Christian 
religion  to  the  whole  spirit  of  pagan  philosophy  and  mythology,  is  a 
circumstance  proper  here  to  be  noticed.  It  was  not  at  all  strange 
that  Christians  should  neglect  to  study  the  pagan  writings,  except  as 
they  wished  to  arm  themselves  for  the  defence  of  their  own  faith. 

1.  Opposition  to  the  cultivation  of  heathen  literature  early  appeared,  but 
there  was  not  perfect  agreement  among  the  Fathers  on  the  subject.  The 
council  of  Carthage,  A.  D.  398,  formally  condemned  it.  Yet  many  distin- 
guished Fathers  recommended  the  study  of  Greek  learning.  Basil  wrote  a 
treatise  in  favor  of  it  (cf.  P.  II.  §  292.  2).  Origen  carefully  taught  it,  and 
was  applauded  for  the  same  by  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  his  disciples,  Gre- 
gory Thaumaturgus.  Chrysostom  and  Gregory  of  Nazianzen  also  advocated 
this  study.  Indeed  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church  as  a  body  appears  to  have 
been  inclined  to  favor  it,  while  the  Western  or  Latin  Church  was  strongly 
opposed  to  it.  There  was,  nevertheless,  a  general  disrelish  for  every  thing 
connected  with  paganism,  which  would  naturally  tend  to  accelerate  the  grow- 
ing neglect  of  the  productions  of  Grecian  literature. 

The  Christians  had  their  seminaries  designed  for  the  education  of  the  ma- 
turer  class  of  youth,  and  such  especially  as  were  to  become  religious  teachers. 
But  the  sacred  Scriptures  were  the  basis  of  instruction. 

See  Enfield's  Hist.  Phil.  bk.  vi.  ch.  ii.  (p.  276,  ed.  cited  above.)— Mosheim's  Ecc.  Hist,  by 
Murdock,  vol.  i.  p.  100 — H.  Hallam's  View  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  ch.  ix.— Prof.  R. 
Emerson,  On  the  Catechetical  School,  or  Theological  Seminary,  at  Alexandria.  Bibl.  Repos. 
No.  xm. —  Tischimer,  Der  Fall  des  Heidenthums. — Nearuler's  Chrysostomus,  p.  6. —  Ullmann'a 
Gregorius  von  Nazianzen,  p.  22. 

2.  Nothing  in  the  above  remarks  implies  that  Christianity  has  been  in  its  in- 
fluence unfavorable  to  the  progress  of  mind.  On  the  contrary  it  has  unspeaka- 
bly elevated  the  human  intellect,  and  advanced,  on  the  whole,  more  than  any 
other  cause,  the  interests  of  science  and  literature.  It  proposed  and  has  ac- 
complished a  mighty  mental  revolution,  opening  wider  and  more  extensive 
channels  of  thought,  imparting  keener  sensibility  to  the  feelings  of  the  heart, 
and  giving  ample  scope  to  all  the  noble  energies  of  man.  The  happy  results 
of  this  will  go  on  accumulating  to  the  end  of  the  world. 

On  the  influence  of  Christianity  upon  Society,  see  Christ.  Sped.  vol.  v.  p.  409. — On  its  in- 
fluence upon  Literature,  see  Schlegd's  Hist.  Lit.  (lectures  4  and  6.)—  Christ.  Spect.  vol.  vi. 
p.  57.— See  also,  on  the  whole  subject,  C.  Fillers,  Essay  on  the  Reformation  by  Luther,  (witll 
Introduction  by  J>r.  S.  Miller.)    Phil.  1834.  8. 

§  84.*  The  great  loss  of  classical  manuscripts,  after  the  Christian 
era,  is  justly  regretted  by  all.     The  chief  source  of  this  loss  was 


46  ARCHAEOLOGY    OP    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

the  destruction  of  the  great  libraries,  which  has  been  previously 
mentioned  (§  76).  The  destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  library  was 
especially  felt,  because  it  was  in  connection  with  this  library  that  the 
greatest  establishment  for  copying  and  multiplying  manuscripts  had 
existed.     (Cf.  §  58.) 

There  were  other  causes  that  contributed  to  diminish  the  number  of  classi- 
cal manuscripts. — Private  hostility  to  the  writings  of  particular  authors  occa- 
sioned some  losses.  It  was  a  custom,  both  with  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans, 
to  sentence  the  writings  of  individual  authors  to  the  flames,  as  a  kind  of  pun- 
ishment or  to  hinder  the  circulation  of  objectionable  sentiments.  The  prac- 
tice was  adopted  in  the  Christian  church.  In  the  middle  ages  this  hostility 
was  in  some  instances  directed  against  classical  authors,  and  different  emper- 
ors at  Constantinople  are  said  to  have  been  induced  to  burn  the  existing  cop- 
ies of  several  of  the  ancient  poets. 

Some  loss  also  may  be  ascribed  to  private  negligence  and  ignorance,  if  we 
may  conjecture  from  the  statement,  which  asserts  that  three  of  the  lost  de- 
cades of  Livy  were  once  made  into  rackets  for  the  use  of  a  monastery. 

"  A  page  of  the  second  decade  of  Livy,  it  is  said,  was  found  by  a  man  of  letters  in  the 
parchment  of  his  battledore,  whilst  he  was  amusing  himself  in  the  country.  He  hastened  to 
the  maker  of  the  battledore,  but  arrived  too  late  ;  the  man  had  finished  the  last  page  of  Livy 
about  a  week  before."    Israeli,  Curiosities  of  Literature,  vol.  i. — Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xvi.  323. 

Another  way  in  which  such  losses  occurred,  was  by  obliteration.  The  papy- 
rus becoming  very  difficult  to  procure  after  Egypt  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens,  in  the  7th  century,  and  parchment  being  thereby  rendered  more 
costly  even  than  before,  copyists  very  naturally  began  to  seek  some  remedy. 
They  adopted  the  expedient  of  obliterating  the  writing  of  an  old  manuscript. 
The  parchment,  after  the  obliteration,  was  used  again,  and  thus  the  manu- 
script, which  originally  contained  perhaps  some  valuable  work  of  a  Greek  or 
Roman  author,  received  in  its  stead,  it  might  be,  the  absurd  tales  of  a  monk, 
or  the  futile  quibbles  of  a  scholastic. 

See  Ilmic's  Introduction  to  Study  of  Holy  Scriptures,  vol.  tu  P.  i.  ch.  ii.  §  2. — This  prac- 
tice of  deletion  was  known  in  the  time  of  Cicero ;  and  a  manuscript  written  on  a  second 
time,  as  above  described,  was  termed  Codex  Palimpsestus.  Cic.  ad  Trebat.  4.  16.  Cf.  Catull. 
20.  5.— Some  MSS.  of  this  kind  have  been  deciphered.  See  Arch\l.  Jfares,  Historical  Account 
of  Discoveries  made  in  Palimpsest  Manuscripts  ;  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Soc.  of  Lit- 
erature, vol.  i.    Lond.  1829.     Cf.  P.  II.  §  443.— Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  *vi.  331. 

§  85.  To  notice  particularly  the  civil  history  of  the  Greeks  after  the  Chris- 
tian era  would  be  foreign  from  the  design  of  this  glance  at  some  of  the  cir- 
cumstances attending  the  decline  of  Greek  letters.  We  ought,  however,  to 
observe,  that  they  underwent  a  series  of  political  changes,  very  few  of  which 
were  calculated  to  exert  any  beneficial  influence  upon  learning,  while  many 
of  them  were  exceedingly  unpropitious.  Among  the  former,  the  removal  of 
the  Roman  Court  to  Constantinople  was  probably  the  most  favorable.  Among 
the  latter,  we  may  mention  the  early  inroads  of  the  barbarians  ;  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Saracens  ;  the  capture  and  plunder  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Latins  ;  the  internal  dissentions  after  the  recovery  of  the  capital ;  and  finally 
the  attacks  of  the  Turks,  which  were  renewed  from  time  to  time  until  the 
final  overthrow  of  the  Greeks,  A.  D.  1453.  By  the  various  disasters  thus 
suffered,  the  supremacy  of  the  Greek  emperors  was  ere  long  confined  to  a 
narrow  corner  of  Europe,  and  at  last  to  the  suburbs  of  Constantinople,  and 
here  learning  found  its  only  refuge. 

Respecting  the  condition  of  Greek  literature  at  Constantinople,  see  Berington,s  Lit.  Hist. 
of  Middle  Ages.     Appendix  I.  as  cited  §  81. 

1.  On  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  many  of  the  Greek  lit- 
erati fled  to  Italy  and  other  parts  of  western  Europe,  and  by  their  oral  instruc- 
tions and  their  writings  contributed  greatly  to  the  revival  of  letters,  and  es- 
pecially to  the  study  of  the  Greek  language,  in  the  west. 

See  Humpf.  Hodius,  De  Gracis  illustribus  lingiue  Grrecje  instauratoribus.  Lond.  1742.  8. ~ 
Ch.  Fr.  Bwmerus,  De  Doctis  hominibus  Grrecis,  literarum  Grtecarum  in  Italia  instauratoribus. 
Lpz.  1750.  8.— Also  Heerev,  Geschichte,  &x.  cited  §  53.—//.  Hallam,  Introduction  to  the  Liter- 
ature of  Europe  in  the  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Century.  Lond.  1837.  8.—  7\ 
ffarton,  Diss,  on  the  Introduction  of  Learning  into  England,  is  his  Hist,  of  English  Poetry.. 
Lond.  1824.  4  vols.  8, 


WRITTEN    MONUMENTS.  47 

2.  Notwithstanding  all  the  disasters  above  suggested,  and  a  subjection  of 
nearly  400  years  to  the  tyranny  of  Turkish  masters,  the  Greeks  have  still  an 
existence.  By  a  painful  and  protracted  struggle,  commenced  A.  D.  1820, 
they  secured  their  independence.  Their  present  language  differs  from  that  of 
classical  times,  both  in  pronunciation  and  in  structure,  and  contains  as  yet 
but  a  slender  literature.  The  hope,  however,  has  been  awakened,  that  Greece 
may  again  rise  to  eminence  in  letters  and  in  arts. 

For  an  account  of  modern  Greek  literature,  see  Cours  de  Litterature  Grecque  Modeme,  donne 

a  Geneve,  par  Jacovaky  Riio  Neroulos.   (Publie  par  Jean  Humbert,)  Genev.  1828.  12.  2d  ed. 

<jn  Mod.  Greek  language,  Class.  Journal,  v.  401 5  xvn.  39  ;  iv.  340. 


V. — Of  the  Remains  and  Monuments  of  Grecian  Literature. 

§  86.  Besides  the  many  valuable  works,  which  have  been  pre- 
served, either  entire  or  in  part,  and  published  since  the  restoration 
of  learning  and  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing,  there  are  extant 
still  other  written  monuments  of  Grecian  antiquity,  some  acquaint- 
ance with  which  is  important,  not  only  to  the  antiquarian,  but  to  ev- 
ery lover  of  literature.  We  may  arrange  these  under  three  classes ; 
Inscriptions,  Coins,  and  Manuscripts. 

(a)     Inscriptions. 

§  87.  The  study  of  inscriptions  {iniyqauua,  inscriptio,  titulus)  is 
of  great  utility  in  gaining  a  knowledge  of  language,  and  an  acquaint- 
ance with  criticism,  history,  chronology,  and  archaeology.  Consid- 
ered as  public  and  contemporary  monuments  they  form  a  class  of 
historical  evidence  most  worthy  of  credence.  Therefore  since  the 
revival  of  letters  much  attention  has  been  devoted  to  discovering, 
collecting,  publishing,  and  explaining  inscriptions,  upon  which  we 
have  many  writings. 

Some  of  the  principal  works  relating  to  Greek  inscriptions  we  will  here  name. —  Gul.  Roberts, 
Marmorum  Oxoniensium  inscriptiones  Gracae.  Oxon.  1791.  8.  Cf.  §  91.  4. — Edm.  Chi^hull, 
Antiquitates  Asiatics.  Lond.  1728.  fol.— Ed..  Corsinus,  Inscriptiones  antiquae,  pleraeque  non- 
dum  edits.  Flor.  1752.  4.— Rich.  Chandler,  Inscriptiones  antiquae,  plersque  nondum  editae  in 
Asia  Minore  et  Grscia,  praesertim  Athenis  collects.  Lond.  1744.  fol.— Some  inscriptions  are 
noticed  in  E.  D.  Clarke's  Greek  Marbles  at  Cambridge  (Camb.  1809.  8) ;  and  also  in  his  Trav- 
els through  various  countries  of  the  East. — F.  Osann,  Sylloge  Inscrip.  Ant.  Grsc.  et  Lat.  Jen. 
1822.  fol.— Bocckh,  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Grscarum.  Berol.  1825.  fol. — The  following  may 
also  be  mentioned.  Visconti,  (on  the  Elgin  Marbles,)  Catal.  raisonne  des  inscript.  Grec.  de 
la  collect,  de  myl.  Compte  d'  Elgin. — Rose,  Inscriptiones  Grsc.  Vetustissims.  8. — C.  Vidua, 
Inscript.  Antiq.  in  Turcico  itinere  collects.  Par.  1826.  8  —Inscriptiones  Grscs  Inedits.  Col- 
leg,  edit.  L.  Rossius  Holsatus.    Fasc.  I.  1838.  4. 

§  88.  These  inscriptions  are  found  upon  columns,  altars,  tombs, 
vases,  statues,  temples,  and  other  ancient  edifices.  Their  design  is 
to  narrate  some  memorable  event,  or  to  point  out  the  use  and  mean- 
ing of  the  object  bearing  them.  Ordinarily  they  were  in  prose, 
sometimes  in  verse.  The  Greek  inscription  was  expected  to  unite 
beauty,  perspicuity,  and  vigor.  It  was  from  this  circumstance  and 
from  its  taking  sometimes  the  poetical  form,  that  the  name  of  epi- 
gram (iTiiyqauua)  was  applied  to  the  species  of  poetry  so  called,  de- 
signating a  short  poem  or  stanza  which  expresses  clearly  and  forci- 
bly an  ingenious,  pithy  sentiment. 

§  89  u.  In  order  to  form  a  correct  judgment  and  decision  upon  inscriptions, 
there  is  need  of  much  critical  care  and  examination,  that  we  may  not  be  de- 


48  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

ceived  by  pieces  of  doubtful  authority  or  by  false  copies.  There  must  be  some* 
familiar  acquaintance  with  what  pertains  to  the  subject,  both  philologically 
and  historically.  In  general  we  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  written 
characters  of  antiquity,  of  the  changes  introduced  at  different  periods,  and  of 
what  is  called  the  lapidary  style  or  manner  of  writing.  We  should  be  able  by 
means  of  historical  information  to  compare  the  contents  of  the  inscriptions 
with  the  circumstances  of  the  persons,  the  times  and  the  occasions  mentioned. 
We  must  be  qualified  also  to  appreciate  with  exactness  and  impartiality  the 
proofs  and  explanations,  that  may  be  drawn  from  particular  inscriptions. 

Respecting  the  abbreviations  used,  consult  Scip.  Maffei,  Grrecorum  Siglae  lapidariae  collects 
atque  explicate.    Veron.  1746.  8. — Also  the  works  already  cited  $  87. 

§  90  t.  From  the  multitude  of  ancient  Greek  inscriptions,  which 
have  been  discovered,  copied  and  explained,  we  will  here  mention 
only  some  of  the  more  interesting  and  important.  We  notice  first 
such  as  are  of  a  date  prior  to  Alexander,  B.  C.  336. 

1  u.  The  Fourmont  inscriptions  ;  on  marbles  discovered  by  the  Abbe  Four- 
mont  at  Sklabochori  (Sclavo-Chorio),  the  ancient  Amyclae,  in  the  year  1728. 
More  than  forty  were  found  among  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Apollo  ;  of  these 
one  is  the  celebrated  Amyclaan  Inscription.  That  which  goes  under  this 
name,  consists  of  two  tablets  which  may,  or  may  not  have  been  connected, 
and  is  in  the  manner  of  writing  called  povoTQoyrjdur.  The  tablets  contain 
merely  a  list  of  the  names  of  Grecian  priestesses.  The  precise  date  cannot 
be  fixed,  but  most  probably  the  inscription  may  be  referred  back  to  about  1000 
B.  C.  There  have  been  doubts,  however,  respecting  the  genuineness  of  this 
and  the  other  inscriptions.  They  are  regarded  as  authentic  by  Scholl  and 
Raoul-Rochette. 

See  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des.  Inscr.  vol.  xiv.  p.  101.  an  account,  by  De  Fourmont,  of  inscriptions 
found  on  three  bucklers  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  ;  and  vol.  xsin.  p.  394.  on  the  inscription  con- 
taining a  list  of  Grecian  priestesses,  by  Barthelemy. — Heyne's  Sammlung  antiquar.  Aufsaetze, 
St.  i. — JVouv.  Traite  de  Dipl.  T.  i. — Knight's  Ess.  on  Gk.  Alph.  $  vi. — Boeckh's  Corpus.  Inscr, 
Grsec. — Count  Aberdeen  in  Th.  WalpoWs  Memoirs  relat.  to  Europ.  and  Asiat.  Turkey. — Ramil- 
Rochette,  Deux  lettres  a  myl.  Comte  d'Aberdeen  sur  l'authenticite  des  Inscr.  de  Fourmont.  Par. 
1819.  4.— Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xix.  243. 

2.  The  Elian  inscription ;  on  a  brazen  or  copper  tablet  found  by  Sir  W. 
Gell,  in  1813,  under  ground,  in  the  region  of  Olympia  in  Elis.  It  is  a  treaty 
of  alliance  between  the  Elians  and  the  Heraeans,  in  the  iEolic  dialect.  The 
date  is  supposed  to  be  about  615  B.  C.  It  presents  the  iEolic  digamma,  the 
Elians  being  named  FAAEIOI. 

Museum  Crit.  Cambridge,  vol.  i.  p.  535. —  Class.  Journal,  vol.  xi.  348.  xm.  p.  113.  xxiv.  p. 
104. — Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xm.  349. — Sch&ll,  Hist.  Litt.  Grecque.  livre  n.  ch.  i. 

3.  The  inscription  of  Midas  ;  upon  a  very  ancient  monument,  situated  near 
the  village  of  Doganlu,  in  Phrygia,  probably  near  the  ancient  Nacoleia,  about 
30  leagues  east  of  the  ancient  Cotyeeum.  It  is  a  sepulchral  monument  dug 
in  the  rock,  and  ornamented  with  a  facade  of  very  singular  construction,  near 
70  feet  in  height.  It  bears  two  inscriptions,  written  from  right  to  left  They 
are  in  Pelasgic  characters,  as  far  as  appears.  Travelers  have  been  able  to  de- 
cipher only  certain  words,  among  which  are  MIJAI  and  FANAKTE1,  to 
king  Midas,  which  would  seem  to  indicate  a  tomb  of  one  of  the  kings  of  this 
name.  The  princes  bearing  this  name  reigned  between  737  and  560  B.  C. 
The  Phrygian  kings  appear  to  have  borne  alternately  the  names  of  Midas  and 
Gordius.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  at  the  point  where  the  facade  of  thia 
monument  terminates,  there  is  an  ornament  of  striking  appearance,  which 
represents  a  kind  of  knot,  and  at  once  calls  to  mind  the  famous  Gordian  knot. 

See  Schmll  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  lib.  m.  ch.  vii. — J2.  Walpole,  Travels  in  various  countries  of  the 
East.    Lond.  1820. 

4  u.  The  Sigsean  inscription.  This  was  found  upon  a  piece  of  marble  sup- 
posed to  have  once  supported  a  statue.  It  has  its  name  from  the  promontory 
and  town  of  Sigoeum,  near  ancient  Troy,  where  it  was  discovered  by  Sherard, 
English  Consul  at  Smyrna,  near  a  village  church.  This  inscription  is  written 
in  the  manner  called  ^ovorQocptjd'ov.  It  specifies  a  gift  of  three  vessels  (xoar^p, 
VTcoxqaT}'tqiov,  r]6uog),  made  by  Phanodicus  to  the  Prytanes  or  magistrates 
of  Sigaeum.     It  is  referred  to  the  period  between  500  and  600  B.  C. 

See  Chiskull,  Antiq.  Aeiat.— Chandler,  Inscrip.  Antiq.— Nouv.  Traite  de  Diplom.—Shv.ckford'* 


INSCRIPTIONS.  49 

Sac.  and  Prof.  Hist,  connected,  bk.  iv. — The  marble  is  now  in  London  in  the  collection  of  Lord 
JSlgin. — Schcell,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  lib.  m.  ch.  vii. — Catalogue  raisonne  des.  Laser,  de  la  collect,  de 
tnyl.  Comte  Elgin,  no.  53.— Cf.  $  87. 

There  is  a  second  Sigaean  inscription,  belonging  to  a  later  period,  B.  C.  278,  which  may  be 
mentioned  here.  It  was  discovered  by  Lord  E.  W.  Montagu,  on  a  cippus  of  marble,  connect- 
ed with  the  walla  of  the  same  church  before  which  the  first  was  found.  It  is  a  decree  of  the 
senate  and  people  of  Sigaeum  in  honor  of  Antiochus  Soter  king  of  Syria  and  his  spouse.  See 
Chandler,  Antiq.  Asiat.  p.  49» 

5.  The  inscription  called  the  Teian  malediction  (Teiorum  Dirm)  ;  by  this 
inscription  found  upon  a  stone  lying  in  the  environs  of  Bodrion,  the  ancient 
Teos,  the  Teians  devote  to  the  infernal  deities  the  persons  whoever  may  in- 
jure them  by  resisting  their  magistrates,  plundering  their  territories,  or  hin- 
dering foreigners  from  bringing  them  grain.  An  anathema  is  also  directed 
against  those  who  may  deface  the  inscription.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the 
letters  are  termed  woirixtjia.  Its  date  is  placed  by  Scholl  between  450  and 
500  B.  C. 

See  ScIubII,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  lib.  m.  ch.  vii. — Chishull,  Antiq.  Asiat. 

6.  We  may  place  next  in  rank  several  obituary  inscriptions  ;  as  (a)  that  on 
the  tables  of  Pentelican  marble  found  by  Galland,  1678,  in  a  church  in  Athens ; 
called  sometimes  the  inscription  of  Nointel,  because  they  were  sent  by  him  to 
Paris  ;  called  also  the  marble  of  Baudelot  because  once  possessed  by  him  ;  of 
a  date  about  453  B.  C.  and  in  honor  of  warriors  that  had  fallen  in  different 
places  :  (b)  an  inscription  in  six  distichs  on  a  monument  belonging  to  Lord 
Elgin  ;  in  honor  of  the  Athenians  slain  at  Potidsea  when  their  general  Callias, 
B.  C.  432,  defied  the  Corinthians  under  Aristaeus  and  purchased  victory  by 
death  :  (c)  that  on  a  large  slab  of  marble  in  the  collection  of  Elgin  ;  supposed 
by  Visconti  to  be  a  catalogue  of  the  Athenian  warriors  who  fell  in  the  battle 
of  Delium,  B.  C.  424,  in  which  Socrates  is  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  Xeno- 
phon  ;  according  to  Osann,  it  refers  to  different  battles. 

(a)  Jfouv.  Traite  de  Diplom.  T.  i.  p.  633. — Lenoir's  Museum  of  French  Monuments,  Trans- 
lated by  Griffith,  Par.  1803.  8.  p.  73.  with  an  engraving  of  the  monuments  as  they  are  adjusted 
after  the  designs  of  A.  Lenoir,  and  of  the  titles  in  Ionic  characters  which  are  upon  them Mu- 
seum Crit.  Cambridge,  No.  vi.  p.  394.— Desc.  des  Antiques  du  Musee  royal,  par  Visconti,  et  le 
comte  de  Clarac.  Par.  1820.  p.  105.— (b)  E.  Q.  Visconti,  Lettre  du  chev.  A.  Canova,  et  deux 
memoires  sur  les  ouvrages  de  sculpture  dans  le  collect,  de  myl.  c.  d'Elgin.  Lond.  1816.— Class. 
Journal,  vol.  xiv.  p.  185.  —(c)  Visconti,  Catal.  raisonne,  &c.  as  cited  §  87.— Published  in  D. 
Clarke's  Travels  through  various  countries  of  the  East.  vol.  vi.  p.  368.— Osann,  Sylloge,  &c 
(as  cited  $  87)  p.  20. 

7.  Next  may  be  mentioned  a  number  of  financial  inscriptions  :  (a)  that  dis- 
covered by  Chandler  in  the  citadel  of  Athens,  with  the  letters  arranged  arot- 
ZqSov,  on  a  mutilated  stone,  the  remaining  fragment  of  which  was  conveyed 
to  England  by  Lord  Elgin  ;  detailing  the  expenses  of  the  state  for  a  full  year, 
B.  C.  424  or  414,  as  differently  assigned  by  the  critics  :  (b)  that  on  the  stone 
called  the  Marble  of  Choiseul,  sometimes  of  Barthelemy,  now  in  the  royal 
Museum  ;  containing  an  account  of  the  finances  of  the  republic  for  the  year 
B.  C.  410 ;  on  the  reverse  of  the  same  marble  are  two  other  inscriptions,  also 
relating  to  finances  :  (c)  several  inscriptions  among  those,  for  which  we  are 
indebted  to  Fourmont,  relating  to  the  finances  of  Athens  :  (d)  several  inscrip- 
tions, pertaining  to  the  condition  or  treasures  of  certain  Athenian  temples,  as 
the  Parthenon  and  others  :  (e)  the  inscription  upon  what  is  called  the  Sand- 
wich marble,  brought  from  Athens  to  London,  1739,  by  the  earl  of  Sandwich ; 
it  is  an  account  of  monies  due  to  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delos,  and  of  the 
expenses  of  the  Theoria  or  deputation  of  the  Athenians,  and  is  of  the  year  376 
B.  C. 

(a)  Chandler,  Ins.  Ant.  P.  it.  No.  2.—  Aug.  Boeckh,  Staatshaushaltung  der  Athener.  Bert. 
1817.  vol.  ii.  p.  182.  (b)  Barthelemy,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  et  Belles-lett.  vol.  xlvhi. 
p.  337,  with  a  plate  showing  the  inscription.  —  Aug.  Boeckh,  as  just  cited.  —  (c)  Boeckh,  ibid.  — 
(d)  W.  Wdkins,  Atheniensia,  or  Remarks  on  Topog.  and  Build,  of  Athens.  Lond.  1816.  p.  192. 
— Chandler,  Insc  Ant. — Boeckh,  Staatsh. &c. — (e)Taylor,  Commentar.  ad  Marmor.  Sandwicense. 
Cantab.  1743.  4.     Class.  Journ,  xi.  184.— Bartlielemy,  in  his  Trav.  of  Anacharsis,  ch.  lxxvi.  note 

8.  Finally,  in  speaking  of  inscriptions  previous  to  the  time  of  Alexander,  we 
will  refer  to  the  two  metrical  inscriptions,  discovered  in  1810,  near  Athens. 

One  of  these  is  upon  a  marble  cippus,  in  memory  of  a  hero,  Python  of  Megara,  who  having 
slain  seven  foes  with  his  own  hand,  led  back  through  Boeotia  (then  hostile  to  Athens)  three 
Athenian  tribes,  who  owned  him  as  their  deliverer.  It  is  anterior  to  Alexander,  perhaps  about 
B.  C.  356,  consisting  of  nine  hexameters,  one  pentameter,  and  a  fragment  of  another  line,  with 

5 


50  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

the  verses  not  separated,  if  we  may  trust  to  the  copy  sent  to  Paris  by  the  French  consul  If.  Fau- 
vel,  and  not  even  the  words  distinguished. 

The  other  is  of  uncertain  date  ;  upon  a  sheet  of  lead,  folded  four  times  in  the  length  and  three 
times  in  the  breadth  (its  dimensions  not  given  by  Fauvel)  ;  found  in  a  tomb  ;  containing  a  for- 
mula of  incantation  or  enchantment  against  a  certain  Ctesias  and  his  family,  dooming  them  to 
the  infernal  deities.  "  Visconti  declares  that  nothing  like  this  singular  monument  has  been  found 
among  palceographic  relics.  Tacitus,  speaking  {AnnaL  11.  69.)  of  the  evidence  on  which  Piso 
was  charged  with  causing  the  death  of  Germanicus,  says  that  in  the  house  of  the  latter  were 
found  fragments  of  human  bodies,  not  quite  consumed  to  ashes,  with  magic  verses,  the  name 
of  Germanicus  graved  on  plates  of  lead,  and  a  variety  of  those  spells  which,  according  to  the 
vulgar  opinion,  are  of  potency  to  devote  the  souls  of  the  living  to  the  infernal  gods." 

See  JUemoires  dc  PInst.  Roy.  de  Franc.  Classe  d'HLst.  et  Lit.  Ancienr.e,  vol.  i.  (pull.  Par.  1815) 
p.  230.  where  the  two  inscriptions  are  given.  —  Cf.  Schwll,  Hist.  Litt.  Grecque,  livre  nt.  ch.  vii. 

§  91*.  Of  inscriptions  which  belong  to  later  periods  in  the  history 
of  the  Greeks,  a  greater  number  have  been  discovered.  We  will  now 
mention  some,  engraved  between  the  time  of  Alexander  and  the  Chris- 
tian era. 

1.  The  inscription  on  the  pedestal  of  a  statue  to  Jupiter  Urius  (Oilqioc). 
The  pedestal  was  found  by  the  English  travelers  Wheler  and  Spon,  in  a  private 
m  nsion  in  Chalcedony,  and  was  conveyed  to  London.  The  inscription  con- 
si  ts  of  four  distichs,  presenting  not  only  the  name  of  the  divinity  to  whom  the 
statue  was  erected,  but  that  of  the  artist  also,  Philon,  son  of  Antipater,  who  was 
the  one  employed  by  Alexander  to  execute  the  statue  of  Hepheestion.  The  date 
is  of  course  about  330  B.  C. 

This  monument  is  the  more  interesting  on  account  of  its  relation  to  a  passage  in  Cicero  ( Verr. 
iv.  57).  In  speaking  of  the  spoliations  committed  by  Verres,  he  says,  there  were  three  celebrated 
statues  of  Jupiter  surnamed  by  the  Greeks  Urius,  all  of  the  same  kind  ;  one  originally  found 
in  Macedonia,  and  removed  by  Flaminius  to  the  Roman  Capitol ;  another,  still  standing  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus  {in  Ponti  ore  et  angustiis) ;  and  the  third,  that  seized  by 
Verres  at  Syracuse.  These  statues  have  all  perished  ;  but  the  pedestal  above  mentioned  un- 
doubtedly supported  the  second  of  them,  which  stood  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bosphorus. 

This  inscription  is  found  in  Chandler,  Antiq.  Asiat.  p.  49. — See  also  the  Miscellanea  of  Spon. 
p.  332  ;  the  voyage  of  Wheler,  p.  2G9  ;  the  Analecta  of  Brunck  ;  and  the  Anthology  of  Jacobs.  A 
more  correct  copy,  taken  by  F.  Osann,  is  inserted  in  Fr.  T.  Fricdemann  and  J.  D.  G.  Sabode, 
Miscellanea  max.  part,  critica.  Hildesb.  1822.  vol.  i.  p.  288.  —  A  copy,  fac-simile,  and  English 
translation,  are  given  in  Skuckford,  Sac.  and  Prof.  Hist.  bk.  iv. 

2w.  The  inscriptions  on  the  Herculanean  tablets.  In  1732,  at  or  near  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Herculaneum  two  brazen  or  copper  plates  were  found  below 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  They  are  interesting  as  among  the  most  authentic 
monuments  of  the  Doric  dialect.  One  of  the  tablets  gives  the  dimensions  and 
geometric  or  geodetic  description  of  a  portion  of  land  consecrated  to  Bacchus, 
and  the  contract  for  it.  The  second  contains  the  description  of  another  por- 
tion of  land  pertaining  to  Minerva  Polias.  The  plates  are  now  in  the  Museum 
of  Portici ;  the  second  is  broken  into  two  pieces,  one  of  which  was  formerly 
conveyed  to  England.  The  inscriptions  are  assigned  to  a  date  a  little  prior  to 
B.  C.  300. 

See  Mich.  Maittaire,  Fragment.  Britannicum  tabulie  Heracleensis.  Nap.  1736. — Alex.  Sym.  Ma- 
iocAJ,Commentar.  in  aeneas  tabulas  Heracleenses.  Nap.  1754.  M.—  Winckclmann,  Sendschreib. 
Von  den  Herculanisch.  Alterthuemern.  {Werke,  bd.  u.)—Hcijnu,  Opusc.  Acad.  v.  ii.  p.  233. — 
Webb's  Account  of  a  copper  plate,  &c.  discovered  near  Heraclea.  Lond.  1732.  A.—Pettingal,  In- 
scription on  the  copper  table  discovered  near  Heraclea.   1769.  4. 

3.  The  inscription  which  may  be  called  the  Olbian  decree.  It  is  interesting 
as  a  palaeographic  monument  of  the  Greek  colcnies  on  the  shores  of  the  Euxine> 
and  also  as  furnishing  some  historical  and  geographical  facts.  It  is  a  fragment, 
of  nearly  two  hundred  lines  in  two  distinct  parts,  of  a  decree  of  the  senate  and 
republic  of  Olbia,  a  Greek  city  on  the  Hypanis  or  Bug,  in  honor  of  one  Pro- 
tegenes,  magistrate  and  benefactor  of  the  city.  It  is  engraved  on  a  cippus  of 
marble,  which  is  preserved  at  Stolnoie,  in  the  government  of  Tchernigov,  Rus- 
sia.    Its  date  is  not  certain,  but  has  been  placed  between  278  and  250  B.  C. 

The  inscription  was  published  by  P.  de  Kacjipai,  in  the  Wiener  Jahrbvchcr  der  Literatur.  voL 

xx.  1822 also  in  the  work,  J>~ordoc.staue  des  Pontiu,  Yfien,  1823.  8.— It  appeared  likewise  under 

the  title  Olbischcs  Psephisma  zu  Ehren  des  Protegeno.  Wien.  lb'23.  8. — Volte  Erun  has  a  trans- 
lation of  it  in  French,  with  corrections  and  observations,  in  the  Annales  des  Voyages,  vol.  xx. 

p4  132; 

4  u.  The  inscription  called  the  Chronicon  Parium,  in  the  collection  of  Arun- 
delian  or  Oxford  Marbles,  brought  to  England  from  the  island  of  Paros,  by 
Thomas  Howard  earl  of  Arundel,  and  given  by  him  to  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford.    It  is  a  monument  of  great  value  in  reference  to  Grecian  Chronology,  as 


INSCRIPTIONS.  51 

"  it  fixes  the  dates  of  the  most  remarkable  events  from  the  time  of  Cecrops 
down  to  the  a^e  of  Alexander  the  Great."  Its  date  is  supposed  to  be  about 
268   B.  C. 

The  editors  Selden,  Prideaux,  and  Mattairc  (cited  below),  have  made  learned  researches  up- 
on this  subject ;  so  also  Pahnerius,  in  his  work  eutitled  Exercitat.  in  Auctores  Gzcecos.  Ultraj. 
1694.  4,_ Robertson  has  endeavored  to  raise  doubts  concerning  the  authenticity  of  these  inscrip- 
tions, in  a  work  entitled  The  Parian  Chronicle,  with  a  dissertation  concerning  its  authenticity. 
Lond.  1788.  8.  In  opposition  to  this,  see  Hewlett's  Vindication  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Parian 
Chronicle.  Lond.  1788.  8.  ;  Parson's  Review  of  Robertson's  Dissertation,  in  the  Monthly  Review, 
1789.  p.  690.  ;  R.  Gough,  Vindication  &c.  in  Archaologia  (as  cited  §  242. 3.)  vol.  ix.  p.  1*57.  ;  and 
F.C.  Wagner,  Die  Parische  Chronik.  Gcett.1790.  8.— The  Chronicle  was  first  published  by  Selden, 
Marmora  Arundeliana.  Lond.  1628.  4.  ;  afterwards  by  Prideaux,  Marmora  Oxoniensia.  Oxon. 
1676.  fol.  ;  Mattaire,  Marmora  Oxoniensia.  Lond.  1732.  fol.  Append.  1733.  ;  Chandler,  Marmora 
Oxoniensia.  Oxon.  1763.  fol.  The  latest  edition  is  by  TV.  Roberts.  Oxf.  1791.  The  inscription 
is  found  with  an  English  version  in  Hale's  Analysis  of  Chronology.  It  is  given  also  in  M.  Rusr- 
sell,  Connection  of  Sac.  and  Prof.  Hist.  Lond.  1827.  2d  vol.  p.  381,  with  a  specimen  of  the  man- 
ner of  writing,  p.  337. 

"  The  Arundelian  marbles  sufficiently  prove  for  what  a  variety  of  purposes  inscriptions  on 
stone  were  used  among  the  ancients.  Some  of  the  inscriptions  on  them  record  treaties  ;  others, 
the  victories  or  good  qualities  and  deeds  of  distinguished  persons  :  others,  miscellaneous  events. 
Most  of  them,  however,  are  sepulchral.  By  far  the  most  important  and  celebrated  is  the  Parian 
Chronicle."  [Libr.  of  Useful  Knowledge,  Life  of  Caxton.] 

5.  We  may  notice  here  the  Milesian  inscription.  It  was  found  and  copied 
by  W.  Sherard,  among  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Apollo  Didymceus,  near  Miletus. 
It  is  a  letter  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  king  of  Syria,  and  his  brother  Antiochus 
Hierax,  king  of  Asia,  addressed  to  the  overseers  of  the  temple,  when  (243  B.  C.) 
they  had  made  peace  with  Ptolemy  Euergetes  I.  king  of  Egypt.  It  is  accom- 
panied with  a  catalogue  of  presents  consecrated  by  them  to  the  god. 

See  Chishull,  Antiq.  Asiat.  p.  65.— Sclwell,  Litt.  Gr.  lib.  iv.  ch.  xxvi. 

6.  The  inscription  of  Cyretioe.  It  was  discovered  in  the  valley  of  Titaresius, 
not  far  from  Larissa  in  Thessaly,  by  Col.  Leake,  who  published  a  notice  of  it 
in  the  year  1815.  It  is  interesting  as  a  monument  referring  to  the  Roman  con- 
quests in  Greece.  It  is  a  letter  of  Titus  Quintius  Flaminius,  addressed  to  the 
people  of  Cyretise,  bestowing  certain  favors  upon  them.  It  is  without  date, 
but  is  assigned  to  about  195  B.  C. 

This  inscription  was  published  by  Visconti  in  the  Journal  des  Savans.  1816.  p.  21. — Also  by 
Leake  in  the  Classical  Journal.     Cf.  vol.  xm.  p.  158.  xiv.  p.  339. 

7.  One  of  the  most  interesting  inscriptions  is  that  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Rosetta  Inscription,  or  the  Rosetta  Stone.  It  was  discovered  during  the  ex- 
pedition of  Bonaparte  in  Egypt  about  the  year  1800.  As  a  party  of  French 
troops  were  digging  for  the  foundations  of  a  fort  at  Rosetta,  they  disinterred  a 
large  block  of  black  basalt,  containing  the  remains  of  three  inscriptions.  This 
stone  afterwards  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  and  was  deposited  in  the 
British  Museum,  London.  A  considerable  part  of  the  first  inscription  was 
wanting  ;  the  beginning  of  the  second  and  end  of  the  third  were  mutilated. 
The  third  only  was  in  Greek. 

It  is  a  sort  of  decree  of  the  Egyptian  priests  in  honor  of  Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes,  its  date  being 
the  year  in  which  he  began  his  reign,  B.C.  193.  It  recounts  the  memorable  deeds  of  his  minori- 
ty, and  pledges  the  erection  of  a  statue  to  him  in  every  temple  ;  and  what  is  specially  remark- 
able on  account  of  the  results  to  which  it  has  led,  adds,  that  this  decree  was  ordered  to  be  en- 
graved in  three  different  characters,  viz.  the  Greek,  the  Enchorial  (i.  e  the  common  Egyptian 
letter),  and  the  Sacred  or  Hieroglyphic.  This  triple  inscription,  therefore,  presents  a  specimen 
of  hieroglyphics  with  an  authentic  translation  ;  and  is  the  foundation  of  the  celebrated  discove- 
ries of  Champollion  ($16).  The  proper  names,  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra,  occurring  in  the  inscrip- 
tion, furnished  the  clue,  and  the  phonetic  hieroglyphs  which  form  these  names  were  first  dis- 
covered. By  means  of  these  hieroglyphs,  other  names  of  Grecian  kings  and  queens  written  in 
hieroglyphics  were  deciphered,  and  thus  at  length  the  value  of  all  the  phonetic  pictures  or  signs 
was  ascertained. 

For  a  more  full  account  of  the  various  efforts  and  steps  connected  with  this  discovery,  see  Schoett, 
Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  lib.  iv.  ch.  xxvi. — Stuart's  Translation  of  Greppo,  cited  §  16.— Amer.  Quart,  R  v. 
No.  n. — For.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  vm.  xxiv.  xxxu. — Edinb.  Rev.  No.  lxxxix.  xc — -Supplement  to 

En  cyclop.  Britann.  Art.  Egypt — Cf.  Bibl.  Repos.  and  Quart.  Obs.  July,  1836.  p.  249 Marquis  Spi- 

neto's  Lectures,  Lond.  1819 — Count  Robiano,  Etudes  sur  l'Ecriture  &c.  de  l'Egypte.    Par.  1834. 

— Sharpe's  Egyptian  Inscriptions,  Lond.  1836 Jannelli,  Tabulae  Rosettanae  Hieroglyphics:  &c. 

Neap.  1830.— Jannelli,  Fundamenta  Hermeneutica  Hieroglyphic©  crypticas  veterum  gentium  &c 
Neap.  1830.     Cf.  Cullimore,  as  cited  $  16.  1. 

The  Greek  inscription  was  published  by  Granville  Penn,  under  the  title,  The  Greek  Version 
of  the  Decree  of  the  Egyptian  Priests,  <fec.  from  the  stone  inscribed  in  the  sacred  and  vulgar 
Egyptain,  &c.  Lond.  1802.— Subsequently,  the  three  inscriptions  were  engraved  by  the  London 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  each  inscription  of  "its  original  size.  From  these  engravings,  lithographic 
copies  were  published  under  the  title,  Inscriptio  perantiqua,  &c.  in  lapide  nigro  prope  Rosettam 
invento,  &c.  Monachii,  1837.  fol.  —  A  copy  of  the  inscription  is  also  contained  in  F.  Schlichte- 
grell,  Ueber  die  bey  Rosette  gefundene  dreyfache  Inschrift,  Munchen,  1818.  4. 


52  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

8.  The  inscription  on  the  pedestal  of  the  obelisk  of  Philae.  This  stone  was  discovered' by  W. 
J.  Bankes  in  1816  ;  and,  with  the  obelisk,  was  transported  to  England  by  Behoni.  Like  the 
Rosetta  stone,  this  monument  contains  also  an  inscription  in  hieroglyphics  ;  which,  although 
not  a  repetition  of  the  Greek,  yet  has  afforded  aid  in  deciphering  the  hieroglyphic  system  of  the 
Egyptians.  The  Greek  is  a  memorial  addressed  to  Ptolemy  vn.  Euegetes  and  to  his  wife  and 
sister  Cleopatra,  by  the  priests  of  Isis  in  an  island  near  Philae  in  the  Nile,  requesting  protec- 
tion for  the  temple  and  servants  of  the  goddess  against  the  civil  and  military  officers. — It  was 
published  in  the  Journ.  des  Savans.  1821.  p.  657. 1822.  p.  212.— Also  by  Letronne,  as  cited  $  92. 3. 

9.  The  inscription  of  the  Marbles  of  Cyzicus.  The  French  Consul,  de  Pey- 
sonnel,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  conveyed  to  France  a  number  of 
marbles,  which  are  known  by  this  name.  The  exact  date  of  their  inscriptions 
is  not  ascertained ;  but  they  are  monuments  belonging  to  the  period  of  the 
Macedonian  supremacy,  not  long  before  that  of  the  Romans.  The  most  in- 
teresting of  the  inscriptions  is  a  decree  of  the  senate  and  people  of  Cyzicus, 
passed  on  the  request  of  three  colleges  of  Priestesses,  authorizing  the  erection 
of  a  statue  in  honor  of  a  priestess  of  Cybele. 

See  Count  de  Caylus,  Recueil  d'Antiquites,  vol.  n.  p.  193.  pi.  lix. 

In  connection  with  the  marbles  of  Cyzicus,  it  may  be  proper  to  refer  to  a  marble  found  at 
the  site  of  ancient  Cius,  which  was  near  to  Cyzicus.  It  was  removed  to  France  by  Count  de 
Choiseul-Gouffier,  and  is  now  in  the  Royal  Museum.  The  inscription  consists  of  nine  hexam- 
eters well  preserved  and  two  nearly  effaced.  The  date  is  uncertain,  but  belongs  to  the  time  of 
the  Ptolemies  in  Egypt ;  and  the  inscription  is  chiefly  interesting  as  illustrating  the  connection 
between  several  of  the  Egyptian  deities  and  those  of  the  Greeks. 

It  was  published  inaccurately,  by  Pocockc,  Inscrip.  p.  30.  and  by  Muratori,  Insc.  Antiq.  T.  i. 
p.  75.  as  cited  $  130.  Three  times  by  Jacobs,  Anthol.  vol.  xn.  p.  298.  vol.  xm.  p.  789.  Anthologie 
Palatine,  vol.  n.  p.  846.— See  also  L.  J.  J.  Dubois,  Catal.  d'Antiques  etc.  formant  la  collect,  de 
feu  M.  le  Comte  de  Choiseul-Gouffier,— Par.  1818-  8.  p.  74.J 

10.  The  Acarnanian  inscription.  It  is  on  a  stone  discovered  by  Pouqueville, 
at  Actium,  in  1813,  and  acquired  celebrity  from  its  having  found  a  learned  ex- 
positor in  France.  It  pertains  to  the  time  when  the  Roman  armies  appeared  in 
Greece.  It  is  a  decree  of  the  senate  and  people  of  Acarnania,  proclaiming 
the  brothers,  Publius  Acilius  and  Lucius  Acilius,  as  their  friends  and  ben- 
efactors. 

The  comments  of  Boissonade  on  this  inscription  are  found  in  his  edition  of  the  letters  of 
Ijicas  Holstenius,  Paris,  1817.  8.— Cf.  also  ClassicalJournal.  xvn.  p.  366. 

11.  The  inscription  called  the  decree  or  Psephisma  of  Cuma.  It  belongs  to 
the  time  of  Augustus.  It  is  a  decree  of  the  senate  and  people  of  Cuma  in 
JEolia,  in  honor  of  Lucius  Labeo,  a  Roman  citizen,  who  refused  divine  honors 
and  the  title  of  xrloTtjg  proposed  by  them,  and  to  whom  therefore  they  deter- 
mined to  erect  statues  and  assign  the  first  place  at  public  spectacles.  It  con- 
sists of  sixty  lines,  and  was  the  largest  inscription  of  the  kind  known  to  have 
escaped  the  ravages  of  time  before  the  discovery  of  the  Olbian  decree  noticed 
above  (3). 

See  Comte  de  Caylus,  Recueil  d'Antiquites.  vol.  n.  pi.  58.  p.  179. 

§  92  t.  We  notice  in  the  last  place  a  few  of  the  Greek  inscriptions 
which  have  been  preserved  belonging  to  periods  subsequent  to  the 
Christian  era. 

1.  That  on  the  tablet  called  the  Marble  of  Colbert.  This  tablet  is  two  feet 
six  inches  long  and  one  foot  six  inches  wide  ;  it  was  found  at  Athens  in  the 
1 7th  century.  The  inscription  belong  to  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  It  is  interest- 
ing as  it  contains  a  list  of  the  magistrates  of  Athens,  the  archon,  the  basileus  or 
king,  the  polemarch,  the  thesmothetre,  the  heralds,  &c,  who  were  in  office  in 
the  consulship  of  Drusus,  A.  D.  15. 

A  faulty  copy  of  this  inscription  is  found  in  Spon's  Voyage,  vol.  in,  p.  106 ;  one  more  cor- 
rect in  Montfaucon,  Palasographia  Graeca.  p.  146. 

2.  The  inscription  respecting  the  Galatian  spectacles.  It  was  discovered  by 
Tournefort  at  Ancyra  in  Galatia,  and  belongs  also  to  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 
It  commemorates  the  game  and  sports  given  to  the  people  of  Galatia  during  the 
space  of  a  year.  The  first  part  of  the  inscription,  which  probably  contains 
the  date  and  occasion  of  the  shows,  is  illegible. 

This  inscription  may  be  found  also  in  Montfaucon,  Palaeographia  Graca.  p.  154. 

3.  The  Egyptian  inscriptions  in  honor  of  Roman  emperors.  Several  have 
been  discovered ;  as  (a)  that  on  the  portico  of  the  celebrated  temple  of  Isis  at 
Tentyra,  near  modern  Denderah,  in  honor  of  Augustus  (as  interpreted  by  Le- 


INSCRIPTIONS.  53 

tronne) ;  (b)  that  on  a  temple  at  Tentyra,  dedicated  to  Venus,  in  honor  of  Ti- 
berius; (c)  that  in  honor  of  Nero  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Pyramids;  (d) 
those  in  honor  of  Trajan,  one  upon  a  portico  at  Chemnis  or  Panopolis,  another 
on  a  gate  of  a  temple  of  Isis  and  Serapis  at  Cysis,  in  the  grand  Oasis  ;  (e)  that 
on  the  pedestal  of  the  celebrated  column  called  Pompeys  Pillar,  supposed  by 
many  to  be  in  honor  of  Diocletian. 

(a)  Hamilton,  .Egyptiaca.— Letronne  Recherches  pour  servir  a  l'histoire  de  1 'Egypt  pendant  la 
domination  des  Grecs  et  des  Romains.  Par.  1823.  8.  &c.  p.  155. — Champollion-Figeac,  Lettre  a  M. 
Fourier,  sur  l'lnsc.  grecque  de  Denderah.  Grenoble,  1806. — Am.  Quart,  vol.  iv.  (b)  JViebuhr, 
Inscriptions  Nubienses. — Letronne,  Recherches,  &.c.  p.  172. — Hamilton,  iEgyptiaca,  p.  206. — 
(c)  Letronne,  p.  388.—  Quart.  Rev.  1821.  p.  179.— (d)  Letronne,  p.  192,210.—  Classical  Journal,  1821. 
— (e)  Classical  Journal,  vol.  xm. — E.  D.  Clarke's  Travels  in  various  countries,  <fcc.  pt.  ii.  $ 
11.  ch.  vii. — Leake,  Greek  Inscription  Pompey's  Pillar,  Arcfueologia  (as  cited  §  240.  3.)  vol. 
xv.  p.  59. 

4.  The  inscriptions  on  the  pillars  of  Herodes  Atticus.  These  two  pillars,  of 
green  marble  (cipollinoverde)  called  by  the  ancients  marble  of  Carystus,  were 
found  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  on  the  Appian  Way ,  about  3  miles 
from  Rome,  near  the  place  called  Triopium.  They  were  removed  to  the  gar- 
dens of  Farnese,  and  are  often  called  the  Farnesian  Columns.  One  of  the  in- 
scriptions consecrates  a  certain  portion  of  land  to  Ceres  and  Proserpina,  and 
the  other  states  that  the  land  was  the  property  of  Annia  Regilla,  the  wife  of 
Herodes.  The  former,  in  which  the  ancient  Athenian  manner  of  writing  is 
followed,  has  occasioned  much  discussion.  The  inscriptions  belong  to  the  age 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus ;  Herodes  died  A.  D.  185. 

These  inscriptions  are  found  in  ATontfaucon,  Palaeogr.  Graec.  lib.  n.  p.  135  ; — Lcmi,  Saggio 
sulla  lingua  etrusca,  pt.  i.  ch.  6 ; — Iscrizzioni  greche  Triopee.  con  versioni  ed  osservazioni  di  E. 
Q.  Visconti,  Rom.  1794.  4  ; — and  in  the  remains  of  Herodes  Atticus  edited  by  R.  Fivrillo,  Leipz. 
1801.  8.  See  also  JYouv.  Traite  de  Diplomatique  n.  p.  631. — Boeckh,  Corpus,  &c. — Dobson's  Ora- 
ores  Attici.  vol.  iv.  (Cf.  P.  n.  <S  119.) — A  specimen  of  the  characters,  in  Spellmann,  Transl.  of 
Dionys.  Hal.  vol.  If.  p.  300.  as  cited  P.  II.  §  246.  2. 

There  are  two  other  inscriptions,  relating  to  Herodes,  which  are  considered  as  very  elegant. 
They  are  upon  two  square  tablets  of  white  marble  (cipollino  bianco),  the  Pentelican  of  the  an- 
cients, quarries  of  which  are  said  to  have  belonged  to  this  distinguished  orator.  One  of  them 
was  found  in  1607,  on  the  Appian  way,  not  far  from  Rome  ;  and  the  other  a  few  3-ears  later  in 
the  same  place  They  are  now  in  the  Royal  .Museum  at  Paris.  The  first  inscription,  in  thirty- 
nine  hexameters,  consecrates  a  sepulchral  field  to  Minerva  and  Nemesis  ;  the  second  in  fifty- 
nine  verses  celebrates  the  virtues  of  Regilla. 

These  metrical  inscriptions  were  published  by  CI.  Saumaise  (Salmasius),  Inscript.  Herod. 
Attic.  Par.  1619.  4.  They  are  inserted  in  J.  Soon,  Miscellanea  erud.  Antiquitatis.  Lugd.  1680. 
4  ; — Mmitelatici,  Descrizzione  della  Villa  Borghese  (where  the  tablets  were  formerly  lodged  in 
a  small  temple).  Rom.  1700  ; — Mattaire  Miscell.  graec.  aliquot.  Scriptorum  Carmina.  Lond. 
1723.  4  ; — and  in  the  Anthologies  of  Brunck  and  Jacobs. 

5.  The  Nubian  inscriptions.  We  refer  particularly  to  those  designated  by 
the  names  of  Monument  of  Jldulis,  Monument  of  Jlxum,  a.nd  Memorial  of  Silco. 
They  are  chiefly  interesting  as  they  evince  an  intercourse  between  the  Greeks 
and  Christians  of  Constantinople  and  the  countries  of  Abyssinia  and  Nubia  in 
the  third  or  fourth  century. 

The  Monument  of  Jldulis  designates  two  inscriptions,  which  were  first  described  by  the  geo- 
grapher Cosmas  (Cf.  P.  II.  §  207)  as  existing  at  Adulis.  One  of  them  was  upon  a  throne  or 
armed  chair  of  white  marble.  The  other  was  upon  a  tablet  of  basanite  (Suaurirov)  or  touch- 
stone, placed  near  the  chair.  The  latter  related  to  the  conquests  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes.  Cos- 
mas supposed  both  to  refer  to  the  same  monarch  ;  the  inscriptions,  as  thus  presented  by  him, 
have  seemed  to  critics  to  involve  such  ditikulties  as  to  justify  them,  since  the  monument  itself 
is  not  now  found,  in  charging  Cosinas  with  credulity  or  imposture.  But  the  discovery,  in  re- 
cent times,  of  the  Monument  of  Arum  is  thought  to  have  removed  the  difficulty,  as  it  has  sug- 
gested the  idea  that  the  inscription-on  tktduur  did  not  reier  to  Ptolemy,  bat  to  a  Nubian  or  Ethio- 
pian prince  as  late  perhaps  as  the  third  century. — The  Alonumcut  cf  A.rum  is  an  inscription 
which  was  found  among  the  ruins  of  Axum  (Cf.  P.  V.  §  178.)  by  Mr.  Salt,  who  accompanied 
Lord  Val.uitia  in  his  travels  in  these  regions.  It  commemorates  the  victories  gained  by  a 
brother  of  king  Aizanas  over  a  rebellious  nation,  and  furnishes  evidence  of  an  intercourse  in 
the  fourth  century  between  Constantinople  and  Abyssinia.— The  Memorial  of  Sdco  was  found 
on  a  temple  in  upper  Ethiopia.  It  is  in  honor  of  the  victories  of  Silco,  a  king  of  Nubia  and 
Ethiopia  ;  a  long  inscription,  and  interesting  particularly  from  its  reference  to  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  into  these  regions. 

The  two  inscriptions  of  Adulis  were  published  as  one,  by  L.  Allatius,  Bom.  1631.  4.  before 
the  Topography  of  Cosmas  had  been  printed. — They  are  given  in  Ghishull  as  cited  $  87. — The 
best  text  is  by  Buttmann  ;  see  the  Museum  tier  Alterthums-Wissenschaft.  vol.  n. — Salt's  Travels 
in  Abyssinia. — The  inscription  of  A  x  u  m  is  published  in  the  Travels  of  Lord  Valentia. — Also 
in  the  CUss.  Journ.  vol.  1.  p.  83.  Cf.  in.  117.— Loud.  Quart.  Rev.  11.  116.— De  Sacy,  sur  l'in- 
scription  d'Axum,  in  Malte-Brun,s  Annales  des  voyages,  vol.  xu.  p.  330.— The  inscription  of 
Silco  is  given  in  B.  C.  Nichuhr,  Inscript.  Nubienses.  Rom.  1820.  A.— Letronne,  Examen  de 
1'inscript.  grecque  dans  le  temple  de  Talmis,  &c.  par  le  roi  Nubien  Silco,  in  the  Alt  n.  de  Vln- 
stit  it,  C  1  a  s  s  e  d'Histoire  et  Lit.  Ancienne.  vol.  ix.  p.  128.- 
$  242.  3. 


54  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 


(b)     Coins   and    Medals. 

§  93.  An  acquaintance  with  ancient  coins  affords  assistance  in  the 
pursuits  of  classical  literature  in  several  ways.  We  shall  here  con- 
sider them  chiefly  with  respect  to  the  inscriptions  they  bear.  In  this 
point  of  view,  the  Grecian  coins,  which  now  remain,  present  some 
of  the  most  ancient  specimens  of  Greek  written  characters,  and  serve 
for  evidences  of  the  different  changes  these  have  undergone.  But 
coins  and  medals  may  also,  by  the  inscriptions,  legends,  and  impres- 
sions on  them,  cast  very  considerable  light  upon  language,  criticism, 
history,  geography,  chronology,  and  even  natural  history. 

1.  "  Such  a  number  of  events  have  been  recorded  by  ancient  medals,"  says 
Priestly  in  his  Lectures  on  History,  "  and  so  great  has  been  the  care  of  the 
moderns,  in  collecting  and  preserving  them,  that  they  now  give  great  light  to 
history.  It  is  remarkable  that  history  scarce  makes  any  mention  of  Balbec, 
or  Palmyra,  whose  ruins  are  so  famous ;  and  we  have  little  knowledge  of  them 
but  what  is  supplied  by  inscriptions.  It  is  by  this  means  that  Mr.  Vaillant 
has  disembroiled  a  history  which  was  lost  to  the  world  before  his  time.  For 
out  of  a  short  collection  of  medals  he  has  given  us  an  entire  chronicle  of  the 
kings  of  Syria." 

See  J.  F.  Vaillant,  Seleucidarum  Imperium,  sive  Historia  Regum  Syriag,  ad  Fidem  Numis- 
matum  accommodata.  Hagae  Com.  1732.  fol.  Par.  1681. — The  same  author  attempted  the 
elucidation  of  Parthian  and  Egyptian  history  by  the  aid  of  coins  and  medals  ;  J.  F.  Vaillant, 
Arsacidarum  Imperium,  sive  Regum  Parthorum  Historia,  &c.  Par.  1728.  8. — By  same,  Histo- 
ria Ptolemteorum  iEgypti  Regum.  Amst.  1701.  fol. — He  also  wrote  upon  Roman  coins  ;  see 
$138. 

2.  A  peculiar  source  of  interest  to  the  fancy  jn  studying  medals  is  furnished 
by  the  various  symbols  impressed  upon  them.  Some  of  these  symbols  repre- 
sent the  ancient  deities  ;  e.  g.  the  laurel  is  a  symbol  of  Apollo,  ivy  and  grape 
of  Bacchus,  the  poppy  of  Proserpine,  corn  of  Ceres,  the  olive  and  also  the  owl 
of  Minerva,  the  dove  of  Venus,  a  torch  of  Diana.  Other  symbols  represent 
countries  or  cities,  as  pomegranate  flowers,  Rhodes  ;  owl,  Athens  ;  tortoiset 
Peloponnesus  J  wolfs  head,  Argos  ;  bull's  head,  Boeotia  ;  crescent,  Byzantium. 
Others  represent  abstract 'qualities  or  offices  ;  as  a  caduceus,  peace;  a  cornu- 
copia, abundance  ;  an  altar,  piety  ;  the  lituus,  or  twisted  wand,  augurship  ; 
the  apex,  or  cap  xoith  strings,  Pontificate.  —  See  the  coins  represented  in 
Plate  II. 

3.  "  Medals  have  likewise  been  a  means  of  transmitting  to  us  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of 
many  things  which  we  are  desirous  of  forming  an  idea  of,  than  any  history,  by  means  of  ver- 
bal description,  could  possibly  give  us.  We  find  upon  them  traces  of"  customs  and  manners, 
the  figures  of  ancient  buildings,  instruments,  habits,  and  a  variety  of  things  which  show  the 
state  of  the  arts  and  conveniences  of  life,  in  the  age  wherein  the  medals  were  struck;  and 
many  things  in  nature  which  historians  have  passed  unnoticed,  as  being  familiar  in  the  times 
in  which  they  wrote,  or  have  omitted  as  not  being  aware  that  they  would  ever  engage  the  cu- 
riosity of  after  ages. 

"  It  is  also  very  amusing  to  view  upon  medals  the  features  of  the  great  men  of  antiquity; 
which,  if  they  were  struck  in  an  age  in  which  the  arts  nourished,  as  is  the  case  witli  many  of 
the  Roman,  and  particularly  of  the  Grecian  medals,  we  can  have  no  doubt  but  that  they  are 
sufficiently  exact.  And  even  if  they  were  struck  in  an  age  which  did  not  excel  in  the  arts  of 
painting,  statuary,  and  carving  ;  yet,  as  faces  are  chiefly  drawn  upon  coins  in  profile,  any  per- 
son who  has  taken  notice  of  shadows,  may  conceive  that  a  very  striking  likeness  may  easily 
be  hit  off  in  that  way.  However,  in  general,  so  extremely  exact  are  the  drawings  of  most 
single  objects  upon  the  old  medals  of  the  best  ages,  that  even  those  famous  painters  Raphael, 
Le  Bruyn,  and  Rubens,  thought  it  worth  their  while  thoroughly  to  study  them,  and  preserve 
cabinets  of  them.  And  indeed  the  generality  of  figures  on  many  of  the  Grecian  medals  have 
a  design,  an  attitude,  a  force,  and  a  delicacy,  in  the  expression  even  of  the  muscles  and  veins 
of  human  figures,  and  they  are  supported  by  so  high  a  relief,  that  they  infinitely  surpass  both 
the  Roman  medals  and  most  of  tfie  moderns."    (Priestly,  as  above  cited.    Lect.  vi.) 

§  94.  We  cannot  determine,  with  certainty,  either  the  precise  time 
when  money  was  first  coined  in  Greece,  nor  the  country  where  'it 
was  first  introduced.  Ancient  writers  differ  in  their  accounts.  The 
point  of  precedence  has  been  asserted  by  different  authors  in  favor 
of  the  Lydians,  the  ^Eginetans,  the  Thessalians,  and  the  Phoenicians, 
as  being  the  first,  who  used  coined  money. 


PLATE   II. 


56  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

1  u.  Homer  makes  no  mention  of  coined  money  ;  which  renders  it  probable 
that  during  the  age  of  this  poet,  or  at  least  in  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war, 
such  money  did  not  exist,  and  that  exchanges  were  made  by  barter,  or  by  the 
use  of  pieces  of  metal,  whose  weight  and  value  were  determined  at  each  ex- 
change, or  by  the  merchant's  mark.  The  earliest  notice  of  such  a  use  of 
metal  is  in  a  passage  of  Genesis  (xxiii.  16)  referring  to  the  bargain  which 
Abraham  made  with  king  Abimelech,  for  a  portion  of  land. 

2.  The  Lydians,  says  Mitford,  "  were  the  first  people  known  to  the  Greeks 
to  have  exercised  retail  trades,  and  the  first  who  struck  coins  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver. Coins  are  singularly  adapted  to  convey  to  late  ages  and  distant  coun- 
tries exact  information  of  the  progress  of  art  and  taste  ;  and  the  exact  coins 
of  the  Lydian  kings,  the  oldest  known  to  exist,  exhibit  remarkable  proofs  of 
the  elegant  taste  and  excellent  workmanship  of  their  early  era." 

See  Wachteri,  Archaeologia  numaria.  Lip.  1740.  4.—Eckhel,  Doctrina  Num.  Vet.  Proleg. 
cap.  iii.  cited  $  99.  1.— John's  Heb.  Antiquities,  by  Upham,  §  115.— Her.reii's  Reflect,  p.  193,  as 
cited  §  40. 

§  95.  Of  the  Grecian  coins  still  existing,  some  authors  regard 
those  of  Phidon,  king  of  Argos,  who  lived  shortly  after  the  time  of 
Homer,  as  of  the  highest  antiquity.  Strabo  (lib.  viii.)  and  the  Arun- 
delian  Marbles  testify  that  this  king  coined  money  in  the  island  of 
iEgina.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  silver  coins  stamped  with  his 
name,  of  which  there  is  one  in  the  royal  collection  at  Berlin,  were 
struck  during  his  reign,  or  after  his  death  for  the  purpose  of  perpet- 
uating his  memory. 

It*.  The  coins  of  Amyntas,  king  of  Macedonia,  who  lived  about  the  time  of 
Cyrus,  if  genuine,  may  be  considered  as  among  the  most  ancient  which 
have  been  preserved.  The  characters  which  we  find  upon  their  reverse, 
B.AMIMTUY.M.  (cf.  Plate  II.  fig.  4),  may  be  explained  thus,  puai/.iwg 
jJuiutov  Maxsduvoiv.  A  golden  Cyrenaic  coin  of  Demonax,  who  was  sent 
from  Mantinea  to  settle  the  affairs  Cyrene,  in  the  time  of  Pisistratus,  would 
be  still  more  ancient,  had  it  not  the  appearance  of  being  a  medal  stamped  at  a 
later  period  as  a  memorial. 

2u.  When  the  characters  upon  Grecian  coins  are  found  written  from  right 
to  left,  it  is  quite  probable  that  they  are  of  high  antiquity,  particularly  when 
the  devices  upon  them  show  a  rude  state  of  art.  Of  this  class  there  are  a 
number  of  coins  of  certain  cities  in  Magna  Groecia,  as  Sybaris,  Caulonia,  Po- 
sidonia,  and  some  ancient  Sicilian  coins  from  the  cities  Leontium,  Messina, 
Segesta,  and  Syracuse.  But  there  are  many  coins  bearing  the  names  of  The- 
seus, Achilles,  Hector,  Ulysses,  &c.  which  are  certainly  not  of  a  very  ancient 
stamp. 

See  TV.  Jacob,  Histor.  Inquiry  into  the  Production  and  Consumption  of  the  Precious  metals. 
Lond.  1631.  2  vols.  8.     (Vol.  i.  p.  145.) 

3.  The  following  table,  from  the  British  Encyclopaedia,  presents  a  chrono- 
logical classification  of  ancient  Greek  coins. 

"1.  Those  without  impression.  —  2.  With  one  or  more  hollow  indented  marks  on  one 
side,  and  an  impression  in  relief  on  the  other.  —  Of  Chalcedon  on  the  Hellespont,  Les- 
bos, Abdera  in  Thrace,  Acanthus  in  Macedon,  those  said  to  belong  to  iEgium  in  Achaia  or 
./Egina,  having  the  figure  of  the  tortoise.  This  class  continues  from  about  900  to  700  B.  C.  — 
3.  With  an  indented  square  divided  into  segments,  having  a  small  figure  in  one  of  them,  the 
rest  blank,  with  a  figure  in  relief  on  the  obverse.  —  Of  Syracuse  and  other  places  adjacent.  — 
Continue  from  700  to  GOO  B.  C  —  4.  Coins  hollow  on  the" reverse,  with  figures  in  relief  on  the 
obverse.  —  Of  Caulonia,  Crotona,  Metapontum,  &x.  Supposed  by  some  to  be  a  local  coinage 
of  Magna  Graecia ;  but  probably  of  equal  antiquity  with  the  former. —  5.  Coins  in  which  a 
square  die  is  used  on  one  side  or  both  sides.  —  Of  Athens,  Cyrene,  Argos,  &c  —  Of  Alexan- 
der I.  and  Archelaus  I.  of  Macedon.  Disused  in  the  reign  of  the  latter  about  420  B.  C. — 
6.  Complete  coins,  both  in  obverse  and  reverse,  occur  first  in  Sicily  in  the  time  of  Gelo,  about 
491  B.  C.  —  Coins  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  successors.  About  the  time  of  this  hero  the 
Greek  coins  began  to  attain  to  perfection,  and  were  struck  of  uncommon  beauty.  It  is  re- 
markable, that  on  the  coins  of  this  monarch  his  own  image  seldom  occurs.  After  his  death 
many  coins  bore  his  portrait.  Trebellius  Pollio  informs  us,  that  some  coins,  particularly 
those  of  Alexander,  used  to  be  worn  as  amulets  ;  and  many  medals  are  met  with  in  cabinets 

bored  seemingly  with  that  intention 8.  Coins  of  the  successors  of  Alexander.  —  Tho-:e  of 

the  Syrian  monarchs  almost  equal  the  coins  of  Alexander  himself  in  beauty.  The  Egyptian 
Ptolemies  are  somewhat  inferior.  —  9.  The  coins  of  the  Arsacidae  of  Parthia  done  by  Greek 
workmen.  — 10.  The  Greek  imperial  coins,  being  such  as  have  the  head  of  an  emperor  or  em- 


COINS    AND    MEDALS.  57 

press  5  such  as  have  not  these  impressions  being  classed  with  the  civic  coins,  though  struct 
under  the  Roman  power.  None  of  the  imperial  coins  occur  in  gold.  Of  silver  there  are  those 
of  Antioch,  Tyre,  Sidon,  Tarsus,  Berytus,  Ca-sarea.  The  Greek  imperial  brass  coins  are  very 
numerous.  A  series  of  almost  all  the  emperors  may  be  had  from  those  of  Antioch,  with  a 
Latin  legend  on  the  obverse  and  Greek  on  the  reverse." 

§  96.  The  number  of  Grecian  coins  of  gold  now  existing,  is  not 
great ;  probably  there  is  not  one  Attic  gold  coin  whose  genuineness 
can  be  proved  ;  but  their  variety  in  size  and  denomination,  together 
with  the  testimony  of  authors,  is  evidence  that  many  were  struck. 
They  bore  the  general  name  of  xqvaig  inLorjioj;,  gold  stamped.  Of 
silver  coins  we  have  a  very  large  number,  of  different  values.  The 
most  ancient  of  both  kinds,  have  the  purest  metal.  Ordinary  small 
coin,  as  well  as  memorial  devices,  were  made  of  copper ;  and  at  La- 
cedemon  and  Byzantium,  of  iron. 

lu.  The  largest  coin  in  common  use,  was  the  Stater,  and  the  smallest  the 
Lepton.  One  of  the  brazen  or  copper  pieces  of  middling  size,  in  most  com- 
mon circulation,  was  the  Chalcus,  of  which  the  Lepton  was  but  the  seventh 
part.  Of  golden  coins  the  Chrysus  (^okffouc,  supp.  orarifo)  was  one  of  those 
most  in  use.  The  Medallions,  or  pieces  which  were  distributed  as  tokens  of 
gratitude  or  flattery,  at  public  games  or  other  solemn  festival  occasions,  were 
of  a  large  size  and  usually  of  finer  execution. 

2.  A  great  number  of  ancient  coins  have  been  discovered.  One  reason  of 
their  preservation  was  the  custom,  which  the  ancients  had  of  burying  one  o» 
more  coins  with  their  dead,  to  pay  Charon  for  their  passage  over  the  Styx. 
(Cf.  P.  III.  §  34.) 

"  From  Phidon  of  Argos  to  Constantine  I.  are  36  generations  ;  and  from  Magna  Graecia  to 
the  Euphrates,  from  Cyrene  to  the  Euxine  Sea,  Grecian  arts  prevailed  and  the  inhabitants 
amounted  to  about  30,000,000.  There  died,  therefore,  in  that  time  and  region,  not  less  than 
ten  thousand  millions  of  people,  all  of  whom  had  coins  of  one  sort  or  other  buried  with  them. 
The  tombs  were  sacred  and  untouched  ;  and  afterwards  neglected,  till  modern  curiosity  oi 
chance  began  to  disclose  them.  The  urn  of  Flavia  Valentina,  in  Mr  Townley's  capital  collec- 
tion, contained  seven  brass  coins  of  Antoninus  Pius  and  Eleagabalus.  Such  are  generally 
black,  from  being  burnt  with  the  dead.  The  best  and  freshest  coins  were  used  on  these  occa- 
sions, from  respect  to  the  dead  ;  and  hence  their  fine  conservation.  At  Syracuse  a  skeleton 
was  found  in  a  tomb,  with  a  beautiful  gold  coin  in  its  mouth  ;  and  innumerable  other  instan- 
ces might  be  given,  for  hardly  is  a  funeral  urn  found  without  coins.  Other  incidents  also  con- 
spire to  furnish  us  with  numbers  of  ancient  coins,  though  the  above  recited  circumstances  be 
the  chief  cause  of  perfect  conservation.  In  Sicily,  the  silver  coins  with  the  head  of  Proser- 
pine were  found  in  such  numbers  as  to  weigh  600  French  livres  or  pounds.  In  the  16th  cen- 
tury, 60,000  Roman  coins  were  found  at  Modena,  thought  to  be  a  military  chest,  hid  after  the 
battle  of  Bedriacum,  when  Otho  was  defeated  by  Vitellius.  Near  Brest,  in  the  year  1760,  be- 
tween 20  and  30,000  Roman  coins  were  found." 

Yet  the  number  of  different  coins  preserved  is  not  so  great  as  might  perhaps  be  expected 
from  the  above  remarks.  The  whole  number  of  ancient  coins  of  different  impressions  is  es- 
timated by  Pinkerton  at  80,000,  and  by  Eckhel  at  70,000 ;  and  as  manv  of  these  differ  from 
each  other  but  veiy  little,  a  collection  of  30,000  might  lay  claim,  it  is  said,  to  considerable 
completeness.  The  whole  number  of  Greek  and  Roman  coins  has  been  estimated  at  about 
50,000,  including  about  3,000  of  gold,  and  6,000  of  silver  with  31,000  of  brass  or  copper.— Cf. 
$  135.  2. 

§  97.  The  inscriptions,  particularly  upon  the  more  ancient  coins, 
are  ordinarily  very  brief  and  simple,  containing  only  the  names  of 
the  cities  or  princes  that  struck  them,  and  often  only  their  initials. 
Upon  the  coins  of  the  later  Asiatic  monarchs,  the  inscriptions  are 
more  full.  They  are  placed  sometimes  around  the  border  of  the 
piece,  sometimes  in  the  center  of  the  reverse ;  sometimes  upon  both 
sides  of  a  figure,  a  head,  vessel,  or  the  like ;  sometimes  at  the  bot- 
tom, within  a  segment,  a  section  line,  or  what  is  called  the  exergue. 
Inscriptions  filling  the  whole  of  the  reverse,  are  very  rarely  found  on 
Greek  coins. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  exergue,  as  above  mentioned, is  readily  perceived 
by  recurring  to  an  example.  Thus,  in  the  medal  which  our  Plate  III.  pre- 
sents, in  fig.  6,  the  word  Britannia  is  the  legend;  the  segment  at  tho 
bottom,  which  includes  the  inscription  S.  C,  is  the  exergue. 


68  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

2u.  Upon  some  Grecian  coins  we  find  Phoenician  characters,  or  at  least, 
6uch  as  bear  much  resemblance  to  them.  The  character  x  is  put  for  the  let- 
ter Z  sometimes,  and  sometimes  for  S-  Instead  of  JET,  we  find  also  the  char- 
acter Z.  Upon  the  most  ancient  coins  the  2"  often  has  the  form  A\ ,  and 
on  those  of  later  times  the  form  C  or  C.  And  C  is  frequently  used  for  T,  the 
combination  CIO  for  Si  ;  and  the  character  n  for  O  ;  E  is  put  for  H  (the 
latter  being  employed  merely  as  an  aspirate) ;  O  for  OY ;  2  for  Z;  X  for 
K.  Upon  many  coins,  especially  those  of  later  dates,  both  under  the  eastern 
and  western  emperors,  we  find  a  combination  of  Greek  and  Latin  characters. 
For  instance,  we  sometimes  find  S  instead  of  the  Greek  C,  R  instead  of  P,  F 
instead  of  *t>. 

§  98.  There  are  Greek  inscriptions  not  only  upon  the  coins  of 
the  states  of  Greece  which  were  struck  while  they  were  in  posses- 
sion of  their  liberty,  or  under  the  government  of  Grecian  masters, 
but  also  upon  the  coin  of  the  Greek  cities  and  provinces  after  their 
subjugation  by  the  Romans,  and  likewise  upon  the  later  coins  of 
Sicily  and  Magna  Craecia.  This  renders  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
language  the  more  indispensable  to  every  amateur  in  collecting  med- 
als and  coins. — The  coins  of  Greek  cities  under  the  Roman  domin- 
ion sometimes  have  on  one  side  a  Greek  inscription  and  on  the 
other  Latin. 

§  99u.  Of  the  works  upon  Numismatics,  such,  that  is,  as  will  serve  for  an 
introduction  to  the  science  of  coins  and  medals,  or  contain  copies  of  the  coins 
and  the  necessary  explanations,  we  will  mention  here  some  of  the  principal; 
including  such  as  treat  of  Roman  as  well  as  Grecian  coins. 

1.  Among  the  more  extensive  works  are  the  following. — Ez.  Spanhemii  Dissertationes  de 
praestantia  usu  Xumismatum  antiquorum.  Lond.  et  Amsterd.  1717.  2  vols.  fol. — Joh.  Eckhel 
Doctrir.a  Nuraorum  Veterum.  Vindob.  1792.  ss.  8  vols.  4. — J.  C.  Rasche,  Lexicon  Universae 
Rei  Xumariae  Veterum.  Lips.  1785.  ss.  10  vols.  8. 

2.  The  following  treat  the  subject  less  fully.— J.  Evelyn,  on  Medals  Antient  and  Modern. 
Lond.  1697.  fol.— L.  Jobert,  La  Science  des  medailles  antiques  et  modernes,  avec  des  rem. 
hist,  et  crit  (par  ./.  Bimard  dc  la  Bastic).  Par.  1739.  2  vols.  8. — J,  C.  Rasche,  Kenntniss  antiker 
Muenzen,  nach  den  Grundsaten  des  P.  Jobert  und  des  Hrn.  de  la  Bastie,  mit  neuen  Verbesser- 
ungen.  Numb.  1778-79.  3  Th.  8.— (Fr.  Ant.  Zaccaria),  Istituzione  antiquario — numismatica  o 
sia  Introduz.  alio  studio  degli  antiche  Medaglie.  Rom.  1772.  8.  (2.  Ediz.  accresciuta  di  una  let- 
tera  del  P.  Paciaudi.  Venet.  1793.  8.) — Erasm  Frwlich,  Xotitia  elementaria  numismatuna. 
Cum  fisrg.  Viennae  1758.  4.— Ejusd.  Utilitas  Rei  Xumariae  Veteris,  compendio  proposita.  (a. 
n.  Debiet).  Viennae.  1733.  8. — Ejusd.  Q,uatuor  Tentamina  in  Re  Xumaria  Vetere.  Vienn„ 
1737.  A.—Pinkcion,  Essay  on  Medals.  Lond.  1789.  2  vols.  (Very  valuable).  Cf.  Lond.  Quart. 
Rev.  i.  \Vl.— Virtuoso's  companion  and  coin  collector's  Guide.  Lond.  1797.  12. — F.  Schlichte- 
groll,  Annalen  der  gesaromten  Xumismatik.  Leipz.  and  Gothe,  1804.  1806.  2  vols.  A.— By  the 
same,  Geschichts  des  Studiums  cer  alter  Muenzkunde.  Munchen,  1811.  4. — C.  L.  Stieglitz,  Arch- 
aeologische  Unterhaltungen.  Leipz.  1820.  8.    (2d  div.  treats  of  Ancient  coins).— D.    $>  tini, 

cenerales  seu  moneta  vetus  urbium,  pop.  et  reguui,  ordine  geogr.  et  chronol.  descripta. 
edit.  M.  Florent.  1821.  A.—Ackerman,  Xumasmatic  Manual.     Lond.  1832.  12. 

3.  Of  works  with  plates,  including  Greek  coins,  the  following  are  among  the  most  impor- 
tant.— Hnberti  Goltzii,  de  Re  Xumaria  Antiqua  Opera  quae  extant  Universa.  Antwerp.  1708. 
5  vols.  fol. — JV.  F.  Haym,  Tessoro  Britanico,  overo  Museo  Numario.  Lond.  1719.  20.  2  vols.  4. 
— 5.  F.  Oarii  Museum  Florentinum,  as  cited  §  191.  vol.  4th. — lo.  lac.  Grsuo-i,  Xumismata 
Graeca  regum  atque  virorum  illust.  c.  commentario.  Tiguri,  1738.  fol. — Ejusd.  Xumismuta 
Graeca  populorum  et  urbium.  ibid.  1739.  fol.— Ejusd.  Xumismata  Began)  Macedoniae.  ib.  1738. 
fo\.—Pe!lrrin,  Recueil  des  medailles  des  Rois  des  peuples  et  des  villes,  avec  les  Supplement 
Par.  ITOJL  78.  10  vols.  A.—Matjnan,  Miscellanea  Numismatica.  Rornae,  17*4.  4  vols.  A.—Milli- 
gen,  Recueil  dequelques  Medailles  Grecques  inedites.  Par.  1812.—  T.  E.  jilionnrt,  Description 
de  medailles  antiques,  Grecques  et  remains.  Paris,  1806-13.  6  vols.  8.  Supplement,  Paris, 
1819-22.  2  vols.  8.  "  containing  more  than  20,000  impressions  of  medals."  ( Ventouillac,  French 
Librarian,  p.  310). — C.  P.  London,  Numismatiques  de  Voyage  der  jeune  Anacharsis,  on  Me* 
dailies  der  beau  terns  de  la  Grece.  Par.  1818.  2  vols.  &-— BartheU-nuj,  Essai  d'une  Paleographie 
Numismatique.  J)Iem.  Acad.  In.-cr.  Vol.  xxiv.  p.  30.  xlvii.  p.  140.— For  other  references,  see  Sui- 
ter's Allg.  Theor.  article  Scliaumucnze. 

(c)     Manuscripts. 

§  100.  We  must  consider  the  copies  of  the  prose  and  poetical 
writings  of  the  Greeks  as  among  the  most  valuable  monuments  of 
their  literature.     By  means  of  these  we  are  made  acquainted,  not 


MANUSCRIPTS.  59 

only  with  their  history,  but  also  with  their  whole  genius  and  charac- 
ter, and  with  the  most  valuable  models  in  every  variety  of  style.  It 
is  to  the  discovery  of  these,  that  we  are,  in  great  measure,  indebted 
for  the  revival  of  letters. — Although  most  of  the  Greek  writings  ex- 
tant have  already  been  published  and  circulated  by  means  of  the 
press,  yet  the  different  manuscripts  which  are  in  our  possession,  and 
particularly  the  more  ancient,  are  of  much  value  and  utility  to  the 
critic. 

§  101.  In  point  of  antiquity,  inscriptions  and  coins  claim  a  supe- 
riority over  manuscripts.  Of  the  latter,  if  we  except  the  Hercula- 
nean  rolls  and  a  few  Egyptian  Papyri  (§  107),  there  does  not  now 
remain  a  single  copy,  which  was  made  during  the  life  of  the  author, 
or  which  was  transcribed  directly  from  the  original  manuscripts.  The 
most  ancient,  now  existing,  are  not  dated  farther  back  than  the  sixth 
century  ;  and  but  few  of  these  can  be  referred  to  so  early  a  date  with 
unquestionable  certainty. 

1  u.  We  must  attribute  the  loss  of  the  earlier  manuscripts,  partly  to  the  de- 
structibility  of  their  material,  partly  to  the  political  and  physical  disasters 
which  befel  Greece,  and  partly  to  the  ignorance  and  superstition  of  the  mid- 
dle ages  and  the  consequent  contempt  for  these  monuments  of  literature.  The 
practice  of  obliteration  also  occasioned  losses.  Manuscripts  still  exist  whose 
original  writing  was  effaced  that  they  might  receive  other  compositions  ;  such 
are  those  termed  codices  Palimpsesti  (§  84).  Some  losses  must  also  be  ascrib- 
ed to  the  carelessness  of  the  first  publishers,  who  printed  directly  from  the 
manuscripts  and  thereby  spoiled  them,  or  after  committing  a  work  to  the 
press,  viewed  the  manuscript  as  useless. 

2ti.  Notwithstanding  this  destruction,  and  perhaps  through  the  very  igno- 
rance and  neglect  of  the  owners  of  collections  then  existing,  a  large  number 
of  Greek  manuscripts  were  preserved,  especially  in  convents,  abbeys,  and  ca- 
thedrals. Some  of  these  certainly  belong  to  the  middle  ages,  in  which  there 
were  a  few  men  of  information  and  lovers  of  ancient  literature,  while  othere 
for  the  sake  of  gain  employed  themselves  as  copyists.  Many  of  these  manu- 
scripts were  written  during  the  dawn  of  the  revival  of  letters,  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  and  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century,  for  the 
use  of  colleges  and  of  the  literati.  Even  for  some  time  after  the  invention  of 
printing,  while  the  art  was  yet  imperfect  and  not  extensively  cultivated,  the 
practice  of  copying  manuscripts  was  continued. 

See  the  work  of  Hccren,  cited  $  53,  and  Taylor,  cited  §  58. 

§  102.  To  become  well  acquainted  with  manuscripts,  and  to  fix 
their  precise  dates,  is  very  difficult.  Upon  this  point  we  cannot  lay 
down  rules,  which  shall  be  applicable  in  every  case,  and  perfectly  de- 
cisive. There  are  only  some  general  external  marks,  by  which  the 
age  of  the  manuscript  is  to  be  determined  with  any  considerable  de- 
gree of  probability.  We  must  form  our  decision  by  the  characters 
used  in  writing,  by  their  size,  their  spaces,  the  direction  of  the  letters, 
the  abbreviations  and  contractions,  and  by  the  whole  exterior  of  the 
manuscript. 

§  103.  In  a  question  respecting  the  author  of  a  work,  or  the  age 
in  which  he  lived,  more  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  internal  evi- 
dence, which  is  presented  by  the  subject,  the  style,  and  the  historical 
statements  and  allusions.  Sometimes  we  find  the  name  of  the  author, 
and  the  date  of  the  copy,  at  the  close  of  the  manuscript,  but  usually 
only  the  name  of  the  transcriber.  Often  we  may  be  satisfied  from 
internal  evidence,  that  a  work  was  not  composed  by  the  reputed  au- 


60  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    GREEK   LITERATURE. 

thor,  while  we  are  still  unable  to  point  out  the  real  author,  or  the 
writer  of  the  manuscript. 

§  104.  We  shall  here  limit  ourselves  to  a  mention  of  some  of  these 
external  signs,  for  the  sake  of  example.  The  most  ancient  Greek 
manuscripts,  as  well  as  inscriptions,  are  written  in  capital  letters  (lit* 
era  unciales),  without  any  space  between  the  words,  and  without 
signs  of  punctuation.  Accents  and  aspirates  were  not  introduced 
till  the  7th  century  ;  the  capital  letters  in  the  8th  and  9th  were  a  lit- 
tle longer  and  had  more  inclination  and  slope.  At  this  period,  they 
began  to  make  contractions,  and  a  smaller  style  of  writing  commenc- 
ed. After  the  12th  century,  new  characters  and  abbreviations  were 
introduced,  and  greater  variety  appeared  in  the  forms  of  the  letters. 

1  u.  The  best  manner  of  becoming  acquainted  with  these  characteristics,  is 
by  the  study  of  the  manuscripts  themselves.  They  may  be  learned  also  by 
means  of  the  patterns,  which  Montfaucon  has  given  in  his  Greek  Palaeography. 
These  marks,  however,  it  must  be  remembered,  are  not  an  invariable  and  in- 
fallible criterion  of  the  age  of  a  manuscript.  Often,  in  later  times,  transcriber 
strictly  imitated  the  ancient  copies,  and  preserved  all  their  peculiarities  un- 
changed. 

2.  Although  the  signs  of  punctuation  are  said  to  have  been  devised  by  Aristophanes  (cf.  §  52), 
they  were  not  used  generally  in  writing,  until  a  much  later  period.  Bernhardy  remarks  that 
"  interpunction  is  not  found  in  the  manuscripts  much  earlier  than  the  8th  century." — Speci- 
mens of  the  manner  of  writing  above  described,  in  uncials,  and  without  punctuation,  are  give*n 
!n  our  Plate  I  a.  fig.  i,  and  iii. — The  two  lines  of  fig,  ii,  in  the  same  Plate,  are  designed  to  show 
some  of  the  abbreviations  or  contractions  used  in  writing.  The  letters  in  the  upper  line  (the 
Plate  being  turned  upon  its  side  to  the  right),  are  employed  as  abbreviations  for  the  words  un- 
der them  in  the  lower  line  ;  kc  i.  e.  ks  for  kurios  ;  if  for  iesous  ;  chs  for  christos  ;  Hern  for  icruiu- 
salem.  Letters  used  as  abbreviations  (cf.  §  49),  commonly,  but  not  always,  had  a  horizontal 
line  drawn  over  them  ;  as  is  seen  in  the  specimen  in  fig.  iii,  where  ois,  in  the  first  line,  stand* 
for  o  iesous  i  but  pni,  in  the  second  line,  is  also  an  abbreviation,  standing  for  pncumati.  Con- 
tractions with  the  mark  over  them  were  formerly  used  in  printing, 

Bernhardy,  Grundl.  zur  Encyclopaedic  der  Philologie.  (p.- 126.)  Halle,  1332. — B.  Movtfaucon, 
Palaeographia  Graeca.     Par.  1708,  fol. — Pfeiffer,  iiber  Bucher-Handschriften  (§  53.) — Mannerfs 

Miscellanea,  meist  diplomatisch.    Jnhalts,  Numb,  1796.  8 Graeca  D.  Marci  Bibliotheca  cod- 

icum  manuscriptorum  &c.  ("  auctoribus  A.  M.  Zanetto  e,tA,  Bongiovannio'n)  Venet.  1740.  fol.— 
Qn  Greek  orthography,  Class.  Journal,  ii.  7.  81. 

§  105.  A  very  profitable  use  may  be  made  of  an  extensive  know- 
ledge and  diligent  study  of  ancient  manuscripts.  They  are  of  service 
to  the  critic  in  determining,  correcting,  and  confirming  the  readings 
of  printed  books ;  and  there  is  often  something  to  be  gleaned  even 
from  the  copies  already  examined  by  others.  By  comparing  manu- 
scripts we  may  be  prepared  to  fill  up  blanks,  to  discover  false  inser- 
tions, and  to  rectify  transpositions.  And  such  an  examination  may 
give  rise  to  many  critical,  philosophical,  and  literary  observations. 
Writings  may  be  found  also,  in  searching  over  the  libraries  of  con- 
vents, which  have  never  been  published,  and  which  may  have  hither- 
to escaped  the  eye  of  the  learned.  But  in  order  to  profit  by  the  ad- 
vantages presented  by  this  study,  one  must  have  much  previous  know- 
ledge of  language,  criticism,  bibliography,  and  literary  history. 

§  106.  It  is  to  the  assiduous  application  of  many  votaries  of  class- 
ical literature,  after  the  revival  of  letters,  in  the  discovery,  examina- 
tion, and  comparison  of  ancient  manuscripts,  that  we  are  indebted 
for  the  best  editions  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors.  Although 
their  attention  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  criticism  of  the  text  and 
the  settlement  of  readings,  it  was  laying  the  foundation  for  all  useful 
criticism  upon  the  matter  and  contents,  which  must  depend  for  its 
basis  and  certainty  on  such  previous  researches.  The  editions  thus 
prepared,  in  connection  with  the  prefaces  and  commentaries  accom- 


MANUSCRIPTS.  61 

panying  them,  will  serve,  much  better  than  any  rules  which  can  be 
given,  as  guides  in  similar  efforts,  and  as  suggesting  the  best  meth- 
ods of  treating  this  whole  subject. 

§  107.  The  following  may  be  mentioned  as  among  the  oldest  Greek 
manuscripts  that  are  known  ;  the  Codex  Alexandrinus ,  the  Codex 
Vaticanus,  the  Codex  Cottonianus,  and  the  Codex  Colbertinus,  a 
manuscript  of  Dioscoridcs,  preserved  in  the  Imperial  library  at  Vien- 
na, and  another  in  the  library  of  the  Augustines  at  Naples.  All  these 
manuscripts  are  in  the  uncial  letter,  without  accents  or  marks  of  as- 
piration.—To  these  must  be  added  the  Herculanean  Rolls,  and  the 
Egyptian  Papyri. 

1.  The  Codex  Alexandrinus  consists  of  four  folio  volumes,  containing  the 
Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  the  Apocryphal  books,  the 
New  Testament,  and  some  additional  pieces.  It  is  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  at  London.  "  It  was  sent  as  a  present  to  King  Charles  I.  from  Cy- 
rillus  Lucaris,  a  native  of  Crete,  and  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by  Sir 
Thomas  Rowe,  ambassador  from  England  to  the  Grand  Seignior  in  the  year 
1628.  Cyrillus  brought  it  with  him  from  Alexandria  where  it  was  probably 
written."  It  is  referred  by  some  to  the  fourth  century,  but  by  most  is  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  sixth.  It  is  written  without  accents  or  breathings, 
or  spaces  between  the  words,  and  with  few  abbreviations.  An  exact  fac-simile 
of  the  part  containing  the  New  Testament,  was  published  by  Dr.  Woide,  li- 
brarian of  the  Museum,  in  1786.  In  1812  a  fac-simile  of  the  part  containing 
the  Psalms,  was  published  by  Rev.  H.  H.  Baber  ;  who  was  subsequently  au- 
thorised to  publish  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament  at  the  expense  of  the  British 
Parliament. 

The  Codex  Vaticanus  contains  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Septuagint  version, 
and  a  part  of  the  New.  It  is  lodged  in  the  Vatican  library  at  Rome.  It  is 
written  on  parchment  or  vellum,  in  three  columns  on  each  page,  with  the  let- 
ters all  of  the  same  size  except  at  the  beginning  of  a  book,  without  any  di- 
vision of  words,  with  but  few  abbreviations.  Some  critics  have  maintained 
that  it  was  written  as  early  as  the  fourth  century  ;  but  others  refer  it  to  the 
sixth  or  seventh. 

The  Codex  Cottonianus  was  brought  from  Philippi  by  two  Greek  bishops, 
who  presented  it  to  Henry  vm.  It  was  placed  in  the  Cottonian  library,  and 
a  great  part  of  it  was  consumed  by  fire  in  1731.  The  fragments  are  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum,  and  are  in  a  very  decayed  state.  It  is  considered  as 
the  most  ancient  manuscript  of  any  part  of  the  Old  Testament  now  extant, 
being  generally  ascribed  to  the  fourth  century,  or  the  very  beginning  of  the 
fifth.     It  was  decorated  with  numerous  paintings,  or  illuminations. 

The  Codex  Colbertinus  contains  a  part  of  the  Septuagint.  It  once  belonged 
to  the  collection  called  the  Colbert  Mss.  but  is  now  lodged  in  the  Royal  library 
at  Paris.  It  is  thought  to  be  a  part  of  the  same  manuscript  with  that  now  in 
the  library  of  the  Academy  at  Leyden,  termed  Codex  Sarravianus.  They  are 
referred  to  the  fifth  or  sixth  century. 

On  (he  whole  subject  of  the  Manuscripts  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  in  Greek,  see  T.  H.  Home, 
Introduc.  to  the  Crit.  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Phil.  1825.  4  vols.  8.  (vol.  n.  pt.i.  ch.  ii.  §2.) 
—  Also  W.  Carpenter,  Guide  to  the  Reading  of  the  Bible  (ch.  ii.  as  given  by  Dr.  W.  Jenks  and 
J.  W.  Jenks,  in  the  Supplement  to  the  Comprehensive  Commentary),  —  The  Plate  la.  of  our  illus- 
trations presents,  in  fig.  i,  a  fac-simile  of  part  of  the  1st  verse  of  the  first  Psalm,  as  written  in 
the  Codex  Alexandrinus.  —  In  fig.  iii,  we  have  a  fac-simile  of  Matt.  xxii.  43,  as  written  in  a  Co- 
dex Rescriptus,  some  time  since  discovered  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

2.  The  manuscript  of  Dioscorides,  in  the  library  at  Vienna,  is  a  very  curious 
monument.  It  was  purchased  at  Constantinople  for  Maximilian  II.  by  Busbe- 
quius,  who  went,  about  1550,  an  ambassador  to  Turkey.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  written  by  Julianna  Anicia,  the  daughter  of  Flavius  Anicius  Olybrius, 
who  occupied  the  imperial  throne  of  the  west  A.  D.  472.  It  is  ornamented 
with  miniatures  representing  plants,  birds  and  serpents,  and  the  portraits  of 
celebrated  physicians  of  antiquity.  The  other  copy,  once  in  the  library  at  Na- 
ples, is  now  in  that  of  Vienna,  and  is  considered  as  of  about  the  same  antiquity 
as  the  former. 

6 


62  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF   GREEK    LITERATURE. 

The  Vienna  manuscript  is  described  by  Lambecius,  Commentarium  de  augustissima  biblioflier ^ 
Caesarea-Vindobonensi  libri  vm.  Vindob.  1665— 1679.  8  vols.  fol.  —  See  Schall's  Hist.  Litt. 
Grecque,  livre  v.  ch.  lxxi. 

3.  The  Herculanean  Rolls  (papyri)  found  in  excavating  Herculaneum,  are 
more  remarkable  for  their  antiquity  than  for  their  real  value,  so  far  as  at  pres- 
ent known,  although  they  amounted  to  J600  or  1700  in  number.  Most  of  them 
were  too  much  injured  to  be  unrolled  and  deciphered,  many  of  them  crumbling- 
to  dust  under  the  hand  of  the  operator.  Very  great  interest  and  the  most  san- 
guine expectations  were  awakened  in  the  literary  world  on  their  first  discovery. 
But  the  first-fruits  of  the  indefatigable  toil  in  unrolling  and  deciphering  ,  were 
very  far  from  meeting  these  high  hopes ;  the  treatise  of  Philodemus  en  music 
being  of  little  value.  Piaggi  and  Merli,  Mazocchi,  Sickler,  and  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy,  successively  applied  their  labors  and  experiments  with  but  poor  success. 

See  Cramer's  Nachrichten  zur  Geschiehte  der  herkulanischcn  Entdeckungen.  Halle,  1773.  8. 
— Cartel's  Briefe  iiber  Kalabrien  und  Sicilien.— Hcrculanensium  Voluminum  quae  supersunt.  Neap. 
Vol.  1. 1793.  vol.  n .  1809.  fol. — iusoniaii  Magazine,  No.  i.—  Quart.  Kcv.  vol.  ill'. — Encyd.  Britaan. 
Supplement,  under  Herculaneum.— Archasoiugia  (as  cited  Q  243,  3.)  vol.  xv.  p.  114,  on  method  of 
Unrolling,  Sec. 

4.  Several  papyri,  with  Greek  writing  on  them,  have  been  found  in  Egypt, 
which  are  said  to  be  of  more  ancient  date  than  any  other  known  manuscripts 
in  Greek.    They  exhibit  the  earliest  use  of  the  cursive  Greek  letter. 

Three  of  these  are  dated  before  Christ.  The  earliest  was  breught  to  Europe  by  M.  Casati  in 
1829,  and  belongs  to  the  Royal  library  of  France/  It  is  sixteen  and  a  half  feet  long  and  eight 
inches  deep,  and  contains  505  lines.  Its  date  corresponds  with  the  year  B.  C.  113.  It  is  merely 
a  contract  or  deed  of  the  sale  of  a  portion  of  land  near  Ptolemais.  The  next  in  point  of  antiquity 
contains  a  similar  contract,  with  a  date  corresponding  to  B.  C.  104.  It  was  fonnd  in  a  tomb, 
and  has  exercised,  in  its  deciphering,  the  care  of  Aug.  BSckh,  Phil.  Buttmann,  and  Imm.  Bek- 
ker.  That,  which  is  ranked  next  in  age,  treats  of  the  payment  of  certain  funeral  charges,  and 
is  remarkable  for  containing  besides  the  Greek,  an  Egyptian  writing,  in  the  same  character  as 
appears  in  the  Rosetta  Inscription,  called  enchorial  {iy/MiHa).  Its  date  is  judged  to  be  82  B.  C. 
Two  other  papyri  are  described  as  written  in  the  second  century  after  Christ,  and  all  the  rest 
that  are  known  as  written  in  the  fifth,  or  later. 

See  Scfiaill,  Histoire  de  la  Litt.  Grec.  livre  v.  ch.50. — Aim-.  Bw.ckh,  ErklArung  einer  iigypt.  Ur- 
kunde  in  Griech.  Cursiv-schrift.  &c.  Berlin,  1821.  4.  —  Journ.  des  Savans,  1821.  p.  537."  1822. 
p.  555.  —  JV7c.  Schow,  Charta  papyracea  grace  scripta  Musei  Borgiani  Veletris.    Rom.  1788.  4, 

5.  A  number  of  papyri  have  also  been  found  containing  only  Egyptian  char- 
acters, either  enchorial  or  hieroglyphic,  which  are  considered  to  be  much  more 
ancient  than  those  just  mentioned. 

"  The  most  remarkable  of"  them  all,  and  very  certainly  the  most  ancient  manuscript  known 
at  this  day,  contains  an  act  of  the  fifth  vear  of  the  reign  of  Thouthmosis  HI.,  the  fifth  king  of 
the  eighteenth  dynasty.  .  ,  .  Now  Tiiouthmosis  governed  Egypt  about  the  time  when  Joseph 
was  carried  there  as  a  slave- ;  and  consequently  %\\o  centuries  at  least  before  the  time  when 
Moses  wrote.  ...  Is  it  so  very  astonishing,  that  the  autograph  of  the  Legislator  of  the  Hebrews, 
which  was  an  object  of  veneration  to  all  the  people,  and  w;is  so  long  and  carefully  preserved 
in  the  ark,  could  have  existed  until  the  reign  of  Josiah,  i.  e.'  about  nine  centuries  after  Moses  y 
when  the  hypogeums  of  Thebes  present  us  with  papyri  containing  certain  transactions  which 
■were  between  private  individuals  merely,  and  wliich" extend  back  3500  years  and  even  more." y 
— See  Oreppo,  as  cited  $  16.  1. 

One  of  these  papyri,  discovered  by  Champollion,  is  said  to  have  been  sixty  feet  in  length.  — 
Some  specimens  of  "the  papyri,  in  Egyptian  character,  are  given,  by  fac-simile,  in  the  Atlas  il- 
lustrating the  Travels  of  Denon  in  Egypt.  The  same  work  notices  a  manuscript  on  cloth,  the 
envelope  or  wrapper  of  a  mummy,  consisting  of  nineteen  pages,  separated  arid  bordered  by  a* 
many  vignettes.  Parts  of  the  writing  in  these  manuscripts  are  done  in  red  ink.  The  pictures 
are  in  different  colors. 

6.  Mr.  Taylor  (in  his  work  cited  §  58)  remarks,  "  The  most  ancient  manuscripts  extant  are 
f?ome  copies  of  the  Pentateuch  on  rolls  of  leather  ; "  but  in  this  remark  he  could  not  have  had 
reference  to  the  Egyptian  remains  above  mentioned.  No  extant  Hebrew  manuscripts  are  of  so 
ancient  a  date  ;  although  some,  which  are  doubtless  of  a  high  antiquity,  have  been  preserved 
in  the  Jewish  synagogues.  Dr.  Buchanan  procured  from  the  black  Jews  in  Malabar,  an  old  copy 
of  the  Law,  which  he  discovered  in  the  record-chest  of  one  of  their  synagogues,  in  180(5.  It 
consists  of  thirty-four  leather  skins,  sewed  together,  measuring  nearly  50  feet,  by  about  2  broad; 
the  skins  are  some  of  them  brown,  and  others  red;  some  of  them  much  impaired  by  tune,  and 
strengthened  by  patches  of  parchment  on  the  back.  It  now  belongs  to  the  University  at  Cam- 
bridge, England.  See  Buchanan's  Researches.— Home,  as  cited  above,  pt.  I.  ch-  ii.  $1.— Amcr. 
Quart. -Register,  wL  IX.  p.  59. 

The  Nestoriana  at  the  village  of  Koosv,  in  Persia,  have  a  neat,  well  pMSerVed  copy  of  the 
New  Testament,  in  Syriac,  upon  parchment,  in  small  characters  ;  written,  according  to  the  date 
inserted  by  the  writer,  about  A.  D.  320.  It  is  greatly  reverenced  both  by  the  people  and  the 
priests.  Smith  and  Dtoight,  cited  §  3(5.  1.  vol.  n.  p.  257 — Cf.  $57. 

§108.  It  may  be  proper  here  to  mention  some  of  the  principal  libraries,  which 
contain  the  finest  collections  of  Greek  manuscripts.  —  In  Italy.  The  king's 
library,  and  library  of  the  Augustine  convent,  at  Naples.  The  Royal  library 
at  Turin.     The  Vatican  library  and  some  private  libraries  at  Rome.     Cathedral 


MANUSCRIPTS.  63 

library  at  Bologne.  Library  of  St.  Mark  and  several  private  collections  at 
Venice.  That  of  the  Medici,  at  Florence,  contains  one  of  the  most  extensive 
collections  of  this  kind.  The  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan.  —  In  Spain.  The 
library  of  the  Escurial.  —  In  France.  The  Royal  or  National  library  at  Paris, 
which  contains  the  Mss.  once  belonging  to  several  other  libraries.  —  In  Eng- 
land. The  libraries  at  Cambridge.  The  Bodleian  library  at  Oxford.  The 
British  Museum  at  London.  —  In  Germany.  The  Imperial  library  at  Vienna. 
That  of  the  king  of  Bavaria  at  Munich.  The  library  of  the  council  or  senate 
at  Leipsic.  The  libraries  of  the  Dukes  at  Weimar  and  Wolfenbuttel.  The 
Royal  library  of  Berlin.  That  of  the  king  of  Saxony  at  Dresden.  —  In  Den- 
mark. The  Royal  library  at  Copenhagen.  —  In  Holland.  The  University 
library  at  Leijden.  —  In  Russia.    Library  of  the  Synod  at  Moscow. 

1.  Details  on  the  subject  of  Greek  Mss.  may  be  found  by  consulting  the  following  works  :  Bern. 
JHontfancon,  Itecensio  Bibliothecar.  Graecarum,  in  quibus  manuscripti  codices  habentur;  in  his 
Palaeographia  Graeca  ($104). — Ejusd.  Bibliotheca  Bibliothecarum  manuscriptorum  Nova.  Par. 
1739.  2  vols.  fol. — F.  Eckard,  Uebersicht  der  Oerter,  wo  die  bekanntesten  griech.  Schriftsteller 
gelebt  haben  ;  und  Grundlage  zur  Geschichte  der  Bibliotheken,  wodurch  jenein  Handschriften 
sind  erhalten  worden.  Giessen,1776.  8. — For  some  remarks  on  the  Libraries  of  Greece,  whence 
Mss.  have  been  obtained,  see  Travels  by  E.  D.  Clarke.  N.  York,  1815,  vol.  iv.  Append.  No.  6. 
where  is  also  a  catalogue  of  the  Mss.  in  the  Library  of  Patmos. — Cf.  Clais.  Journ.  vol.  vn.,  in 
which,  and  the  following  volumes,  is  a  notice  of  the  manuscripts  in  the  various  libraries  in  Eng- 
land. 

2.  The  Royal  library  at  Paris  contains  70,000  Mss.  of  various  kinds  ;  the  Vatican  at  Rome 
30,000  ;  the  Ambrosian  at  Milan  15,000.  In  the  case  of  most  of  the  libraries  mentioned  above, 
there  are  catalogues  of  the  Mss.  preserved  in  them.  The  most  valuable  of  these  catalogues  are 
^uch  as  give  not  only  the  simple  name  and  title,  but  also  critical  and  historical  notices  of  the 
manuscripts,  their  authors,  age,  rarity,  price,  &c.  See  e.  g.  Catalogus  Bibliothecce  Bunaviarue. 
Lips.  1750 — 55.  7  vols.  4.  —  Bondbii's  Catalogue  of  Mss.  in  the  Library  of  the  Grand  Duke  at 
Florence,  1764 — 93.  11  vols.  fol.  —  Notices  des  Manuscrits  de  la  Bibliotheque  du  Roi.  Par.  1787 — 
1818.  10  vols.  4.  —  "  The  Catalogues  of  the  Mss.  in  the  British  Museum,  hitherto  (1835)  printed, 
&U  fiye  folios  and  four  quartos." 


PLATE     III. 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


I. — Of  the  Sources  of  Roman  Culture. 

§  109.  We  have  no  authentic  history  of  the  first  inhabitants  of 
Italy.  The  later  Romans  themselves  knew  but  little  in  regard  to 
this  subject,  as  there  did  not  remain  any  monuments  of  the  early 
ages;  those  which  had  been  preserved  at  Rome  having  been  destroyed 
at  the  capture  and  burning  of  that  city  by  the  Gauls,  B.  C.  390. 
This  uncertainty  has  given  rise  to  many  fables.  The  Romans  com- 
monly traced  their  own  descent  from  the  Trojans,  a  colony  of  whom 
under  JEneas  amalgamated  with  the  aborigines  or  most  ancient  in- 
habitants  of  Italy. 

1.  Different  accounts  are  given  of  the  origin  of  the  name  Italy,  Italia. 
Some  derive  it  from  Italus  (a),  said  to  be  a  chief  who  came  from  Arcadia,  or 
CEnotria,  and  established  a  colony  and  kingdom  ;  considered  by  many,  how- 
ever, to  be  a  fabulous  personage.  Others  derive  it  from  the  term  ixaXbq,  a.  calf, 
applied  to  the  country  from  the  herds  of  young  cattle  (b)  found  in  it  by  the 
Greeks.  The  name  seems  to  have  been  first  applied  (c)  to  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  peninsula,  to  the  province  called  Calabria  ulterior,  and  after- 
wards extended  so  as  to  include  the  whole  land  as  far  as  the  Alps. 

(a)  Virg.  JEn.  vn.  178 Time.  vi.  2.— (b)  Varr.  de  Re  rust.  II.  5.—  Gell.  Noct.  Att.  xi.  1. 

Dion  Hal.  i.  35.— (c)  Arist.  Pol.  vn.  10. Cf.  Scbcell,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Romaine. 

Par.  1815.  4  vols.  8.    Vol.  i.  Intro,  p.  4. 

2.  The  question  whenceltaly  received  its  population  has  been  much  agi- 
tated. Two  theories  or  systems  have  been  strenuously  defended,  called  the 
oriental  and  the  northern.  The  former  system  maintains  that  the  early  in- 
habitants of  Italy  came  from  the  east;  from  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Phoenicia,  or 
Egypt,  according  to  different  advocates  of  the  theory.  The  other  system  ad- 
mits an  eastern  origin  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  but  maintains  that 
Italy  received  its  population  directly  from  the  northern  or  Celtic  tribes.  The 
oriental  theory  (a)  is  most  generally  adopted.  —  "  At  the  period,  when  light 
is  first  thrown  by  authentic  documents  on  the  condition  of  Italy,  we  find  it 
occupied  by  various  tribes,  which  had  reached  different  degrees  of  civiliza- 
tion, spoke  different  dialects,  and  disputed  with  each  other  the  property  of  the 
lands  whence  they  drew  their  subsistence."  These  various  tribes  may  be  in- 
cluded under  the  five  following  classes,  ranged  in  the  order  of  their  supposed 
antiquity;  viz.  the  Illyrii,  including  the  Liburni,  Siculi,  and  Veneti ;  the  Ibe- 
ri,  including  the  people  called  Sicani ;  the  Celtce,  to  which  belonged  those 
named  Umbri  by  the  Romans  ;  the  Pelasgi(b)  ;  and  the  Hetrusci,  Etrusci,  or 
Tyrrheni. 

(a)  See  J.  Dunlop,  History  of  Roman  Literature,  (vol.  i.  p.  21  of  ed.  Phil.  1827.)—  Schmll, 
p.  8,  as  above  cited.  —  These  authors  give  references  to  the  principal  works  in  defence  of  each 
theory.  — ('ft;  Diomjs.  Hal.  i.  11.— Schcell,  as  above,  p.  13.— Cf.  §  33. 

3.  The  Etruscans  were  the  most  celebrated  of  all  these  nations,  having  attained  to  a  height 
of  prosperity  and  glory  before  the  existence  of  Rome.  The  history,  institutions,  and  antiqui- 
ties of  this  people  have  been  the  theme  of  much  interesting;  discussion.  See  C.  O.  Mueller, 
Die  Etrusker.  Bresl.  1828.  2  vols.  S.—jlnthou's  Lemp.  Class.  Diet,  under  Hetruria.—Edinb* 
Rev.  vol.  l.  p.  372.— Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  i.  p.  26. 

4.    The  early  history  of  Rome  is  involved  perhaps  inextricably  in  fabulous. 

6* 


66  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF   ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

traditions.     There  has  been  an  earnest  literary  controversy  respecting  the  a*a^ 
thenticity  of  the  commonly  received  accounts. 

For  the  common  account  of  the  origin  of  Rome,  see  Livy,  lib.  i. — Dion.  Hal.  Ant.  Rom, 
lib.  i. — Plut.  Romulus. — For  arguments  against  the  credibility  of  it,  see  Pouilly,  De  Beaufort? 
and  others,  as  cited  P.  II.  §  510. 

§  110.  From  this  it  is  easy  to  perceive,  that  the  origin  and  intro- 
duction of  the  Latin  characters  is  a  subject  of  much  uncertainty. 
Some  authors  attribute  the  invention  or  introduction  of  these  letters' 
to  the  Greeks,  some  to  the  Pelasgians,  some  to  the  Phoenicians,  and 
others  to  the  Etruscans.  It  is  most  commonly  ascribed  to  Evander, 
who,  antecedently  to  the  Trojan  war,  conducted  into  Latium  a  Pe- 
lasgic  colony  from  Arcadia.  The  affinity  and  resemblance  of  the 
most  ancient  Greek  characters  to  the  Latin  is  unquestionable.  It 
was  probably  by  means  of  the  colonists  settling  in  that  country  from 
various  foreign  parts,  that  civilization  and  the  art  of  writing  were 
introduced  into  Italy  and  a  common  alphabet  at  length  formed.  The 
Pelasgi  coming  from  Arcadia,  and,  under  the  name  of  Tyrrheni,  from 
Asia  Minor,,  seem  to  have  been  the  first  colonists.  Soon  after  them, 
there  arrived  other  Greek  colonists,  who  established  themselves  in 
the  lower  part  of  Italy,  and  brought  with  them  their  religion,  lan- 
guage, and  alphabet.  If  we  may  credit  duintilian  (lib.  i.),  there 
existed  at  first  but  a  smaller  number  of  letters,  and  they  differed  in 
their  form  and  signification  from  those  afterwards  used. 

See  JVammachcri,  Comment,  de  Lit.  Rom.  Bruns.  1758.  8. — Comp.  Dion*  Hal.  i.  3G. — Liv* 
i.  7. — Tac.  Ann.  xi.  14. — Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  vn.  58,  68.  — On  the  resemblance  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  letters,  see  also  Spelmaiut's  Dissertation,  in  his  Trans,  of  Dion.  HaLvol.  u.  p.  297,  as 
cited  P.  II.  §  246. 

§  111?*.  The  Greeks,  who  established  themselves  in  the  southern  part  of 
Italy,  always  maintained  their  relations  and  an  extensive  commerce  with  the 
other  Greeks,  and  even  preserved  their  language.  From  them  the  country 
which  they  inhabited  was  called  Magna  Grcecia.  It  was  separated  from  Sici- 
ly, where  Greek  colonies  were  also  settled,  only  by  a  small  strait.  From  thi& 
circumstance  arises  the  resemblance  found  betweeg  them  and;  the  inhabitants- 
of  this  island  in  their  language,  sciences,  manners,  and  government.  These 
countries  having  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  a  long  peace,  suffered  nothing 
from  the  Romans  until  a  late  period,  and  their  intercourse  with  the  Greeks 
always  existing,  the  arts  and  sciences- among  them-  rose  to  a  very  flourishing 
state.  It  is  sufficient  in  this  place  merely  to  allude  to  the  school  of  Pythag- 
oras, which  tok  the  name  of  Italian,  and  that  founded  by  Xenophanes,  some- 
what later,  and  called  the  Elcatic.  In  Magna  Graecia  and  Sicily  resided  ma- 
ny great  men,  renowned  even  at  the  present  day,  by  the  brilliancy  of  their 
talents  and  by  their  writings  ;  as,  for  instance,  Archimedes-,  Diodorus  ;  the 
poets  Theocritus,  Moschusr  and  Bion;  the  orators  Lysias,  Gorgias,  and  others. 

See  Jagemann's  Geschichte  der  Kunste  und  Wissenschaften  in  Italien. — Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom. 
Lit.  vol  i.  p.  49,  as  cited'  $  109., — Saintc-Croix,  Legislation  de  la  Grande  Grace.  Mem.  Acad. 
Inscr.  vol.  xlii.  p.  286,  and:  xlv.  p.  284. 

§  112.  But  the  circumstances  of  the  Romans  must  principally 
occupy  our  attention  here.  That  first  and  long  period,  which  com- 
prises all  the  time  included  between  the  foundation  of  Rome  and  the 
close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  a  period  of  about  590  years,  was  very 
sterile  with  respect  to  intellectual-  culture;  at  least  it  was  far  from 
being  so  fertile  as  might  have  been  expected  in  a  republic,  which  ad- 
vanced so  rapidly  to  a  flourishing  condition,  and  was  surrounded  by 
neighbors  civilized  and  instructed  in  literature  and  the  arts.  But  the 
spirit  of  aggrandizement  which  controlled  and  guided  afl  the  intel- 
lectual and  political  exertions  of  the  Romans,  was  in  no  small  degree 


ORIGIN    OP    THE    LATIN    LANGUAGE.  67 

itself  the  cause.  This  involved  them  in  continual  war  and  compelled 
them  to  neglect  literature  and  science,  which  are  the  offspring  of 
peace  and  leisure.  Their  whole  constitution,  and  consequently  their 
very  education,  tended  only  to  this  end.  Hence  the  opposition  which 
the  elder  Cato  made  to  the  reception  of  the  Greek  philosophers 
at  Rome.  Hence  also  the  prejudice  which  caused  the  Romans  to 
regard  all  arts  and  sciences,  with  the  exception  of  agriculture  and 
war,  as  dishonorable  and  fit  only  for  slaves. 

§  113?/.  Even  in  this  period,  however,  there  appear  a  few  traces  of  a  dawn- 
ing cultivation.  We  may  specify  as  particulars,  the  care  which,  in  the  time' 
of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  the  civilian  Papirius  employed  in  preparing  a  collec- 
tion of  the  laws  ;  the  embassy  sent  to  Athens,  about  454  B.  C-,  to  examine 
the  institutions  of  Greece,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  laws  of 
the  twelve  Tables ;  the  preservation  of  the  national  history  in  the  pontifical 
books  called  Annales,  or  Commentarii,  parts  of  which  were  written  in  verse, 
and  were  sung  upon  public  days  ;  and  finally  the  introduction,  about  B.  C. 
363,  of  the  Etrurian  plays,  called  ludi  scenici,  in  which  originated  the  Roman 
drama.  These  plays  at  first  consisted  of  nothing  but  dancing  and  pantomime 
accompanying  the  music  of  the  flute. 

After  the  Romans  had  extended  their  conquests  over  Italy,  they  began  to 
bestow  more  attention  upon  the  arts  and  sciences.  There  were  in  Italy  at  this 
time  two  nations  particularly,  by  whom  the  arts  had  been  especially  cultivat- 
ed, the  inhabitants'  of  Etruria  and  of  Magna  Graicia.  (Cf.  §  109,  3.  and 
§  111.)  Both  these  nations  were  subjected  to  the  Romans  more  than  250 
years  before  Christ ;  the  former  about  B.  C.  283  ;  the  latter,  B.  C.  266.  The 
Romans  were  thereby  brought  into  greater  intercourse  with  them.  The  in- 
fluence of  this  intercourse  upon  the  culture  of  the  Romans  was  favorable,  but 
was  not  very  great  until  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  B.  C.  241. 

§  114.  The  origin  of  the  Latin  language  cannot  be  traced  to  any 
one  primitive  tongue,  because  Italy  in  the  early  periods  was  occupied 
by  so  many  people,  and  it  is  so  uncertain  which  of  them  were  the 
most  ancient.  Among  the  earliest  occupants  were  no  doubt  the  Cel- 
tae,  or  the  Pelasgi,  who  came  from  Thracia  and  Arcadia,  and  seem 
to  have  been  of  the  same  race  as  the  aborigines.  Grecian  colonists 
subsequently  planted  themselves  in  the  middle  and  lower  part  of  Ita- 
ly, where  also,  as  well  as  in  Sicily,  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians 
afterwards  settled,  as  likewise  did  the  Gauls  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  country.  The  first  foundation  of  the  Roman  tongue  was  proba- 
bly the  dialect  which  has  been  termed  Ausonian  or  Oscan  (Lingua 
Osca).  Romulus  was  perhaps  educated  among  the  Greeks,  and 
seems  on  this  account  to  have  introduced  into  his  city  the  Grecian 
language,  while  the  native  tongue,  not  having  fixed  rules  and  analo- 
gies of  its  own,  must  have  been  liable  to  arbitrary  changes,  and 
would  borrow  many  peculiarities  from  other  dialects.  We  find  in 
the  derivation  of  many  Latin  words,  and  in  the  general  structure  of 
the  language,  frequent  traces  of  the  Greek,  especially  the  yEolic  dia- 
lect. The  resemblance  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  alphabets  has 
already  been  mentioned  (§  110). 

1  u.  Properly  speaking,  the  Latin  and  the  Roman  languages  are  not  the 
same.  The  former  was  spoken  in  Latium,  between  the  Tiber  and  the  Liris, 
until  the  abolition  of  the  regal  government  in  Rome  ;  and  was  introduced  at 
Rome  after  that  period.     The  laws  of  the  twelve  Tables  were  in  this  dialect. 

2.  "  The  population  of  Italy  being  composed  of  various  people,  there  were  of  course  various 
languages  and  idioms  in  the  country,  as  the  Ombrian,  Etruscan,  Sicanian,  Latin,  and 
others.  The  Latin  was  the  primitive  language  of  the  people  of  Latium,  and  graduaUv 
took  the  place  of  all  the  rest.    The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Latium  constituted    a  part  of  the 


63  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

Aborigines,  but  this  term  indicates,  scarcely  more  than  that  their  real  origin  was  unknown. 
They  are  sometime*  also  called  Ausonans.  According  to  Dionysius  Halicarnasseus,  they  were 
Arcadians.  But  it  is  more  probable  they  were  Ulyrian-,  or  Celtae,  or  rather  a  mixture  of  these 
two  race-*  with  the  Pelasgic  colonists.  In  fact,  we  may  see  in  the  Latin  language,  two  funda- 
mentil  idioms,  the  Celtic,  and  the  Creek  of  the  ASolic  and  Doric  dialects,  which  nearly  resem- 
bled the  ancient  Pelagic.  Every  thing  in  the  Latin  which  is  not  Greek  is  from  the  Ceitae,  and 
especially  the  Ombri.  Dionysiua  therefore  h'ld  reason  for  his  remark  that  the  ancient  idiom  of 
Rome  was  neither  entirely  Greek  nor  entirely  barbarian.  As  Lati'sm  contained  anciently  sev- 
eral independent  tribes,  there  were  several  dialects,  anions  them  those  of  the  Osci,  the  Volsci, 
the  Lat'ni,  and  the  Samnites.  All  the-e  die.lects  gradually  disappeared,  and  were  sunk  in  the 
Roman  language,  as  the  Romans  became  masters  of  Italy.  The  use  of  it  was  regarded  as  an 
acknowledgment  of  their  supremacy,  and  when  the  allies  made  an  attempt  to  throw  off  the 
Roman  yoke,  they  resumed  their  primitive  languages  on  the  money  they  stamped.  The  Julian 
law,  passed  shortly  after,  B.  C.  about  90,  bestowing  upon  these  states  the  rights  of  Roman  cit- 
izenship, struck  a  mortal  blow  at  all  these  idioms,  as  it  forever  banished  them  from  public 
transactions.  The  Etruscan  alone  survived  for  any  considerable  time,  being  favored  on  ac- 
count of  the  respect  affected  by  the  Roman  government  towards  the  rites  of  the  Tuscans." 

See  Schall,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  1.  p.  37,  as  cited  $  109.  1. — On  the  origin  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage, see  also  Dunlop.  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  i.  p.  4°.."as  cited  $  109.2. — Niebuhr,  Hist,  of  Rome, 
vol.  i. —  Class.  Jii'irn.  iii.  217  ;  vi.  375  ;  ix  219  ;  xviii. 359. — Func'dus,  De  origine  Lat.  Linsr.  Tracta- 
tus,  Giessae.  1720  ;  De  Pueritia  L.  L.  Tractatus.  Marb.  1720  ;  De  Adolescentia  L.  L.  Tract.  Marb. 
1720.  These  are  separate  portions  of  a  History  of  Latin  Literature,  by  T.  JV*.  Funk,  of  Rinteln, 
published  at  Marburg  between  1720,  and  175),  in  8  vols.  4.  For  the  other  portions,  see  P.  II. 
§296.  (g.)-We  refer  also  to  J.  C.  F.  Bwhr,  Geschichte  der  Roem.  Literatur.  Carlsr.  1832.  8.  p.  1. 
— Jakel,  Germanische  Ursprung  der  Lat.  Sprache  &c.  Bresl.  1830. — Paulino  di  S.  Bartolomeo, 
De  Lat.  Serm,  origine  &c.  Rom.  1802. — Compare  the  remarks  on  the  families  of  languages,  in 
§  3G,  and  references  there  given. 

3u.  During  the  period  preceding  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  the  Ro- 
man language  was  in  no  settled  state.  It  was  necessarily  exposed  to  he  a 
mixture  of  various  idioms,  from  the  diversity  of  foreigners  who  composed  the 
early  population  of  Rome.  Traces  of  the  old  forms  of  the  language  are  found 
in  fragments  of  the  earliest  poets,  and  also  in  the  comedies  of  Plautus.  It 
was  not  until  the  close  of  the  period  of  which  we  have  spoken,  that  any  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  regular  settling  of  the  principles  and  forms  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  not  until  a  still  later  time  that  any  approved  author  labored  upon 
the  cultivation  of  style.  During  all  this  time,  therefore,  the  language  contin- 
ued in  a  changing  state. 

4.  There  are  still  extant  some  monuments  of  the  language  during  the  period 
preceding  the  first  Punic  war.     To  these  it  will  be  proper  briefly  to  advert. 

The  earliest  specimen  is  supposed  to  be  as  ancient  as  the  time  of  Romulus,  the  Hymn  chant- 
ed by  the  Fratres  Arcales.     It  is  given  by  Dunlop,  with  an  English  version,  as  follows  : 
Enos  Lases  juvate  Ye  Lares,  aid  us  !  Mars  thou  God  of  Might ! 

Neve  luerve   Marmar  sinis  incurrer  in  From  Murrain  shield  the  flocks,  the  flowers  from 

pleoris.  blight. 

Satur  fufere  Mars :  limen  sali  staberber :  For  thee,  O  Mars  !  a  feast  shall  be  prepared  ; 
Semones  alternei  advocapit  cunctos,         Salt,  and  a  wether  from  the  herd  : 
Enos  Marmor  juvate;  Invite,  by  turn,  each  Demigod  of  Spring; 

Triumpe,  Triumpe.  Great  Mars,  assist  us  !  Triumph!  Triumph  sing  ! 

The  hymn  is  explained  somewhat  differently  by  different  interpreters. — See  Dutilop,  Hist. 
Rom.  Lit.  vol.  i.  p.  41.— Schoell,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  l.  p.  41.— Baihr,  as  above  cited,  p.  62. — 
Eustace,  Class.  Tour  in  Italy,  vol.  m.  p.  416. — Comp.  Hermann,  Elem.  Doct.  Metric,  lib.  in.  c. 
ix.  6,  where  he  gives  an  interpretation  in  the  later  Latin. — Edivb.  Rev.  No.  80.  p.  395. 

The  next  specimens  belong  to  the  time  of  JVuma,  and  consist  in  the  remains  of  the  Carmen 
Saliare,  and  of  the  Laws  of  JVuma.  Of  the  former,  which  was  the  hymn  sung  by  the  Salic 
priests  appointed  under  Numa  to  guard  the  Sacred  Shields,  there  remain  only  a  few  words, 
cited  by  Varro  (De  Ling.  Lat.  lib.  vi.  1,  3.)  Of  the  latter,  some  fragments  are  preserved  by 
Festus.  The  following  is  an  example  ;  Sei  cuips  hemonem  loebesom  dolo  sciens  mortet  duit  pari- 
ceidad  estod  sei  im  imprudeas  st  dido  inalod  oceisit  pro  capited  oceisei  et  nateis  eiius  citdo  condoned 
ariete.n  subicitod:  which  is  interpreted,  in  the  later  language,  as  follows  ;  Si  qui*  himinem  libc- 
rum  dolo  sciens  morti  dcderit,  parricida  esto .-  St  mm  iwprndens,  sine  dolo  malo,  occidcrit,  pro  capite 
occisi  ct  vatis  ejus  in  concionem  arietem  subjicito. — Festushas  preserved  also  a  law  ascribed  to  Ser- 
vius  Tullius,  fifth  King  of  Rome. 

After  the  fragments  0f  the  Regal  Laws,  we  have  no  monument  of  the  language  until  we 
come  to  the  Laws  of  the  Ticclce  Tables,  B.  C.  450.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  genuine 
original  reading  has  been  preserved  invariably  in  the  fragments  which  are  now  extant. — For 
specimens,  see  Schtcll,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  l.  p.  45. — Cf.  P.  II.  §  561. 

Add:tional  monuments  of  the  laniuage  in  the  period  now  spoken  of  are  the  DuilUan,  Scip- 
ian,  and  Eagubian  Inscriptions,  which  will  be  mentioned  on  a  subsequent  page.  (  Cf.  $  133.) 

5.  It  may  be  worthy  of  observation  that,  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  there  seem 
to  have  been  marked  differences  in  the  Roman  language  according  as  it  was 
spnken  in  the  city,  or  in  the  country,  or  in  the  conquered  provinces  ;  the  lan- 
guage of  the  city  being  designated  as  the  sermo  urbanus  ;  that  of  the  country, 
the  sermo  rusticanus  ;  and  that  of  the  provinces,  the  sermo  per  eg  rinus. — Cic. 
De  Orat.  iii.  10.— 14. 


ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 


II. —  Of  the  Roman  Alphabet,  Method  of  Writing,  and  Books. 

§  115.  Ancient  Grammarians  do  not  altogether  agree  concerning 
the  nature  and  number  of  the  original  Latin  or  Roman  letters.  Ma- 
rias Victorinus  mentions  the  following ;  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  I,  K,  L,  M, 
N,  O,  P,  a,  R,  S,  T  ;  16  in  number.  Of  these,  a  is  not  found  in 
the  Greek  alphabet,  but  corresponds  to  the  Greek  y.^rra  (§  46)  ;  C 
was  sometimes  equivalent  to  it.  V,  used  both  as  a  consonant  and  as 
a  vowel,  was  subsequently  added  ;  originally  I  or  O  was  used  instead 
of  V  as  a  vowel;  and  instead  of  B  as  a  consonant  the  iEolic  Digamma 
r  was  employed.  It  was  in  this  way,  that  F  obtained  its  place  as  a 
letter.     H,  G,  X,  Y,  Z,  were   also   added  at  a  later  period. 

Comp.  Dionys.  Hal.  Ant.  Rom.  1.  30.  Plin.  N.  H.  vn.  5G,57.—  Tat.  Ann.  xi.  14.— On  the  sub- 
ject of  the  Roman  alphabet,  see  also  Port  Royal  Latin  Grammar,  bk.  ix. — On  its  origin,  Lanzi, 
Sa^gio  di  Ling.  Etnisc— Baihr,  p.  12.  as  cited  \S  109.  2.  and  references  given  by  him.  He  con- 
siders the  Roman  alphabet  as  derived  from  the  Greek. 

§  116.  The  ancient  orthography  differed  from  that  of  later  times, 
from  the  fact  that  the  pronunciation  was  much  changed.  To  see 
this  clearly,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  compare  with  the  modern 
orthography,  the  original  of  a  passage  in  a  decree  of  the  senate  re- 
specting the  Bacchanales  (§  133),  which  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
monuments  of  Roman  writing,  about  B.  C.  186.  The  passage  in  the 
original  form  is  as  follows :    neve,  posthac  inter,  sed.  coniovrase. 

NEVE.  COMVOVISE.  NEVE.  CONSPONDISE.  NEVE.  CONPROMES[SE.  VELET. 
NEVE.  QVISQVAM.  FIDEM.  INTER.  SED.  DEDISE.  VELET.  SACRA.  IN. 
OQVOLTOD.  NE.  QVISQVAM.  FECISE.  VELET.  NEVE.  IN.  POPLICOD.  NEVE. 
IN.     PREIVATOD.    NEVE.     EXTRAD.     VRBEM.    SACRA.     QVISQVAM.     FECISE. 

velet.  In  the  later  orthography,  as  follows  :  Neve  posthac  inter  se 
conjurasse,  neve  convovisse,  neve  conspondisse,  neve  compromisisse  vel- 
let, neve  quisquam  fidem  inter  se  dedisse  vellet,  sacra  in  occulto  ne 
quisquam  fecissc  vellet,  neve  in  publico,  neve  in  privato,  neve  extra 
urbem  sacra  quisquam  fecisse  vellet. 

Respecting  this  decree,  seeLivy,  xxxix.  18. — Sclurll, Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  l.  p.  52.  Cf.  §  133.  3. 
— On  the  various  changes  in  orthography,  see  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Litt.  l.  p.  48. — Port  Royal 
Lat.  Gram,  bk,  ix. — Funcciu*  De  Pueritia.  Ling.  Lat.  c.  5.  and  De  Adolescentia  Ling.  Lat.  c.  7. 
—  Terrason,  Hist,  de  la  Jurisprudence  Rom.  pt.  l. 

§  H7.  Not  only  in  ancient  times,  but  even  in  the  later  and  most 
flourishing  period  of  their  literature,  the  Romans  wrote  only  in  cap- 
ital letters.  The  small  Roman  letters  did  not  come  into  general  use 
until  the  beginning  of  the  middle  ages.  If  small  letters  (Uteres  mi- 
nutes) were  employed  earlier,  it  was  only  a  smaller  size  of  the  capi- 
tals. 

1.  A  late  writer  in  the  publication  of  the  London  Antiquarian  Society  hag 
made  an  attempt,  which  some  consider  as  successful,  to  show  that  minuscule 
writing  (i.  e.  writing  in  the  small  letters)  was  practiced  by  the  ancients;  al- 
though this  is  contrary  to  the  opinion  hitherto  universally  received. 

See  W.  Y.  Qttleifs  account  of  the  Ms.  of  Cicero's  Aratus,  as  mentioned  below  §  143. — Cf.  C. 
Wordsworth,  Specimens  and  Fac-similes  of  ancient  writing  found  on  the  walls  and  streets  of 
Pompeii.     Lond.  1838.  8. 

2u.  When  the  writers  wished  to  take  down  a  spoken  discourse,  or  to  note 
something  in  the  margin,  they  formed  abbreviations  (nutai)  by  using  the  initial 
letters,  or  some  of  the  principal  letters,  of  the  words,  or  by  using  particular 
signs  for  the  syllables  of  most  frequent  occurrence,  or  arbitrary  characters 
standing  for  whole  words.     The  most  remarkable  of  these  signs  or  characters 


70  ARCHAEOLOGY    OP    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

are  the  notee.  Tironiance,  the  invention  of  which  is  ascribed  to  Annaeus  Senecay 
and  to  Cicero's  freed  man  Tiro  ;  from  the  latter  of  whom  they  derived  their 
name.  Gruter  and  Carpenticr  have  collected  and  attempted  to  explain  these 
characters  ;  it  has  been  done  more  completely  by  Kopp  in  treating  of  the 
Tachygraphy  of  the  ancients.  Some  have  imagined,  that  our  small  numerical 
figures  derived  their  origin  from  these  characters  instead  of  being,  as  is  com- 
monly believed,  an  invention  of  the  Arabians  ;  but  there  is  no  ground  for  the 
supposition. 

3.  There  are  manuscripts  in  existence  of  great  antiquity,  written  in  short  hand.  Some  of 
these  are  in  Greek.  According  to  Kopp,  the  Greek  notes  or  abbreviated  signs  are  more  easy 
and  simple  than  the  Tironian,  and  in  appearance  more  similar  to  modern  short  hand. 

See  Curpeiitler,  Alphabatum  Tironianum.  Par.  1747.  fob—  U.  F.  Kopp,  Tachygraphia  Veterum 
exposita  et  illustrata.  Manheim,  1817.  2  vols.  4.— Gruter,  a?  cited  §  130. — The  Roman  notes  are 
also  exhibited  in   Gruter's  Seneca,  cited  P.  II.  §  4G9.  4.— Cf.  Class.  Journal,  vol.  xxxix.  p.  185L 

§  118.  The  books  of  the  Romans,  both  the  more  ancient  and  those 
of  later  times,  resembled  in  form  and  material,  the  books  of  the 
Greeks.  (See  §  56,  57.)  The  rolls  among  the  Romans  were  call- 
ed volumina ;  the  leaves  composing  them,  pagince  (from  the  word 
pangcre,  to  put  together)  ;  the  sticks  upon  which  they  were  rolled, 
cylindri,  also  bacilli,  surculi ;  the  knobs  or  ornaments  at  the  ends  of 
the  sticks,  umbilici  or  cornua ;  and  the  edges  of  the  rolls,  frontes. 
In  writing  the  first  draft  of  any  thing,  whether  in  accounts  or  letters, 
the  Romans  commonly  made  use  of  tablets  covered  with  wax  (tabula 
cerates,  ccrce).  They  also  had  books,  made  and  folded  in  the  same 
manner  as  ours,  of  square  leaves  of  vellum  or  papyrus,  which  they 
called  codices.  Their  instruments  for  writing  were  the  style  (stylus, 
graphium),  and  the  reed  (calamus,  arundo).  They  used  ink  of  sev- 
eral dyes  or  colors.  And  copyists  introduced  the  same  ornaments 
in  writing  manuscripts  as  among  the  Greeks.     Comp.  §§  55,  58. 

1 .  The  paper  used  by  the  Romans  was  formed  from  the  Egyptian  papyrus; 
a  species  of  rush,  which  was  procured  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  The  term 
biblus  (fiifliog)  was  also  applied  to  the  same  plant.  Hence  we  have  our  words 
paper  and  Bible.  The  papyrus  was  used  for  purposes  of  writing  at  a  very 
early  period  (cf.  §107.  5).  Manufactories  of  the  paper  existed  at  Memphis,  it 
is  stated,  more  than  600  years  before  Christ.  At  the  time  of  the  conquest  of 
Egypt  by  the  Romans,  it  was  made  chiefly  at  Alexandria. 

Pliny  gives  a  description  of  the  manner  of  making  the  paper.  One  layer  of  the  fibrous  mem- 
branes (pkilyra)  was  placed  crosswise  upon  another  layer  ;  they  were  then  moistened  with  the 
water  of  the  Nile,  pressed,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  Bruce  affirms  that  the  water  of  the  .Nile  is 
not  glutinous,  and  that  the  strips  of  papyrus  adhere  together  solely  by  the  saccharine  matter  con- 
tained in  the  plant,  and  that  the  water  must  have  been  used  only  to  dissolve  and  diffuse  this 
matter  equally.  After  being  dried,  it  was  pounded  with  a  mallet  and  polished  with  a  tooth, 
shell,  or  other  smooth  substance.  It  was  then  cut  into  sheets  or  leaves  (plagula,  schedw),  which 
were  of  various  qualities  and  kinds.  A  number  of  sheets  were  joined  together  to  form  a  roll  or 
volume  ;  the  number  was  never  greater  than  twenty  ;  the  term  scapus  was  employed  to  desig- 
nate collectively  any  number  thus  joined.  The  sheets  were  glued  together  for  a  volume  or 
manuscript  by  slaves,  termed  glutinntores  (i.  q.  librorum  covipactores,  (tifl).io7ir<yoi).  —  The 
papyrus  manuscripts  lately  found  in  Egypt  (cf.  $107.  4,  5.)  appear  to  have  been  prepared  in  the 
manner  here  described. 

See  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  xni.  M,\3.—Montfaucon,  sur  la  plante  appelle  Papyrus,  &c.  in  the  Mem. 
di"  "Acad,  des  Iuscrip,  vi.  p.  59-2. —  Caylus,  also,  in  the  same  Mem.  k.c.  xx  vi.  267.  —  Schwartz,  as 
below  cited. — f.  Bruce,  Travels  in  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  &c.  Edin.  1790.  5  vols.  4.  vol.  v.  p.  1. 
with  a  plate  showing  the  papyrus  in  full  growth.     See  our  Plate  I  a.  fig.  c. 

2.  The  ink  commonly  used  was  black.  But  a  vermilion  termed  minium  was 
employed  in  marking  titles  and  heads  ;  a  purple  {coccus, purpura)  was  used  for 
the  same  purpose  :  and  also  a  red  called  rubricu,  whence  originated  the  modern 
word  rubric.  The  basis  of  the  common  ink  (atramentum)  was,  according  to 
Pliny,  the  black  taken  from  burnt  ivory,  and  soot  from  furnaces  and  baths. 

"  The  black  liquor  of  the  cuttle  fish  (sepia)  is  also  said  to  have  been  used  as  ink,  principally 
on  the  authority  of  a  metaphorical  expression  of  the  poet  Persius  (Sat.  iii.  14.).  But  of  what- 
ever ingredients  it  was  made,  it  is  certain,  from  chemical  analysis,  from  the  solidity  and  black- 
ness in'the  most  ancient  manuscripts,  and  from  an  inkstand  found  at  Herculaneum,  in  which 
the  ink  appears  like  a  thick  oil,  that  the  ink  was  much  more  opaque  as  well  as  encaustic  thau 
that  used  at  present," 


METHOD  OF  WRITING.       BOOKS. 


71 


On  the  whole  subject  of  ancient  books,  and  the  materials  and  instruments  of  Writing  among 
the  ancients,  see  Ch.  6.  Schwartz,  De  Ornamentis  librorum  ct  varia  rei  literaria;  veterum  supel- 
lectile  dissertationes.    Lips.  1756.  4. — See  also  Taylor,  as  cited  §  58,  and  references  given  §  53. 

3.  It  seems  proper  here  briefly  to  notice  and  explain  some  other  Latin  terms 
and  phrases  used  in  reference  to  the  subject  now  under  notice. 


Adversaria,  note-books,  memorandums  ;  re- 
ferrc  in  adversaria,  to  take  a  memorandum. 

Autographas,  autograph,  a  manuscript  writ- 
ten by  the  author's  own  hand  ;  i.  q.  idiographas. 

Bibliothcca,  a  library,  see  §12b". 

Bibliopola,  a  bookseller. 

Capsa,  a  place  for  keeping  books,  paper,  or 
instruments  for  writing,  an  escritoir,  a  case  ; 
i.  q.  scrinium,  arcula,  loculus.  The  capsa  is 
represented  as  a  cylindrical  box,  in  which  the 
manuscripts  or  rolls  were  placed  vertically,  the 
titles  being  at  the  top.  Thus  many  volumes 
could  be  comprised  within  a  small  space.  See 
our  Plate  I.  fig.  G. 

Cap^arius,  the  slave  carrying  the  capsa,  for 
boys  of  rank,  to  school. 

Cliarta,  paper;  this  word  received  various 
epithet*,  modifying  its  signification;  as  Ch.dm- 
tata,  polished  paper,  smoothed  by  the  tooth  of  a 
boar  or  some  animal  ;  Clt.  Augusta  regia,  Ch. 
Claudiana,  very  superior  or  fine  paper  ;  Ch.  em- 
poretica,  wrapping  paper  for  merchants ;  Ch. 
macrocolla,  very  large  paper;  Charta  Pa-gamena, 
i.  q.  membrane,  parchment  made  of  sheep-skins. 

Chartaria  (ojjicina),  shop  or  place  where  pa- 
per was  made. 

Chirographics,  written  with  one's  own  hand. 

Chirorraphum,  one's  own  signature  or  name 
written"  by  himself.  A  document  with  the 
names  of  two  contracting  parties  thus  written, 
is  called  syngrapha. 

Codictllus,  a  little  book  ;  see  libelli. 

Cominentarii,  accounts  written  about  one's 
self ;  also  journals  or  registers,  i.  q.  Diaria, 
ephcmerides. 

Diphthera  (di(fidtQ-a),  sometimes  used  for 
parchment ;  Diphtlicra  Jovis,  register-book  of 
Jupiter. 

Diploma  (i.q.  Ubellus  duplicatus,  consisting  of 
two  leaves,  written  on  one  side),  a  writing  con- 
ferring some  peculiar  right  or  privilege,  granted 
by  a  magistrate  or  emperor. 

Epistola,  a  letter  to  one  absent.  The  Romans 
divided  their  letters  if  long  into  pages,  folded 
them  in  the  form  of  a  little  book,  tied  them 
round  with  a  thread  {lino  obligarej,  covered  the 
knot  with  wax  or  a  kind  of  chalk  (creta),  and 
sealed  it  {obsignarc)  ;  hence  epi.stolas  resignare, 
■solvere,  to  open  a  letter.  The  name  of  the  writer 
was  always  put  first,  then  that  of  the  person 
addressed  j  the  word  salutem  or  letter  S  was 


annexed.  The  letter  always  closed  with  some 
form  of  a  good  wish  or  prayer,  called  subscriptio. 
The  date  was  usually  added,  sometimes  the 
hour  of  the  day.  Letters  were  usually  sent  by 
a  slave,  called  tabdlarius,  there  being  no  estab- 
lished post  until  the  time  of  the  emperors;  when 
its  use  was  chietly  confined  to  the  imperial  ser- 
vice. {Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  ii.)  The  slave 
or  freedman  employed  to  write  letters  was 
termed  amanuensis  (a  manu). 

Folium,  a  leaf  of  a  book  ;  leaves  of  trees  or 
plant.-  having  been  employed  originally  to  write 
upon  ;  hence  our  word/t»h'o. 

Liber,  inner  bark  used  in  early  times  as  a 
material  for  writing  ;  hence  put  for  book. 

Libelli,  generally  signifying  imperial  messa- 
ges, public  orders,  memorial-;,  petitions,  or  the 
like,  as  these  were  divided  into  pages  and 
folded  in  a  small  book,  somewhat  in  our  form; 
the  term  CudicUlt  was  used  in  the  same  sense,, 
but  generally  applied  to  a  person's  last  will. 

Libellus  )iie<nonalis,  a  pocket  book. 

Libeilus  ratioiialis,  an  account  book. 

Librarii,  transcribers. 

Libraria  {taberna  understood),  book-shop. 

Llbrarium,  a  chest  for  holding  books. 

Ldertv,  usually  epistles,  but  often  any  kind 
of  writing  ;  hence  put  for  learning. 

Opisthographus,  written  on  both  sides. 

Pagina,  a  page  ;  primarily,  a  sheet  of  the 
papyrus  ;  i.  q.  plagula  described  above  (1)  j 
raiiicitam,  cutis,  corium,  Uenia,  are  applied  by 
1'liny  to  the  same. 

Pidimpsestus  (codex),  a  manuscript  on  which 
the  first  writing  was  obliterated  in  order  that  it 
might  be  used  again.  This  was  effected  by  re- 
moving the  surface  of  the  parchment,  or  by 
some  chemical  process.    Cf.  $  84. 

Pergamena,  see  Charta. 

Pugillares,  small  writing  tables,  of  oblong? 
form,  made  of  citron,  boxwood,  or  ivory,  and 
covered  witli  wax.  The  Romans  usually  car- 
ried such  tables  with  them  ;  a  slave  {notarius) 
was  often  employed  to  note  down  what  they 
wished. 

Theca  calamaria,  the  case  for  the  calamus  of 
stylus.  The  stijle  was  sometimes,  under  provo- 
cation ,  used  as  a  weapon  ;  hence,  as  has  been 
supposed,  the  stiletto  of  the  modern  Italians. 

Vrlhan  (Vitulinum),  the  skins  of  calves  pre- 
pared as  material  for  manuscripts. 


III. — Of  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Roman  literature* 


§  119.  The  conquest  of  Magna  Graecia,  as  has  been  mentioned, 
made  the  Romans  more  acquainted  with  the  letters  and  arts  of  the" 
Greek  colonies  in  the  south  of  Italy.  After  the  first  Punic  war,  and 
especially  after  the  subjection  of  Sicily,  B.  C.  212,  where  also,  par* 
ticularly  at  Syracuse,  Greek  letters  flourished,  the  influence  of  these 
subject  states  upon  their  mistress  was  great  in  respect  to  intellectual 
culture.  Poets,  orators,  and  grammarians  from  the  conquered  coun- 
tries, removed  to  Rome  and  inspired  many  of  her  citizens  with  a 
love  of  literature. 

§120  a.  From  this  period,  Roman  literature   made  rapid   and  remarkable 


72  ARCHEOLOGY    OF»ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

progress.  They  began  more  to  admire  poetry,  especially  dramatic,  and  to> 
study  with  more  care  the  principles  of  their  language.  They  also  became- 
acquainted  with  the  Grecian  philosophy.  What  contributed  very  much  to 
this  last,  was  the  visit  of  three  Greek  philosophers,  Carneades,  Diogenes  and 
Critolaus,  who  came  to  Rome  on  an  embassy,  B.  C.  155.  These  men,  (cf.  P. 
II.  §  408.)  notwithstanding  the  efforts  made  by  Cato  to  shorten  their  stay  and 
to  prevent  their  teaching  their  doctrines,  excited  great  interest  in  the  Greek 
philosophy.  The  Romans  now  also  began  to  set  more  value  upon  the  art  of 
oratory  ;  to  apply  themselves  to  historical  researches,  and  to  look  upon  the 
study  of  jurisprudence  as  a  favorable  means  for  improving  their  welfare.  After 
the  taking  of  Carthage,  and  especially  after  the  subjection  of  Greece,  Rome 
enjoyed  more  of  peace,  together  with  the  numerous  advantages  she  had  gain- 
ed by  her  conquests  ;  then  followed  the  reign  of  the  sciences  and  fine  arts, 
and  that  brilliant  period,  which  is  called  the  golden  age  of  her  literature. 
See  Mbc  le  Moine,  and  J.  H.  Eberhardt,  as  cited  P.  II.  $  294. 

§  121.  The  most  brilliant  age  of  Roman  literature  commenced 
with  the  capture  of  Corinth  and  Carthage,  B.  C.  146,  and  continued 
to  the  death  of  Augustus,  the  first  emperor,  A.  D.  14,  comprising  a 
period  of  159  years.  The  progress  of  the  Romans  in  the  sciences 
and  arts  was  now  so  great,  that  it  has  excited  the  admiration  of  pos- 
terity, and  secured  them  a  rank  among  the  distinguished  nations  of 
antiquity,  second  only  to  the  Greeks.  Among  the  causes  of  this  re- 
markable advancement,  must  be  mentioned  the  comparative  tranquil- 
lity of  the  period,  the  greatness  of  the  empire,  the  custom  of  imita- 
ting the  best  Grecian  models,  and  those  changes  in  the  Roman  con- 
stitution and  policy  with  regard  to  the  arts  and  sciences,  by  which 
they  not  only  obtained  tolerance,  but  enjoyed  protection,  respect  and 
the  most  flattering  encouragement. 

§  122.  It  was  thus,  that  the  productions  of  genius  came  to  the 
greatest  perfection,  that  the  language  was  enriched  and  poetry  took  a 
novel  and  more  brilliant  form,  particularly  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 
The  art  of  oratory  presented  a  vast  field  for  the  intellect,  and  held  a 
superior  rank.  History  acquired  more  of  dignity  and  interest.  Phi- 
losophy in  all  its  sects  adopted  the  Grecian  method  of  instruction, 
and  received  the  most  encouraging  attention.  The  Mathematics, 
which  hitherto  had  been  limited  to  arithmetic  and  the  elements  of 
geometry,  obtained  far  greater  extent  and  perfection.  To  medicine 
and  jurisprudence  were  imparted  more  solidity  and  exactness  in  their 
application.  This  progress  became  still  more  rapid  and  universal,  as 
these  acquirements  extended  through  different  classes  of  citizens, 
and  Romans  of  the  highest  rank,  and  even  the  rulers  themselves, 
engaged  in  literary  pursuits,  or  at  least  considered  it  their  glory  to 
favor   and  encourage  them. 

§  123.  The  progress  of  improvement  was  specially  manifest  in 
the  system  of  education.  It  was  no  longer  limited  to  the  bodily 
powers  and  the  art  of  war.  Every  faculty  of  the  mind  was  de- 
veloped, as  among  the  Greeks,  who  were  in  this  as  in  other  things 
the  masters  and  models  of  the  Romans.  The  first  instruction  of 
the  Romans  was  received  from  Greeks,  and  Grecian  letters  and  arts 
constituted  the  principal  study.  Hence  their  evident  imitation  of 
the  Greeks,  whom  however  they  did  not  servilely  copy,  but  infused 
into  their  imitations  their  own  spirit  and  genius.  In  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  Greeks,  the  Romans  also  had  their  contests  or  trials  of 


EDUCATION.       SCHOOLS. 


73 


skill  in  oratory,  poetry  and  music,  their  public  recitals,  their  pro- 
fessed readers,  and  their  literary  feasts ;  and  the  sciences  were  not 
limited  to  particular  classes  or  professions,  any  more  than  among  the 
Greeks.  The  knowledge  which  they  considered  suitable  to  every 
condition,  and  worthy  of  a  man  of  noble  birth,  and  of  good  capaci- 
ty, education  and  manners,  they  called  by  way  of  eminence,  artes 
liberates,  studia  humanitatis. 

See  Cellarii  Diss,  de  studiis  Romano-rum  literariis,  Hal.  1698.4. — Also  con- 
tained in  Cellarii  Antiq.  Rom.  edited  by  Walch,  Hal.  1774.  8. 

§  124.  In  these  studies  we  must  include  the  instruction  given  by 
the  Grammarians  and  Rhetoricians,  who  were  also  styled  professores, 
literati,  and  literatores.  These  latter  instructed  not  only  in  the  ele- 
ments of  the  Latin  and  Greek  language,  but  also  in  the  principles  of 
poetry  and  oratory,  the  principal  works  of  which  they  analyzed  and 
explained.  Of  declamation,  or  public  oratorical  rehearsals,  there 
was  a  frequent  practice.  Not  only  children  and  youth,  but  men  of 
parts  and  education,  assisted  in  these  exercises.  Besides  this  en- 
couragement the  instructors  received  recompenses  and  favors,  and 
sometimes  even  shared  in  the  highest  dignities  of  state.  The  first 
Grammarian,  who  taught  in  Rome  with  success,  was  the  Grecian 
Crates  from  Mallos  (cf.  P.  II.  §  418).  After  him  L.  Plotius  be- 
came one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  that  profession ;  and  he  was  the 
first  who  taught  the  art  of  oratory  in  the  Latin  language. 

§  125.  Many  public  schools  (scholce,  ludi,  pergula  magistrates) 
were  established,  in  consequence  of  the  great  number  of  these  gram- 
marians, which  at  length  increased,  so  that  many  were  obliged  to 
leave  Rome,  and  spread  themselves  in  upper  Italy.  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  schools  was  that  instituted  at  a  later  period 
by  the  emperor  Adrian.  It  was  held  in  a  large  edifice,  called  the 
Atheneum,  partly  devoted  also  to  public  recitals  and  declamations, 
and  was  continued  under  the  name  of  Schola  Romana,  until  the  time 
of  the  first  Christian  emperors.  There  was  also  an  establishment  of 
the  kind  in  the  Capitolium.  In  addition  to  these,  some  temples,  as 
that  of  Apollo,  for  example,  formed  halls  of  assembly,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  rehearsal.  And  in  the  Gymnasia,  there  were  various  intel- 
lectual as  well  as  bodily  exercises.  The  methods  of  instruction, 
particularly  in  the  study  of  philosophy,  were  similar  to  those  of  the 
Greeks.     (Cf.  §§  71—73.) 

1.  In  the  temple  of  Apollo,  built  by  Augustus  on  the  Palatine  bill,  authors, 
particularly  poets,  used  to  recite  their  compositions  before  select  judges. 
They  were  there  said  to  be  matched  or  contrasted,  committi,  or  to  contrast 
their  works,  opera  committcre.  Hence  commissiones  was  used  to  signify 
showy  declamations. 

Cf.  Juv.  vi.  435.— Suet.  Aug.  45.  89.  Claud.  4.  53. — JVaudet,  Sur  instruction  publique  chez 
les  anciens,  particulierement  les  Romains.  Mem.  de  PInstitut  C  1  as  s  e  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc. 
vol.  ix.  p.  388. — L.  Reederer,  De  Scholast.  Romanor.  Institutione.  Bonn.  1828.  4. 

2.  The  following  extract,  from  Kennctt's  Antiquities,  will  give  further  par- 
ticulars respecting  the  education  of  the  Romans. 

"  For  masters,  in  the  first  place,  they  had  the  Literatores  or  r<>auuaTiOTal,  who  taughtthe 
children  to  read  and  write  ;  to  these  they  were  committed  about  tlie  age  of  six  or  seven  years. 
Being  come  from  under  their  care,  they  were  sent  to  the  grammar  schools,  to  learn  the  art  of 
speaking  well,  and  the  understanding  of  authors  ;  or  more  frequently  in  the  houses  of  great 
men,  some  eminent  grammarian  was  entertained  for  that  employment. — It  is  pleasant  to  con- 
sider, what  prudence  was  used  in  these  early  years  to  instil  into  the  chidren's  minds  a  love 
and  inclination  to  the  Forum,  whence  they' were  to  expect  the  greatest  share  of  their  honors 

7 


/4  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

and  preferments.  For  Cicero  tells  Atticus,  in  his  second  book  de  Legibus,  that  when  they 
were  boys  they  used  to  learn  the  famous  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  by  heart,  in  the  samt* 
manner  as  they  did  an  excellent  poem.  And  Plutarch  relates  in  his  life  of  the  younger  Cato, 
that  the  very  children  had  a  play  in  which  they  acted  pleading  of  causes  before  the  judges  ; 
accusing  one  another,  and  carrying  the  condemned  party  to  prison. — The  masters  already 
mentioned,  together  with  the  instructors  in  the  several  sorts  of  manly  exercises  for  the  im- 
proving of  their  natural  strength  and  force,  do  not  properly  deserve  tbat  name,  if  set  in  view 
with  the  rhetoricians  and  philosophers  ;  who,  after  that  reason  had  displayed  her  faculties, 
and  established  her  command,  were  employed  to  cultivate  and  adorn  the  advantages  of  na- 
ture, and  to  give  the  last  hand  towards  the  forming  of  a  Roman  citizen.  Few  persons  made 
any  great  figure  on  the  scene  of  action  in  their  own  time,  or  in  history  afterwards,  who,  be- 
sides the  constant  frequenting  of  public  lectures,  did  not  keep  with  them  in  the  house  some 
eminent  professor  of  oratory  or  wisdom. 

At  the  age  of  seventeen  years,  when  the  young  gentlemen  put  on  the  manly  gown,  they  were 
brought  in  a  solemn  manner  to  the  forum,  and  entered  in  the  study  of  pleading ;  not  only  if 
they  designed  to  make  this  their  chief  profession,  but  although  their  inclinations  lay  rather  to 
the  camp.  For  we  scarce  meet  with  a  good  captain  who  was  not  a  good  speaker,  or  any  em- 
inent orator,  who  had  not  served  some  time  in  the  army.  Thus  it  was  requisite  for  all  persons 
who  had  any  thoughts  of  rising  in  the  world,  to  make  a  good  appearance,  both  at  the  bar,  and 
in  the  field  ;  because  if  the  success  of  their  valor  and  conduct  should  advance  them  to  any 
considerable  post,  it  would  have  proved  almost  impossible,  without  the  advantage  of  elo- 
quence, to  maintain  their  authority  with  the  senate  and  people  ;  or  if  the  force  of  their  oratory 
should  in  time  procure  them  the  honorable  office  of  praetor  or  consul,  they  would  not  have 
been  in  a  capacity  to  undertake  the  government  of  the  provinces  (which  fell  to  their  share  at 
the  expiration  of  those  employments)  without  some  experience  in  military  command. 

In  the  dialogue  de  Oratoribus,  we  have  a  very  good  account  of  this  admission  of  young  gen- 
tlemen into  the  forum,  and  of  the  necessity  of  such  a  course  in  the  commonwealth. — "  Among 
our  ancestors,"  says  the  author,  "  the  youth  who  was  designed  for  the  forum,  and  the  practice 
of  eloquence,  being  now  furnished  with  the  liberal  arts,  and  the  advantage  of  a  domestic  insti- 
tution, was  brought  by  his  father  or  near  relations,  to  the  most  celebrated  orator  in  the  city. 
Him  he  used  constantly  to  attend,  and  to  be  always  present  at  his  performance  of  any  kind, 
either  in  judicial  matters,  or  in  the  ordinary  assemblies  of  the  people,  so  that  by  this  means 
lie  learned  to  engage  in  the  laurels  and  contentions  of  the  bar,  and  to  approve  himself  a  man 
at  arms  in  the  wars  of  the  pleaders." 

To  confirm  the  opinion  of  their  extreme  industry  and  perpetual  study  and  labor,  it  may  not 
seem  impertinent  to  instance  in  the  three  common  exercises  of  translating,  declaiming,  and  re- 
citing.— Translation,  the  ancient  orators  of  Rome  looked  on  as  a  most  useful,  though  a  most 
laborious  employment.  All  persons  that  applied  themselves  to  the  bar,  proposed  commonly 
some  one  orator  of  Greece  for  their  constant  pattern  ;  either  Lysias,  Hyperides,  Demosthenes, 
or  iEschines,  as  their  genius  was  inclined.  Him  they  continually  studied,  and,  to  render  them- 
selves absolute  masters  of  his  excellencies,  were  always  making  him  speak  their  own  tongue. 
This  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny  Junior,  enjoin  as  an  indispensable  duty,  in  order  to  the  ac- 
quiring any  talent  in  eloquence.  And  the  first  of  these  great  men,  besides  his  many  versions 
of  the  orators  for  his  private  use,  obliged  the  public  with  the  translation  of  several  parts  of  Plato 
and  Xenophon  in  prose,  and  of  Homer  and  Aratus  in  verse. 

As  to  declaiming,  this  was  not  only  the  main  thing,  at  which  they  labored  under  the  masters 
of  rhetoric,  but  what  they  practiced  long  after  they  undertook  real  causes,  and  had  gained  a 
considerable  name  in  the  forum.  Suetonius,  in  his  book  of  famous  rhetoricians,  tells  us  that 
Cicero  declaimed  in  Greek  till  he  was  elected  Pra;tor,  and  in  Latin  till  near  his  death ;  that 
Pompey  the  Great,  just  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  resumed  his  old  exercise  of  de- 
claiming, that  he  might  the  more  easily  be  able  to  deal  with  Curio,  who  undertook  the  defence 
of  Cesar's  cause,  in  his  public  harangues  ;  that  Mark  Antony  and  Augustus  did  not  lay  aside 
this  custom,  even  when  they  were  engaged  in  the  siege  of  JVlutina  ;  and  that  Nero  was  not  only 
constant  at  his  declamations,  while  in  a  private  station,  but  for  the  first  year  after  his  advance- 
ment to  the  empire. — it  is  worth  remarking,  that  the  subject  of  these  old  declamations  wasnot 
a  mere  fanciful  thesis,  but  a  case  Which  might  be  brought  into  the  courts  of  judicature. 

When  I  speak  of  recitation,  I  intend  not  to  insist  on  the  public  performances  of  the  poets  in 
that  kind,  for  which  purpose  they  commonly  borrowed  the  house  of  some  of  their  noblest  pa- 
trons, and  carried  on  the  whole  matter  before  a  vast  concourse  of  people,  and  with  abundance 
of  ceremony.  For,  considering  the  ordinary  circumstances  of  men  of  that  profession,  this  may 
be  thought  not  so  much  the  effect  of  an  industrious  temper,  as  the  necessary  way  of  raising  a 
name  among  the  wits,  and  getting  a  tolerable  livelihood.  I  would  mean,  therefore,  the  re- 
hearsal of  all  manner  of  compositions  in  prose  or  verse,  performed  by  men  of  some  rank  and 
quality,  before  they  obliged  the  world  with  their  publication.  This  was  ordinarily  done  in  the 
meeting  of  friends  and  acquaintances,  and  now  and  then  with  the  admission  of  a  more  numer- 
ous audience.  The  design  they  chiefly  aimed  at  was  the  correction  and  improvement  of  the 
piece  ;  for  the  author,  having  a  greater  awe  and  concern  upon  him  on  these  occasions  than  at 
other  times,  must  needs  take  more  notice  of  every  word  and  sentence,  while  he  spoke  them 
before  the  company,  than  he  did  in  the  composure,  or  in  the  common  supervisal.  i.esides,  he 
had  the  advantage  of  all  his  friends'  judgments,  whether  intimated  to  him  afterwards  in  pri- 
vate conference,  or  tacitly  declared  at  the  recital  by  their  looks  and  nods,  with  many  other  to- 
kens of  dislike  and  approbation.     ((  f.  §  67.) 

The  example  of  the  younger  Pliny,  in  this  practice,  is  very  observable,  and  the  account 
which  we  have  of  it  is  given  us  by  himself.  "  L  omit  (says  he,  Ep.  vn.  17,)  no  way  or  method 
that  may  seem  proper  for  correction.  Aud  first  1  take  a  strict  view  of  what  I  have  written, 
and  consider  thoroughly  of  the  whole  piece  ;  in  the  next  place,  I  read  it  over  to  two  or  three 
friends,  and  soon  after  send  it  to  others  for  the  benefit  of  their  observations.  If  I  am  in  any 
doubt  concerning  their  criticisms,  1  take  in  the  assistance  of  one  or  two  besides  myself,  to 
judge  and  debate  the  matter.  Last  of  all,  I  recite  before  a  great  number;  and  this  is  the  time 
that  I  furnish  myself  with  the  severest  emendations." 

On  the  rehearsals  of  the  Romans,  see  Gierig,  as  cited  below,  §  128.  3.— For  some  remarks  on 
Roman  education,  see  Qood\s  Book  of  Nature.  Lect.  xi.— On  Rom.  education  in  time  of  Quin- 
tilian, Rollin,  on  the  Latin  Rhetoricians,  in  his  Aac.  lli.it.  ed.  N.  York  1835,  n.  p.  552. 


LIBRARIES.  75 

§  126.  Collections  of  books  were  considerably  numerous  at  Rome. 
The  first  private  library  is  said  to  have  been  that  which  P.  Emilius 
founded  B.  C.  167,  immediately  after  the  Macedonian  war  ;  which, 
however,  could  not  have  been  very  large.  More  extensive  was  the 
library  which  Sylla  brought  with  him  from  the  capture  of  Athens, 
which  included  the  rich  collection  of  Apellicon.  But  this  did  not 
equal  the  magnificence  of  the  famous  library  of  Lucullus,  obtained 
in  the  Mithridatic  war.  Besides  these  there  were  several  other  dis- 
tinguished private  libraries,  many  citizens  having  them  at  their  coun- 
try villas.  The  first  public  library  was  founded  by  Asinius  Pollio, 
in  the  ha41  of  the  temple  of  Liberty,  on  Mount  Aventine.  One  of 
the  most  celebrated  was  that  founded  by  Augustus  in  the  temple  of 
Apollo  on  Mount  Palatine.  Another  particularly  celebrated  was  the 
Ulpine  library  founded  by  Trajan,  and  afterwards  located  in  the  Baths 
of  Diocletian.  There  were  also  other  public  libraries,  as  for  exam- 
ple, in  the  Capitol,  in  the  temple  of  Peace,  and  in  a  building  adjourn- 
ing the  theatre  of  Marcellus. 

1.  Varro  is  said  to  have  collected  a  very  valuable  library,  which  was  open 
to  the  use  of  literary  men.  Cicero  and  Atticus  also  possessed  considerable  li- 
braries. Tyrannio,  a  native  of  Pontus,  who  was  taken  prisoner  by  Lucullus 
and  brought  to  Rome  as  a  slave,  and  who,  having  received  his  freedom,  en- 
gaged in  teaching  rhetoric  and  grammar,  is  said  to  have  acquired  by  his  earn- 
ings a  library  of  30,000  volumes. 

2ti.  Generally  libraries  (bibliotliexa)  occupied  one  of  the  principal  apart- 
ments in  the  edifices  and  palaces  of  the  Romans,  usually  in  the  eastern  side 
of  the  building.  They  were  ornamented  with  paintings  and  with  statues  and 
busts  of  distinguished  writers.  The  books  were  ranged  along  the  walls  in 
cases  {armaria,  capsa),  which  were  numbered  and  had  subdivisions  (foruli, 
loculamenta,  nidi).  Grammarians,  and  Greek  slaves  or  freedmen,  were  ap- 
pointed for  the  librarians  (bibliothecarii) . 

We  cannot  infer  with  certainty  the  number  either  of  different  authors,  or  of  different  works, 
contained  in  a  library,  from  the  number  of  volumes  mentioned  ;  as  often  only  one  author,  or 
one  work  even,  was  comprised  in  many  volumes.  The  same  work  was  no  doubt  found  in  va- 
rious libraries,  and  duplicates  might  exist  in  the  same  library.  How  many  of  the  volumes  enu- 
merated in  the  different  libraries  of  Rome,  were  filled,  for  example,  with  the  poems  of  Virgil  ? 
— A  recent  writer  has  estimated  that,  at  the  end  of  the  second  century,  when  there  were  pro- 
bably about  three  millions  of  Christians  in  the  Roman  empire,  there  were  about  60,000  copies 
of  the  Gospels  in  use  among  them.  Allowing  that  each  gospel  constituted  but  a  single  volume, 
this  would  make  240,000  volumes,  in  existence,  for  only  four  different  authors.  Cf.  A.  Norton, 
Evidences  of  the  Genuineness  of  the  Gospels.     Bost.  1837.  8.  p.  45.  ss. 

See  Hceren'sGesch.  Klass.  Litt.  bk.  i.  $§  8-15.  cited  §  53. — Silv.  Luersen,  De  temploet  biblio- 
theca  Apollinis  Palatini.  Franequ.  1719.  8« — ScIiceII,  His't.  Litt.  Grecque.  lib.  v.  ch.  bQ.—Dunlop, 
Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  ii.  50. — J.  11.  Fels,  De  As.  Pollionis  bibliotheca  &c.  Jen.  1713.  4.— Plutarch, 
in  Lucullus — Poppc,  De  Romanor.  Bibliothecis.  Berl.  1826.  4. 

§  127.  To  these  various  means  of  improvement  we  must  add  trav- 
els, by  which  not  only  professed  men  of  letters,  but  also  persons  of 
distinguished  rank,  extended  their  information  and  perfected  their 
taste.  At  this  time,  education  and  knowledge  were  no  longer  re- 
stricted so  much  as  formerly  by  national  prejudice.  The  Romans 
began  more  and  more  to  appreciate  the  merits  of  foreigners,  and  to 
reap  advantages  from  their  intercourse  with  them.  For  this  reason 
they  resorted  to  Athens,  the  seat  of  Grecian  refinement.  They  went 
also  to  Lacedemon,  Rhodes,  Eleusis,  Alexandria,  Mytilene,  and  other 
places.  Cicero,  Sallust,  Vitruvius,  Virgil,  Propertius,  and  others 
thus  went  abroad  for  improvement. 

See  O.  JV.  Kriegk,  Diatribe  de  Veterum  Roiaanorum  peregrinationibus  academicig.  Jen. 
1704.  4. 


76  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 


IV. — Of  the  Decline  of  Roman  Literature. 

§  128  t.  Roman  literature,  from  the  latter  part  of  the  first  century 
after  Christ,  began  to  decline  very  sensibly  from  its  height  of  glory 
and  perfection.  Its  decline  became,  from  the  concurrence  of  many 
causes,  more  rapid  than  had  been  its  former  progress  and  improve- 
ment. We  must  place  among  these  causes  the  loss  of  liberty  and 
the  triumph  of  despotism  ;  the  little  encouragement  given  to  litera- 
ture by  most  of  the  emperors  succeeding  Augustus ;  the  great  in- 
crease of  luxury  and  the  consequent  universal  degeneracy*  of  man- 
ners. The  changes  in  the  moral  and  political  condition  of  Rome 
paralyzed  the  nobler  motives,  which  had  stimulated  the  citizens. 
Pure  taste  and  delicate  sensibility  were  gradually  lost.  Gaudy  orna- 
ment was  admired  rather  than  real  beauty.  Affectation  was  substi- 
tuted for  nature,  and  the  subtleties  of  sophistry  for  true  philosophy. 
Finally  the  invasions  of  the  barbarians,  the  frequent  internal  commo- 
tions, the  conflict  of  Christianity  with  pagan  superstition  (§  83),  the 
transfer  of  the  imperial  throne  to  Constantinople,  and  the  division  of 
the  empire,  consummated  that  fall  of  Roman  literature,  for  which  so 
many  united  causes  had  prepared  the  way. 

See  Meiners,  Geschichte  des  Verfalls  der  Sitten  und  der  Staatsverfassunj?  der  Rcemer.  Lpz. 
1782.  8. 

1.  The  decline  of  Roman  literature  may  be  dated  from  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  A.  D.  14  ;  and  its  history  is  considered  as  terminated  with  the 
overthrow  of  the  western  empire.  A.  D.  476.  The  whole  time  intervening  is 
commonly  divided  into  two  periods,  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  the  Anto- 
nines,  A.  D.  138,  being  the  epoch  of  separation.  It  is  by  some  divided  into 
three,  the  first  from  Augustus  to  Antoninus,  A.  D.  14 — 138,  the  second  from 
Antoninus  to  Constantino,  A.  D.  138 — 313,  the  third  from  Constantine  to  the 
fall  of  the  empire,  A.  D.  313—476. 

On  the  periods  in  the  history  of  Roman  literature,  see  P.  II.  §  296,  301. 

2.  Some  of  the  emperors  after  Augustus  patronized  letters;  and  during  a 
portion  of  the  time  the  declension  of  literature  was  not  owing  to  the  want  of 
imperial  encouragement.  Under  Hadrian  the  empire  flourished  in  peace  and 
prosperity,  and  men  of  letters  were  honored.  The  reign  of  the  Antonines  was 
also  favorable  to  literature  and  the  arts.  After  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus,  A.  D.  180,  the  imperial  influence  was  much  less  propitious  to 
learning.  From  this  event  to  the  reign  of  Constantine,  conspiracies  and  se- 
ditions, bloodshed  and  devastation,  mark  the  history.  Constantine  is  said  by 
his  biographer  Eusebius  to  have  been  a  warm  patron  of  letters,  but  his  reign 
perhaps  accelerated  rather  than  retarded  the  declension  of  Roman  literature. 
The  establishment  of  Christianity  by  him  necessarily  tended  to  encourage  a 
new  system  of  education,  and  a  new  form  and  spirit  of  literature.  Julian 
the  apostate,  who  received  the  imperial  throne  A.  D.  361,  less  than  30  years 
after  the  death  of  Constantine,  made  violent  but  ineffectual  efforts  to  restore 
the  intellectual  influence  wholly  to  the  pagans,  absolutely  prohibiting  Chris- 
tians to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  ;  vainly  hoping  in 
this  way  to  hinder  the  propagation  of  the  Christian  religion. 

See  Berington,  Lit.  History  of  the  Middle  apes.  hk.  i. — Gibbon,  Hist.  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  iii.  xiii. 
xxiii. — Hallain's  Middle  Ages.  bk.  iv.  pt.  i. — Comp.  $  81. — On  Hadrian's  regard  to  literature 
&.C.  see  Sainte  Croix,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlix.  p.  405. 

3.  Among  the  circumstances  contributing  to  the  decline  of  letters,  espe- 
cially to  the  depravation  of  taste,  among  the  Romans,  some  have  mentioned 
the  custom  of  authors  in  publicly  rehearsing  or  reciting  their  own  produc- 
tions. The  desire  of  success  naturally  led  the  writer  to  sacrifice  too  much  to 
the  judgments  or  caprice  of  the  auditors  in  order  to  secure  their  plaudits  of 
approbation. 


CORRUPTION    OP    TASTE.  77 

See  Schcell,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  ir.  p.  251. —  Gierirr,  Excursus  de  recitationibus  Romanorum, 
in  his  edition  of  Pliny's  Letters.  Lpz.  1802.  2  vols.  8.  Contained  also  in  Lemaire's  Pliny, 
Vol.  ii.  p.  219. 

4.  The  Roman  language  suffered  from  the  vitiating  influence  of  intercourse 
with  provincial  strangers,  who  flocked  to  Rome.  Many  of  these  were  admit- 
ted to  the  rights  of  citizenship  and  even  received  into  offices  of  honor.  It 
was  impossible,  that  the  peculiarities  of  their  respective  dialects  should  not 
modify  in  some  degree  the  spoken  language,  and  the  consequences  might  ere 
long  appear  even  in  the  style  of  writing.  The  purity  of  the  language  was 
much  impaired  before  the  time  of  Constantine.  The  removal  of  the  govern- 
ment from  Rome  to  Constantinople  occasioned  still  greater  changes  in  it,  par- 
ticularly by  the  introduction  of  Greek  and  Oriental  words  with  Latin  termi- 
nations. The  invasions  and  conquests  of  the  barbarians  completed  the  depra- 
vation of  the  Roman  tongue  and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  new  languages 
which  took  its  place. 

See  Schall,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  n.  p.  255  j  in.  10.—  Gib bon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  ii.  —  On  the 
transition  of  the  Latin  to  the  modern  French,  Italian,  &c.  see  Hallam's  Middle  Ages,  ch.  ix. 
p.  1. — ./I/.  Bonamy,  Essav  in  Mem.  de  l'Acad.  ties  lnscr.  tome  xxm. — Funck,  De  imminente  L. 
L.  senectute,  &c.  as  cited  P.  II.  §  299.  (g). 

5.  There  were  schools  of  learning  in  different  parts  of  the  empire  during 
the  decline  of  letters.  '  In  these  professors  were  supported  at  public  expense, 
and  taught  the  principles  of  philosophy,  rhetoric,  and  law  or  right.  Such 
schools  existed  at  Byzantium,  Alexandria,  Berytus,  and  Milan,  and  at  several 
places  in  Gaul,  where  letters  were  cultivated  with  much  zeal,  as  at  Augusto- 
dunum  (Autun),  Burdegala  (Bourdeaux),  and  Massilia  (Marseilles).  These 
schools,  however,  are  said  to  have  contributed  to  the  corruption  of  taste,  as 
the  teachers  were  less  solicitous  to  advance  their  pupils  in  real  knowledge 
than  to  acquire  glory  from  pompous  display.  At  Berytus  was  the  most  fa- 
mous school  for  the  study  of  Roman  jurisprudence. 

See  Schmll,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  in.  p.  8. — Gibbon's  account  of  the  school  at  Berytus,  in  Dccl. 
and  Fall  of  Rom.  Enq).  ch.  xvii. — Compare  $  80. 


V. — Of  the  Remains  and  Monuments  of  Roman  Literature. 

§  129.  The  existing  monuments  of  Roman  literature  are  more 
numerous  than  those  of  Grecian,  and  scarcely  inferior  in  point  of 
utility  and  importance.  We  shall  briefly  notice  them  under  the  three 
classes  of  Inscriptions,  Coins,  and  Manuscripts.  Great  advantage 
may  be  derived  from  Roman  inscriptions  and  coins,  in  the  illustra- 
tion of  history,  antiquities,  geography,  and  chronology,  and  the  man- 
uscripts present  much  that  is  subservient  to  philology  and  criticism, 
and  taste.  The  same  general  remarks,  which  were  made  upon  the 
written  monuments  of  the  Greeks,  may  be  applied  to  those  of  the 
Romans.     (Cf.  §  86.  ss.) 

(a)     Inscriptions. 

§  130.  The  Grecian  custom  of  commemorating  remarkable  events, 
by  short  inscriptions  upon  marble  or  brass,  and  of  ornamenting  their 
temples,  tombs,  statues,  and  altars  with  them,  also  existed  among  the 
Romans.  There  now  remains  a  large  number  of  these  ancient  in- 
scriptions, which  have  been  collected  and  explained  by  several  learn- 
ed men. 

We  here  mention  some  of  the  collections.  —  Among  the  earliest ;  J.  Reinesius,  Syntagma 
Inscript.  Antiquarum.  1G88.  2  vols.  fol.—R.  Fubrctti,  Inscriptionum  Antiquarum,  &c.  Expli- 
cate. Rom.  1699.  fol. — One  of  the  most  complete  works  on  the  subject  ;  Jani  Gruteri,  In- 
Bcriptiones  antiquae  totius  orbis  Roman!,  notis  Marqu.  Gudii  emendats.    Cura  J.  G.  Qracvii. 

7* 


78 


ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 


Amst.  1707.  2  torn.  fol. — Next  to  this,  the  following  are  among  the  most  valuable  ;  /.  B.  f/onft^ 
Inscriptiones  Antiquae,  nunc  primum  editae,  notisque  illustratie,  etc.  ab  A.  F.  Oorio.  Floiv 
1731.  fol. — Inscriptiones  Antiquae,  in  urbibus  Hetrurire,  c.  obs.  Salvinii  et  Oorii.  Flor.  1743. 
3  vols.  fol. — L.  A.  Muratorii  Novus  Thesaurus  veterum  inscriptionum,  in  prtecipuis  earundem 
collectionibus  hactenus  praetermissarum.  Mediol.  1739.  4  vols.  foj. — Seb.  Donati,  Ad  Novum 
Thesaurum  Vet.  Inscrip.  cl.  viri  L.  A.  Muratorii  Supplementa.  Lucae,  1704.  1775.  fol.— Rich. 
Pococke,  Inscr.  Antiq.  Gnec.  et  Latin.  Liber.  Lond.  1752.  fol.— B.  Passionci,  Inscr.  Antiche. 
Luce.  1703.  fol.—/.  C.  Hagenbuchii  Epistolse  Epigraphies,  in  quibus  pVurima-  antiquas  inscrip- 
tiones, imprimis  thesauri  Muratoriani  emendantur  et  explicantur.  Tiguri,  1747.  4.  —  There 
are  smaller  collections  of  the  more  important  inscriptions  ;  Oul.  Fleetwood,  Inscriptionum  an- 
tiquarum  sylloge.  Lond.  1091.  8.— Romanarum  Inscr.  Fasciculus,  cum  explicatione  notarum, 
in  usum  juventutis  (auct.  Comite  Polcastro) ..  Patav.  1774.  8.  —  Among  the  most  valuable 
modern  works  ;  F.  Osann,  Sylloge  Inscript.  Antiq.,  begun  as  cited  §  87  ;  continued  and  fin- 
ished, Darmst.  1822-29,  in  8  Parts  ;  including  Latin  and  Greek  inscriptions. — J.  C.  Orelli,  Inscr. 
Lat.  select.  Collectio.  Zur.  1828.  2  vols.  8.- — On  the  distinction  between  epigrams  and  in- 
scriptions, cf.  P.  II.  §  342. 

§  131.  Some  of  the  Roman  inscriptions  are  among  the  most  an- 
cient monuments  of  the  Roman  language  and  manner  of  writing. 
In  order  to  decide  upon  their  genuine  character  and  estimate  aright 
their  contents,  much  previous  knowledge  is  requisite.  It  is  especial- 
ly necessary  to  understand  the  abbreviations  which  are  frequently 
used.  These  consisted  sometimes  of  detached  letters,  which  ex- 
pressed a  praenomen,  or  some  known  formula;  sometimes  of  the 
principal  letters  of  a  word,  the  others  being  omitted;  sometimes  of 
monograms,  by  the  contraction  of  different  letters  into  one  charac- 
ter ;  sometimes  by  putting  a  single  vowel  enlarged  for  two  similar 
ones ;  and  sometimes  by  the  omission  of  some  letters  in  the  middle 
of  a  word. 

1  u.  It  may  be  proper  to  introduce  and  explain  some  of  the  more  common 
abbreviations  that  occur  in  Roman  inscriptions. 

— L.  S.  M.  C  locum  sibi  monumento  ce- 


(A)  A.  jedilis,  annus,  Aulus. — A.  L.  F.  ani- 
mo  lubens  fecit* — A.  P.  aedilitia  potestate. — A. 

S.  S.  a  sacris  scriniis AN.  V.  P..  M.  annos 

vixit  plus  minus. — AVSP.  S.  auspicante  sa- 
crum. 

(B)  B..  DD.  bonis  deabus. — B.  B.  bene  bene, 
i.  e.  optime. — B.  D.S.  M.  bene  de  se  merenti. — 
B.  G.  POS.  biga  gratis  posita. 

(C)  C.  Caius,  civis,  cohors,  conjux. — C.  C. 
S.  curaverunt  communi  sumtu. — C.  F.-Caii  fi- 
lms, carissima  femina. — C.  R.  curavit  refici, 
civis  Romanus — C.  V.  P.  V.  D.  D.  communi 
voluntate  publice  votum  dederunt. — CVNC. 
conjux. 

(D)  D.  decuria,  domo. — D.  D.  dono  dedit, 
dedicavit. — D.  L.  dedit  libens. — D.  M.  V.  diis 
manibus  votum. — D.  S.  P..  F.  C.  de  sua  pecu- 
nia  faciendum  curavit. — DP.  depositus. 

(E)  E.  erexit,  ergo,  expressum. — E.  C.  eri- 
gendum  curavit. — E.  F.  egregia  femina. — E. 
M.  V.  egregiie  memoras  vir- — E.  S.  e  suo.— 
EX.  PR.  ex  praecepto.— EX.  TT.  SS.  HH.  ex 
testamentis  supra-scriptorum  heredum. 

(F)  F.  fecit,  rilia,  hlius,  fiamen.— F.  C.  fa- 
ciendum curavit. — F.  F.  fieri  fecit,  filius  fami- 
lias.— F.  F.  fecerunt,  filii,  fratres.— F.  II.  F. 
fieri  heredes  fecerunt.— F.  I.  fieri  jussit. — FR. 

D.  frumenti  dandi^-F.  V.  S.  fecit  voto  sus- 
cepto. 

(H)  II.  habet,  heres,  honorem. — II.  A.  F.  C. 
hanc  aram  faciendam  curavit. — H.  (i.  hie  qui- 
escit. — H.  I.  I.  heredes  jussu  illorum. — H.  S. 

E.  hie  situs  est. 

(I)  I.  Imperator.— I.  L.F.  illius  liberta  fecit. 
— I.  L.  H.  jus  liberorum  habens. — 1.0.  M.  D. 
Jovi  optimo  maxime  dedicatum. 

(K)  K.  Caius,  calendas,  candidatus,  casa. 

(L)  L.  legio,  lustrum.— L.  A.  lex  alia,  li- 
bens animo.— L.  C.  locus  concessus.— I,.  H. 
L.  D.  locus  hie  liber  datus.— L.  P.  locus  publi- 


pit — LEG.  legatus. 

(M)  M.  magister,  mater,  monumentum. — 
M.  A.  G.  S.  memor  animo  grato  solvit. — MM. 
memories.—  MIL.  IN.  COIL  militavit  in  co- 
horte. 

(N)  N.  natione,  natus,  nepos,  numerus. — 
N.  P.  C.  nomine  proprio  curavit. 

( O)  O.  D.  S.  M.  optime  de  se  merito. — O. 
H.  S.  S.  ossa  hie  sita  sunt. — OB.  AN.  obit 
anno. 

(P)  P.  pater,  patria,  pontifex,  posuit,  puer. 
— P.  C.  patres  conscripti,  patronus  colonic  s. 
corporis,  ponendum  curavit. — P.  E.  publice  er- 
exerunt. — P.  I.  S.  publica  impensa  sepultus. — 
P.  P.  publice  posuit,  pater  patrite,  praefectus 
praetorio. — P.  S.  P.  Q,.  P.  pro  se  proque  patria. 
— PR.  SEN.  pro  sententia.— P.  V.  praefectus 
urbi. 

(Q)  Q..  quaestor,  qui,  Q,uintus. — Q..  A. 
quaestor  aedilis. — Q,.  D.  S.  S.  qui  dederunt 
supra  scripta. — Q..  F.  quod  factum. 

(R)  R.  recte,  retro. — R.  G.  C.  rei  gerundae 
caussa. 

(S)  S.  sepulcrum,  solvit,  stipendium. — S.  C. 
Senatus  Consultum. — S.  C.  D.  S.  sibi  curavit 
de  suo. — S.  E.  T.  L.  sit  ei  terra  levis. — S.  L. 
M.  solvit  libens  merito.— S.  P.  Q,.  S.  sibi  poste- 
risque  suis SVB.  A.  D.  sub   ascia  dedicavit. 

(T)  T.  Titus,  tribunus,  tunc— T.  C.  testa- 
menti  causa. — T.  F.  testamento  fecit,  Titi  fi- 
lius, titulum  fecit.--T.  P.  titulum  posuit.— TR.. 
PI.  DESS.  tribuni  plebis  designati. 

(V)  V.  Veteranus,  vixit.— V.  A.  F.  vivus 
aram  fecit. — V.  C.  vir  consularis,  vivus  cura- 
vit.— V.  D.  D.  votum  dedicatum. — V.  F.  F~ 
vivus  fieri  fecit. — V.  M.S.  voto  merito  sus- 
cepto.— V.  E.  vir  egreeius. 

(X)  X.  ER.  deciniae  eroaator XV.  VIR.. 

SAC.  FAC  quindecimvir  sacris  faciundis. 


2.  The  following  works  treat  upon  this  subject.  —  Scrtorii  Ursatide  noti<  Komanorum  Com- 
mentarius.    Patav.  1672.  fol.— J.  D.  Coleti  Notae  et  Siglae  Ronu   Venet.  1785.4.— J.  Gerrard, 


INSCRIPTIONS.  79 

Siglarium  Romanum.  Lond.  1792.  4. — Explicatio  lit.  et  not.  in  antiq.  Rom.  monimentis  occur- 
rentium.  Flor.  1822.  8.  —  See  Notts  Compendiariw,  in  Ainsworth's  Latin  Diet,  by  Morrell 
Lond.  1816.  4.— Cf.  Port  Royal  Lat.  Grammar,  bk.  ix.— Also  §  136.  1. 

§  132.  Besides  the  numerous  advantages  already  mentioned,  as 
derived  from  Roman  inscriptions,  this  study  is  of  service  in  devising 
and  preparing  inscriptions  designed  to  be  placed  upon  modern  mon- 
uments. It  renders  one  acquainted  with  what  is  called  the  lapidary 
style,  distinguished  by  its  brevity  and  simplicity.  For  compositions 
of  this  sort  the  Latin  is  usually  preferred  to  any  modern  language, 
on  account  both  of  its  comprehensive  brevity  and  also  of  its  suita- 
bleness to  the  form  and  character  of  the  monuments,  which  are  gen- 
erally constructed  after  ancient  models.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
observe,  that  in  such  cases  the  capital  letters  are  used. 

The  following  is  mentioned  as  a  treatise  very  useful  in  this  study.  F.  A.  Zaccaria,  Istituzi- 
one  Antiquario-lapidaria,  o  sia  Introduzione  alio  studio  delle  antiche  latine  Iscrizioni.  Rom. 
1770.  4.  Ver.  1793.  8.— Cf.  J.  G.  Heineccius,  Fundamenta  stili  cultioris.  Lpz.  1761.  8.  Pt.  n. 
c.  v. 

§  133.  A  vast  number  of  Roman  inscriptions  have  been  gathered 
from  the  mass  of  ancient  ruins.  They  differ  very  much  from  each 
other  in  point  of  utility  and  importance.  Those  of  a  public  charac- 
ter are  obviously  far  more  valuable  than  such  as  are  mere  private 
records  and  epitaphs.  With  regard  to  their  philological  worth  we 
should  particularly  consider  their  antiquity.  The  following  are 
among  the  most  important. 

lu.  The  inscription  upon  the  pedestal  of  the  Columna  rostrata,  a  column  so 
called  because  ornamented  with  beaks  of  ships.  It  was  erected  in  honor  of 
the  Consul  Duillius  (a)  after  the  naval  victory  which  he  obtained  over  the 
Carthaginians,  B.  C.  261.  During  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war  this  col- 
umn was  struck  down  by  lightning  (b),  and  its  ruins  remained  for  a  long  time 
concealed,  until  in  1560  they  were  discovered,  together  with  the  pedestal,  upon 
which  is  found  the  inscription.  This  inscription  has  been  published  and  ex- 
plained by  several  learned  men.  It  is  much  mutilated ;  Lipsius  has  attempt- 
ed in  part  to  fill  up  the  blank  places  ;  and  Ciacconi  entirely.  It'has  been  con- 
sidered as  the  most  ancient  monument  of  the  Latin  or  Roman  characters  hith- 
erto discovered ;  yet  it  may  not  be  the  original  inscription,  but  one  placed 
upon  the  monument  on  its  being  restored  at  some  subsequent  time.  A  new 
column  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by  the  emperor  Claudius. 

(a)  Cf.  Flor.  Hist.  Rom.  112.— Tac.  Ann.  ii.  49.— Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  5.— (b)  Liv.  xlii. 
20 See  Ciacconi,  in  Columnae  Rostratae  inseriptionem  a  se  conjectura  suppletam  Explica- 
tio. Rom.  1608.  8.—Graevii  Thes.  Ant.  Rom.  tome  iv.  cited  P.  IV.  §  197.— Gruteri  Corp.  In- 
script.  cccciv.  1.  It  may  be  found  in  the  editions  of  Florus,  by  Gr'aevius  and  Duckcr.  See 
also  Anthon's  Lempr.  under  C.  Duillius.— .Dun/op's  Hist.  Rom.  Lit. — Schwll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.  vol. 
i.  p.  47. — Edinb.  Rev.  No.  lxxx.  p.  400. 

2u.  The  inscriptions  on  the  tombstones  of  the  Scipios.  The  epitaph  of  the 
Father,  C.  L.  Scipio  Barbatus,  Consul  B.  C.  298,  is  probably  nearly  as  old  as 
the  column  of  Duillius.  It  was  discovered  in  1780  in  the  vault  of  the  Scipian 
family,  between  the  Via  Appia  and  Via  Latina.  It  is  on  a  handsome  Sarcopha- 
gus.— The  epitaph  of  the  son,  Lucius  Scipio,  was  discovered  much  earlier,  on 
a  slab  which  was  found  lying  near  the  Porta  Capena,  having  been  detached 
from  the  family  vault.  Though  later  as  to  the  date  of  its  composition,  the 
epitaph  on  the  son  bear  marks  of  higher  antiquity  than  that  on  the  father. 

The  inscription  in  honor  of  the  son  is  given  by  Schall,  as  follows  ;   honcoino.  ploirume. 

COSENTIONT.  R....  DUONORO.  OPTUMO.  FUIS3E.  VIRO.  LUCIOM.  SCIPIONE.  FILIOS.  BARBATI.  CON- 
SOL.  CENSOR.  A1DILIS.  HEC.  FUET.   A  .  .  .  .    HEC.  CEPIT.  CORSICA.  ALERIAQUE.  URBE.  DEDET.  TEM- 

pestatebus.  aide,  mereto.  This,  being  changed  into  the  Latin  of  later  times,  may  be  read  as 
follows  ;  Hunr.  unum  plurimi  conscntiunt  Roma;  bonorum  optimum  fuissc  virum,  Lucium  Scipionem. 
Filius  Barbati,  consul,  censor,  cedilis  hie  fait  apud  vos.  Hie  cepit  Corsicam  Aleriamque  urbem  ; 
dedit  Tcmpestatibus  asdem  merito. 

See   Dunlop's  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  i.  p.  46. — Graivii  Thesau.  Ant.  Rom.  tome  iv Monumenti 

degli  Scipioni  publicati  dal  Cav.  F.  PiraneA.  Rom.  1785. fol. — Hobhouse's  Illustrations  of  Childe 
Harold.— Schall,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  i.  p.  46. —  Wagner,  De  Sepulchro  Scipionum.  Marb.  1828. 
4.— For  a  view  of  the  Sarcophagus,  see  Winckclmahn,  Hist,  de  l'Art,  as  cited  $32.4.vol.  tt.pL 
xxvi.   Cf,  ib.  p.  314. 


80  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

3.  The  Eugubian  Tables  (Tabula  Eugubincc).  These  are  seven  tablets  of 
brass,  dug  up  in  1444,  at  Eugubium  (Gubbio)  a  city  in  ancient  Umbria  near  the 
foot  of  the  Apennines.  The  inscriptions  on  five  of  the  tablets  are  said  to  be 
in  the  Etruscan  character  and  language.  The  other  two  are  in  Roman  letters, 
but  in  a  rustic  jargon,  between  Latin  and  Etruscan.  They  were  at  first  sup- 
posed to  be  of  very  high  antiquity  ;  but  "  it  is  now  agreed  that  they  do  not 
reach  further  back  than  the  fourth  century  before  the  Christian  era ;"  and.Dun- 
lop  states  that  "  the  two  tables  in  the  Latin  character  were  written  towarda 
the  close  of  the  sixth  century  of  Rome." 

See  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  l.  p.  47.— Edinb.  Rev.  No.  80.  p.  383.— Btshr,  Gesch.  Lit.  Rcem. 
(cited  §  114.  3.)  p.  G4. — The  inscriptions  are  given  in  Gruter,  as  above  cited. — also  in  Zawzi, 
Saggio  di  Ling.  Etrusc. — and  Orelli,  as  cited  §  130. 

4  u.  The  Inscription  termed  the  Decree  respecting  the  Bacchanalia,  Scnatus 
consuhum  de  Bacchanalibus.  This  decree  was  enacted  B.  C.  186.  Livy 
(xxxiv.  8. — 18.)  gives  us  the  occasion  and  contents  of  it.  By  certain  passages 
in  that  author  concerning  this  edict,  the  authenticity  of  this  monument  is  con- 
firmed. It  is  engraved  upon  a  table  of  bronze,  which  was  discovered  in  1640, 
in  the  province  of  Abruzzo,  in  digging  the  foundations  of  a  manor  house.  It 
contains  the  prohibition  of  the  nocturnal  celebration  of  the  Bacchanalian  rites, 
throughout  the  Roman  dominion.  The  tablet,  upon  which  are  some  fractures 
and  gaps,  is  about  a  foot  square,  and  is  now  in  the  imperial  collection  at 
Vienna. 

See  Senatusconsulti  de  Bacchanalibus  explicatio,  anctore  Malthco  JEvyptio  (Egizio).  Neap. 
1729.  Fol.  This  dissertation  is  reprinted  in  the  7th  vol.  of  Drachenborch's  edition  of  Livy. 
The  edict  itself  is  found  in  Gessner's  and  Ernesti's  edition  of  Livy. — See  also  Schoell,  Hist. 
Litt.  Rom.  vol.  l.  p.  52. 

5  m.  The  Monumentum  Ancyranum.  This  consists  of  several  inscriptions  on 
marble,  upon  the  propylaeum  of  a  temple  of  Augustus  at  Ancyra  (modern  An- 
gora) in  Galatia.  They  record  the  achievements  of  that  Emperor.  The  mon- 
ument was  discovered  by  Busbequius  in  1553.  It  has  been  much  disfigured 
by  time,  or  barbarian  violence. 

See  Qruleri  Thes.  Inscr.  ccxxx. — Chishull,  Antiq.  Asiat. — J.  O.  Baieri  Marmoris  Ancyrani 
historia.  Jen.  1703.  4. — Remarques  sur  le  monument  d'Ancyre,  Biblioth.  Choisie.  tome  viii. — 
Jac.  Gronovii  Memoria  Cossoniana,  cui  annexa  est  novaeditio  iMonumenti  Ancyrani.  Lugd.  Bat. 
1695.  4. — Observ.  sur  le  Mon.  d'Ancyre,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  47.  p.  85. 

6  u.  The  Fasti  Capitolini.  These  are  portions  of  the  tablets  anciently 
placed  in  the  Capitol,  on  which  were  inscribed  in  succession  the  names  of  the 
consuls  and  other  magistrates,  and  by  means  of  which  Roman  chronology  is 
much  elucidated.  They  are  tablets  of  marble  discovered  in  the  Forum,  at 
Rome,  1547,  and  contain  a  list  of  the  Consuls  from  the  year  270  to  the  year 
765  after  the  building  of  Rome.  They  were  in  a  broken  state.  The  frag- 
ments were  united  by  the  care  of  Cardinal  Alexander  Farnese,  and  placed  in 
the  palace  of  the  Capitol,  where  they  still  remain. —  Some  additional  portions 
were  discovered  at  Rome  in  1816. 

See  Orcevii  Thes.  Ant.  Rom.  tome  xi. — J.  B.  Piranesi,  Lapides  Capitolini.  Rom.  1762.  Fol. — 
Nuovi  framenti  dei  Fasti  cons.  Capitol,  illustrati  da  Bartol.  Borghesi.  Milan, 1818 — 1820.  4. — Also 
C.  Fea,  Framnienti  di  Fasti  consolari  Sec.  Rom.  1820.  Fol. — Verrius  Flaccus  has  been  supposed 
to  be  the  author  of  the  Fasti  Capitolini,  and  they  were  published  by  Onvfrius  Panvinius,  1553, 
under  the  name  of  that  grammarian.  This  mistake  was  occasioned  by  a  passage  in  Suetonius, 
in  which  he  mentions  that  Flaccus  attached  to  a  structure  erected  at  Preneste  twelve  tablets 
of  marble  containing  a  Roman  Calendar,  Fasti  kalendares.  Four  of  these  latter  tables,  or 
rather  fragments  of  them,  were  discovered  in  1770,  and  form  what  is  called  the  Calendarium 
Prmnestinwn.  They  contain  the  months  of  January,  March,  April,  and  December,  and  cast 
much  light  on  the  Fasti  of  Ovid.  They  were  published  by  P.  F.  Foggini,  Fastorum  anni  Ro- 
mani  reliquias  &c.  Rom.  1779.  Fol.  The  work  contains  a  collection  of  the  existing  fragments 
of  Roman  Calendars.— Schwll,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  n.  p.  60.  65.— Btshr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  413. 

(b)     Coins  and  Medals. 

§  134.  Without  entering  into  any  minute  history  of  Roman  coin- 
age, we  only  remark  that  the  first  coins  at  Rome  were  probably  struck 
under  the  reign  of  Servius  Tullius,  that  the  more  ancient  coins  were 
for  the  most  part  of  brass,  and  that  silver  coin  was  not  introduced 
until  B.  C.  263,  and  gold  not  until  B.  C.  207.  Besides  the  coins 
used  as  the  current  money,  there  were  also  a  great  many  medals  and 


COINS    AND    MEDALS.  81 

historical  pieces  or  medallions  (missilia,  numismata  maximi  moduli)^ 
distinguished  from  the  others  by  the  absence  of  the  letters  S.  C.  which 
are  commonly  found  upon  the  Roman  coin,  especially  the  brazen. 
On  the  gold  and  silver  coins  these  letters  are  less  frequently  seen,  and 
seem  not  to  indicate  the  authority  granted  by  the  senate  for  the  strik- 
ing of  the  coin  so  much  as  for  the  erecting  of  the  statues,  triumphal 
arches  and  the  like,  which  are  represented  on  the  reverses. 

1.  The  remarks  offered  under  a  previous  section  (§  93),  respecting  the  util- 
ity and  entertainment  connected  with  the  study  of  coins,  are  applicable  here. 
The  Roman  coins  particularly  are  interesting  on  account  of  the  striking  per- 
sonifications and  symbols  found  on  their  reverses.  Many  descriptions  and  al- 
lusions in  the  classical  poets  are  beautifully  illustrated  from  the  figures  and 
devices  on  the  Roman  coins. 

On  the  connection  between  poetry  and  medals,  see  Addison's  Dialogues  upon  the  usefulness 
of  ancient  Medals  especially  in  relation  to  the  Latin  and  Greek  Poets ;  in  his  Works,  vol.  m.  p- 
273.  of  ed.  N.  York,  1837.  3  vols.  8.— See  also  Spencc,  as  cited  §  151. 

2.  On  the  Roman  money  coined  in  the  time  of  the  republic,  very  commonly  was  seen  an  im- 
age of  victory,  in  a  triumphal  car,  driving  sometimes  two  horses,  and  sometimes  four.  Hence 
the  pieces  were  called  bigati  or  quadruti.  The  coins  were  also  indented  round  the  edges  like  a 
saw,  and  therefore  termed  scrrati.  Tacitus  speaks  of  the  money  thus  marked  as  the  ancient 
and  well  known  coin.  It  would  seem  that  the  later  coin  was  adulterated. — Cf.  Tac.  De  Mor. 
Germ.  b.—Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxm.  3. 

3  m.  The  pieces,  which  have  been  termed  nummi.  contorniati,  may  be  included  perhaps  among 
the  medallions.  They  are  distinguished  by  a  rim  which  is  wrought  with  much  art.  They 
may  have  been  prize  medals  of  illustrious  athlete,  or  may  perhaps  have  been  used  as  a  sort  of 
tickets  for  admission  to  public  shows. 

4.  Medals  seem  to  have  been  sometimes  employed  in  ancient  times,  as  in  modern,  for  pur- 
poses of  satire  upon  private  individuals  and  upon  rulers.  The  medals  called  Spintrian  were 
probably  of  the  satirical  class,  and  are  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  designed  to  ridicule  the 
debaucheries  of  Tiberius  in  the  island  of  Caprea. — Gourdin  on  Satyric  Medals,  Arclucologia 
(as  cited  §  243.  3),  vol.  ix.  p.  61. 

§  135.  There  are  two  principal  divisions  of  the  Roman  coins  ;  the 
Consular,  struck  in  the  time  of  the  republic,  called  also  coins  of  the 
Roman  families  ;  and  the  Imperial,  the  series  of  which  extends  from 
Julius  Caesar  to  Heraclius.  Of  the  Consular  coins,  the  most  rare  are 
the  golden  ;  of  the  Imperial,  the  most  rare  are  the  brazen  coins  of 
Otho. 

1.  "  The  Consular  coins  include  the  following.  1.  Brass  coins. — These  con- 
sist chiefly  of  large  pieces  of  rude  workmanship  without  any  interesting  im- 
agery. In  all  these,  the  prow  of  a  ship  is  constantly  the  figure  on  the  reverse, 
with  very  few  exceptions.  Sometimes,  indeed,  they  have  a  shell,  two  heads 
of  barley,  a  frog,  an  anchor,  or  a  dog,  on  the  reverse.  2.  Silver. — Of  this  the 
denarius  was  the  first  and  principal  coin.  It  was  stamped  originally  with  X, 
denoting  that  the  value  was  ten  asses.  On  the  reverse  was  Castor  and  Pollux, 
or  a  chariot  of  victory.  Afterwards  the  busts  of  various  deities  make  their 
appearance  ;  and  in  the  seventh  century  of  Rome  the  portraits  of  illustrious 
persons  deceased  are  met  with.  3.  Gold. — Most  of  these  are  of  great  value. 
The  number  of  these  exceeds  not  100.  The  aureus  is  the  general  gold  coin  j 
but  two  or  three  gold  semisses  of  families  likewise  occur." 

The  first  head  of  a  living  person  that  was  struck  on  Roman  coins  is  said  to  have  been  that  of 
Caesar  the  Dictator.  But  the  features  of  deceased  consuls  had  previously  been  struck  both  on 
the  silver  and  on  the  gold  coins. 

u  The  Imperial  coins  include  1.  Brass. — This  is  of  three  sizes  ;  large,  middle, 
and  small.  The  first  forms  a  most  beautiful  series,  but  very  expensive.  It  ia 
the  most  important  of  all  the  Roman  coins,  and  exceeds  even  the  gold  in  value. 
— The  middle  brass  is  next  in  value  to  the  former  ;  and  in  it  are  many  rare  and 
curious  coins,  particularly  interesting  to  Britons,  as  elucidating  the  history  of 
the  island. — The  small  brass  series  abounds  also  with  curious  coins.  They 
are  scarce  till  the  time  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus,  but  very  common  afterwards. 
2.  Silver. — This  series  is  very  complete,  and  the  cheapest  of  any  ;  especially 
as  the  small  brass  becomes  a  fine  supplement  to  it ;  the  latter  being  had  in  plenty 
when  the  silver  becomes  scarce,  and  the  silver  being  plentiful  when  the  brass 
is  scarce.      3.   Gold. — The  Roman  imperial  gold  coins  form  a  series  of  great 


>V   o*  THE        ^ 


82  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

beauty  and  perfection  ;  but  on  account  of  their  great  price  are  beyond  the  pur- 
chase of  private  persons.  4.  The  colonial  coins. — They  occur  only  in  brass. 
On  many  of  the  coins  we  meet  with  fine  representations  of  temples,  triumphal 
arches,  gods,  goddesses,  and  illustrious  persons.  But  coins  with  those  repre- 
sentations are  by  no  means  common ;  the  colonial  coins  till  the  time  of  Tra- 
jan bearing  only  a  plough,  or  some  other  simple  badge  of  a  colony.  Camelo- 
dunum  is  the  only  colony  in  Britain  of  which  we  have  any  coins.  5.  The 
minimi. — This  includes  the  smallest  coins  of  all  denominations,  most  of  which 
do  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  silver  penny.  They  are  the  most  curious  of  all. 
The  reason  of  the  scarcity  of  the  small  coins  is  probably  their  diminutive  size  ; 
by  reason  of  which  they  are  mostly  lost." 

2.  A  great  number  of  coins  have  been  found,  at  different  times,  during  the  excavations  at 
Pompeii.  In  one  of  the  streets  a  skeleton  was  found,  supposed  to  have  been  a  priest  of  Isis  ; 
"  in  his  hand  was  a  bag  of  coarse  linen,  not  entirely  destroyed,  containing  three  hundred  and 
sixty  silver  coins,  forty  two  of  copper,  and  six  of  gold  ;  and  near  him  several  figures  belonging 
to  the  worship  of  Isis  ;  small  silver  forks,  cups,  patera:  in  gold  and  silver,  a  cameo  represent- 
ing a  satyr  striking  a  tamborine,  rings  set  with  stones,  and  vases  of  copper  and  bronze." — 
"  In  several  of  the  houses,  skeletons  with  rings,  bracelets,  necklaces  and  other  ornaments,  to- 
gether with  many  coins,  were  found." — "  A  pot  of  gold  coins,  principally  of  the  reigns  of 
Trajan  and  Antoninus  Pius,  was  found  by  a  peasant,  in  1787,  at  Nellore  in  Hindostan." 

3.  It  has  been  thought  that  false  and  base  coin  was  fabricated  by  illegal  coiners.  Molds, 
which  were  employed  for  casting  Roman  coins  have  been  found  at  Lyons  in  France  and  Ed- 
ington  in  England. — J.  Poole,  on  Molds  for  Roman  coins  &c.  Archaologia  (as  cited  §  242.  3.) 
vol.  xiv.  p.  99. 

§  136.  The  writing  upon  the  Roman  coin  is  usually  the  legend,  as 
it  is  called,  on  the  head  of  the  coin  or  on  both  sides ;  but  there  is 
sometimes  an  inscription  more  at  length  placed  upon  the  reverse. 
The  contents  of  the  legend  commonly  point  out  the  person  whose 
image  is  impressed  upon  the  principal  side  and  indicate  his  rank ; 
sometimes  also  a  short  notice  of  his  exploits,  forming  the  inscription, 
is  upon  the  reverse.  The  date  of  the  coin  is  often  stamped  upon  it, 
either  in  whole  words,  or  by  certain  letters  or  figures;  and  likewise 
the  names  of  the  cities  where  it  was  struck;  sometimes  even  that  of 
the  artist,  together  with  the  value,  particularly  upon  the  Consular 
coins. 

lu.  In  order  to  read  and  to  understand  all  these  kinds  of  writing,  it  is  necessary  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  peculiar  abbreviations,  which  are  employed. — For  a  brief  introduction  to  the 
subject,  see  /.  C.  Ratchc,  Lexicon  Abruptionuin,  quae  in  numismatibus  Romanorum  occurrunt- 
Nurimb.  1777.  8 Cf.  §  131.  2. 

2  u.  The  coins  of  the  Romans  being  among  the  most  ancient  monuments 
of  their  manner  of  writing,  it  is  proper  here  again  (cf.  §  116),  to  refer  to 
their  orthography.  It  is  not  from  mistake,  but  from  ancient  usage,  that  the 
orthography  on  the  old  coins  differs  from  the  modern.  We  find,  for  example, 
v  in  place  of  b  in  the  word  danvvivs  ;  o  instead  of  v  in  volkanvs,  and  divos  ; 
ee  for  e  in  feelix  ;  n  for  i  in  viirtvs  ;  s  and  m  suppressed  at  the  end  of  words, 
as  in  aebinv,  captv  ;  xs  for  x,  in  maxsvm  vs  ;  f  instead  of  ph,  as  in  trivmfvs. 

§  137.  Much  attention  and  caution  must  be  exercised  with  regard 
to  Roman  as  well  as  Grecian  coins,  in  order  to  distinguish  genuine 
from  false,  which  are  very  numerous  and  of  different  kinds.  Many 
of  those  that  are  offered  as  ancient,  are  struck  in  modern  times  with 
the  ancient  costume;  others  have  been  stamped  in  express  imitation 
of  really  ancient  coins,  among  which  we  may  particularly  notice 
those  called  Paduane,  so  celebrated  on  account  of  their  good  impres- 
sion ;  others  are  cast  similar  to  the  old  coins,  by  means  of  molds, 
and  may  be  distinguished  by  traces  of  the  casting  ;  others  are  formed 
by  putting  together  two  ancient  coins  in  order  to  obtain  rare  and 
unique  pieces,  which  may  be  detected  by  a  careful  examination  of  the 
edges ;  others  are  really  antique,  but  falsified  by  some  change  in  their 
impression,  or  inscription. 


COINS    AND    MEDALS.  83 

See  G.  Beauvois,  Maniere  de  discerner  les  medailles  antiques  de  celles  qui  sont  contrefaites. 
Par.  1739.  4.   Translated  into  German  and  enlarged  by  Lipsius.   Dresd.  1791.  4. 

§138.  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned  (§  99)  as  illustrating 
the  subject  of  ancient  coins,  we  will  cite  the  following,  which  relate 
principally  to  Roman  coins. 

Charles  Patin,  Introduction  a  l'Histoire  par  la  connoissance  des  medailles.  Par.  1665.  12.  — 
Ch.  Putin,  Histoire  des  Medailles,  ou  Introduction  a  la  Connoissance  de  cette  Science.  Paris, 
1695.  12. — Fwlv.  Vr sini  Familiar  Romans  in  antiquis  numismatibus  ab  urbe  condita  ad  tempora 
D.  Augusti;  edit.  Carol.  Patin.  Par.  1663.  fol.  —  J.  Foy  Vaillant,  Nummi  antiqui  Familiaruin 
Romanorum.  Amst.  1703.  2  vols,  fol.— Ejusd.  Numismata  Imperator.  Romanor.  prrestantiora  &c. 
cura  T.  F.  Baldini.  Rom.  1743.  3  vols.  4.  Supplementum,  op.  Joh.  Khell.  Vindob.  1767.  4.  — 
Ejusd.  Numismata  rerea  Imperatorum  Roman,  in  coloniis,  municipiis  &c.  Par.  1688.  2  vols.  fol. 
— By  the  same,  Numismata  Imperatorum,  a  Populis,  Romanre  dictionis,  Graece  loquentibus,  per- 
■cussa.  Amst.1700.  fol. — By  same,  Selectiora  Numismata  in  iEre  Maximi  Moduli  illustrata.  Paris 

1695.  4. idolphi    Occonis,  Numismata  Imperatorum  Romanorum  prasstantiora.   Mediol.  1730. 

fol.  —  Thesaurus  Morellianus  s.  Familiaruin  Roman.  Numismata  Omnia.  Comm.  illust.  Sigcb. 
Havercampus.  Amst.  1734.  2  vols.  fol.  — Ans.  Bundurii  Numismata  Imperatorum  Romanor.  a 
Trajano  Decio  ad  Palaeologos  Augustos.  Par.  1718.  2  vols.  fol.  Supplement,  ed.  H.  Taninius, 
Rom.  1791.  fol. — Car.  Patini  Imperator.  Romanor.  Numismata.  Argent.  1671.  fol.  Amst.  1696. 
fol.  —  Io.  lac.  Qesneri  Numismata  Antiqua  Imperatorum  Romanorum  latina  et  grseca.  Tiguri, 
1748.  fol.  ;  Numismata  Antiqua  Familiarum  Romanarum.  Tiguri,  1749.  fol. —  Win.  Cooke,  The 

Medallic  History  of  Imperial  Rome,  &c.   Lond.  1781.  2  vols.  4. On  medals  of  a  large  size, 

see  Mongcz,  Sur  des  Medaillons  Romains  d'  une  volume  extraordinaire,  in  the  Mem.  de  Plnstilut. 
Classe  a? Hist,  et  Lit.  Anc.  ix.  266 — Ant.  Steinbuechel,  Recueil  de  medaillons  en  or  du  Cabinet  Im- 
perial de  Vienne.   Vien.  1826.  8. On  the  subject  of  Roman  coins,  K.  0.  Mueller,  Archasolo- 

gie  &x.  (as  cited  §  32.  4.)  is  a  "  very  good  authority." 

§139.  The  most  valuable  collections  of  ancient  coins  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  at  Paris,  in  the  Royal  library,  and  the  Library  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve ;  at  Rome,  in  the  Vatican,  and  the  collection  once  belonging  to 
Christina  queen  of  Sweden,  now  to  the  duke  of  Bracciano;  in  the 
British  Museum  at  London;  the  Imperial  collection  at  Vienna;  the 
Royal  collection  at  Berlin ;  the  Duke's  collection  at  Gotha ;  the  Royal 
collection  at  Stuttgart ;  and  at  Copenhagen.  There  are  valuable  cata- 
logues of  most  of  these  public  collections  of  coins. 

See  Kmhler,  Anweisung  zur  Reiseklugheit.  Ed.  Kinderling.  Magdeb.1788.  8. — Eckfiel  (as  cited 
$99.),  Proleg.  cap.  xxiii — Dictionnaire  des  Artistes,  par  Meuscl.—Suher,  Allg.  Theor.  &c.  arti- 
cle Antik,  V. 

1.  Few  genuine  antiques  have  ever  been  brought  to  this  country.  Of  really 
ancient  coins,  the  Boston  Mheneum  probably  possesses  the  largest  number, 
having  about  1400  Greek  and  Roman ;  of  which  less  than  200  are  silver,  and 
the  rest  are  copper  or  brazen.  (Ms.  Lett,  of  Dr.  Bass,  Lib.  to  Bost.  Ath.  1836J 

2.  Before  leaving  this  subject,  it  is  proper  to  remark  that  some  examples  of  the  manner  in  w  hich 
symbols  are  employed  on  coins  and  medals  may  be  seen  by  inspection  of  our  Plate  III.  In  fig.  6, 
Britain  is  represented  by  a  woman  reclining  against  a  shield,  and  holding  a  spear  in  one  hand, 
with  her  head  resting  on  the  other,  as  if  in  a  contemplative  mood.  In  fig.  9,  the  river  Tiber  is 
symbolized  by  the  image  of  an  old  man  with  a  branch  of  some  plant,  or  perhaps  some  heads  of 
grain,  in  his  left  hand,  and  his  right  hand  on  the  prow  of  a  vessel.  In  fig.  7,  a  coin  of  Trajan, 
the  Danube  is  represented  in  a  manner  in  some  degree  similar.  In  fig.  8,  a  coin  of  Antoninus 
Pius,  the  symbol  of  Italia  appears,  a  woman  sitting  on  a  globe  and  holding  a  sceptre  and  a  horn 
of  plenty,  indicating  her  universal  dominion  and  her  riches.  On  many  pieces,  Rome  is  exhibited 
as  a  goddess,  the  image  being  a  head  with  a  helmet ;  as  in  fig.  1,  a  coin  of  the  Aurelian  family, 
on  which  the  helmet  is  curiously  wrought,  so  as  to  present  in  its  form  the  head,  neck,  and  wings 
of  an  eagle  ;  in  fig.  2,  which  is  the  piece  of  money  called  trims,  the  head  on  the  obverse  is  like- 
Wise  probably  designed  to  represent  the  goddess  Rome  ;  as  is  also  perhaps  the  head  covered  with 
a  lion's  skin  instead  of  a  helmet,  in  fig.  3,  which  is  the  obverse  of  a  quadruns.  The  heads  of 
deities  were  frequently  placed  on  Roman  coins  ;  as  that  of  Mercury  in  fig.  4,  the  obverse  side 
of  a  sextans  ;  and  that  of  Janus,  in  fig.  a,  the  obverse  of  a  duplex  denarius.  Rome  is  symbolized 
sometimes  by  the  eagle,  as  Athens  is  on  Greek  coins  by  the  owl ;  as  in  fig.  10,  which  gives  the 
obverse  of  another  sextans  ;  the  reverse  of  this  (not  given  in  the  plate)  presents  a  wolf  nursing 
Romulus  and  Remus,  but  the  reverse  of  these  brass  pieces  more  commonly  contains  merely  the 
prow  of  a  ship,  as  in  fig.  2:  the  points  or  dots  on  these  pieces  indicate  their  value ;  four,  the 
tricns ;  three,  the  quadrans  ;  and  two,  the  sextans.  We  see  the  goddess  of  plenty  or  abundance 
represented,  in  fig.  5,  a  coin  of  the  emperor  Decius.  The  colonial  coins  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia 
often  bear,  as  in  fig.  s,  the  device  of  a  bull  with  a  hump-back  representing  mount  Taurus.  Some 
of  Caesarea  in  Palestine  show  an  eagle  holding  in  his  claws  a  thunderbolt,  as  in  fig.  t ;  the  let- 
ters underneath,  in  this  coin,  probably  stand  for  Colonia  Augusta  Casarca,  or  Canadensis  ;  this 
city  became  a  Roman  colony  after  the  conquests  of  Vespasian.  Many  of  the  coins  of  Vespasian 
bear  upon  the  reverse  a  very  striking  symbol ;  as  in  fig.  y,  with  the  lvords  judea  capta  and 
initials  of  senatus  consulto  forming  the  legend,  and  the  fate  of  conquered  Palestine  repre- 
sented by  a  woman  sitting  solitary  and  weeping,  under  a  palm-tree,  upon  a  collection  of  arms, 
shields,  helmets,  &x.  thrown  upon  the  ground.  There  is  here  a  remarkable  coincidence  with 
a  prophetic  declaration  of  Isaiah,  iii.  26  :  and  she,  desolate,  shall  sit  on  the  ground. 


84  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

The  Plate  presents  a  view  of  one  side  of  some  of  the  principal  silver  coins  of  the  Romans, 
In  rig.  a,  we  have  the  obverse  of  the  double  denarius,  equivalent  to  the  didrachina  of  the  Greeks  ■ 
on  the  reverse  was  a  quadriga.  In  fig.  b,  is  the  denarius,  having  its  value  of  x  asses  of  brass 
stamped  upon  it. -This  is  the  coin  designated  by  the  word  penny  sls  used  in  reference  to  Ro- 
man money  in  the  common  English  version  of  the  New  Testament ;  it  commonly  had  on  it, 
in  the  period  to  which  the  New  Testament  history  relates,  the  image  of  the  Roman  emperor, 
and  his  superscription,  i.  e.  his  name  or  its  initials  inscribed  on  it  as  in  fig,  r,  a  gold  coin  of  Ves- 
pasian. (See  Matt.  XXII.  20.  Mk.  111.  16.)  By  some  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  thirty  silver 
pieces  (aqyi'otu)  for  which  Judas  covenanted  to  betray  his  master  and  Lord  were  so  many 
denarii ;  while  others  think  that  the  silverpiece  here  intended  was  the  siclus,  oiy./.oc,  a  Jewish 
coin  equivalent  to  the  Attic  tetradrachma.     (Cf.  Matt.  xxvi.  15.  Acts.  xix.  19.—  Upham's  Trans. 

of  John's  Arch.  §  117.) In  tig.  c,  we  have  the  quinarius,  or  half  denarius,  with   its  value  of 

v  asses  stamped  on  it.  The  sestertius  is  given,  in  fig.  d,  having  on  the  reverse  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux on  horseback  ;  usually  marked  by  the  letters  h  s  on  its  obverse.  In  fig.  e,  is  a  silver  coin 
presenting  the  eagle  as  a  symbol  of  Rome,  with  the  name  of  the  city  in  the  exergue.  In  fig.  o, 
we  have  a  very  small  gold  coin,  with  its  value  of  x  x  sesterces  enstamped,  which  was  some- 
times named  scrupulum  from  its  weight. 

(c)     Manuscript  s . 

§  140.  What  has  been  said  (§  100 — 106)  concerning  the  intrinsic 
value,  the  antiquity,  the  preservation,  and  the  study  of  Greek  manu- 
scripts, is  in  general  applicable  to  the  Roman,  and  we  need  not  here 
repeat  it.  The  works  of  very  many  Latin  writers,  as  well  of  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  Roman  literature,  as  of  later  times,  have  been 
preserved  and  handed  down  to  us  by  means  of  written  copies.  These 
manuscripts,  however,  belong  not  to  the  classical  ages.  Latin  manu- 
scripts, like  most  of  the  Greek,  are  not  of  earlier  date  than  the  sixth 
century  after  Christ.  We  must  generally  consider  those  the  most 
ancient,  whose  writing  bears  most  resemblance  to  the  characters 
found  upon  coins  and  inscriptions.  But  this  criterion  is  not  a  certain 
one,  as  in  after  ages  the  ancient  manuscripts  were  sometimes  copied 
with  a  perfect  imitation  of  their  manner  of  writing. 

See  Oatlercr  on  the  method  of  determining  the  age  of  Mss.  in  the  Comment.  Societ.  Oatt.  8th 
Band  or  vol. — Also  Schornemann,  Versuch  eines  vollst.  Systems  der  Diploinatik. — Pfeiffer,  cited 
$53. —  Taylor's  Transmission,  &c.  cited  §  58. 

§141.  We  must  refer  to  a  later  origin  the  small  Roman  characters, 
punctuation,  and  the  contracted  form  of  the  diphthongs  ce  and  ce, 
which  were  originally  written  in  full  ae  and  oe.  The  letter  y,  from 
the  seventh  century,  was  often  marked  with  a  point  y ;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  i  was  written  without  a  point  until  the  end  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury ;  afterwards  it  took  an  accent  over  it,  i  ;  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  accent  was  changed  into  a  point.  From  the  small  Roman 
letters  arose,  by  some  alterations,  the  Gothic  and  Lombard  characters, 
and  those  of  the  Francs  and  Anglo  Saxons ;  as  these  people  derived 
the  art  of  writing  chiefly  from  Italy.  The  larger  portion  of  the  an- 
cient Latin  manuscripts  now  in  existence  belongs  to  this  age.  During 
the  9th  and  10th  centuries,  more  attention  was  paid  to  the  beauty  and 
elegance  of  the  characters.  In  the  11th  century  enlarged  letters  were 
introduced,  and  more  abbreviations,  the  multiplication  of  which  in 
after  times,  and  the  overburdening  of  the  letters  with  useless  appen- 
dages, disfigured  the  writing  and  rendered  it  more  difficult  to  read. 

Cf.  §  117.  Fac-similes  and  specimens,  to  illustrate  the  different  modes  of  writing  found  in 
Latin  manuscripts,  are  eiven  in  Mabillon  de  Re  Diplomatica. — See  also  Walthcri  Lexicon  Diplo- 
maticum  cum  speciminilms  Alphabetorum  et  Scripturarum.  Goett.  1745.  3  vols.  fol.  —  Nouceau. 
Traite  dc  Dlplom.  torn.  II.  and  in. 

§  142.  Since  the  revival  of  letters,  which  was  hastened  and  facili- 
tated by  the  discovery  and  study  of  the  classical  manuscripts,  they 
have  been  carefully  collected,  compared,  copied  and  published.     Pe- 


MANUSCRIPTS.  85 

trarch  searched  more  than  two  hundred  libraries,  and  greatly  aided 
an  early  cultivation  of  Roman  literature,  first  in  Italy,  and  afterwards 
in  other  countries.  We  are  under  similar  obligations  to  Gasparini, 
Poggius,  Beatus  Rhenanus,  Aloysius  Moccenicus,  Grynaeus,  Sichard, 
and  others.  Without  doubt  there  still  exist  some  treasures  of  this 
sort,  particularly  manuscripts  of  the  middle  ages,  which,  if  not  valu- 
able on  account  of  their  style,  may  be  of  much  importance  to  history, 
criticism,  and  literature  generally.  The  libraries  which  have  been 
mentioned  (§108)  as  the  principal  depositories  of  Greek  manuscripts, 
contain  also  a  still  more  considerable  collection  of  Latin  manuscripts. 
The  printed  catalogues  of  some  of  them  give  notices  of  the  manu- 
scripts. 

To  the  references  there  (§  108)  given,  we  add  the  following.  Wackier,  Handbuch  der  Gea- 
chichte  der  Literatur,  (as  cited  P.  II.  §  7.  9.)  vol.  m.  p.  82.  ss. ;  giving  a  historical  sketch  of 
these  libraries. — Bernhardy,  Encyclopaedie  der  Philologie.  Halle,  1832. — Petit-Radcl,  Recher- 
ches  sur  les  Bibl.  Anciennes  et  Moderns.  Par.  1819.  8. — Eichhorn,  Geschichte  der  Literatur. 
Gbtt.  1805,  ss.  6  vols.  8. ;  giving  (vol.  in.  p.  431.  ss.)  "  a  good  account  of  the  German  li- 
braries." 

Respecting  the  labors  of  Petrarch  and  others,  see  Heeren's  Einl.  zu.  Gesch.  des  Klass.  Lit- 
teratur,  cited  §  53.— On  the  zeal  for  the  discovery  and  study  of  manuscripts  after  the  revival  of 
letters,  see  Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  and  of  Leo  X.  —  For  an  account  of  the  gene- 
ral circumstances  pertaining  to  the  formation,  loss,  and  recovery  of  the  "  classical  Mss.  of 
Rome,"  see  Dunlop's  Hist.  Rom.  Literature,  Appendix. 

§  143.  The  following  are  among  the  most  ancient  manuscripts  in 
the  Latin  language  :  (a)  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  in  the  library  of  St. 
Mark  at  Venice,  of  very  ancient  date  ;  (b)  the  Virgil  of  Florence^ 
or  the  Codex  Medicceus  ;  (c)  the  Virgil  of  the  Vatican,  which  seems 
to  belong  to  the  fifth  century  ;  (d)  the  Terence  of  the  Vatican,  writ- 
ten in  square  letters,  and  ornamented  with  a  large  number  of  ancient 
masks  ;  and  (e)  the  Florentine  manuscript  of  the  Pandects. 

(a)  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  Latin  Manuscript  of  St.  Mark  was  written  by  that  apostle 
himself.  "  But  this  is  now  proved  to  be  a  mere  fable  ;  for  the  Venetian  Ms.  formerly  made 
part  of  the  Latin  mtouscript  preserved  at  Friuli,  most  of  which  was  printed  by  Blanchini,  in 
his  Evangeliorum  Qnadruplex.  The  Venice  Ms.  contained  the  first  forty  pages,  or  five  quater- 
nions of  St  Mark's  gospel ;  the  last  two  quaternions  or  twenty  pages  are  preserved  at  Prague, 
where  they  were  printed  by  M.  Dobrowsky,  under  the  title  of  Fragmeiitum  Pragcnse  Evan- 
gelii  S.  Marci  vulgo  autographi,  1778.  4. — See  Home's  Introduction,  &c.  vol.  iv.  pt.  n.  ch.  ii. 
§  3. — Gentlemank  Magazine,  vol.  xlvi. — (b)  Published  by  Foggini  exactly  after  the  manu- 
script. Rome,  1741.  4. — (c)  Published  by  Bartoli,  1741.  fol.  in  engraving.  For  a  notice  of 
both  these  Mss.  of  Virgil,  see  Schcell,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.  i.  362.— (d)  Printed  at  Urbino,  1736.  fol. 
at  Rome,  1767.  fol. — "  Ce  precieux  manuscrit  a  passe  de  la  bibliotheque  du  Vatican  dans  celle 
de  Paris."  (SchccU,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.  vol.  i.  p.  134.) — (e)  Of  this  Brenckmann  has  given  a  de- 
scription in  his  Historia  Pandectarum.  Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1722.  4.  It  is  now  in  the  library  of 
the  Grand  Duke  at  Florence,  and  formerly  was  held  in  great  reverence.  Curious  and  profane 
eyes  were  prohibited  from  looking  upon  it.  It  was  opened  only  in  the  presence  of  a  body  of 
priests  and  a  deputation  of  civil  magistrates,  with  prescribed  ceremonies  and  amidst  burning 
tapers.     Cf.  Schall,  Lit.  Rom.  iii.  281. 

In  regard  to  manuscripts  much  information  may  be  found  in  /.  O.  Schelhorn's  Anleitung  fur 
Bibliothekare  und  Archivare.  Ulm,  1791.  2  vols.  8.— Cf.  §  108.—  W.  Roscoe,  Account  of  the 
Manuscript  Library  at  Holkam  in  Norfolk  ;  in  the  Transact,  of  the  Royal  Soc.  of  Literature, 
vol.  ii.  Lond.  1834. A  considerable  collection  of  Mss.  illustrated  with  miniatures  and  paint- 
ings, once  belonging  to  Mr.  Douce,  is  now  in  the  Bodleian  library  at  Oxford. For  an  ac- 
count of  the  Mss.  in  the  British  Museum,  illustrated  with  miniatures,  &c.  see  O.  F.  Waagen, 
as  cited  §  190.  4.  vol.  i.  p.  134. — There  is  among  these  a  curious  Ms.  of  Cicero's  translation  of 
Aratus  (cf.  P.  II.  §  71),  adorned  with  miniatures  of  the  constellations  and  busts  of  the  planets 
Jupiter,  Mars,  &c.  A  writer  (  W.  Y.  Ottley)  in  the  Trans,  of  the  Lond.  Antiquarian  Soc.  would 
refer  it  to  the  2d  or  3d  century.— See  Archaologia  (cited  $  243.  3),  vol.  xxvi.  p.  48.  ss. 

8 


PLATE     IV. 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  ART. 


Preliminary  Remarks. 

$  144.  By  the  word  art,  taken  subjectively,  is  understood  a  prac- 
tical skill  in  producing  something  in  agreement  with  certain  purposes 
and  rules.  Taken  objectively,  it  signifies  the  abstract  union  of  those 
rules  and  practical  principles,  which  are  essentially  useful  to  guide 
in  the  production  of  any  designed  object  or  work.  When  Nature 
and  Art  are  placed  in  contradistinction,  the  former  designates  the 
original  powers  in  the  material  and  spiritual  world  and  their  immedi- 
ate operations,  the  latter  the  efficiency  of  reason  by  means  of  choice 
and  intention  ;  nature  therefore  is  understood  to  operate  by  necessa- 
ry, art  by  voluntary  or  arbitrary  laws.  A  distinction  is  also  made 
between  Art  and  Science,  the  one  being  the  theory  of  that  of  which 
the  other  is  the  practice ;  science  implies  the  accurate  knowledge  of 
principles  ;    art  is  their  successful  application. 

§  145.  The  arts  are  generally  divided  into  the  mechanical  and  the 
liberal  ox  fine.  The  former  have  reference  chiefly  to  the  bodily,  the 
latter  to  the  intellectual  powers  of  man.  The  mechanical  are  those 
which  are  employed  in  producing  and  improving  whatever  is  impor- 
tant to  the  necessities  or  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life.  The 
fine  arts  are  such  as  have  chiefly  pleasure  for  their  object,  although 
utility  is  connected  therewith  as  a  secondary  point ;  they  aim  at  the 
representation  or  imitation  of  moral  beauty  or  excellence,  and  are 
addressed  to  the  imagination  and  the  feelings.  It  is  on  account  of 
this  representation  of  beauty  and  this  immediate  reference  to  the 
emotions  of  the  mind,  that  they  are  termed  the  fine  or  the  beautiful 
arts.  They  are  Poetry,  Oratory,  Music,  Dancing,  Drama,  Painting, 
Engraving,  Lithoglyphy,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture,  which  last 
may  include  Gardening,  usually  treated  as  a  separate  art. 

On  the  connection  between  Architecture  and  Gardening,  see  vol.  n.  p.  278  of  Charactere  der 
Vornehmsten  Dichtcr  (cited  below,  P.  II.  §  47).— Cf.  ch.  xxiv.  of  Home's  Elem.  of  Criticism 
<cited  §  152.  2). On  the  gardening  of  the  ancients  ;  W.  Falconer,  Thoughts  on  the  style  of  gar- 
dening among  the  Ancients  ;  in  Mem.  of  the  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc.  of  Manchester,  2d  vol.  Lond. 
1785.  8. — Historical  View  of  the  Taste  for  Gardening,  #c.  among  the  Ancients.     Lond.  1785.  8. 

§  146.  These  are  all  addressed  to  feeling  and  imagination,  but  do 
not  all  exert  their  influence  in  the  same  way  and  by  the  same  means. 
Such  of  them  as  effect  their  object  by  means  of  visible  images  or  re- 
semblances are  called  often  the  plastic  arts;  from  this  class  are  ex- 
cluded poetry,  oratory,  music,  and  for  the  most  part  dancing  and 
drama.  The  modes  of  forming  these  images  or  representations  of 
visible  objects  are  various ;  the  image  may  be  formed  entire,  or  in 
demi-relief  or  bas-relief,  or  in  depression,  or  on  a  plane  surface.  The 
art  of  designing  may  be  considered  as  a  common  foundation  for  the 


b»  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

whole  class,  since  they  are  employed  wholly  in  representing  those  forms 
or  actions  of  material  bodies,  which  are  distinguished  for  regularity, 
or  peculiar  fitness,  or  moral  beauty  or  force,  and  which  are  therefore 
worthy  of  the  artist's  skill.  On  this  account  they  are  termed  by  some 
the  arts  of  design. 

§  147.  The  forms,  which  are  represented,  are  not  merely  such  as 
actually  exist  in  nature,  but  also  such  as  are  wholly  ideal,  or  of  a 
mixed  character,  partly  imaginary  and  partly  real.  Art  likewise  often 
employs  this  imitation  of  material  forms  to  express  purely  intellec- 
tual and  spiritual  conceptions.  This  object  is  effected  in  part  by  ex- 
hibiting emotions  of  the  soul  through  bodily  gestures,  attitudes,  and 
actions.  It  is  effected  also  by  symbolical  or  allegorical  images  and 
combinations,  which  have  in  no  small  degree  ennobled  the  plastic 
arts,  and  elevated  them  above  their  original  limits.  Perspicuity,  ap- 
propriateness, liveliness,  judicious  discrimination,  and  accuracy  are 
the  essential  traits  in  such  allegorical  pieces. 

For  more  full  remarks  respecting  allegory  in  the  arts  of  design,  and  references  to  authors,  see 
the  article  Mlegorie,  in  J.  O.  Sulzer,  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  schonen  Kunste.  Lpz. 
1792-4.  4  vols.  8. 

§  148.  A  sensibility  and  taste  for  art  is  necessary  not  only  to  the 
artist  in  order  to  practice  successfully,  but  also  to  the  observer  or 
critic  in  order  to  judge  properly.  There  must  be  a  capacity  or  sus- 
ceptibility easily  to  perceive  the  beautiful,  and  to  experience  peculiar 
pleasure  therein.  Some  elementary  and  correct  natural  feeling  is 
therefore  presupposed  ;  but  by  a  frequent  exercise  of  this  feeling,  a 
careful  observation  of  works  of  art,  and  the  study  and  application 
of  rules,  the  capacity  is  easily  enlarged  and  improved.  Sensibility 
to  the  beautiful,  delicacy  of  feeling,  and  correctness  of  judgment, 
are  the  most  prominent  characteristics  of  that  taste  for  art,  which  the 
artist  must  unite  and  carefully  cultivate  in  common  with  his  genius 
and  skill  in  execution. 

§  149.  The  name  of  connoisseur  belongs  only  to  him,  who  is  qual- 
ified to  examine  and  criticise  works  of  art  according  to  their  whole 
actual  merits,  and  to  estimate  and  explain  on  true  principles  their 
comparative  value.  For  this  a  superficial  knowledge  is  not  sufficient ; 
it  requires  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  nature  and  essence  of 
the  arts,  with  all  their  principles,  both  mechanical  and  cestketical,  with 
their  history,  and  with  their  chief  productions.  Good  taste,  famili- 
arity with  the  best  performances,  and  studious  reflection,  therefore, 
are  indispensable  to  a  connoisseur  in  art.  The  mere  amateur  needs 
only  an  unperverted  lively  susceptibility  to  the  impression  made  by 
works  of  art,  and  a  prevailing  attachment  for  them ;  which  traits, 
however,  if  properly  cultivated,  may  form  him  into  a  connoisseur. 
Docti  rationem  artis  intelligunt,  indocti  voluptatem.     (Quintilian.) 

§  150.  The  history  of  art  is  obviously  useful  to  the  artist  and  to 
the  critic.  By  it  we  learn  the  first  origin  of  art  among  the  people 
of  early  antiquity;  its  subsequent  advancement  among  the  Greeks, 
Etrurians,  and  Romans  ;  its  decline  with  the  wane  of  those  nations  ; 
its  complete  prostration  in  the  middle  ages  ;  its  restoration  and  in 
some  respects  far  greater  advancement  in  modern  times.  The  very 
perfection  of  modern  art  makes  the  study  of  the  fine  arts  and  their 
history  advantageous  and  even  necessary  to  every  one,  who  engages 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  89 

in  literature  and  the  studies  required  by  common  utility.  Abundant 
occasion  will  be  found  by  every  man,  for  the  application  of  this 
^knowledge,  so  that  he  may  turn  to  good  account  all  the  instruction 
and  pleasure  derived  by  him  from  it. 

§  151.  The  monuments  of  the  plastic  arts  remaining  to  us  from 
•ancient  times,  are  called  in  general  antiques,  although  by  that  term, 
^especially  when  the  kindred  idea  of  classical  excellence  is  associated 
with  it,  we  understand  chiefly  the  performances  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing periods  of  ancient  art.  These  pieces  are  admired  particularly 
for  the  beauty  of  their  forms  ;  for  the  just  and  happy  representation 
of  the  human  figure,  especially  the  head ;  and  for  the  dignity  and 
emotion  which  is  thrown  into  their  expression,  and  is  at  the  same 
time  united  with  a  most  attractive  grace.  In  general  it  may  be  said, 
that  the  artists  of  antiquity  guided  themselves  by  an  ideal  based  and 
formed  upon  real  nature,  rather  than  by  any  actual  models  ever  pre- 
sented in  life.  Hence  the  careful  study  of  antiques  is  of  great  ser- 
vice to  the  artist  and  to  the  general  critic  and  scholar,  especially  if  it 
be  connected  with  suitable  attention  to  language,  history,  mythology, 
and  antiquities  in  general. 

See  J.  Spencc,  Polymetis,  or  Enquiry  concerning  the  Agreement  between  the  works  of  the 
Roman  Poets  and  the  remains  of  ancient  Artists.  Lond.  1755.  fol. — Article  Antik,  in  Sulzer's 
Allg.  Theor.  &c,  cited  above  §  147. 

§  152.  Most  of  the  now  remaining  works  of  the  plastic  arts'  of  an- 
tiquity are  such  as  either  were  actually  designed  to  commemorate 
particular  remarkable  persons,  objects,  actions,  and  occasions,  or 
may  serve  that  purpose  as  to  us.  Of  course  to  obtain  a  full  under- 
standing of  them,  to  look  at  these  monuments  in  a  right  point  of 
view,  to  discover  their  meaning,  and  perceive  their  whole  beauty, 
we  need  the  accessary  knowledge  just  mentioned  above. 

1  u.  In  this  view,  also,  an  acquaintance  with  the  history  of  art,  in  its  differ- 
ent periods  and  changes,  and  with  the  modes  of  conception  and  execution  of 
the  old  artists,  will  appear  very  important.  And  every  thing  of  this  sort  will 
be  more  useful  and  instructive,  if  attention  be  paid  at  the  same  time  to  the 
(esthetic  character  of  the  works,  that  is,  to  their  comparative  excellence  con- 
sidered as  happy  imitations,  and  as  operating  on  the  taste  and  feelings. 

2.  The  term  (Esthetic  is  not  familiar  in  our  language.  It  is  formed  from  the  Greek  word 
ata&tjrixbg,  from  which  also  the  corresponding  German  term,  msthetisch,  is  derived.  The 
latter  is  defined  by  Salzer  (Allg.  Theor.  der  schbnen  Kunste),  as  follows  ;  "  that  peculiarity  or 
property  of  a  thing  by  which  it  is  an  object  of  feeling  [or/o"6^otc] ,  and  therefore  suited  to  be 
introduced  in  a  work  of  the  fine  arts."  The  German  noun  asthetik  ({esthetics)  is  defined,  in 
the  same  work,  as  follows  ;  "  the  philosophy  of  the  fine  arts,  or  the  science  which  deduces  the 
general  theory  and  the  rules  of  the  fine  arts  from  the  nature  of  taste."  The  words  are  cer- 
tainly very  convenient  in  English,  and  have  an  obvious  meaning  which  is  expressed  by  no 
other  terms. 

There  are  many  works  on  the  topics  and  principles  belonging  to  the  science  of  JEsthetics- 
—  Oeorg.  Szerdahaley,  iEsthetica,  seu  doctrina  boni  gustus,  ex  Philosophia  pulchri  deducta  ir» 
scientias  et  artes  amoeniores.  Bud.  1779.  2  vols.  8.—  G.  Jagemann,  Saggio  sul  buon  gusto  nell© 
belle  arti,  ove  si  spiegano  gl'  elementi  della  Estetica.  Fir.  1771.  8.— Abbe  Dubos,  Reflexiofta 
critiques  sur  la  Poesie  et  la  Peinture.  (Cf.  $29.  4.)—  Ch.  B attca ux,  Les  beaux  arts  reduits  k 
une  meme  principe.  Par.  1753.  12.  In  Germ,  with  additions  by  J.  Ad.  Schlcgel.  Lpz.  1770^ 
2  vols.  8. — The  Polite  Arts,  or  a  Dissertation  on  Poetry,  Painting,  Music,  Architecture,  and  El- 
oquence. Lond.  1749.  12.— if.  Home  (Lord  Karnes),  Elements  of  Criticism.  Loa«.  1785. 
2  vols.  8.— Alex.  Gerard,  Essay  on  Taste.  Edinb.  1780.  8.— Archibald  Alison,  Essays  on  the 
Nature  and  Principles  of  Taste.  Edinb.  1811.  8.  Boston,  1812.— JWi.  Christ.  Kmtig,  Philoso- 
phic der  schbnen  Kunste.  Numb.  1784.  8.— Ph.  Gains,  ^Esthetic,  oder  aUgemeine  Theorie 
der  schbnen  Kunste  und  Wissenschaften.  Salzb.  1785.  8.—Imm.  Kant,  Critik  der  Urtheils- 
kraft.     Berl.  1790.  8. 

§  153.  To  give  something  of  this  knowledge,  although  only  in 
general  and  elementary  principles,  is  the  object  of  what  follows,  un- 
der the  title  of  Archaeology  of  Art.     It  will  be  limited  to  the  plastic 

8* 


90  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

arts,  and  will  exclude  Engraving  and  Gardening,  as  the  former  was 
unknown  to  the  ancients,  and  the  latter  was  not  ranked  by  them, 
either  in  practice  or  theory,  among  the  fine  arts.  Sculpture,  Lilhogly- 
phy,  Painting  and  Architecture,  will  be  noticed.  Their  history, 
especially  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  will  be  presented  ;  the 
most  celebrated  artists  in  each  period  named  and  characterised ;  and 
the  chief  monuments  pointed  out,  with  such  remarks  on  their  char- 
acter as  may  aid  a  right  understanding  of  their  worth.  The  notices 
must  necessarily  be  brief. 


I. — Sculpture. 


§  154.  This  term  is  used  in  a  sense  more  comprehensive  than  its 
etymological  meaning.  We  include  under  it  the  formation  of  ima- 
ges of  visible  objects,  not  only  out  of  hard  substances  by  means  of 
the  chisel  and  graver,  but  also  out  of  soft  substances,  and  out  of 
melted  metals.  In  precise  discrimination  the  first  of  these  arts  is 
properly  sculpture,  yiug>»/,  sculptura ;  the  second  is  more  exactly  the 
art  of  molding,  nlaaxr/A^  figlina  ;  and  the  third,  the  art  of  casting, 
■lonsvriy.]^  statuaria.  The  German  word  Bildnerkunst  includes  the 
whole,  and  is  used  by  Luther  in  translating  the  Hebrew  phrase  (in 
Chron.  iii.  10),  which  is  rendered  in  the  English  version  image-work. 

The  figures  are  either  formed  entire  so  as  to  be  seen  on  all  sides 
(jifQupavij,  insRunde),  or  only  prominent  from  a  plane  surface  (ttoootv- 
7t<x,  avuy?.v(pa).  Those  of  the  former  kind  are  termed  Statues ;  the 
others  are  called  in  general  Bas-reliefs,  although  they  are  distinguished 
in  minute  description,  by  terms  indicating  the  degree  of  their  promi- 
nence from  the  plane.  Figures  formed  by  depression,  or  by  hollowing 
below  the  level,  were  termed  by  the  Greeks  8iuy?.v<pa. 

Respecting  the  ars  toreutice,  see  Excursus  ad  Pirn.  Nat.  Hist.  xxxv.  34,  in  Lemaire's  edition, 
cited  below,  P.  II.  $  470.  4. 

§155.  In  the  introduction  to  this  Archaeology  (§  8 — 11)  we  spoke  in  general 
of  the  origin  of  the  arts.  Here  it  is  sufficient  to  remark,  that  the  art  of  forming 
images  belongs  to  the  highest  antiquity,  and  probably  was  the  earliest  of  the 
arts  which  we  call  plastic,  if  we  except  architecture,  which  at  first  was  merely 
mechanical.  Although  the  principles  of  the  art  of  drawing  are  of  the  greatest 
service  in  image-work,  and  in  reality  lie  at  its  foundation,  yet  the  art  of  draw- 
ing was  probably  of  later  origin ;  for  it  requires  a  higher  effort  of  abstraction 
and  reflection  to  give  a  representation  by  sketching  mere  outlines  on  a  fixed 
plane,  than  by  forming  an  entire  image.  Accident,  and  perhaps  the  capriceof 
nature,  which  not  unfrequently  presents  the  appearance  of  artificial  figures  in 
trees,  stones,  and  the  like,  might  lead  men  to  this  art.  The  first  attempts,  it  is 
probable,  were  to  form  likenesses  of  the  human  body. 

§156.  The  particular  circumstances  of  the  origin  of  this  art  are  not 
made  known  to  us  by  any  historical  account.  Neither  the  inventor, 
the  people  among  whom  it  arose,  nor  the  first  mode  of  its  exercise, 
can  with  certainty  be  determined.  We  may,  however,  reasonably 
conjecture,  from  the  usual  progress  of  the  human  mind,  and  the  his- 
tory of  other  arts,  that  in  this  also  there  was  a  gradual  advancement 
from  the  more  easy  and  simple  performances  to  the  more  difficult. 


SCULPTURE.       MATERIALS.  9T 

1m.  Of  the  early  existence  of  some  branches  of  the  art  we  have  evidence  in  the' 
writings  of  Moses.  See  Exod.  xxxvi.  36,  38.  Deut.  xxix.  16,  17.  Gen.  xxxi. 
19,  30. 

2  m.  The  first  works  must  have  been  quite  rude,  as  the  artists  were  deficient 
both  in  the  theory  of  designing  and  in  mechanical  skill,  and  were  also  desti- 
tute of  the  necessary  instruments.  Accordingly  we  find  that  the  most  ancient 
figures  of  men  and  gods  were  scarcely  any  thing  more  than  pillars  or  blocks, 
with  the  upper  extremity  formed  into  a  sort  of  knob,  or  rounded,  to  represent 
the  head.  Such  was  the  very  ancient  image  of  the  goddess  Cybele  brought  to 
Rome  from  Pessinus  in  Phrygia  (cf.  P.  III.  §  21).  Gradually  the  other  prin- 
cipal parts  of  the  body  were  more  distinctly  formed,  at  first  however  only  indi- 
cated by  lines;  afterwards  made  more  full  and  complete,  yet  not  marked  by 
significant  action  and  attitude,  but  stiff,  angular,  and  forced.  This  improve- 
ment was  ascribed  among  the  Greeks  to  Daedalus  (cf.  §  174.  2),  who  was  on 
that  account  said  to  have  formed  living  statues,  and  whose  name  was  applied 
by  the  early  Greeks  to  distinguished  productions  of  art. 

3.  "  In  the  primitive  ages,  objects  rude  and  unfashioned,  as  we  learn  from  history,  were  adored 
as  representing  the  divinities  of  Greece.  Even  to  the  time  of  Pausanias,  stones  and  trunks  of 
trees,  rough  and  unformed  by  art,  were  preserved  in  the  temples  ;  and  though  replaced  by  forms 
almost  divine,  still  regarded  with  peculiar  veneration,  as  the  ancient  images  of  the  deities.  As 
skill  improved,  these  signs  began  to  assume  a  more  determinate  similitude  ;  and  from  a  square 
column,  the  first  stage,  by  slow  gradations  something  approaching  to  a  resemblance  of  the  hu- 
man figure  was  fashioned  These  efforts  at  sculpture  long  continued  extremely  imperfect.  The 
extremities  seem  not  to  have  been  even  attempted  ;  the  arms  were  not  separated  from  the  body, 
nor  the  limbs  from  each  other  ;  but,  like  the  folds  of  the  drapery,  stiffly  indicated  by  deep  lines 
drawn  on  the  surface.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  general  state  of  the  art  immediately  prior 
to  the  period  when  it  can  first  be  traced,  as  cultivated  with  some  degree  of  success  in  any  par- 
ticular place.     This  occurs  about  twelve  centuries  before  Christ." 

§157.  Before  noticing  further  the  progress  of  the  art  of  sculpture,, 
it  will  be  useful  to  mention  some  things  respecting  the  materials  em- 
ployed, and  the  different  methods  practiced  among  the  ancients.  The 
substances  used  were  evidently  very  various.  The  softer  materials 
were  earths,  clays,  wax,  and  the  like ;  the  harder  were  wood,  ivory, 
marble,  and  bronze. 

§158m.  Originally,  as  has  been  suggested,  soft  and  pliant  substances  seem 
to  have  been  chosen,  and  the  images  made  by  molding  or  embossing.  This 
perhaps  might  originate  in  the  common  art  of  pottery,  which  itself  may  have 
been  suggested  by  covering  culinary  vessels  with  earth  or  lime,  and  observing' 
the  hardness  imparted  by  the  fire.  Clay,  gypsum,  and  wax  were  the  principal 
soft  materials  employed,  not  only  in  the  earliest,  but  in  the  most  flourishing 
periods,  by  the  Greeks,  Tuscans,  and  Romans  ;  and  for  forming  entire  statues, 
as  well  as  busts,  bas-reliefs,  and  models.  Models  thus  prepared  (TtgonkuOfiorra, 
TtouTvnu)  were  used  by  the  artists  for  patterns  to  guide  them  in  working  upon 
harder  materials. 

§159w.  Of  the  hard  substances,  wood  was  commonly  preferred,  at  first,  on 
account  of  its  being  easily  wrought,  especially  for  the  sculpture  of  large  figures,, 
utensils,  and  ornaments  of  various  kinds.  In  the  choice  of  wood  for  the  pur- 
pose, regard  was  paid  to  its  solidity,  durability,  and  color.  Ebony,  cypress, 
and  cedar  had  the  preference  ;  yet  citron-wood,  acanthus,  maple,  box,  poplar 
and  oak,  and  even  more  common  sorts  of  wood,  were  sometimes  employed. 
Not  unfrequently  in  the  choice  of  wood  there  was  a  reference  to  the  supposed 
character  of  the  divinity  to  be  represented,  as  was  the  case  also  in  the  use  of 
other  materials.  In  the  island  of  Naxus,  for  example,  there  was  a  statue  of 
Bacchus  formed  out  of  the  vine.  Pluto  was  commonly  imaged  in  ebony  or 
black  marble.    (Cf.  P.  II.  §  33.  60.) 

§160  u.  The  most  celebrated  ancient  sculptors  often  made  use  of  ivorij,  on 
account  of  its  whiteness  and  smooth  surface,  not  merely  for  small  figures,  but 
also  for  large  ones,  and  even  for  colossal  statues,  which  were  sometimes  formed 
of  ivory  and  gold  united.  Of  this  sort  were  the  two  most  famous  statues  of 
antiquity, — the  (a)  Jupiter  Olympus  and  the  (b)  Minerva, — which  were  wrought 
by  Phidias.  Bas-reliefs  and  various  utensils  were  also  formed  of  ivory  either 
alone,  or  with  other  substances  connected  with  it  for  ornament.  The  artists 
appear  to  have  used  no  instrument  for  turning,  but  merely  a  chisel  with  a  free 


92  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

hand.  In  the  large  statues  formed  of  this  substance,  the  inner  part  consisted 
of  dry  solid  wood,  to  which  the  ivory  was  attached  and  fastened  in  regular  por- 
tions, and  probably  after  the  requisite  chiseling  had  in  part  been  performed. 
Very  few  monuments  of  this  kind  are  preserved,  because  ivory  s6  readily  cal- 
cines in  the  earth  and  decays. 

(a)  Cf.  P.  III.  $  24.  —  (b)  Cf.  P.  III.  §  43.  —  See  Heyne,  on  the  ivory  of  the  ancients,  and  im- 
ages made  of  it,  in  JV*.  Biblioth.  der  schon.  Wiss.  lid.  xv.  ;  also  in  Winckelmann,  Histoire  &c.  as 
cited  $  32.  4.  vol.  l.  p.  575.  —  Hirt,  in  Baittiger's  Amalthea,  Bd.  i.  —  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  Le- 
Jupite'r  Olympien.    Par.  1815.  fol.  —  Cf.  §179. 

§161w.  Marble  was  the  noblest  and  most  valued  material  for  sculpture. 
There  were  several  species,  differing  in  color,  solidity,  and  lustre.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  kinds  were  the  Pentelican,the  Parian,  the  Lydian,  the  Alaban- 
dian.  Porphyry,  basalt,  and  granite,  were  also  often  used  in  works  of  art, 
especially  among  the  Egyptians.  The  marble  was  not  always  polished.  The 
larger  statues  were  often  composed  of  several  pieces,  sometimes  of  different 
marble.  There  were  works,  too,  of  which  only  certain  parts  were  marble,  as- 
for  example  the  celebrated  Minerva  of  Phidias,  of  which,  particularly,  the  pu- 
pils of  the  eyes  were  marble  (?A6iva),  according  to  a  passage  in  Plato.  The 
cement,  by  which  the  different  pieces  of  marble  were  united,  the  Greeks  called 
).i&oy.o).).a.  Sometimes  the  marble  statues,  after  completion,  were  washed  over 
with  a  thin  transparent  varnish,  partly  in  order  to  give  them  a  softer  appear- 
ance and  a  milder  lustre. 

For  the  passage  in  Plato  above  referred  to,  see  his  ' Inn lac  ueltiav,  in  the  edit,  of  Bekker, 
(cited  P.  II.  §189.  4.)   Partis    Sec.    Vol.  Tertium,  p.  429.     It  is  not  improbable  that  the  term 

li&ira  here  designates  precious  stones  or  gems Cf.  De  Caylus,  on  colored  statues  &c.  Mem. 

Jicad.  Inscr.  xxix.  166.  cf.  xxxiv.  39. 

Respecting  the  modern  names  of  ancient  varieties  of  marble,  and  other  circumstances  per- 
taining to  them,  see  Ferber's  Briefe  aus  Walschland  (Letters  from  Italy).  Prag.  1773.  8.— Louis 
de  Launay,  Mineralogie  des  Anciennes.  Bruxell.  1803.  2  vols.  12. — Blasii  Caryophili  (Biag-io  Oa- 
rofalo),  Opusculum  de  antiquis  marmoribus.  Traj.  ad  Rh.  1743,  4.  —  An  interesting  account  of 
the  quarries  of  the  Parian  marble  is  given  by  E.  D.  Clarke,  Travels  <fcc.  vol.  vi.  p.  133.  Lond.  e(L 
vol.  in.  p.  280.  N.  Yk.  ed.  1815.  —  For  notices  of  the  quarries  of  Pentelican  marble,  see  Hob- 
Jiouse's  Albania,  and  Dodwell's  Tour  cited  P.  II.  §  7.  7.  (b). 

§  162  m.  The  bronze  employed  in  the  statues  of  the  ancients  consisted  of  a 
mixture  of  several  metals,  in  definite  proportions,  although  not  always  the 
same.  The  principal  ingredient  was  copper,  of  which  usually,  for  statuary, 
one  hundred  pounds  were  united  with  an  eighth  part  of  lead  or  tin.  In 
forming  the  mixture  there  was  very  often  a  regard  to  the  color  arising  from  it, 
and  to  its  suitableness  for  the  image  to  be  made.  The  best  kinds  of  brass  or 
bronze  were  that  of  Delos  and  that  of  iEgina.  The  most  valued  was  the  ori- 
chalchum  (uQti/a?.y.og),  not  the  modern  brass,  but  a  natural  product  of  that 
name,  unknown  to  us. — The  precise  manner  in  which  the  metals  were  wrought 
into  images  is  not  well  understood  ;  works  of  this  kind  were  formed  not  only 
by  casting,  in  which  case  the  chisel  was  afterwards  applied  to  give  perfection, 
but  likewise  by  driving  or  pressing  under  the  hammer.  Many  brazen  statues, 
although  the  accounts  are  often  exaggerated,  were  of  extraordinary  size  and 
truly  colossal ;  as  for  example,  the  celebrated  statue  of  the  god  of  the  sun, 
placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  of  Rhodes,  105  feet  in  height.  Sometimes 
statues  of  brass  were  gilded  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  usually  they  were  var- 
nished to  protect  them  from  the  atmosphere  and  moisture.  Even  of  the  prec- 
ious metals,  silver  and  gold,  the  ancients  sometimes  formed  entire  statues; 
they  were  however  hollow,  like  those  in  brass. 

See  Hirt,  in  Bmttiger's  Amalthea  (Musee  de  l'antiquite  figuree),  Dresd.  1824. — Launay,  cited 
$161.  —  Also,  on  the  composition  of  bronze,  Hawkins,  as  cited  §  27. — Some  consider  the  orlclial- 
cum,  or  mountain-brass,  to  have  been  an  artificial  product.  Cf.  Anthonys  Horace  ;  note  on  Ep.  to 
Pisos.  v.  202. — Comte  de  Caylus,  on  the  works  in  bronze  mentioned  by  Pliny,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr. 
xxv.  335.  Cf.  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  4, 5, 18. — Moiia-ez,  sur  le  bronz  des  anciens, Mem.  de  PInst. 
C 1  a  s  s  e  d'  Hist,  et  Lit.  Anc.  vi  n.  p.  363. —  also  cf.  C  r  a  s  s  e  de  Literat.  et  Beaux  Arts,  vol.  5th. 
p.  187.  496. 

§  163.  Statues  were  classified  and  named  variously,  according  to 
size,  costume,  and  attitude.  The  largest  were  termed  colossal  (xoZooooi), 
surpassing  always  the  human  dimensions ;  next  to  these  were  the 
statues  of  gods  and  heroes,  of  a  size  between  six  and  eight  feet ;  then, 
those  corresponding  to  actual  life  («yu,>u«Ta  uxovixa,  faopcrgijra,  statua* 


SCULPTURE.       BUSTS.  93 

iconicce) ;  and  finally  those  smaller  than  life,  of  which  such  as  were 
very  small  went  by  the  name  of  sigilla.  —  In  reference  to  costume, 
the  Romans  called  such  as  had  a  Grecian  dress,  palliata ;  those  in 
the  Roman,  togatce, ;  those  with  the  military  garb,paludatcB,  chlamy- 
datce,  loricatm ;  and  such  as  were  veiled,  velatce.  —  In  attitude  there 
was  still  greater  variety,  as  the  figures  might  be  either  standing,  sit- 
ting, reclining,  or  lying  at  rest,  or  in  action,  &c.  There  was  also  a 
distinction  between  simple  statues,  and  composites  or  groups,  consist- 
ing of  several  figures.  Groups,  where  the  parts  were  entwined  or  in- 
terwoven with  each  other,  were  called  symplegmata  {cvftnUyfuxta). 

See  Compte  Guatco,  Essai  historique  de  l'usasre  de  statues  chez  anciens.  Bruxelles  1768.  4. — 
Cf.  Le  Compte  Caylus,  L'habillement  des  divinites.   Mem.  Acad.  Insc.  vol.  xxxiv.  p.  35. 

§  164.  Busts,  likewise,  almost  as  frequently  as  entire  figures,  were 
formed  by  the  ancient  artists.  They  were  called  by  the  Greeks 
nyovouui ;  by  the  Romans,  imagines,  sometimes  thoraces.  They  were 
located,  in  honor  of  gods,  heroes,  philosophers,  and  other  distinguished 
men,  in  public  places,  such  as  theatres,  prytanea,  gymnasia,  galleries, 
libraries,  and  the  like. 

1m.  The  bust  was  chiefly  used  to  represent  deceased  persons.  At  Rome  the 
Patricians  used  to  place  in  their  halls  (a)  the  busts  of  their  ancestors.  Like  stat- 
ues, busts  were  of  various  sizes.  They  differed  also  in  respect  to  the  portion 
of  the  frame  included,  taking  in  sometimes  the  whole  breast,  sometimes  just 
the  shoulders,  and  sometimes  merely  the  head.  On  their  supports  or  pedestals 
the  character  or  exploits  of  the  person  represented  were  often  inscribed.  When 
busts  were  formed  in  relief  on  shields,  they  were  termed  imagines  clypeatce. 

(a)  Cf.  Polyb.  vi.  51.  Pim.  xxxv.  2. — See  OurUtfs  Versuch  Uber  die  Biistenkunde.  Magdeb. 
1800.  4. 

2  m.  There  was  a  peculiar  kind  of  statue  or  bust,  to  which  was  given  the 
the  name  of  Hermes  (  ' Enu^g  )  .  It  consisted  of  a  mere  head,  or  head  and 
breast,  or  at  most  head  and  chest,  and  a  quadrangular  pillar,  or  one  terminating 
in  a  point,  which  served  as  a  support.  It  derived  its  name  either  from  the  god 
Hermes,  Mercury,  whose  image  generally  appeared  on  this  kind  of  erection, 
yet  not  always  ;  or  perhaps,  as  probably,  from  the  word  ' Eniia  designating 
the  quadrangular  pillar  sustaining  the  image ;  Suidas  explains  the  phrase 
fQuaiog  7.[&og  by  the  word  rsrouymrog.  These  representations  were  placed  by 
the  highways  and  streets,  in  gardens,  and  among  the  Greeks  in  front  of  tem- 
ples and  dwelling-houses.  Human  likenesses  were  formed  sometimes  in  this 
manner ;  general^,  however,  the  images  represented  some  deity  presiding  over 
gardens  and  fields.  The  Romans  employed  them  to  point  out  the  boundaries 
of  lands,  and  on  that  account  called  them  termini.  Sometimes  the  attributes  of 
the  god  were  indicated  on  the  .work  ;  sometimes  there  were  inscriptions,  of 
which,  however,  such  as  may  have  been  preserved  are  not  all  genuine. 
They  very  seldom  had  any  representation  of  costume.  The  head  and  pedes- 
tal were  not  always  of  the  same  material.  Two  heads  were  occasionally  united 
on  one  pillar;  as  for  instance,  in  the  ' Equabi^i],  Mercury  and  Minerva  united; 
the  f 'Eninlnuy..'.ilg,  Mercury  and  Hercules  ;  and  ' Eqiiottuv,  Mercury  and  Pan. 

3.  The  compound  name  is  also  applied  where  the  pedestal  commonly  bear- 
ing the  head  of  Hermes  has  merely  the  head  of  some  other  personage,  as  in 
the  figure  ofcEou  tftaxlfjt,  given  in  Plate  V.  fig.  8.  In  fig.  7,  of  the  same  Plate, 
is  a  Hermes. 

§  165.  The  ancient  artists  made  a  vast  number  of  bas-reliefs 
(ty.TvTra,  TroonTriia,  uvaylvyu).  These  works  may  be  said  to  hold  an 
intermediate  place  between  sculpture  and  painting,  in  as  much  as 
they  present  a  plane  for  their  ground,  and  have  their  figures  formed, 
more  or  less  prominent,  by  the  chisel  or  by  embossing.  The  most 
common  material  was  marble  or  brass.  The  Etrurians  made  use 
also  of  clay  hardened  by  fire. 


D4  archjEolgy  op  art. 

§  166  m.  The  subjects  represented  by  such  pieces  were  drawn  from  mythol- 
ogy,  history,  allegory,  and  other  sources,  according  to  the  imagination  of  the 
artist.  The  purposes  for  which  they  were  devised  were  exceedingly  numer- 
ous;  they  often  were  separate  tablets,  constituting  independent  works;  and 
^very  often  they  were  formed  upon  shields,  helmets,  tripods,  altars,  drinking 
cups,  and  other  vessels  and  utensils,  tombs,  urns,  and  funeral  lamps,  arches, 
and  generally  upon  large  structures,  particularly  the  front  of  buildings.  In 
explaining  the  meaning  of  these  devices  there  is  need  of  much  caution  and 
much  knowledge  of  literature  and  art ;  it  is  the  more  difficult,  because  in 
many  instances  the  works  are  in  a  mutilated  or  altered  state. 

§  167.  Among  the  varieties  of  image-work  practiced  by  the  an- 
cients must  be  mentioned  that  which  is  called  Mosaic  (uovoeiov,  opus 
musivum,  tesselatum,  vermiculatum),  which  was  very  common,  and 
carried  to  great  perfection.  It  has  its  name  from  its  elegance  and 
grace  (uovoa).  It  consists  of  figures  curiously  formed  by  pieces,  in 
different  colors,  of  clay,  glass,  marble,  or  precious  stones  and  pearls, 
with  which  they  used  to  ornament  their  floors  and  walls.  Separate 
tablets  or  ornamental  pieces  were  also  formed  in  the  same  way. 

1  u.  The  pieces  of  which  this  kind  of  work  is  composed  are  so  small,  that 
sometimes  one  hundred  and  fifty  are  found  in  the  space  of  a  square  inch. 
The  art  was  most  in  vogue  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  artists  (a)  in  it  was  Sosus. 

2.  One  of  the  earliest  notices  of  this  art  among  the  Greeks  is  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  magnificent  ship  constructed  under  the  direction  of  Archimedes 
for  king  Hiero.  The  whole  fable  of  the  Iliad  (b)  was  represented  by  mosaics 
('sv  apaxiay.ois)  inlaid  in  the  apartments  of  the  vessel. 

(a)  Cf.  PUn.  Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  25.— (b)  Cf.  Schall,  Hist.  Litt.  Grecque,  vol.  vn.  p.  447. 

On  mosaics,  see  references  given  below,  §  189. 

§  168.  Some  of  the  works  of  the  ancient  sculptors  have  inscrip- 
tions upon  them,  presenting  the  name  of  the  artist,  or  explaining  the 
work  itself.  Such  inscriptions  are  placed  sometimes  on  the  pedestal, 
and  sometimes  on  the  drapery  or  other  parts  of  the  statue. 

1  u.  On  the  statue  of  Hercules  Farnese,  for  instance,  are  the  words,  TAY- 
KuN  AGHNAIOC  EII01E1;  on  the  Gladiator  Borghese,  ArAC  IAC 
JO  CTQEor  E<I>E  CIOC  EIIOIEI;  on  a  Roman  statue  of  the  goddess  Hope, 

Q.   AQVILIVS  DIONYSIVS  ET  NOMA  FAVSTINA   SPEM  RESTITVERVNT. 

2u.  But  these  inscriptions  are  not  always  genuine,  being  frequently  of  re- 
cent origin,  as  is  thought  to  be  the  case  with  the  first  of  the  above  mentioned. 
In  judging  of  them  there  is  need  therefore  of  much  antiquarian  skill  and  re- 
search, and  a  careful  application  of  historical  and  mythological  learning.  A 
fine  specimen  of  this  critical  scrutiny  is  found  in  Lessing's  Laocoon,  a  work 
of  great  value  to  those  who  study  the  arts. 

O.  E.  Lessino-,  Laokoon,  oder  iiber  die  Grenzen  der  Mahlerei  und  Poesie,  in  his  Scemmtlicke 
Schriftm.  Berl.  1796.  ss.  30  vols.  12.  Vol.  9th.— There  is  a  French  translation  of  it  by  Van- 
derbourg. 

§  169.  Although  we  have  no  historical  account  of  the  origin  of 
the  art  of  sculpture,  as  has  been  suggested  (§  156),  yet  it  is  certain 
that  the  Egyptians  were  in  possession  of  it  at  a  very  early  period. 
On  this  account  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  them  by  some  ancient 
writers.  The  Egyptians  were  not  deficient  in  the  mechanical  part 
of  sculpture.  Yet  their  general  mode  of  thinking,  their  prevalent 
taste,  the  peculiar  character  of  their  civilization,  and  especially  the 
nature  of  their  religion,  were  unfavorable  to  the  advancement  of  this 
art,  and  hindered  its  attaining  among  them  any  true  and  beautiful 
perfection.  We  find  in  their  design,  as  well  as  in  their  whole  exe- 
cution, a  barrenness  and  uniformity  that  appears    very  .unnatural. 


EGYPTIAN    SCULPTURE.  95^ 

Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  animal  worship  in  Egypt,  figures  of  ani- 
mals were  the  most  frequent  and  most  successful  performances  of 
their  artists,  among  whom  Memnon  is  perhaps  most  celebrated. 

J.  S.  Memes  (LL.  D.J,  History  of  Sculpture,  Painting,  and  Architecture.  Boston,  1834.  12. 
— Oiamb.  Broccki,  Ricerche  sopria  la  scultura  presso  gli  Egiziani.  Venez.  1792.  8. — Ecettiger's 
Andeutungen,  &c.  iiber  Archaeologie.  Dresden,  1806.  8. —  V.  Denon,  Voyage  dans  la  basse 
et  la  haute  Egypte.  Par.  1802.  2.  vols,  fol.,  with  plates.— Description  de  l'Egypte.  Par.  1809 
-1818.  9  vols,  fol-,  with  plates  ;  of  this  work  there  is  also  a  more  recent  edition.  (Cf.  P.  V. 
§  177.) — In  Beck's  Grundriss  der  Archaologie,  (Lpz.  1816,)  is  an  account  of  the  artists  among 
ancient  nations,  and  of  the  remaining  monuments,  and  mention  of  the  works  pertaining  to 
the  subject. — Respecting  Memnon,  consult  Anthon's  Lempriere. 

]  u.  In  the  history  of  Egyptian  art,  a  distinction  must  be  made  between  the 
old  and  the  later  style.  The  former  appears  in  the  earliest  monuments  down 
to  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses,  B.  C.  525.  The  latter  belongs  to  a 
subsequent  period,  in  which  the  Persians  and  Greeks  held  supremacy  in  the 
land.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  works  of  art  in  Egypt,  according  to 
which  they  may  be  designated  respectively  as  the  Old  Egyptian,  the  Persian- 
Egyptian,  the  Grecian-Egyptian,  and  the  Roman-Egyptian,  or  Roman  imita- 
tions of  the  Egyptian  manner.  The  uniformity  and  stiffness  are  much  great- 
er in  the  old  style  ;  yet  the  later  performances  are  deficient  in  beauty  of  de- 
sign and  execution,  in  cases  where  there  is  no  drapery,  as  well  as  in  others. 
There  are  also  works,  discovered  in  Italy,  in  Egyptian  taste  and  manner, 
which  are  not  really  of  Egyptian  origin,  but  were  made  by  later  Greeks,  in 
Rome,  especially  under  the  reign  of  Hadrian. 

2.  The  period  preceding  the  time  of  Cambyses  is  considered  by  Memes  as 
the  only  period  of  real  Egyptian  sculpture.  Of  its  character  there  are  left 
two  sources  of  judging,  viz.  vestiges  of  ancient  grandeur  yet  existing  on  their 
native  site,  and  numerous  specimens  in  European  cabinets.  These  remains 
may  be  classed  under  three  divisions.  1.  Colossal  figures.  2.  Figures  about 
the  natural  size,  single  or  in  groups.  3.  Hieroglyphical  and  Historical  re- 
lievos. The  colossal  remains  are  very  numerous.  Some  are  figures  of  men  > 
others  of  animals,  chiefly  the  sphinx.  The  dimensions  extend  from  twelve 
to  seventy  cubits  in  height.  The  largest  now  known  are  the  two  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Thebes,  which  are  "  vulgarly  called  Shamy  and  Damy  " ;  one  of 
which,  from  inscriptions  still  legible,  would  appear  to  be  the  famous  sound- 
ing statue  (a)  of  Memnon.  In  the  ruins  of  the  Memnonium  there  remains  a 
prostrate  and  broken  colossus  of  vast  size,  with  hieroglyphic  inscriptions,  from 
which  it  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  statue  of  Osymandyas  (b)  or  Sesostris. 
Of  figures  about  the  natural  size  there  are  also  many  remains.  Many  are 
found  in  the  excavations  of  Philoe,  Elephantis,  Silsilis,  and  at  El  Malook  in 
the  tombs  of  the  Theban  Kings.  These  excavations  are  often  suites  of  mag- 
nificent chambers  hewn  from  the  hard  and  white  calcareous  rock.  A  singu- 
lar peculiarity  marks  these  statues  ;  a  pilaster  runs  up  behind  each  the  whole 
height,  not  only  when  the  statue  is  connected  with  the  surface  of  a  wall,  but 
also  when  it  is  wholly  detached.  Relievos  are  found  in  great  abundance,  oc- 
cupying often  the  entire  walls  of  the  temples.  In  these  there  is  much  skill 
in  the  mechanical  workmanship,  but  they  are  very  deficient  in  merit  as  per- 
formances of  art ;  proportion  and  perspective  seem  to  have  been  utterly  un- 
known. 

(aj  Cf.  P.  III.  $  74. — Letronne,  La  statue  de  Memnon,  dans  ses  Rapports  avec  l'Egypt  et  la, 
Grece  ;  in  the  Mem.  de  P Institut,  Classe  <P  Hist,  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  x.  p.  249.— (b J  Letronne,  Sar  le 
monument  d'  Osymandyas,  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  I'lnst.  as  just  cited,  vol.  ix.  p.  317. 

§  170.  In  the  formation  of  these  works,  four  kinds  of  materials  are  em- 
ployed ;  one  soft,  a  species  of  sandstone  ;  and  three  very  hard,  viz.  a  calcare- 
ous rock,  out  of  which  the  tombs,  with  their  sculptures,  are  hewn  ;  hasalt  or 
trap,  of  various  shades  from  black  to  dark  gray,  the  constituent  generally  of 
the  smaller  statues  ;  and  granite,  more  commonly  of  the  species  named  ru- 
bescens.  Colossal  figures  are  uniformly  of  granite,  in  which  also  is  a  large 
portion  of  the  relievos.  Statues  of  wood  have  been  discovered  by  modern 
travelers.  Metal  appears  to  have  been  sparingly  used ;  at  least  only  very 
small  figures  have  been  found,  of  a  composition  similar  to  the  bronze  of  mod- 
ern times.  In  the  tombs  small  images  of  porcelain  and  terra  cotta  are  fre- 
quent. 


96  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

§  171.  Among  the  other  ancient  nations  of  southern  and  eastern 
countries,  sculpture  did  not  receive  so  much  attention,  and  our 
knowledge  of  their  use  of  the 'art  is  derived  from  historical  testimo- 
ny rather  than  from  any  existing  monuments.  The  art  was  evident- 
ly esteemed  by  the  Hebrews,  but  chiefly  as  an  auxiliary  and  orna- 
ment to  architecture  ;  of  this  we  have  evidence  in  the  temple  of  Sol- 
omon, in  the  construction  of  which,  however,  Phcenician  artists  were 
chiefly  employed.  The  commerce  and  wealth  of  the  Phoenicians 
were  favorable  to  the  arts ;  there  exists  no  genuine  and  proper  statue 
as  a  specimen  of  their  sculpture  ;  the  same  is  true  respecting  the 
Persians  and  Parthians,  who  were  advanced  to  a  considerable  degree 
of  civilization,  and  whose  views  of  propriety  required  that  the  figures 
should  be  clothed  in  some  sort  of  drapery;  such  monuments  as  we 
have,  however,  in  the  sculptured  architectural  ornaments  which  have 
been  preserved,  give  us  no  occasion  to  mourn  our  loss. 

On  the  general  character  of  the  sculptured  monuments  of  the  eastern  nations,  see  Heercii's 
Ideen  iiber  die  Politik,  der  Verkehr  und  den  Handel  der  vornehmsten  Volker  der  alien  Welt. 
Gbtt.  1823.  6  vols.  8.— Hock's  Veteris  Medise  et  Persia  Monumenta.  Gott.  1818.  4.— Cf.  Memes, 
Hist.  &c.  (as  cited  §  169),  p.  32 See  our  Plate  XXVI.  fig.  3,  4. 

§  172.  The  Etrurians  or  Etruscans  are  more  worthy  of  notice  in 
the  history  of  this  art.  In  a  very  early  period  they  occupied  the  up- 
per part  of  Italy,  and  attended  much  to  sculpture.  With  them  the 
art  seems  to  have  been  of  native  origin,  not  introduced  or  acquired 
from  Egypt,  although  their  intercouse  with  Egypt  and  with  Greece 
no  doubt  contributed  to  the  improvement  of  their  arts.  Five  periods 
may  be  pointed  out  in  the  history  of  Etruscan  art :  the  first  charac- 
terized by  a  rude  and  uncultivated  state ;  the  second  by  works  in  the 
Grecian  and  Pelasgic  style;  the  third  by  works  bearing  an  Egyptian 
and  mythological  stamp  ;  the  fourth  by  a  higher  degree  of  excellence, 
yet  confined  within  the  limits  of  the  older  Grecian  fictions ;  the  fifth 
by  a  still  fuller  perfection  according  to  the  more  refined  models  of 
the  Greeks. 

See  Heyne's  Versuch  einer  n'ahern  Bestimmuug  der  Klassen  und  Zeiten  fur  die  Etr.  Kunst- 
werke,  in  JV.  Bibli.  d.  sch.  TViss.  B.  XIX.  XX. ;  also  in  Wincklemann,  Histoire,  &c.  (cited 
$  32),  vol.  i.  p.  633.— L.  Lanzi,  Sageio  di  Lingua  Etrusca  e  di  altre  antiche  d'ltalia,  &c.  Rom. 
1789.  3  vols.  8.—F.  Inghirami,  Moniimenti  Etruschi,  illustrati,  &x.     Fiesole.  1820. 

§  173.  There  are  many  remains  of  Etruscan  art,  although  their 
resemblance  to  Grecian  performances  often  makes  it  difficult  to  de- 
cide their  true  origin.  That  Grecian  artists  had  a  great  share  of 
agency  in  Tuscan  works  is  evident  from  inscriptions  and  other  mon- 
uments. Independent  of  a  large  number  of  statues  in  bronze  and 
marble,  there  are  many  works  in  half  relief,  which  are,  not  without 
grounds,  considered  as  Etruscan  remains.  There  is  also  a  great  vari- 
ety of  vases,  remarkable  both  for  the  beauty  of  their  form  and  for  the 
paintings  on  them,  which  have  been  called  Tuscan  and  Campanian, 
but  may  be  with  more  probability  considered  as  old  Grecian,  and  as 
monuments  of  Greek  colonies,  which  were  in  the  vicinity  of  Cuma, 
Naples,  and  Nola. 

1  u.  Learned  men  and  amateurs  have  taken  much  pains  in  collecting,  por- 
traying, and  describing  these  remains.  The  most  beautiful  collection  of  the 
kind  is  that  made  by  Wm.  Hamilton  ;  it  is  now  in  the  British  Museum,  Lon- 
don.— Wedgewood  and  Bentley  have  made  imitations  of  several  of  these 
vases,  in  terra  cotta,  among  which  the  Vase  of  Barberini,  or  the  Portland 
Vase,  as  it  is  also  called,  is  the  most  memorable. 


ETRUSCAN    REMAINS.  97 

An  account  of  the  collection  of  Sir  Wm.  Hamilton  was  published  by  Chevalier  (PHanoar- 
tille,  with  the  title,  A  Collection  of  Etruscan,  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  &.C.  Naples,  1766- 
J779.  4  vol*,  fol. — A  later  work  is,  Recueil  des  Oravures  des  Vases  antiques,  tirees  du  Cabinet 
de  M.  le  Chev.  d'Hamilton,  giavees  par  Tischbein.  Naples,  1793.  3  vols.  fol. — See  also  respect- 
ing these  vases,  A.  F.  Oorii  Museum  Etruscum.  Flor.  1737.  2  vols.  fol. — J.  B.  Passerii  Pictu- 
ne  Etruscorum  in  vasculis,  &c.  Rome,  1767-75.  3  vols.  fol. — Peintures  des  Vases  antiques,  vul- 
gairement  appellees  Etrusques,  giavees  par  Clcner,  accompanies  d'explications  par  Millin. 
Par.  1808.  2  vols.  fol. — J.  Mdlingen,  Peintures  antiques  de  vases  de  la  collection  de  Sir  J.  Cog- 
hill.  Rome,  1817.  fol. — Lanii,  De  Vasi  antichi  dipinte  vulgarmente  chiamata  Etruschi.  1801. 
8.  with  plates Cf.  $  223. 

2.  "  The  Portland  Vase,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  was  found  in  the  16th 
century  inclosed  in  a  marble  sarcophagus,  in  the  sepulchral  chamber  called 
Monte  del  Grano,on  the  road  from  Rome  to  Frascati."  —  "  It  is  a  semi-trans- 
parent urn,  of  a  deep  blue  color,  with  brilliant  opaque  white  ornaments  upon 
it  in  bas-relief,  cut  by  the  lapidary  in  the  same  manner  as  the  antique  cameos 
on  colored  grounds.  Mr.  Parks  states,  "  that  several  of  the  nobility  and  gen- 
try, being  desirous  to  possess  a  copy  of  this  beautiful  specimen  of  ancient  art, 
engaged  Mr.  Wedge  wood  to  attempt  an  imitation  of  it ;  and  he  actually  pro- 
duced a  vase  of  porcelain,  which  for  elegance  was  considered  fully  equal  to 
the  original."  The  height  of  the  vase  is  ten  inches,  its  diameter  at  the  broad- 
est part  only  six  inches.  It  has  two  curiously  wrought  handles,  one  on  each 
side.  The  sculpture  is  in  the  greatest  perfection  ;  the  figures  full  of  grace 
and  expression  ;  every  stroke  as  fine,  sharp,  and  perfect  as  any  drawn  by  a 
pencil."  —  "The  body  of  this  vase,  which  for  a  long  time  was  erroneously 
supposed  to  be  formed  of  porcelain,  is  made  of  deep  blue  glass." 

SilUman's  Journal  of  Science,  &c.  vol.  xxvi.  on  Porcelain,  &c.  p.  243,  with  a  drawing  of  the 
vase. —  Cf.  Lardncr's  Cabinet  Cyclopaidia,  article  Glass. — See  also  «/.  Wedgevsood,  Description  of 
the  Portland  Vase.  Lond.  1790.  4. — Graf.  (i.  e.  Count)  Von  Veltheirn,  Abhandlung  uber  die 
Barberini-jetzt  Portland  Vase.  Helmst.  1791.  8.— .7.  Millingcn,  on  the  Portland  Vase,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Lit.  Society  of  the  United  Kingdom,  vol.  i.  pt.  2d,  p.  90.  Lond. 
1829.— J.  G.  King,  on  the  Barberini  Vase,  Archceologia  (as  cited  $243.  3.),  vol.  Till.  p.  307,  with 
drawings  of  the  whole  device  upon  it. — Class.  Jour.  xix.  226. 

In  one  of  the  barrows  called  Bartiow  Hiils  (cf.  P.  IV.  £  341),  there  was  found,  in  1835,  a 
beautiful  bronze  vessel  ornamented  with  enamels  of  different  colors.  The  cavities  in  which 
the  enamels  are  inserted  seem  to  have  been  finished  with. the  chisel.  "  The  enamels  are  true 
glasses.  The  colors  are  three  ;  blue,  red,  and  green."  A  fac-simile  is  given  in  the  Archasolo- 
gia  (as  cited  §  243.  3.),  vol.  xxvi.  p.  300. 

3.  Many  of  the  remains  of  Etruscan  art  have  been  found  in  repositories  for 
the  dead,  in  which  the  people  were  accustomed  to  inter  with  the  body  various 
articles  of  metal  and  clay.  At  Volaterree  (Volterra)  were  vast  sepulchral 
chambers.  Similar  structures  have  been  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of  Viter- 
bo.  In  these  sepulchres  are  found  urns  of  stone  or  of  baked  clay,  about  two 
feet  in  height,  which  contained  the  ashes  of  bodies  after  burning.  Painted 
vases  also  are  found  in  the  same  repositories  ;  likewise  the  engraved  patera. 
The  latter  are  numerous  and  curious.  They  are  shallow  dishes  of  brass  or 
bronze,  with  a  rim  slightly  raised,  and  a  handle.  On  the  bottom  inside  there 
is  usually  engraved  some  mythological  subject,  of  simple  design,  expressed  in 
a  few  bold  lines.  The  use  of  these  vessels  is  not  known.  Some  have  con- 
sidered them  as  employed  in  sacrificing,  others  as  designed  for  mirrors. 

Within  the  last  ten  years  many  remains  have  been  disinterred  from  the  hy- 
pogsea  in  Etruria.  In  1823  one  of  these  sepulchral  chambers  was  accidentally 
discovered,  not  far  from  Volcium,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Volcientes  (Plin. 
Hist.  Nat.  iii.  8.)  called  "Ovoly.oi  by  Ptolemy.  This  occasioned  examination 
and  extensive  excavations  and  led  to  the  discovery  of  numerous  other  recep- 
tacles, in  a  large  plain,  called  from  a  neighboring  abbey  Piano  dell'Abbadia,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Arminia.  From  these  were  taken  monuments  in  gold,  brass, 
and  ivory.  More  than  two  thousand  painted  vases  were  collected  ;  bearing 
devices  illustrative  of  a  great  variety  of  subjects  ;  often  with  the  name  of  the 
manufacturer  and  the  painter,  and  sometimes  with  whole  sentences,  inscribed 
on  them. 

See  Archipologia  (as  cited  $  243.  3.)  vol.  xxtu.  p.  130.  a  catalogue  of  vases  and  other  Etruscan 
antiquities  discovered  in  1828,  and  1829,  by  the  Prince  of  Canino  ;— specifying  200  articles,  with 
remark-. — ./.  MiUingen,  on  late  Discoveries  of  ancient  Monuments  in  Etruria;  in  the  Transact, 
of  the  Royal  Soc.  of  Literature  &.C.  vol.  n.  p.  76.  Lond.  1834.— Illustrazioni  di  due  vasi  fittili 
recentement  trouvati  in  Pesto  <kc.  Rom.  18o9.  Fol. — Mernes,  History  of  Sculpture,  k.c.  (cited 
$  169.)  p.  ll.—Anthon's  Lempriere,  under  Hctruria—Inghirami,  cited  §  172. 

§  174  The  highest  rank  in  the  history  of  ancient  art  unquestiona- 
9 


y»  ARCHAEOLOGY    OP    ART. 

bly  belongs  to  the  Greeks.  The  first  idea  of  image-work  among  them 
was  without  doubt  derived  from  abroad,  from  the  Egyptians  more  prob- 
ably than  from  the  Phoenicians,  perhaps  in  some  degree  from  both 
(cf.  §  42).  The  opinion,  that  their  earliest  notions  came  from  the 
Egyptians,  agrees  well  with  the  whole  character  of  their  mythology, 
the  fountain  and  source  of  their  arts,  and  with  the  style  of  their  more 
ancient  performances.     But  at  length  they  surpassed  all  other  nations. 

lu.  The  exact  time  of  the  rise  of  this  art  in  Greece  cannot  be  decided,  nor 
so  much  as  the  name  of  the  first  artist.  Some  mention  Dibutades,  others 
Rhoecus  and  Theodorus,  as  inventors  of  the  art  of  molding,  or  of  working  in 
soft  wax,  and  in  brass.  Daedalus,  who  lived  three  generations  before  the  Tro- 
jan war,  was  celebrated  as  the  first  improver  of  the  plastic  art  among  the 
Greeks.  It  was  undoubtedly  practiced  at  a  very  early  period,  and  even  in  the 
time  of  the  Trojan  war,  or  at  least  in  the  age  of  Homer,  had  gained  a  remark- 
able degree  of  cultivation. 

"  2.  Concerning  Daedalus,  the  first  of  the  Athenian  sculptors,  doubtful  or 
fabulous  accounts  have  reached  us  ;  but  a  careful  investigation  of  circumstan- 
ces proves,  that  of  whatsoever  country  a  native,  he  had  rendered  himself  re- 
nowned by  the  exercise  of  his  skill  at  the  court  of  Minos  before  settling  in 
Attica.  The  facts  attending  his  arrival  there,  and  the  history  of  his  previous 
labors,  enable  us  to  fix  dates,  and  to  trace  the  true  source  of  improvement  in 
Grecian  art  at  this  particular  era.  Of  the  early  establishments  of  the  Greeks 
planted  in  the  isles  of  the  iEgean,  which  even  preceded  the  mother  country 
in  the  acquisition  of  wealth  and  intelligence,  the  Doric  colony  of  Crete  en- 
joyed, from  a  very  early  period,  the  happiness  and  consequent  power  of  settled 
government.  External  advantages  of  situation  first  invited  the  access,  while 
domestic  institutions  secured  the  benefits,  of  ancient  and  uninterrupted  inter- 
course with  Egypt.  Hence  the  laws  and  the  arts  of  the  Cretans.  With  the 
former,  the  Athenian  hero,  Theseus,  wished  to  transplant  the  latter  also ;  and 
while  he  gave  to  his  countrymen  a  similar  system  of  policy,  he  did  not  fail  to 
secure  the  co-operation  of  one  whose  knowledge  might  yield  powerful  aid  in 
humanizing  a  rude  people  by  adding  new  dignity  to  the  objects  of  national  ven- 
eration. Accordingly  Daedalus,  accompanying  the  conqueror  of  the  Minotaur 
to  Athens,  fixes  there  the  commencement  of  an  improved  style,  1234  years 
before  the  Christian  era. — The  performances  of  Daedalus  were  chiefly  in  wood, 
of  which  no  fewer  than  nine,  of  large  dimensions,  are  described  as  existing  in 
the  second  century,  which,  notwithstanding  the  injuries  of  fourteen  hundred 
years,  and  the  imperfections  of  early  taste,  seemed,  in  the  words  of  Pausanias, 
to  possess  something  of  divine  expression.  Their  author,  as  reported  by  Dio- 
dorus,  improved  upon  ancient  art,  so  as  to  give  vivacity  to  the  attitude,  and  more 
animated  expression  to  the  countenance.  Hence  we  are  not  to  understand, 
with  some,  that  Daedalus  introduced  sculpture  into  Greece,  nor  even  into 
Attica ;  but  simply  that  he  was  the  first  to  form  something  like  a  school  of  art, 
and  whose  works  first  excited  the  admiration  of  his  own  rude  age,  while  they 
were  deemed  worthy  of  notice  even  in  more  enlightened  times.  Indeed  the 
details  preserved  in  the  classic  writers,  that  he  raised  the  arms  in  varied  posi- 
tion from  the  flanks,  and  opened  the  eyes,  before  narrow  and  blinking,  suffi- 
ciently prove  the  extent  of  preceding  art."     (Memes.) 

It  has  however  been  doubted  whether  Daedalus  ever  had  an  actual  existence,  some  supposing 
a  mere  lmtliic  personage  meant,  whose  name  was  intended  fV.r  any  eminent  artificer.— Hirt, 
Geschichte  der  Baukunst  (cited  $  213.  4). — Heync,  ad  Horn.  II.  18.  590. — Gcdoyn,  L'Histoire  de 
Dedale,  J)hm.  Acad.  Inner,  ix.  177. —  Class.  Joum.  iv.  -21. 

3w.  Many  favorable  circumstances  combined  to  promote  the  advancement 
of  sculpture  in  Greece  ;  the  influence  of  a  delightful  climate  upon  physical 
and  moral  education ;  the  constant  views  of  beauty  not  only  in  the  various 
natural  scenery,  but  especially  in  the  human  form  as  produced  among  the 
Greeks  ;  their  peculiar  religion  involving  so  much  of  poetry  and  imagination 
and  yet  so  addressed  to  the  senses  ;  the  high  honor  and  rewards  bestowed 
upon  artists  ;  the  various  uses  and  applications  of  sculpture  (cf.  §  178) ;  and 
the  flourishing  condition  of  the  other  imitative  arts  and  of  letters  in  general. 


GRECIAN    SCULPTURE.  99 

See  GurliWs  Einleitung  in  das  Studium  der  schbnen  Kunst  &c,  and  K.  0.  Mueller's  Arch- 
3tologie  &c,  as  cited  §  32.  4. — An  Enquiry  into  the  causes  of  the  extraordinary  excellency  of 
ancient  Greece  in  the  Arts.  Lond.  1767.  S.—  Winckelmann,  Hist,  de  l'Art,  &c.  Liv.  iv.  ch.  1. — 
Tytler's  History,  ch.  xx.  7.— On  the  estimation,  in  which  artists  were  held  among  the  Greeks, 
Comte  de  Caylus,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  laser,  xxi.  p.  174. 

§175.  In  presenting  a  historical  view  of  the  progress  and  character 
of  the  art  in  Greece,  and  of  the  age  of  the  principal  productions  and 
their  authors,  four  periods  have  been  pointed  out.  The  first  includes 
the  duration  of  the  ancient  style  of  execution,  extending  to  Phidias, 
who  lived  B.  C.  about  450.  The  second  reaches  from  this  artist  to 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  B.  C.  about  340,  and  may  be  char- 
acterized as  the  period  of  the  grand  style.  The  third,  that  of  the 
beautiful  style,  and  the  most  flourishing  period,  commencing  with 
Praxiteles  extends  to  the  rise  of  the  Imperial  Power  of  Rome.  The 
fourth  includes  the  efforts  of  Grecian  art  under  the  emperors,  and  is 
the  period  of  its  fall.  But  this  whole  division  is  too  arbitrary  and 
indefinite,  and  the  source  whence  it  was  derived,  the  sketch  of  Pliny, 
is  not  sufficiently  exact  and  distinct. 

See  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxxiv,  xxxvi. — Heyne's  Abh.  liber  die  Kiinstlerepochen  des  Plinius, 
in  his  Sanimluii.ir  antiquar.  Aufs.  St.  i. — Also  by  same,  Artium  inter  Grascos  tempora,  in  his  Opusc. 
Acad.  V.  5. —  Thiersch,  iiber  die  Epochen  der  bildenden  Kunst  unter  den  Griechen.  Munchen, 
1816.  4.  —  J.  B.  Emeric-David,  Essai  sur  le  classement  chronologique  des  sculpteurs  Grecs  &c. 
Par.  1806 ;  republished  in  Lsmaire's  Pliny,  cited  P.  II.  $  470  ;  it  names,  in  order,  the  principal 
Greek  sculptors,  and  mentions  the  chief  works  wrought  by  them. —  C.de  Caylus,  De  la  sculpture 
et  des  sculpteurs  anciennes  ;  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Insc.  xxv.  302. — For  a  general  historical  view  of 
sculpture,  see  S.  C.  Croze-Mao-, inn,  Discours  Historiques  sur  la  Peinture  et  la  Sculpture,  be- 
longing to  the  Musee  Franchise,  cited  $  191.  4.  —  Memes,  as  cited  $  169. 

§176.  Among  the  Greeks,  as  in  other  nations,  the  first  attempts  in 
sculpture  were  rude  and  imperfect ;  the  works  in  the  art  were  marked 
by  that  incompleteness  and  want  of  fitness  and  agreeableness  in  de- 
sign and  performance,  which  has  already  been  mentioned  (cf.  §157). 
Subsequently  there  appeared  more  of  truth  and  accuracy  in  the  sketch 
and  outline,  while  there  was  still  a  severity  or  stiffness,  which  was 
much  deficient  in  expression  as  well  as  beauty.  There  are  many  re- 
mains of  Grecian  art,  which  are  commonly  assigned  to  the  earlier  ages, 
some  of  them  correctly ;  yet  it  is  difficult  in  some  cases  to  decide  to 
what  period  a  performance  really  belongs  ;  and  it  is  too  hasty  a  con- 
clusion, if  a  person  assigns  to  the  earliest  period  any  piece  of  unfin- 
ished workmanship,  with  no  other  proof  or  evidence  ;  since  such  a 
work  might  come  from  the  hand  of  an  inferior  artist  of  later  times,  or 
might  receive  its  rude  appearance  from  design.  Endceus,  Smilis, 
Dipaenus,  Scyllis,  Agelladas,  Dionysius  of  Argos,  and  Mys,  were  the 
principal  sculptors  of  the  first  period. 

§  177u.  With  the  growing  prosperity  of  the  Grecian  States,  the  arts,  and 
especially  sculpture,  steadily  advanced.  Among  the  means  of  improvement 
were  the  schools  of  art,  for  the  instruction  of  young  artists  both  in  painting 
and  sculpture,  which  were  established  at  Sicyon,  Corinth,  and  JEgina,.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  most  eminent,  founded  by  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis,  and  num- 
bering among  its  pupils  Aristocles,  and  subsequently  other  celebrated  painters 
and  sculptors.  Corinth,  on  account  of  its  favorable  situation,  became  early  one 
of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Grecian  cities  ;  Cleanthes  was  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient artists  there.  The  school  of  ^Egina,  also,  seems  to  have  been  early  estab- 
lished, and  the  island  gained  much  celebrity  from  its  arts  ;  Callo,  Glaucias.  Si- 
mon, and  Anaxagoras,  were  distinguished  in  this  school.  The  flourishing 
condition  of  these  cities,  in  consequence  of  commerce  and  navigation,  made 
them  eligible  places  for  the  establishment  of  such  schools  of  art. 

§178.  The  occasions  for  the  execution  and  use  of  statues  in  Greece 
were  very  frequent  and  various.     Not  only  were  the  temples  of  the 


100  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  ART. 

gods  ornamented  with  their  statues  and  with  sculptured  representations 
of  their  mythological  history,  but  works  of  this  kind  were  required  in 
great  number  for  public  squares  and  places,  for  private  dwellings,  gar- 
dens, country  seats,  walks,  and  for  architectural  ornament  in  general. 
The  portico  at  Athens,  receiving  its  name  Pcecile  from  its  variety  of 
ornaments,  was  crowded  with  statues.  To  heroes,  wise  men,  poets, 
and  victors,  statues  were  erected  out  of  gratitude  and  respect ;  to 
princes,  out  of  flattery.  Thus  did  the  statuary  always  find  encourage- 
ment and  reward  for  the  exercise  of  his  art,  and  for  the  application  of 
all  his  talents,  which  were  quickened  and  stimulated  the  more  by 
emulation. 

See  De  V  Usage  dcs  statues,  dies  les  Anciens  ;  Essai  Historique.  Brux.  17C8.  4. 

§179.  Hence  in  the  second  period,  reaching  from  Phidias  to  Prax- 
iteles, or  the  time  of  Alexander,  the  art  of  sculpture  obtained  much 
higher  excellence  in  Greece  than  among  other  nations.  Its  charac- 
teristic  at  this  period  was  loftiness  and  grandeur  in  style;  yet  this  was 
accompanied  with  more  or  less  of  that  want  of  softness  and  ease,  which 
marked  the  works  of  preceding  artists.  There  was  a  very  rigid  ob- 
servance of  outward  proportion.  The  expression  in  gesture  and  atti- 
tude was  bold  and  significant,  rather  than  captivating  and  pleasing. 
Phidias  was  the  first  and  the  most  distinguished  artist.  His  statues  of 
Minerva  and  Jupiter  Olympus  (cf.  §160)  were  among  the  most  cele- 
brated works  of  antiquity,  although  known  to  us  only  by  the  unani- 
mous praise  of  so  many  writers.  Besides  Phidias,  among  the  cele- 
brated were  Alcamenes,  Agoracritus,  Polycletes,  Myron  and  Scopas  ; 
the  latter,  however,  more  properly  belongs  to  the  next  period. 

S.L.  Valkel,  iiber  d.  grossen  Temple  und  die  Statue  des  Jupiters  zu  Olympia.  Leipz.1794.  8- 
—  T.  Ph.  Seiboikces,  iiber  den  Temple  und  die  Bildsanle  de  Jup.  zu  01.  Numb.  1795.  8.— E.  H. 
Tcelken,  de  Phidiae  Jove  Olympic-  observationes.  Gott.  1812. 8. — E.  Falconet,  Sur  deux  CEuvrages 
de  Phidias,  in  his  Works.  Lausanne,  1781.  6  vols.  8. — C.  0.  Mueller,  De  Phidias  vita  et  opcribus- 
&c.  Gott.  1827. — See  also  an  account  of  Phidias  and  his  works,  in  the  Appendix  to  Memorandum 
on  Lord  Eights  Pursuits  &c.  cited  §190. 4. —  Gcdoyn,  L'Hist.  de  Phidias.  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  ix.  189. 

§180.  Sculpture,  together  with  the  rest  of  the  fine  arts,  attained  the 
highest  excellence,  not  far  from  the  time  of  Alexander.  In  the  period 
marked  by  the  beautiful  or  elegant  style,  a  peculiar  grace  was  united 
with  the  accuracy  and  noble  expression  already  acquired.  This  grace 
appeared  both  in  a  higher  refinement  in  the  design  or  conception,  and 
greater  ease  in  gesture,  attitude  and  action.  A  distinction  may  be 
made  between  the  majestic  grace  which  is  conspicuous  in  the  statues 
of  the  gods,  belonging  to  this  period,  and  that  which  is  merely  beauti- 
ful; the  latter  again  may  be  distinguished  from  an  inferior  and  lighter 
sort,  exhibited  in  comparatively  trifling  performances.  Praxiteles,  Ly- 
sippus,  Chares,  and  Laches,  were  the  most  eminent  sculptors  of  this 
period. 

§181.  Gradually  Grecian  art  declined  from  its  high  excellence,  and 
finally  ceased.  The  causes  are  obvious;  the  prevalence  of  luxury 
and  consequent  corruption  of  taste  and  morals;  the  internal  changes 
and  commotions,  and  the  infringements  upon  civil  liberty  from  the 
time  of  Alexander,  and  its  final  loss  after  the  subjection  of  Greece  to 
the  Romans.  There  were  however  in  this  period  some  skillful  artists, 
as  Arcesilaus,  Pasileles  and  Cleomenes  ;  and  the  plastic  arts  remained 
in  credit  in  some  of  the  cities  of  Asia  and  Sicily. 

See  F.  Jacobs,  iiber  den  Reichthuro  der  Griechen  in  plastischen  Kunstwerken.  Miinchen^ 

1808.  4. 


SCULPTURE  AMONG  THE  ROMANS      ,  '   ,    '•',   'IJOSl,' 

§182.  On  the  subjection  of  the  Greeks,  their  arts  passed,  as  it  were, 
into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  by  whom  however  the  arts  were  hon- 
ored and  furnished  with  opportunities  for  their  employment,  rather 
than  actually  acquired  and  practiced.  In  early  periods  of  the  republic, 
distinguished  merit  was  rewarded  with  statues.  After  the  second  Pu- 
nic war,  a  great  number  of  splendid  works  of  sculpture  were  brought 
to  Rome  from  captured  cities,  Syracuse,  Capua,  Corinth,  Carthage; 
also  from  Etruria  and  Egypt.  Likewise  Grecian  artists  nocked  to 
Rome,  and  there  produced  new  works.  With  the  advancement  of 
wealth,  the  Romans  devoted  greater  and  greater  expense  to  the  orna- 
menting of  their  temples,  their  public  and  private  buildings,  their  gar- 
dens and  manors,  until  at  length  there  were  wTas  a  most  extravagant 
and  luxurious  indulgence. 

1.  Among  the  treasures  plundered  from  the  Sicilians  hy  Verres  were  a  num- 
ber of  celebrated  statues,  wrought  by  the  most  distinguished  artists;  as  a  Cu- 
pid in  marble  by  Praxiteles  ;  a  Hercules  in  bronze  by  Miron ;  and  two  Cane- 
phorao  in  bronze  by  Polycletus,  all  taken  from  a  single  citizen  of  Messana.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  for  the  sake  of  his  fine  statues  that  Verres  was  proscribed 
and  murdered  by  Mark  Antony. 

Middletori's  Life  of  Cicsro,  vol.  1.  p.  131,  114,  as  cited  P.  II.  $  404.  1.  —  Fraguicr,  Galerie  de 
Verres,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vi.  5G5. 

2u.  The  Capitolium  (particularly  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  included  in  it), 
the  Comitium,  and  the  Rostra,  were  in  a  special  manner  adorned  with  statues. 
Inspectors  were  appointed  (tutelarii  ceditui),  whose  business  it  was  to  guard  the 
edifices  thus  ornamented  from  injury  and  plunder,  a  duty  afterwards  assigned 
to  a  particular  magistrate.  The  senate  alone  could  authorize  the  erection  of 
statues,  and  the  censors  corrected  abuses.  Hence  is  found  sometimes  on  Ro- 
man statues  the  inscription  Ex  Senatus  Decreto  ;  and  sometimes  E.  Decurionum 
Decrcto.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  260.  3.  §  320.)  Statues  were  erected  in  the  colonies 
and  free  cities.  The  buildings  and  public  places  of  Rome  were  adorned  by 
the  first  emperors  with  a  great  number  of  works  of  sculpture,  most  of  which 
however  were  prepared  by  Grecian  artists. 

Edm.  Figrelii  de  statuis  illustrium  Romanorum  liber  singularis.  Holmim.  1756.  8.—Lipsii  Ad- 
miranda  s.  de  magnitudine  Romana  libri  iv.  Antw.  1637.  fol. — Rycquii  de  Capitolio  Rom.  com- 
mentarius.  L.  B.  1696.  8.     Sillig,  Catalogus  artificum  Graecorum  et  Romanorum.  Dresd.  1827. 

§183.  In  the  last  half  of  the  second  century  after  Christ,  there 
was  an  obvious  decline  of  good  taste  in  sculpture,  and  soon  after  the 
middle  of  the  third,  the  art  was  wholly  prostrated,  through  political 
disasters  and  other  conspiring  influences.  Esteem  for  the  art  and  its 
productions  was  lost,  and  many  unfavorable  circumstances  happened 
so  that  a  number  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  sculpture  were  muti- 
lated, buried  in  ruins,  or  entirely  destroyed.  This  resulted  partly 
from  the  warlike  character  of  the  tribes  that  invaded  Italy,  partly  from 
the  avarice  and  rapacity  of  some  of  the  later  Roman  emperors,  from 
frequent  earthquakes  or  conflagrations,  from  the  repeated  capture  and 
sacking  of  Rome  and  Constantinople,  and  from  a  mistaken  zeal  of 
many  Christians  against  the  preservation  of  heathen  monuments. 

See  FioriHa's  Geschichte  der  Malerei.  bk.  i.  p.  11.  —  Hcyne,  De  Interitu  operum  Artis  priscse 
&c.  as  cited  §  76.  5. 

§184 1«.  Notwithstanding  all  this  ruin,  many  monuments  of  sculpture,  and 
some  of  them  of  high  excellence,  have  been  preserved.  Since  the  revival  of 
the  fine  arts,  which  commenced  in  Italy,  the  last  seat  of  ancient  sculpture, 
these  monuments  have  been  diligently  sought  out,  collected,  and  described. 
Yet  most  of  them  have  suffered  from  time  or  accident,  and  very  few  are  wholly 
free  from  mutilations.  There  have  been  attempts  to  remedy  these  injuries  by 
rejoining  and  repairing,  but  without  sufficient  judgment  or  skill.  For  such 
9* 


102  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  ART. 

attempts  require  not  only  mechanical  dexterity,  but  a  very  correct  apprehen- 
sion of  the  exact  design  of  the  original  artist,  and  especially  a  capacity  to  adopt 
perfectly  his  manner  and  style.  No  modern  has  been  more  successful  in  labors 
of  this  sort,  than  Cayaceppi. 

See  Raccolta  d'antiche  statue  etc.  restaurate  da  B.  Cavaccppi.  Rom.  1768—79.  3  vols.  fol.  — 
Abhand.  ueber  Restaur,  von  Kimstwerken  contained  in  the  Prrpylaen,  n.  1.  p.  92. — Hciirici  Com- 
mentationes  de  statuis  antiquis  mutilatis,  recentiori  manu  refectis.   Vit.  1803.  sqq.  4. 

§185*.  Anythinglike  a  full  specification  even  of  the  more  valuable 
monuments  of  ancient  sculpture,  would  transcend  the  limits  and  de- 
sign of  this  treatise.  A  slight  glance  at  some  of  them  is  all  that  will 
be  attempted.  This  will  include  a  notice  of  statues  ;  bursts  and  works 
in  relief;  and  also  works  in  mosaic,  since  they  have  been  mentioned. 

§186w.  Of  the  statues,  we  shall  mention  here  only  some  of  the  most  cele- 
brated ;   such  among  them  as  deserve  the  first  rank. 

1.  The  splendid  group  of  Laocoon  in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome. 
It  is  larger  than  life,  wrought  of  white  marble,  not  wholly  finished  on  the 
back.  It  consists  of  three  principal  figures,  the  father  and  his  two  sons, 
writhing  in  the  coil  of  two  huge  serpents.  This  was  found,  in  the  year  1506, 
among  the  ruins  of  the  Baths  of  Titus  ;  and  it  probably  belongs  to  the  times 
of  the  first  emperors.  The  expression  of  extreme  agony  in  the  features,  and 
muscles  of  the  whole  body,  especially  of  Laocoon,  the  struggle  to  break  the 
dreadful  grasp,  the  cry  of  distress  indicated  by  the  mouth,  the  anxious,  en- 
treating look  of  the  sons,  fixed  on  the  father,  are  among  the  striking  excel- 
lencies which  mark  this  extraordinary  performance.  Critics,  however,  differ 
in  opinion  respecting  the  real  design  of  the  artist  as  to  the  expression  and  de- 
gree of  the  anguish  of  the  father. 

Hem? 8  antiquar.  Aufs.  St.  S.—Propylaen,  l.—Hirt,  in  the  Horen,  1797.—  Winckclmann's 
Werke.  cited  §  32.  4.  vi.  l.—Lessing's  Laocoon,  §  5.  p.  75,  as  cited  $  168. — T.  B.  Emcric-Da- 
vid,  Essai  &c.  cited  §  175. 

Read  Virgil'*  description  of  Laocoon  and  the  Serpents.  JEn.  ii.  201-225.— Cf.  Pliny,  Nat. 
Hist,  xxxvi.  4.— See  Plate  IV.  fig.  5. 

2.  The  group  of  JYiobe  and  her  children.  Her  children  being  slain  by  Apol- 
lo and  Diana,  the  mother  (cf.  P.  III.  §  33.)  through  grief  was  changed  into 
stone.  This  work  has  marks  of  the  lofty  style,  and  is  perhaps  from  the  hands 
of  Scopas.  It  consists  of  fifteen  figures.  It  was  discovered  in  1583,  and  is 
still  in  the  Duke's  collection  at  Florence,  where  the  figures  are  merely  placed 
by  the  side  of  each  other,  as  their  proper  arrangement  in  a  group  is  difficult 
to  discover,  and  even  their  original  connection  is  not  fully  proved.  There  is 
an  uncommonly  elevated  and  tragic  expression  in  all  the  figures  and  great 
variety  in  the  combination. 

Cf.  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvi.  A.—An<relo  Fabroni,  Diss,  snlle  Statue  appartenenti  alia  favola  di 
Niobe.  Firenze.  1779.  fol .— Mcycr°\\\  the  Propyliccn.  II.  and  in  Battiger'a  Amalthea  (Musee 
de  l'antiquite  fieuree).  Dresden,  1824.  l.—  Winchelmann,  Werke,  VI.  1.— On  the  moral  of  the 
X-aocoon  and  Niobe,  see  remarks  in  The  Philosophy  of  Traveling,  by  T.  Johnson,  M.  D.  (p.  118, 

Am.  ed.  N.  York,  1831.) See  also  the  work  entitled  Choix  de  Tableaux  et  Statues  des  plus  eel- 

ebrcs  Musecs,  \c.  Par  une  Societe  d' Artists,  ft.  Par.  1819-21.  3  vols.  8,  intended  to  be  com- 
pleted in  12  vols. 

The  3d  volume  of  the  last  named  work  gives  the  fifteen  figures  with  a  description.  The  1st 
figure  is  Niobe  with  her  youngest  daughter  clinging  to  her  ;  the  figures  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  are  the 
other  daughters  ;  figure  8  is  the  Pedagogue  or  instructor  of  the  children  (Le  Waitre)  ;  and  fig- 
ures 9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  are  the  seven  sons.— There  is  also  in  the  Duke's  Collc-tion  a  fig- 
ure of  two  wrestlers,  which  some  have  supposed  to  represent  two  sons  of  Niobe,  and  to  be- 
long to  this  group.  It  is  given  in  the  1st  volume  of  the  work  just  cited  ;  also  in  Mongci,  la- 
bleaux,  Statues,  &c.  as  c;ted  §  191.  2. 

3.  The  Farnese  Bud,  the  largest  of  all  ancient  groups.  It  consists  of  a  bull, 
two  youth  larger  than  life,  Zethus  and  Amphion,  and  three  smaller  figures, 
two  of  which  are  taken  for  Dirce  and  Antiope,  represented  upon  a  rock.  The 
rock  and  figures  are  12  Parisian  feet  in  height,  and  9  1-2  in  width.  This 
group  was  found  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  in  the  baths  of 
Caracalla,  and  lodged  in  the  palace  Farnese  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  placed 
in  the  public  museum,  called  Museo  Borbonico,  at  Naples.  Many  parts  of  it 
are  modern  ;  of  course  the  expression  is  defective.  Pliny  speaks  of  a  similar 
work  of  art  ;  perhaps  it  is  the  very  same. 

Pirn.  Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  4.— Heme's  Antiquar.  Aufe.  St.  %-Rchfues,  Neapel.  Th.  3.  p.  93.— 
Winckelmann,  Werke,  VI.  l.-A  representation  of  this  piece  of  statuary  is  given  in  the  Ckut* 
des  Tableuaz,  4'c  (as  cited  above,  2.)  vol.  i. 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  STATUARY.  103 

4.  The  Apollo  Belvedere,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  ancient  statues,  on 
account  of  the  perfection  of  art  displayed  in  it.  It  is  an  ideal  of  youthful 
beauty  and  vigor.  It  seems  to  represent  Apollo  just  after  discharging  his  ar- 
row at  the  serpent  Python,  and  indicates  in  its  expression  a  noble  satisfaction 
and  assurance  of  victory.  It  was  found  at  Antium  in  1503.  It  was  purchased 
by  Pope  Julius  II.,  then  a  cardinal,  and  placed  in  the  part  of  the  Vatican 
called  Belvedere.     The  legs  and  hands  have  received  modern  repairs. 

flirt's  Bildsrbuch,  I.  p.  32.—  Wi?tckelmann's  Werke,  VI.  1. This  statue  is  represented  in 

Plate  IV.  fig.  3. 

5.  The  Venus  de  Medici.  It  is  in  the  grand  Duke's  gallery  at  Florence.  It 
is  of  pure  white  marble,  and  the  height  of  the  statue  but  little  over  five  feet. 
On  the  pedestal  appears  the  name  of  Cleomenes  as  the  sculptor,  but  the  in- 
scription is  modern.  The  design  of  the  artist  was  to  represent  Venus  either 
as  just  coming  from  the  bath,  on  the  point  of  dressing  herself,  taken  by  sur- 
prise, and  full  of  virgin  modesty,  or  as  appearing  before  Paris  for  his  judg- 
ment in  the  contest  with  Juno  and  Minerva  for  the  prize  of  beauty.  This 
statue  must  be  distinguished  from  the  Cnidian  Venus  of  Praxiteles,  of  which 
we  possess  only  copies. 

R.  Lthzoic,  iiber  die  Frage,  ob  die  mediceische  Venus  ein  Bild  der  knidishen  von  Praxiteles 
eei.  Berlin,  1808.  4. —  Winckclmann,  VI.  2. — Heyne's  Antiq.  Aufs.  St.  1. — Johnson's  Philosophy 
of  Traveling,  p.  121,  as  above  cited. 

6.  The  Hercules  Farnesc,  formerly  in  the  Palace  Farnese  at  Rome,  now  at 
Naples.  It  is  a  colossal  statue,  almost  three  times  as  large  as  nature,  of  beau- 
tiful Parian  marble.  The  feet  were  at  first  missing,  and  others  were  substi- 
tuted by  Delia  Porta  with  such  art,  that  the  original  ones,  being  subsequently 
found,  were  only  placed  by  the  side  of  the  statue.  The  inscription  names  Gly- 
con  as  the  artist,  whom,  however,  no  ancient  writer  mentions.  One  admires 
in  this  work  the  firm,  vigorous  body,  although  in  repose,  resting  on  the  club. 

Winckclmann,  Werke,  VI.  l.—Dupaty,  Voyages  d'ltalie.—  W.  Fish's  Travels  in  Europe.    N. 

York,  1838.  8.  p.  204.— Class.  Jour.  vol.  l  v.  p.  246. A  view  of  this  statue  is  given  in  Plate 

IV.  fig.  6> 

7.  The  antique  work  called  the  Torso,  in  the  Belvedere  at  Rome.  It  con- 
sists merely  of  the  body  or  trunk,  of  white  marble,  executed  in  a  very  supe- 
rior manner.  On  account  of  its  size  and  appearance  of  muscular  strength,  it 
is  commonly  taken  for  the  body  of  a  statue  of  Hercules.  It  has  been  called 
the  Torso  of  Michael  Angelo,  because  he  particularly  admired  and  studied  it. 

See  Winckelmann's  Werke,  VI.  1. — Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xiv.  544,  545. 

8.  The  Gladiator  Borghese,  formerly  in  the  villa  Borghese  at  Rome,  now  in 
the  Royal  Museum  of  Paris.  This  is  the  representation  of  a  hero  or  warrior, 
who  seems  to  be  defending  himself  against  a  cavalier.  In  the  opinion  of  Heyne 
it  belonged  to  a  group.  Connoisseurs  in  art  do  not  agree  respecting  its  design. 
It  is  a  beautiful  and  noble  figure,  of  manly  age,  athletic,  with  the  muscles  in 
strong  tension,  yet  not  overstrained  or  unnatural.  The  inscription  on  it  as- 
cribes the  work  to  Agasias  of  Ephesus,  who  is  not  mentioned  by  any  ancient 
writer,  but  certainly  must  have  belonged  to  the  period  of  the  highest  perfec- 
tion of  Grecian  art. 

See  Heyne's  Antiq.  Aufs.  St.  2. —  Winckclmann,  Werke,  VI.  1.  p.  263.— Jlnthon's  Lempriere, 
Agasias. — Compare  §  168. — —  Quatrimere  de  Qurncy,  Sur  la  course  armee,  &c.  —  nouvelle  ma- 
niere  d'expliquer  la  statue  d' Agasias,  Mem.  de  Plustitut,  C  1  a  s  s  e  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  i  v.  p. 
165,  190,  with  a  plate  ;  he  supposes  it  to  be  a  statue  of  an  oplitodrome. 

The  Musee  Royal  (vol.  n.  2d  series,  as  cited  §  191.)  contains  a  beautiful  engraving  of  this 
statue,  showing  the  side  opposite  to  that  presented  in  our  Plate  IV.  fig.  4. 

9.  The  Dying  Gladiator  (Gladiator  deficiens)  in  the  Campidoglio  at  Rome. 
He  lies  upon  a  shield,  supported  by  his  right  hand,  with  a  collar  or  chain 
(torques,  cf.  P.  IV.  §  234.  2.)  upon  his  neck,  and  seems  to  be  exerting  his  ut- 
most strength  to  rise.  Some  parts  of  the  figure  are  modern,  but  admirably 
wrought,  and  ascribed  to  Micheel  Angelo. 

See  Heyne's  Aufs.  St.  2.— Winckelmann's  Werke,  VI.  1.  p.  59.— Montfaucon,  (cited  P.  III. 
%  12.  2.  d).  vol.  in.  p.  267.  pi.  civ.— Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xix.  22G.— A.  Mongcz,  Sur  deux  des  Stat- 
ues antiques  desig.  par  le  noni  de  Glad>ateur,  in  the  Mem.  de  I'Institut,  Classe  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts, 
vol.  ii.  p.  243,  with  engravings  of  the  heads. — See  our  Plate  IV.  fig.  1. 

10.  Antinous,  a  very  beautiful  statue  in  the  Belvedere  at  Rome.  It  has  been 
considered,  although  without  grounds,  as  a  representation  of  Antinous,  the 


104  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

favorite  of  Hadrian.  Winckelmann  took  it  for  a  statue  of  Meleager,  or  some 
other  young  hero,  and  admired  very  much  its  head.  It  is  now  quite  common- 
ly viewed  as  a  Mercury. 

Levezow,  iiber  den  Antinous  dargestellt  in  den  Kunstdenkmilern  des  Alterfhums.  Berlin^ 
1898.  4.—  Winckelmann.  ti.  L  p.  306. — Bmttiger's  Andeutungen,  cited  above  $  169.— The  His- 
toric Gallery  of  Portraits  and  Paintings  &c.  as  cited  $  187.  vol.  7th. 

There  are  several  ancient  monuments  which  are  considered  as  representations  of  Antinous. 
One  of  these  is  the  celebrated  bust  of  the  villa  Aibani,  a  beautifully  finished  bas-relief  in 
white  marble  ;  a  part  only  of  the  work  is  preserved.  This  is  given  in  Plate  IV.  fig.  2,  from 
Winckelmann.  The  head  is  crowned  with  a  garland  of  lotus -flowers  ;  in  the  right  hand  was 
held  something,  which  is  now  lost  j  a  wreath  of  flowers  has  been  conjectured  from  the  appear- 
ance of  a  ribbon  which  remains,  and  accordingly  such  a  wreath  is  attached  to  it  in  the  modern 
restoration. — See  Winckelmann,  Histoire  &c.  as  cited  §  32.  4.  vol.  n.  p.  464. 

11.  A  Flora,  formerly  in  the  Palace  Farnese  at  Rome  (thence  called  the 
Flora  Farnese),  now  at  Naples.  The  body  only  is  ancient ;  the  rest  is  modern 
by  Delia  Porta  ;  whence  it  is  not  certain  that  this  statue  originally  represented 
Flora.  Winckelmann  considered  it  as  intended  for  a  Muse.  Its  principal  merit 
is  in  its  drapery,  which  is  regarded  as  the  best  of  all  ancient  statues.  It  is 
nearly  as  large  as  the  Hercules  Farnese,  yet  its  whole  expression  is  feminine. 

See  Winckelmann' s  Werke,  iv.  p.  124.  » 

12.  Marcus  Aurelius,  an  equestrian  statue,  of  gilded  metal,  in  the  square 
of  the  modern  capitol  at  Rome.  It  is  much  larger  than  life.  It  retains  now 
but  few  traces  of  the  gilding,  but  is  otherwise  in  good  preservation.  Its  effect 
is  increased  by  the  pedestal  on  which  it  was  elevated  by  Michael  Angelo. 
The  horse  particularly  is  admired,  seeming  actually  to  move  forward,  and  ex- 
hibiting, generally,  fine  proportions. 

Falconet,  Observations  sur  la  Statue  de  Marc-Aurele,  par  Amst.  1771.  12. —  Winckelmanny 
Werke,  vi.  1.  p.  318. 

Parts  of  an  equestrian  statue,  which  is  said  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  that  of  Aurelius, 
was  found  on  a  triumphal  arch  in  Pompeii ;  the  Avork.inship  is  inferior. — There  are  in  the 
Museo  Borbonico,  at  Naples,  two  equestrian  statues,  excecuted  in  marble,  called  the  statues  of 
the  Balbi.  They  were  excavated  at  Herculaneum,  and  are  said  to  be  striking  specimens  of 
sculpture.— Cf.  Pompeii,  p.  116.  as  cited  §  226. — Fisk's  Travels  p.  200.  as  cited  above  (6). 

13.  The  statue  of  Pallas,  found  in  1797  in  the  vicinity  of  Velletri  and 
brought  to  Paris,  where  it  is  lodged  in  the  Royal  Museum. 

A  representation  of  the  Pallas  of  Velletri  is  given  in  the  Masee  Francaise  as  cited  §  191.  4.  vol, 
iv.  Part  2d. — See  also  Landon,  Galerie  du  Musee  Napoleon,  cited  $  191.4.  An  account  of  it  is 
given  by  Fernow,  in  the  JV.  D.  Mercur,  for  1798.  Th.  1.  p.  299. 

It  may  be  thought  that  a  statue  of  Aristides  discovered  at  Herculaneum,  and  now  in  the  Mu- 
seo Borbonico,  deserves  mention  here.  "  The  philosopher  stands  with  his  arms  folded  in  his 
cloak,  in  all  the  dignity  and  integrity  of  his  character.  It  is  a  work  as  near  perfection,  I  think, 
as  human  art  can  achieve.  This  is  the  kind  of  statuary  which  I  covet  for  my  country.  I  had? 
much  ado  to  refrain  from  a  violation  of  the  command,  Thou  shall  not  covet,  when  looking  at 
this  matchless  figure.  Could  I  have  it,  thon^ht  I,  to  exhibit  to  the  youth  of  America,  to  the  young 
men  of  our  universities,  such  a  dignified  personification  of  integrity,  in  the  person  of  Aristides 
the  just,  might  greatly  aid  in  elevating  their  characters  and  strengthening  their  principles." 
W.  Fisk,  as  just  cited. 

§  187  u.  Among  the  valuable  remains  of  antiquity  are  many  busts,  which, 
aside  from  the  skill  and  beauty  in  their  execution,  afford  much  pleasure  and 
utility  by  preserving  the  features  of  celebrated  persons.  The  correctness  of 
these  likenesses  is  not  certain,  especially  as  in  many  cases  they  have  under- 
gone the  process  of  restoration  by  modern  hands.  Many  also  exhibit  no  dis- 
tinct characteristics,  to  enable  us  to  decide  any  thing  as  to  the  persons  they 
represent.  The  uncertain  character  of  the  inscriptions  has  already  been  men- 
tioned (§  168) ;  and  sometimes  the  head  and  pedestal  do  not  belong  together. 
It  may  be  too  that  the  portrait  is  the  mere  fancy  of  the  artist. — Among  the 
most  distinguished  and  authentic  are  those  of  Homer,  Socrates,  Plato,  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  Scipio,  Julius  Caesar,  and  others  found  in  the  collections  of 
statuary  about  to  be  mentioned.  There  is  the  largest  number  in  the  Capitol 
at  Rome  :  engravings  of  these  are  found  in  the  Museo  Capitolino. 

See  GurlitPs  Versuch  iiber  Bustenkunde.  Magdeb.  1800.  4.— C  P.  Landon,  Galerie  Histor- 
ique  &c.  Par.  1803-11.  13.  vols.  12.— The  Historic  Gallery  of  Portraits  and  Paintings.  Lond.  1807, 
ss.  8. — L.  P.  Bellorius,  Veterum  illustrium  Philosophorum,  Poetarum,  Rhetorum  et  Oratorum 
Imagines — illustratae.  Rom.  1685.  fol. —  Visconti  and  Mongez,  Iconographie  Ancienne.  Par.  1810 
— 1821.  5.  vol3.  fol.  This  splendid  work  owes  its  existence  to  Napoleon  and  wa<  executed  at 
the  public  expense.  It  contains  portraits  of  celebrated  personages  of  Greece  and  Rome  drawn 
from  ancient  statues,  busts  &c.  with  learned  and  valuable  notices.  The  Iconographie  Romaine 
by  Monger  was  published  in  1821.  The  Iconographie  Grecqve,  containing  304  portraits,  by  F.~ 
Q.  Visconti,  was  published  in  1810,  3  vols,  fol.— See  notices  in  Ventouillac' s  French  Librarian, 


REMAINS    OF    ANCIENT    BAS-RELIEF.  105- 

p.  311.  Class.  Journ,  No.  xiv.  vol.  vn.  p.  209.  Revue  EncycJ.  vol.  xxvi.  427.— E.  Q.  Visconti, 
Iconografia  Romana  ;  and  (separately)  Iconosrafia  Greca.  Mil.  1823.  8  vol*.  8 — We  add,  Anli- 
cluta  di  Ercolano,  cited  $  243.  2.  The  5th  volume  (entitled  Bronzi  di  Ercolano  &x.  Neap.  1767. 
fol.)  is  on  Busts  ;  and  the  6th  is  on  statues  in  bronze. 

§  188  u.  There  likewise  remains  a  multitude  of  works  in  relief,  either  in 
whole  pieces,  or  fragments  on  edifices,  columns,  shields,  helmets,  tripods, 
tombs,  altars,  &c.  Vases  and  drinking  utensils,  urns  and  funeral  lamps,  are 
often  found  in  antiquarian  collections  ;  many  of  distinguished  excellence  as 
works  of  art.  It  would  be  too  long  to  enumerate  the  monuments  adorned 
with  relief,  even  the  most  celebrated ;  and  we  only  mention  the  triumphal 
arches  still  existing  at  Rome,  erected  by  the  emperors  Titus,  Septimius  Sev- 
erus,  and  Constantine,  and  the  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antoninus  Marcus. 

1.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  vases,  is  that  now  called  the  Warwick  rase.  "  It  is  a 
monument  of  Grecian  art,  the  production  of  Lysippus,  statuary  to  Alexander  the  Great.  It 
was  dug  up  in  Adrian's  villa,  at  Tivoli,  and  was  sent  to  England  by  Sir  Wm.  Hamilton  in  1774. 
It  is  of  sculptured  marble  adorned  with  elegant  figures  in  high  relief;  vine  leaves,  tendrils, 
fruit  and  stems,  forming  the  rim  and  handles."  {Amer.  Journal  of  Scienceby  Silliman,  vol.  xxvi. 
p.  244.) — "  The  Warwick  vase  is  six  feet  and  eleven  inches  in  diameter.  In  magnitude,  form,  and 
beauty  of  workmanship,  it  is  the  most  remarkable  vessel  of  antiquity  which  we  possess,  in 
which  the  ancients  used  to  mix  their  wine.  It  is  accordingly  very  appropriately  adorned  with 
spirited  Bacchic  masks,  and  the  handles  have  the  appearance  of  vines  glowing  out  of  the  vase 

and  surrounding  it  with   their  foliage."  ( Waao-cn,  as  cited  below,  §  190\  5.  vol.  2d.  p.  163.) 

Dr.  Humphrey,  speaking  of  a  visit  to  "  a  superb  show-room  of  cutler}',  medals,  vases  &:c,"  in 
Birmingham,  says  "  The  most  imposing  object  was  a  stupendous  bronze  vase,  a  fac-simile  of 
the  marble  one,  which  we  afterwards  saw  in  the  gardens  at  Warwick  castle.  It  will  hold  about 
two  hundred  gallons,  and  the  proprietor  of  this  beautiful  imitation  has  refused  ten  thousand 
pounds  for  it."     It  is  said  to  have  cost  five  thousand  pounds  and  six  years'  labor.  (H.  Humphrey, 

Tour  in  Great  Britain  &c.  N.  York.  1838.  2.  vols.   12.  vol.  i.  p.  139.) In  1835,  a  beautiful 

vase  was  found  at  Alexandria,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  the  French  consul ;  it  is  said  to 
resemble  the  Warwick  vase  so  exactly  that  one  must  have  been  a  copy  of  the  other,  and  some 
have  considered  the  Alexandrian  vase  as  the  original.  (Cf.Incidcnts  of  Travel  in  Egypt  &c.  by 
an  American  (Mr.  Stevens,  N.  York,  1837).— A  "collection  of  articles,  which  was  soid  in  Paris 
in  1833,as  belonging  to  "  the  late  French  consul  in  Egypt,"  contained  a  small  bronze  vase,  call- 
ed in  the  catalogue  a  fac-simile  of  the  Warwick  vase.   Cf.  Waagen.  as  just  cited  above. 

Another  celebrated  monument  of  the  same  kind  is  that  known  by  the  name  of  the  Lanti  vase. 
It  was  found  in  Adrian's  villa  at  Tivoli,  and  was  formerly  possessed  by  the  Lanti  family,  but 
is  now  at  Woburn  Abbey  (Eng.)  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  It  is  of  beautiful  marble,  and 
nearly  equal  to  the  Warwick  vase,  being  6  feet  and  2  inches  in  diameter  and  6  feet  in  height ; 
its  general  form  is  the   same,   and  its  handles   are  constructed  in  a  similar  manner  ;  it  is  also 

adorned  with  Bacchanalian  masks. — Cf.  Hunt's  Descr.  of  Wob.  Abbey,  cited  below  $  191. 

On  sculptured  vases,  see  C.  Antonini,  Manuale  di  vasi  ornamenti  componenti  la  serie  de  vasi 
Antichi  si  di  Marmo  che  di  Bronzo  &c.  Rom.  1821.  Fol.  1st.  2d.  and  3d.  vols,  in  one. — Cf.  $173. 

2.  The  column  of  Trajan  was  erected  in  the  middle  of  the  market  or  forum  called  by  his 
name.  Its  height  has  been  stated  differently,  128  feet,  and  144  feet ;  its  diameter  is  about  12 
feet  at  bottom  and  ten  at  the  top.  It  is  encrusted  with  marble,  on  which  the  exploits  of  Tra- 
jan and  his  army,  in  Dacia  particularly,  are  represented  in  bas-relief.  On  the  top  was  a  colos- 
sal statue  of  the  emperor  with  a  sceptre  in  his  left  hand,  and  in  his  right  a  hollow  globe  of  gold, 
which  is  said  to  have  received  his  ashes  ;  although  Eutropius  states  (vm.  5.)  that  they  were 
deposited  under  the  pillar.  There  were  steps  inside  for  ascending  to  the  top,  with  windows  to 
admit  the  light.  (R.  Fabretti,  De  columna  Trajana  Syntagma.  Rom..  1683.  fol.) — TlM  column 
of  Antonine,  erected  by  the  senate  after  his  death,  is  said  to  be  176  feet  high.  It  has  steps  for 
ascending  to  its  top,  with  windows.  The  sculptures  in  relief  upon  it  represent  the  military 
achievements  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  among  the  Germans.  His  statue  was  placed  upon 
the  summit.  The  whole  monument  resembles  that  of  Trajan,  but  is  inferior  to  it. — One  of 
the  popes,  Sextus  V.,  absurdly  caused  statues  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  to  be  placed  on 
these  columns. The  triumphal  column  of  Bonaparte  at  Paris  is  built  after  the  model  of  Tra- 
jan's pillar  ;  it  is  140  feet  high  and  12  in  diameter  at  the  base  ;  encompassed  with  brazen  plates 
which  were  made  of  cannon  taken  at  the  battles  of  Ulm  and  Austerlitz  and  are  covered  with 
commemorative  bas-reliefs  ;  surmounted  with  a  statue  of  Napoleon. 

The  Arch  of  Titus  was  erected  in  honor  of  his  capture  of  Jerusalem.  Among  the  bas-reliefs 
on  it  are  representations  of  the  spoils  of  the  temple,  as  borne  in  the  triumphal  procession  ;  e.g. 
the  incense  vessels,  the  golden  candlestick,  the  table  of  shew-bread,  and  the  jubilee  trumpets. 
Thus,  through  the  vanity  of  a  Roman  conqueror,  are  transmitted  to  us  models  of  the  lidy  uten- 
sils plannedby  the  Divine  Architect.    See  our  Plate  xxvi.   fig.  E. The  Arch  of  Septimius 

Severus  was  erected  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  ;  directly  over  the  Via  Sacra  ;  con- 
sisting of  a  main  arch  in  the  centre,  and  a  smaller  arch  on  each  side  ;  adorned  with  figures  in 
bas-relief  commemorative  cf   his   victory   over  the  Parthians  ;  surmounted  with  equestrian 

statues.  The  Arch  of  Constantine  consists  also   cf  three  arches  ;  the   noblest  monument 

of  the  kind  ;  in  fine  preservation.  It  has  been  thought  that  this  may  be  the  arch  erected  in 
honor  of  Trajan,  as  the  bas-reliefs  appear  to  represent  chiefly  his  achievements. Good  en- 
gravings of  these  arches,  andof  the  columns  above  mentioned,  are  given  in  Montfaucon,  L'An- 
tiquite  Expliquee,  vol.  iv.  Plates  ovm.— cxu.  (as  cited  P.  III.  §  12,  2.  (d). 

3.  Many  remains  of  sculptured  bas-relief  have  been  found  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 
See  Antichita  d>  Ercolano,  cited  $  243.  2.  The  8th.  volume  is  on  lamps  <fec,  entitled  Le  Lucerne  ed 
i  Cmddabri  &c.     Napl.  1793,— Catalogo  degli  Antichi  Monumenti  dissoterrati  dalla  discoperta 

citta  di  Ercolano.  Nap.  1755.  fol. On  the^remains  of  bas-relief  at   Rom  e,  a  valuable  work 

is  the  following ;  Li  Bassi-relievi  antichi  di  Roma,  incisi  da   T.   Piroli,  colle  illustrazioni  di  G. 

Zoeoa,  Rom.  1818.  2.  vols.  fol.  Transl.  into  German  by  Welckcr.  Giessen,  1811. On  the  whole 

a  lbject,  see  references  given  below  $  191 ;  also  references  in  Sulzer's  Allg.  Theorie  (cited 
$  147),  under  the  article  Flaches  Schnitzwerk. 


106 


ARCHEOLOGY    OF    ART. 


§  189  m.  Of  the  remains  of  mosaic,  the  most  beautiful  is  that  found  at  Ti- 
voli  representing  four  doves  around  the  rim  of  a  vase.  The  largest  is  that 
called  the  Mosaic  of  Pranestc,  having  once  been  the  floor  of  the  Temple  of 
Fortune  in  that  place.  It  represents  an  Egyptian  festival.  It  is  in  the  Palace 
Barberini  built  upon  the  ruins  of  the  temple  just  named,  in  the  village  now 
called  Palestrina.  Other  works  of  this  kind  have  been  discovered  in  modern 
times. 

1.  A  remarkable  specimen  of  ancient  mosaic  was  discovered  at  Seville  in  Spain,  in  1799,  and 
ft  commonly  called  the  Mosaic  of  Italica.  "  It  extends  above  forty  feet  in  length  by  nearly 
thirty  in  breadth  ;  and  contains  a  representation  of  the  Circus  games  in  a  parallelogram  in  the 
centre,  three  sides  of  which  are  surrounded  by  circular  compartments  containing  portraits  of 
the  Muses,  interspersed  with  the  figures  of  animals  and  some  imaginary  subjects." 

A  specimen  of  mosaic,  said  to  be  very  beautiful,  was  found  in  a  house  in  Pompeii.  It  is 
presented  in  our  Plate  VI.  fig.  bb.  A  Chorodidascalus,  or  master  of  the  chorus,  is  instructing 
his  actors  in  their  parts,  for  a  representation  in  the  theatre.  He  sits  on  a  chair  in  the  Chora- 
gium,  or  place  devoted  to  these  pieparatory  lessons,  surrounded  by  performers.  At  his  feet  on 
a  stool,  and  behind  him  on  a  pedestal,  are  masks,  which  appear  to  be  in  readiness  for  him  to 
distribute.  One  of  the  actors  has  received  his  mask  and  placed  it  on  the  top  of  his  head  and 
seems  to  be,  with  another  actor  at  his  side,  listening  attentively  to  the  teacher,  while  a  third  is 
assisted  by  a  fourth  in  putting  his  arms  through  the  sleeves  of  a  thick  tunic.  The  two  former 
have  no  clothing  except  a  goat-skin  about  their  loins.  In  the  middle  of  the  scene  are  two  fe- 
males ;  one  of  them,  crowned  with  a  wreath,  is  playing  on  the  double  flute,  or  perhaps  tuning 
the  instrument.  Beyond  these  figures  appear  the  Ionic  columns  of  the  portico,  with  garlands 
hanging  in  festoons  between  them.  In  the  antique  itself  appear  also  (although  not  included 
in  the  drawing  in  the  Plate),  the  entablature  and  a  sort  of  gallery  above  it  decorated  with  fig- 
ures and  vases.  This  mosaic  and  others  discovered  at  Pompeii  are  composed  of  very  fine  pieces 
of  glass,  and  seem  to  have  been  made  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  modern  Italian  mosaics  now 
so  celebrated. 

2.  The  various  remains  which  have  been  preserved  clearly  show  that  the  ancients  had  at- 
tained great  perfection  in  this  form  of  image- work,  which  is  often  included  under  painting,  and 
with  more  propriety  because  different  colors  are  employed.  Interesting  specimens  are  lodged 
in  the  British  Museum.  In  the  Townley  collection,  it  is  said,  is  a  ring  containing  in  glass  a 
representation  of  a  bird  so  small  as  not  to  be  distinctly  visible  without  a  magnifying  glass. 
fflnckclmann  describes  an  antique,  the  whole  size  of  which  is  but  one  inch  in  length  by  a  third 
of  an  inch  in  breadth,  and  yet  it  contains  in  mosaic  the  picture  of  a  mallard  (a  species  of 
duck),  which  in  brilliancy  of  coloring  and  in  distinct  representation  of  parts,  even  of  the 
wings  and  the  feathers,  equals  a  miniature  painting ;  and,  to  add  what  is  more  remarkable,  on 
being  turned  it  presents  the  same  picture  without  a  discoverable  variation  on  the  opposite  side. 

3.  See  Winckelmann,  Histoire,  &c.  cited  §  32.  4.  vol.  l.  p.  48. — Barthelemy,  Explication  de  la 
Mosaique  de  Palestrine.  Par.  1760.  4  ;  also  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxx.  p.  503. —  Viscon- 
ti,  Osservazioni  su  due  Musaici  antichi  istoriati.  Parm.  1787.  4.  with  plates. — Q.I.  de  Laborde, 
Mosaique  d'ltalica.  Par.  1800.  fol.  with  colored  plates.  This  mosaic  is  also  given  in  Labor- 
de's  Voyage  Pittoresque,  cited  §  243.  3.  (PI.  lxxxv.  vol.  n.) — J.  Ciampini  Vetera  Monumenta, 
in  quibus  prrecipue  opera  musiva  illustrantur.  Rome,  1G90,  '99.  2  vols,  fol.— Furietti  Liber  de 
Musivis.    Rome,  1752.  4,  with  plates. — Gurlitt,  uber  die  Mosaik.     Magd.  1798.   4.— J.  Elmes, 

Dictionary  (cited  §  206),  Mosaic. — De  Vielle,  Essai  sur  la  Peinture  en   Mosaique. Copies  of 

several  antique  mosaics  may  be  seen  in  Montfaucon,  as  just  (§  188)  referred  to,  and  in  Stuart, 
as  cited  $  234.3.   Some  mosaic  pavements  have  been  found  in  England  ;  see  Archwologia,  (cited 

§  243.  3.)  vol.  xxii.  p.  49. For  a  notice  of  the  modern  art,  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclop.  voL 

on  Porcelain  and  Olass. 

§  190.  Many  collections  have  been  made  of  remains  of  ancient 
Sculpture.    The  following  are  the  most  celebrated  public  collections. 

1  u.  In  Italy  we  find  the  greatest  number  and  the  most  valuable  remains  : 
particularly  at  Rome,  the  Vatican,  in  which  are  the  Museo  Clcmentino  and  the 
Museo  Chiaramonti  ;  in  the  Museum  of  the  Capitol ;  in  the  Palaces  Barberini, 
Mattei,  Massimi  ;  in  the  Villas  Albani,  Ludovisi,  Pamfili,  and  Medici :  at  Flo- 
rence, in  the  Gallery  of  the  Grand  Duke  and  the  Palace  Pitti  s  at  Naples,  in  the 
Royal  Museum;  at  Portici,  in  the  Museum  of  Antiquities,  where  are  collected 
the  remains  discovered  at  Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  and  Stabise ;  at  Venice,  in 
the  Fore-hall  of  St.  Mar/cs  Library. 

Details  respecting  the  collections  mentioned  here  and  below  may  be  drawn  from  works  of 
Topography  and  Travels  in  the  several  countries  specified. — In  reference  to  Italy,  the  follow- 
ing authors  and  travelers  may  be  mentioned  :  Keyssler  ;  Volkmann,  with  BernouilWs  additions  j 
Count  Stolberg ;  Morgenstern ;  Cochin,  Le  voyage  Pittoresque  d'ltalie  ;  Dupaty,  Lettres  sur 
PItalia.— Also  Eustace,  Classical  Tour  through  Italy.  Lond.  3d  ed.  1815.  4  vols.  8.— Johnson 
(M.  D.),  Philosophy  of  Traveling.  Republished  from  Eng.  ed.  N.  York,  1831.  8.— Remarks  on 
Antiquities,  Arts,  #c.  (during  an  excursion  in  Italy,  in  1802  and  1803.)  Republished  from  Eng., 
ed.  Boston,  1818.  8.  —  Cf.  Edinb.  Rev.  No.  xliv.—  W.  Fisk's  Travels,  cited  §  18 i.  6. 

2u.  In  France  the  most  important  collection  of  this  kind  is  in  the  Royal 
Museum,  at  Paris.  This  collection  was  greatly  augmented  after  the  French 
war  in  Italy,  1796,  by  master-pieces  of  art  brought  from  Rome  and  other  cit- 
ies of  Italy,  and  from  Netherlands  and  Germany.     But  on  the  victory  of  th& 


COLLECTIONS    OF    ANCIENT    SCULPTURE.  107 

allied  powers  over  Bonaparte  in  1815,  these  plundered  treasures  were  re- 
stored to  the  places  whence  they  had  been  taken.  Nevertheless  the  collec- 
tion in  the  Royal  Museum  is  still  one  of  the  richest  in  Europe. 

3  u.  In  Germany  there  is  a  collection  at  Vienna,  in  the  Imperial  Museum, 
particularly  rich  in  Vases  ;  at  Munich  in  the  Antiquarian  Hall  (Antikensaaly 
Jlntiquarium)  of  the  Palace  and  the  Glyptothek,  where  are  particularly  notice- 
able the  iEginetan  sculptures,  discovered  in  1811,  and  afterwards  purchased 
by  the  Crown-Prince  of  Bavaria  ;  at  Dresden,  in  what  is  called  the  Japanese 
Palace  (a  beautiful  collection) ;  at  Charlottcnburgh,  in  the  Royal  Mansion,  near 
Berlin  ;  at  Sans-Souci,  in  the  edifice  erected  by  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia,  by  the 
name  of  Temple  of  Antiques. 

On  the  vEginetan  marbles,  see  J.  M.  Wagner,  Bericht  liber  die  JEginetischen  Bildwerke  in 
Besitz  Sr.  Kon.  Hoheit  des  Kronprinzen  von  Baiern.  (with  remarks  by  Schelling.)  Stuttg, 
1817.  8.  Cf.  Wolf's  Analekten,  vol.  n.  p.  1G7.— For  other  references  on  the  collections  in  Ger- 
many, and  also  in  other  countries,  see  Suiter's  Allg.  Theorie,  &c.  vol.  i.  p.  188. 

4  m.  In  England  the  chief  is  in  the  British  Museum,  London,  where  are  the 
valuable  monuments  brought  from  Greece  by  Lord  Elgin  in  1814,  and  purchas- 
ed by  Parliament  for  the  Museum. — Interesting  remains  of  bas-relief s  are  seen 
in  the  Arundelian  collection  at  Oxford. — Valuable  works  of  ancient  art  are  in 
possession  of  rich  individuals;  among  the  most  distinguished  are  those  be- 
longing to  the  Duke  of  Pembroke's  Collection. 

When  the  storm  of  the  French  revolution  burst  over  the  different  countries  of  Europe, 
the  general  distress  and  the  insecurity  of  property  brought  into  market  an  immense  number 
of  works  of  art,  which  had  for  centuries  adorned  the  churches,  or  the  palaces  of  the  great.    Of 

these,  England  found  the  means  to  obtain  the  most  and  the  best. The  British  Museum  now 

contains  a  various  and  splendid  collection,  to  preserve  which  a  new  edifice  of  spacious  dimen- 
sions was  commenced  in  1823.  —  Among  the  most  important  monuments  of  sculpture  here  de- 
posited, are  those  designated  as  the  Elgin  Marbles.  In  1779,  Lord  Elgin  went  as  ambassador 
extraordinary  to  Constantinople.  He  took  with  him  several  artists  and  settled  them  at  Athens 
for  the  purpose  of  making  plans  of  the  ancient  edifices  and  casts  of  the  most  important  works  of 
sculpture.  These  artists  saw  the  destruction  daily  committed  on  the  existing  monuments  by 
travelers  and  by  the  Turks.  The  finest  statues,  some  of  those  supposed  to  be  the  workmanship 
of  Phidias,  were  pounded  to  pieces  by  the  Turks  and  burnt  to  make  lime.  A  whole  temple  had 
disappeared  in  the  lapse  of  a  few  years.  Lord  Elgin  is  said  to  have  been  influenced  by  these 
facts  to  resolve  on  saving  to  the  world  some  portion  of  the  still  existing  remains.  As  the  Eng- 
lish government  was  now  in  great  favor  with  the  Turkish  government,  in  consequence  of  the 
eminent  services  rendered  by  the  former  to  the  latter  in  the  defeat  of  Bonaparte  in  Egypt,  the 
ambassador  easily  procured  from  the  Sultan  two  firmans,  which  secured  to  him  free  access  to 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  with  authority  to  make  plans  or  casts,  and  to  remove  what  lie  might 
think  proper.  Lord  Elgin  removed  nearly  all  the  statues  from  the  pediments  of  the  Parthenon, 
fifteen  metopes,  and  three  sides  of  the  bas-reliefs  which  ran  around  the  cclla  of  the  temple  as  a 
frieze,  and  also  many  other  works.  Only  a  part  of  what  he  collected  ever  reached  England,  the 
rest  being  lost  at  sea.  Those  now  in  the  British  Museum  have  been  considered  as  superior  to 
all  the  antique  sculptures  before  discovered.  —  Cf.  Memorandum  on  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Pursuits 
in  Greece.  Lond.  1811.  8. — Lawrence,  as  below  cited  $191. —  Visconti,  Memoire  sur  les  ouvrages 
de  sculpture  du  Parthenon.  Lond.  1816. The  collection  bearing  the  name  of  Charles  Town- 
ley  is  also  now  a  main  ornament  of  the  Museum.  Besides  the  works  of  sculpture,  among  which 
are  a  number  of  interesting  Greek  busts,  it  is  rich  in  vessels  of  terra  cotta.— Hamilton's  collection 
of  sculptured  vases  (cf.  §  173)  also  belongs  to  the  Museum  ;  and  Payne  Knight's  collection  of 
bronzes.  —  The  Museum  now  possesses  also  a  great  number  of  Egyptian  monuments  ;  among 

them,  the  coilection  of  Mr.  Salt. Some  private  collections,  besides  that  mentioned  above  by 

the  author,  ought  perhaps  to  be  named  here  ;  as  that  at  Holkam  House,  the  seat  of  Mr.  Coke, 
now  Earl  of  Leicester  ;  that  at  JVoburn  Abbey,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford  ;  that  of  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire  ;  and  that  of  Sir  R.  Worsley  (who  was  minister  at  Venice,  1785—87),  at 
Apuldercombc  House  in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

On  the  collections  in  England  :  G.  F.  Waagen,  Works  of  Art  in  England.  Transl.  from  Germ, 
by  H.  E.  Loyd.   Lond.  1838.  3  vols.  12.— On  the  Elgin  Collect.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xiv.  513. 

5.  Scarcely  any  of  the  genuine  remains  of  ancient  art  have  been  brought  to  our  own  country. 
But  copies  and  casts  in  plaster  have,  to  some  extent,  been  employed  as  "substitutes,  and  may  be 
of  great  service.  The  Boston  Athencum  has  a  few  bas-reliefs,  busts,  and  other  antiques.  It  has 
also,  in  plaster  or  marble,  copies  of  some  of  the  most  valued  monuments  of  ancient  statuary  : 
the  Laocoon,  Apollo  Belvedere,' Venus  de  Medici,  The  Torso,  Autivous,  Gladiator  Borghesc,  &.C. 
(Dr.  Bass,  as  cited  $  139.  1.)  —  The  Academy  of  Five  Arts  at  Philadelphia  has  likewise  some  an- 
tiques and  a  number  of  copies  of  celebrated  pieces.     Cf.  Fessenden's  Register  of  Arts. 

§191  u.  In  order  to  give  those,  who  cannot  visit  in  person  these  remains  of 
ancient  art,  some  visible  representation  of  them,  drawings  and  plates  have  been 
published,  which  are  usually  accompanied  with  descriptions  and  critical  re- 
marks. We  will  here  name  some  of  the  principal  of  these  works,  in  addition 
to  such  as  have  been  already  mentioned. 

1.  Works  of  a  general  character,  more  or  less  extensive.— P.  S.  Bartolus,  Admiranda  Roma- 
Iiorum  Antiquitatum  ac  veteris  Sculpture  Vestigia,  delineata  (cum  not.  I.  P.  Bellorii).  Rom. 
1699.  fol.— Domcn.  de  Rossi,  Raccolta  di  Statue  antiche  e  moderne,  colle  sposizioni  di  Paolo  Al- 
vssandro  Majfei.   Rom.  1704.  fol.  —  Gorii  Museum  Etruscum.   Flor.  1737.  3  vols,  fol.—  Comte  do 


108  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

Caylus,  Recueil  des  Antiquites  Egyptiennes,  Etrusques,  Grecques,  et  Romaines.  Par.1752 — 67. 
7  vols.  4.  —  Giov.  Winckclmann,  Monuments  antichi  inediti,  spiegati  ed  illustrati.  Rom.  1767. 
2  vols.  fol. —  Winckclmann,  Alte  Denkm'Aler  der  Kunst.  Transf,  into  Germ,  from  Ital.  by  Brunn. 
Berl.  1799.  2  vols.  fol.  —  A  work  ranked  among  the  best  of  the  smaller  general  collections  is, 
J.  J.  Preishr,  Status  Antiques  ffiri  incise,  del.  ab  Edm.  Bouchardon.  Norimb.  173-7.  fol.  —  We 
add  here,  Ed.  Dodicell,  Alcuni  Bassirelievi  dell.  Grecia  &c.  Rom.  1812.  fol.;—  J.  Millingen,  An- 
•cient  Unedited  Monument:*.  Lond.  1822.  A.—Lenormant,  Mitsee  des  Antiquites  Egyptiennes,  ou 
Recueil  des  Monumens  Egyptiennes,  Architecture,  Statuaire,  Glyptique,  et  Peinture :  Com- 
menced Par.  1836,  to  be  completed  in  10  livraisons. 

2.  Relating  more  particularly  to  remains  preserved  in  Italy.  —  Museum  Capitoli- 
n  it  m  .  Ed.  Bollari,  Foggidi,  et  Guerci.  Rom.  1750*^83.  4  vols.  fol.  II  Museo  Capitolino. — — 
Museum  Flor  entinutn.  Cum  ohserv.  A.  F.  Gorii.  Flor.  1731 — 42.  6  vols.  fol.  The  3d  vol. 
is  on  statues. — d.  M.  Zannetti,  Raccolta  delle  antiche  statue  nell'  Antisala  della  libreria  di  S. 
Marco  illustr.  Ven.  1740 — 43.  2  vols,  fol — Barbavlt,  Les  plus  beaux  Monuments  de 
Rome  anc.  &c.  Par.  17G2.  fol. — Mongez,  Tableaux,  Statues,  Bas-reliefs,  et  Camees  de  la  Gale- 
rie  de  Florence  et  du  Palais  Pitti,  defines  par  M.  Wicar  &c.  Paris  (chez  Lacovibe ,  ed.  de  l'ouv- 
rage),  1739.  fol. — II  Museo  Pio-  Clementino ,  descfitto  da  Giamo.  (ed.  Enn.  Quir.)  Vis- 
conti,  Rom.  1782—1807.  7  vols.  fol.  (Cf.  Opere  di  jE.  Q.  Visronti,  Mil.  1618.  4.)— II  Museo 
Chiar  amonti ,  aggiunto  al  Pio-clementino,  con  Dichiazione  diAnt.  JSTibby,  &c.  Rom.  1737. 
2  vols.  fol. 

3.  Relating  to  remains  in  Germany.  —  L.  Bcgcr,  Thesaurus  Brandeburgicus  selectus,  Colon. 
March.  1696 — 1701.  3  vols,  fol.— Description  des  Statues,  Bustes  et  Demibustes,  qui  forment 
le  collection  du  R.  ds  Pr.  &c.  Berl.  1774.  8. — A.  L.  Krueger,  Antiquites  dans  la  Collection  de 
Sans  Souci  <fec.  Prern.  Part.  Berl.  1769.  fol.  Sec.  Part.  Dantz.  1772.  fol.—  W.  Reitzii  et  H.  Mar- 
tini Descriptio  Musei  Franciani.  Lips.  1781.  8.—  W.  G.  Becker,  Augusteum,  Dresden's  antike 
Denkmiler  enhaltend.  Lpz.  1804—11.  3  vols.  fol. 

4.  Remains  in  France. — Galerie  du  Musee  Napoleon,  (publiee  par  Filhol  et  redigee  par 
Lavallee.  Par.  1802 — 15.  10  vols.  8. — London  Galerie  complete  du  Musee  Napoleon.  Par.  64  liv- 
raisons. 4. — 1.  Lenoir,  Description  historique  et  critique  des  statues,  bas-reliefs,  &c.  du  Musee 
Royal.  Par.  1820.  8.  There  is  an  English  translation  of  an  earlier  edition  of  this  by  J.  Griffiths* 
Par.  1803.  8.  —  P.  Bouillon,  Musee  des  Antiques  &c.  Par.  1826.  3  vols.  fol.  —  E.  Q.  Visconii  and 
J.  B.  Emeric-David,  Le  MuseeFrancais;  Recueil  complet  des  Tableaux,  Statues,  et  Bas- 
reliefs,  qui  composent  la  Collection  nationals  &c.  (publiee  par  Robillard  Peronville  et  Laurent.) 
Par.  1803 — 9.  4  vols.  fol.  Vol.  4th  contains  ancient  statues,  with  explanations.  —  Le  M  u  s  e  e 
Roy  ale;  Recueil  de  Gravnres,  d'apres  les  plus  beaux  Tableaux,  Statues,  et  Bas-reliefs 
de  la  Collection  royal  &c.  (publie  par  H.  Laurcnte.)    Par.  1816 — 18.  2  vols.  fol.      This  is  a 

continuation  of  the  preceding  ;  they  are  designated  as  let  Series  and  2d  Series Raoul-Rochct- 

le,  Monuments  Inedits  d'Antlquite  figuree  &c.  Par.  1828, 29.  2  vols.  fol.  ^Visconti  and  De  Clar- 
■ac,  Description  des  Antiques  du  Musee  Royal.  Par.  1820.  8. 

5.  Remains  preserved  in  England. — J.  Kennedy,  A  description  of  the  Antiquities  and  Curiosi- 
ties in  Wdton  House,  illustrated  with  twenty-five  engravings  of  the  Capital  Statues,  Bustos, 
and  Relievos.  Salisb.  1769.  4.  —  Richardson,  JEdes  Feinbrochianaj,  or  a  Critical  Account  of  the 
Statues  &c.  at  Wilton  House.  Lond.  1774.  8. — Dr.  Hunt,  Description  of  the  Woburn  Abbey  Mar- 
ines. Lond.  1822.  fol.  —  R.  Lawrence,  Elgin  Marbles  from  the  Parthenon.  Lond.  1818.  fol.  — 
Specimens  of  Ancient  Sculpture,  ^Egyptian,  Etruscan,  Greek  and  Roman,  selected  from  collections 
in  Great  Britain,  by  the  Society  of  Dilettanti.  Lond.  1809.  imp.  fol.  75  plates.— Museum  TVors- 
leyanum,  a  collection  of  antique  Basso-relievos,  Bustos,  Statues,  etc.  Lond.  1794.  fol.  "  a  mag- 
nificent work"  (Dr.  Waagen).  also  Lond.  1824.  2  vols.  fol.  —  Cockerell,  Ancient  Marbles  of  the 
British  Museum.    Lond.  "1830. 

6.  On  the  subject  of  sculpture  generally,  we  add  the  following:  —  Dillaicay's  Statuary  and 
Sculpture  of  the  Ancients.  8. — Flaxman's  Lectures  on  Sculpture.  Lond.  1829.  8.  with  plates. — 
Consult  also  Krebs,  Handbuch  d.  Philol.  Bucherkunde.  vol.  it.  p.  331.— Suher's  Allg.  Theorie. 
vol.  i.  p.  188,  416.— K.  O.  Mueller,  Archaeologie  &c.  as  cited  $  32.  4. 


IT. — Lithoglyphy ,  or  Engraving  on  Gems. 

§192.  Engraving  upon  such  materials  as  metals,  ivory,  shells,  crys* 
tals,  and  gems,  is  a  particular  application  of  the  general  art  of  image- 
work.  It  is  done  either  by  elevating  the  figures  above  the  surface  of 
the  material  used,  or  depressing  them  below.  Gems,  or  precious  stones 
(ki&oi,  gemma),  are  most  commonly  employed  for  this  purpose,  and 
the  art  has  thence  been  called  Lithoglyphy  (xiBoylwpta),  As  the  en- 
graved stones  were  very  frequently  inserted  in  rings  for  the  fingers, 
the  art  was  also  termed  by  the  Greeks  daxrvliayXvipt*. — The  great  va- 
riety of  objects  represented  by  it,  the  beauty  and  perfection  of  the 
workmanship,  and  the  extensive  utility  of  it  in  relation  to  literature, 
render  this  art  particularly  worthy  of  notice. 

See  Suher's  Allgem.  Theorie  &c.  vol.  n.  p.  386. 


PLATE     V 


110  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

§193.  At  a  very  early  period  probably  men  became  acquainted  witff 
gems,  and  in  the  same  way  it  is  likely  as  with  metals,  by  the  subver- 
sion or  abrasion  of  the  soil  in  which  they  existed.  Even  the  imper- 
fect lustre  of  the  rude  gem  might  attract  attention,  and  accident  might 
first  suggest  the  idea  of  increasing  the  lustre  by  friction.  It  needed 
but  a  glance  at  a  fractured  gem  to  perceive,  that  it  would  be  rendered 
brighter  and  more  beautiful  by  removing  the  exterior  surface  or 
roughness.  This  was  perhaps  originally  done  by  rubbing  two  stones 
together  ;  since,  as  is  known,  almost  every  precious  stone  may  be 
polished  by  its  own  powder.  The  evidence  of  this  early  acquaintance 
with  gems  will  be  given  below  (§199). 

§194  u.  A  particular  knowledge  of  the  nature,  formation,  and  divisions  of  the 
precious  stones  belongs  properly  to  the  naturalist.  Yet  the  artist  and  amateur 
cannot  wholly  dispense  with  this  knowledge,  in  order  that  they  may  judge  of 
the  real  substance  of  gems,  although  the  design  and  execution  of  the  engrav- 
ing are  their  principal  object  of  attention.  —  As  to  the  classification  of  gems, 
the  mineralogical  systems  differ  in  principles ;  some  distinguishing  the  stones 
by  their  elementary  parts,  others  by  their  degree  of  density  and  transparency, 
or  by  their  colors.  The  two  last  methods  are  not  sufficiently  exact,  as  they 
are  not  based  on  essential  and  exclusive  characteristics.  —  Hardness,  lustre, 
transparency,  and  beauty  of  color,  are  the  most  important  peculiarities  and 
recommendations  of  a  gem. 

See  F.  B.  Brueckman' 'j  Abhandlung  von  Edelsteinen.  Braunschw.  1773.  8.  and  Beitraege  to 
the  same,  Braunschw.  1778  and  1783.  —  For  a  view  of  the  nature  of  gems,  see  F.  S.  Beudant, 
Traite  element,  de  Mineralogie.  Par.  1830.  vol.  l.  p.  704.  Cf.  Dictionnaire  classique  d'Histoire 
Naturelle,  par  Audouin,  &c.  Par.  1828.  tome  in.  p.  542.  —  Mawe,  Treatise  on  Precious  Stones. 
Lond.  1813.  8.  with  colored  plates.  —  L.  Feuchticanger,  Treatise  on  Gems  &x.  a  Guide  for  the 
Lapidary,  Artist,  Amateur,  &c.   N.  Yk.  1838.  8. 

§195.  Without  going  into  a  full  enumeration  of  all  the  kinds  of 
precious  stones,  we  shall  mention  those  which  are  worthy  of  notice 
on  account  of  their  use  in  lithoglyphy. 

1m.  The  Diamond  (uduuag,  adamas),  with  the  ancients,  held  the  first  rank 
among  precious  stones,  on  account  of  its  brilliancy,  hardness,  and  transparency. 
Yet  it  is  not  certain  that  they  employed  it  for  engraving.  Even  the  polishing 
of  it  seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  them,  or  the  art  was  lost  and  discovered 
again  about  1467  by  Louis  de  Berguen  of  Brixen. 

The  Ruby  (moorcoc,  carbun cuius)  approaches  the  Diamond  in  hardness,  and 
often  surpasses  it  in  lustre.  The  Romans  named  different  varieties  of  this  gem 
rubacellus,  palassius,  spinellus.  Pliny  (xxxvii.  29.)  mentions  lychnis  as  a  sort 
of  ruby. 

The  Emerald  probably  had  its  name  (smaragdus,  auuoaydoQ  derived  from 
uaouooo})  from  its  peculiar  gloss.  On  account  of  its  beautiful  green,  both 
agreeable  and  salutary  to  the  eyes  of  the  artist,  it  was  frequently  used  in 
lithoglyphy.  The  ancients  seem  to  have  included  under  the  term  smaragdus 
all  gems  of  a  green  color,  and  especially  the  dark  Beryl  called  by  jewelers  the 
aquamarine.  The  smaragdites  was  merely  a  variety  of  green  marble,  which, 
although  often  called  smaragdus  (a),  must  be  distinguished  from  the  emerald. 

The  Sapphire  (oun<psiQog,  sapphirus,  also  xtHttof,  cyanus),  of  a  beautiful  sky- 
blue  color,  was  esteemed  nearly  equal  to  the  Diamond.  That,  which  had 
mingled  with  it  tinges  of  gold,  was  called  chrysoprase  (/ovo6/i ouaog). 

The  name  of  Beryl  (i,'/n:/..-.og,  beryllus)  was  given  to  all  transparent  stones  of 
a  pale  or  sea  green.     The  Chrysoberyl  was  of  a  yellowish  hue. 

The  Jacinth  or  Hyacinth  (i>uxir&og)  is  of  a  deep  red,  often  an  orange  color. 
The  stone  of  violet  hue,  to  which  the  ancients  gave  also  the  same  name,  seems 
to  have  been  rather  a  species  of  Amethyst. 

The  Amethyst  (auitoorog),  violet  colored  in  different  degrees  and  shades,  was 
much  sought  for  by  ancient  artists.  One  variety  of  it  was  held  in  particular 
estimation  ;  that  which  they  termed  nuidioiog,  or  uvrtQog,  and  the  gem  of  Ve- 
nus (gemma  Veneris). 


GEMS  USED  IN  LITHOGLYPHY.  Ill 

The  Agate  («/«t>/?)  received  its  name  from  the  river  Achates  in  Sicily, 
where  the  stone  was  first  found.  Agates  (b)  are  of  various  shades  in  transpa- 
rency and  color.  The  agate-onyx,  with  a  white  surface  and  another  color  be- 
neath, was  often  employed  for  engraving  in  relief,  the  surface  of  the  stone  be- 
ing used  for  the  figure.    There  are  numerous  sorts. 

The  Cornelian  is  so  called  from  its  color  resembling  that  of  flesh  (carnis). 
It  belongs  to  the  class  of  agates.  It  was  very  frequently  used  for  purposes  of 
engraving  (c),  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  it  could  be  wrought. 

The  Sardine  or  Sardius  (auodivog,  auoStog,  sarda)  is  likewise  red  and  of  the 
same  kind  as  the  Carnelian.  It  is  used  for  seals  and  signets  very  much,  be- 
cause it  is  so  readily  detached  from  the  wax.  The  term  sarda  was  a  common 
name  for  every  kind  of  Carnelian. 

The  Opal  (6na?J.iog,  opalus)  is  ordinarily  white,  but  occurs  with  other  colors. 
It  was  much  esteemed  (d)  by  the  ancients. 

The  Jasper  (iaajtig,  iaspis)  presents  various  colors,  red,  green,  brown,  gray 
which  sometimes  appear  simple,  and  sometimes  mingled.  For  lithoglyphy  the 
latter  kind  was  preferred,  particularly  that  with  red  spots  upon  a  green  ground, 
which  was  also  called  heliotropia. 

The  Onyx  (ow/§)  took  its  name  from  its  whitish  red  color  resembling  the  nails 
of  the  hand.  That  which  presents  veins  of  red  was  termed  Sardonyx.  A  kind 
of  marble  of  similar  color  was  also  termed  onyx  or  Onychitis,  and  likewise 
Alabastrites. 

The  Crystal  (y.oi  or  alios,  crystallus)  was  so  called  from  its  resemblance  in 
form  to  ice  (y.ovog,  xqvotuoj).  Ancient  artists  made  use  of  it  both  in  lithogly- 
phy, and  for  drinking  vessels  on  which  devices  were  to  be  sculptured. 

(a)  Pliny  speaks  of  many  varieties  of  the  Emerald.  The  real  gem  was  highly  prized  When 
the  rich  Lucullus  visited  Alexandria,  Ptolemy  is  said  to  have  presented  to  him  an  emerald 
bearing  on  it  an  engraved  likeness  of  the  king  of  Egypt ;  and  this  was  considered  as  the  most 
valuable  present  which  could  be  made.  But,  when  it  is  stated  that  the  hall  of  Ahasuerus  was 
paved  with  emerald  ;  that  a  temple  of  Hercules  was  adorned  with  pillars  of  emerald  ;  and  that 
whole  statues  were  cut  in  emerald  ;  the  maragdites,  or  some  variety  of  marble,  must  be  meant. 
Gems  of  emerald  have  been  found  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  —  (b)  Agates  seem  to  have 
been  frequently  used  for  vases  ;  some  beautiful  vases  of  this  stone  are  preserved  in  the  collec- 
tions at  Dresden  and  Brunswick.  If  a  stone  presented  two  colors,  so  that  the  raised  figure  could 
be  of  a  color  different  from  the  rest  of  the  surface,  it  was  specially  valued.  Very  fine  speci- 
mens of  such  engraved  stones  are  preserved  inJhe  Royal  Museum  at  Paris. —  (c)  The  Carnelian, 
and  the  stones  included  under  the  names  of  Jqrate  and  Onyx,  seem  to  have  been  the  ones  most 
commonly  used  in  forming  cameos  (cf.  $196).  Many  very  fine  specimens  are  preserved  in  the 
public  collections.  —  (d)  "  Nonius,  a  Roman  senator,  possessed  an  Opal  of  extraordinary  beauty 
valued  at  £160,000  ;  rather  than  part  with  which  to  Mark  Antony,  he  chose  to  suffer  exile.  He 
fled  to  Egypt ;  and  there,  it  was  supposed,  secreted  his  gem;"  and  it  was  never  more  heard  of 
until,  in  modern  times,  a  Frenchman  by  the  name  of  Roboly  pretended  to  have  found  it  amidst 
the  ruins  of  Alexandria.     Only  a  few  engraved  specimens  are  found  in  the  collections. 

2  m.  In  reference  to  the  accounts  given  of  precious  stones  by  ancient  writers, 
particularly  by  Pliny,  the  37th  Bk.  of  whose  Natural  History  is  devoted  to  this 
topic,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  names  and  characteristics  therein  given 
do  not  always  belong  to  the  stones  which  bear  those  names  in  modern  science. 
Many  of  the  ancient  gems  must  be  distinguished  from  such  as  have  the  same 
names  now,  but  different  characteristics.  The  smallest  points  of  variance 
were  sufficient  with  the  ancients  to  secure  to  a  precious  stone  a  new  name. 

See  L.  de  Launaifs  Tableau  de  Comparaison  de  la  Mineralogie  des  Anciens  avec  celle  des 
Modernes,  in  his  Mineralogie  des  Anciens.  Brux.  1803.  2  vols.  12. — TV*.  F.  Moore,  Ancient  Mine- 
ralogy, or  Inquiry  respecting  the  mineral  substances  mentioned  by  the  ancients  &c.  N.  York. 
1834.  12.  commended  in  SMimauPs  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  xxvm.  p.  188. 

3.  Several  precious  stones  are  enumerated  in  Exodus  (xxviii.  17 — 20)  ;  by 
the  Sept.  thus  :  Ouadiov,  totvuliov,  OiiaouySog,  «»^oa|,  ounysioog,  i'aOTTig,  Xiyv- 
Qiov,  a/uTtjg,  auidvOTog,  /Qvo6Xi&og,  fitjnv/.s.iov,  ovv/iov.  The  list  in  Rev.  xxi. 
contains  also  /al.y.rfioiv ,  oaodovv'i,  /nvouTiQaoog,  vuy.iv&og. 

See  Epiphanius,  de  xii  Gemmis  &c.  on  the  xii  gems  in  the  breast-plate  of  Aaron,  in  his  Opera. 
Colon.  1682.  2  vols.  fol. — also  in  Qessner,  De  fossilium  genere,  cited  P.  II.  $  268. 

4.  Some  have  included  among  the  gems  the  Murra  or  murrhinum,  men- 
tioned by  Pliny,  of  which  were  made  the  vessels  (vasa  murrina)  so  much  val- 
ued by  the  Romans.  But  as  to  the  nature  of  this  substance  there  have  been 
many  conjectures,  of  which  the  most  probable  seems  to  be,  that  it  was  a  kind 
of  porcelain.  "  The  vases  were  in  such  esteem  at  Rome,  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
Christian  era,  that  two  of  them  were  bought  by  one  of  the  emperors  at  the 
price  (a)  of  300  sestertium,  more  than  £2000  sterling  each.     A  cup  capable  of 


112  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

holding  three  sextarii  (4  1-2  pints)  was  sold  for  seventy  talents  ;  and  a  dish  for 
three  hundred;  a  talent  being  equal  to  £180  English." 

(a)  Silliman's  Amer.  Journ.  of  Science  and  Art.  vol.  xxvi.  p.  236.  —  See  Graf  von  Veltheim, 
Abhandlung  iiber  die  Vasa  murrina.  Helmst.1791.  8.—  Gurlitt,  iiber  die  Gemmenkunde.  Magdeb. 

1798.4 Roloff,  iiber  die  murrinischen  Geftesse  der  Alten,  in  the  Museum  der  Alterthumsw.  by 

Wolf&c  Buttmann  (Bd.  n). — Launay,  Mineral,  des  Anciens,  above  cited,  vol.  l .  p.  85. — Le  Blond  & 
Larchcr,  Les  Vases  murrhines,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.xnu.  p.  217,238. — Mong-ez,  Sur  les  vases 
murrhins,  Mem.  de  Vlnstit.  C 1  a  s  s  e  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts.  vol.  n.  p.  133.— Cf.  Class.  Journ.  i.  242. 

5.  The  substance  called  alabaster  (a?.u^aarooc)  was  employed  by  the  ancients  as  the  mate- 
rial for  their  unguentary  vases,  or  the  vessels  for  holding  precious  perfumes  and  ointments. 
Hence  the  term  a?.u(iiiCSTQov  came  to  be  used  as  a  common  name  for  a  vase  or  bottle  designed 
for  this  purpose  (cf.  Matt.  xxvi.  7.),  of  whatever  it  might  be  formed,  whether  of  alabaster,  gold, 
glass,  or  other  material.  The  alibaster  of  the  ancients  was,  according  to  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke, 
carbonated  lime,  and  precisely  the  substance  which  forms  the  stalactites  in  the  famous  grotto  of 
Antiparos. — Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  ill.  p.  275,  ed.  N.  Yk.  1815. 

§196.  On  these  gems  the  figures  were  formed  either  in  depression 
below  the  surface,  or  in  relief  above.  Those  of  the  first  kind  were 
called,  by  the  ancients,  UQoi  Siuyl.vrtroi,  gemma  diaglyphicce,  insculptce. 
Those  of  the  other  kind  were  called  ZL&oi  avayXvnxoi,  gemmce  ectypce, 
anaglyphies,  exsculptce.  The  moderns  also  apply  distinguishing 
terms  to  the  two  kinds  :  gems  with  figures  cut  below  the  surface  are 
called  intaglios ;  gems  with  figures  in  relief  above  the  surface  are 
called  cameos. 

1  u.  Where  the  figure  is  formed  below  the  surface  of  the  gem,  the  depres- 
sion is  of  different  degrees,  according  to  the  perspective.  Sometimes  the  sur- 
face of  the  gem  receives  a  swelling  form  like  that  of  a  shield,  to  enable  the- 
artist  to  express  the  prominent  parts  more  naturally  and  without  curtailment 
and  preserve  a  more  accurate  perspective. 

2u.  The  word  cameo  was  formed,  it  may  be,  from  the  union  of  two  words, 
viz.  gemma  onychia,  as  it  originally  was  applied  only  to  gems  of  onyx  having 
two  colors,  the  figure  in  relief  being  formed  of  the  upper  color,  and  the  other 
appearing  in  the  ground.  Or  it  may  have  come  from  the  name  of  a  shell,  Came. 
Which  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Trapani  in  Sicily,  and  which  has  various  figures 
on  it  in  a  sort  of  relief. 

See  J.  D.  Fiorillo,  Abh.  iiber  das  Wort  Camee,  in  his  Klein.  Schrift.  artistischen  Inhalts. 

§197.  The  objects  represented  upon  engraved  gems  are  very  vari- 
ous. Often  the  figures  transmit  and  preserve  the  memory  of  particu- 
lar persons,  remarkable  events,  civil  and  religious  rites  and  customs, 
or  other  matters  worthy  of  notice.  Sometimes  the  whole  is  an  arbi- 
trary device  of  the  artist,  combining  and  exhibiting  mythical,  allegor- 
ical, and  imaginary  objects.  Frequently  we  find  merely  heads,  of 
gods,  heroes  or  distinguished  personages,  either  singly,  or  one  after 
another  (capita  jug  ata),  or  facing  each  other  (advcrsa),  or  turned  the 
opposite  way  (aversa).  The  heads  usually  appear  in  profile.  In  dis- 
covering and  explaining  the  design,  it  is  useful  to  compare  the  pieces 
with  coins  and  with  other  gems. 

§198.  Upon  many  gems  are  found  figures  in  full  length,  either 
single  or  grouped.  There  are,  for  example,  full  figures  of  gods  with 
various  costumes,  and  appendages.  Frequently  mythical  and  allego- 
rical representations  are  united.  Many  times  the  engravings  illustrate 
points  of  history  and  antiquities.  Festivals,  sacrifices,  bacchanals, 
feats  in  hunting  and  the  like,  are  often  presented.  There  are  gems 
also  with  inscriptions,  which  usually  give  the  name  of  the  artist,  but 
not  with  certainty,  because  the  inscription  is  so  often  made  subse- 
quently to  the  time  of  the  engraving.  Some  gems  also  bear  in  large 
letters  the  names  of  the  persons  who  caused  them  to  be  engraved. 
Occasionally  the  inscription  contains  the  words  of  some  sacred  or 
votive  formula ;  scarcely  ever  an  explanation  of  the  subject  represented, 


GEM-ENGRAVING  OF  THE  EGYPTIANS.  113 

See  Fr.  de  Ficoroni,  Gemmce  antique  literatas.  Rom.  1757.  4. Particular  gems  were  con- 
sidered as  peculiarly  appropriate  to  certain  gods ;  e.  g.  representations  of  Bacchus  were  spe- 
cially common  on  the  Amethyst  having  the  color  of  wine ;  Neptune  and  the  nymphs  were 
executed  in  Aquamarine  having  the  greenish  color  of  water. — In  Plate  V.  fig.  5,  and  6,  we 
have  specimens  of  whole  figures  engraved  on  gems.  In  fig.  5.  Daedalus  is  seen  sitting  on  a 
block  and  fabricating  a  wing  which  rests  on  a  tripod  ;  it  is  curious  that  he  seems  to  be  work- 
ing with  a  mallet.  In  fig.  b,  Cupid  is  sitting  on  a  shell,  and  playing  with  a  butterfly  ;  the  oval 
ring  in  the  fig.  shows  the  actual  size  of  the  beautiful  gem  here  exhibited.  This  may  be  an  alle- 
gorical device,  as  the  butterfly  was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  an  emblem  of  the  soul.  Winck- 
elmann  gives  an  antique,  in  which  a  philosopher  is  looking  contemplatively  upon  a  human  skull 
with  a  butterfly  on  the  crown  of  it,  supposed  to  represent  Plato  meditating  on  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  So  in  the  gem  here  exhibited,  the  artist  may  have  designed  to  intimate  the  influ- 
ence of  love  upon  the  soul,  or  to  remind  the  observer  of  the  allegory  of  Eros  and  Psyche  (cf.  P.  III. 

§  50). In  figs.  7,  and  8,  we  have  a  Hermes  and  a  Hermeracles,  as  engraved  on  gems.      In  fig.  1, 

is  a  mythological  representation  :  Harpocrates,  the  god  of  silence,  sits  on  a  lotus  flower,  holding 
in  his  left  hand  a  scourge  {flagellmn),  instead  of  the  horn  of  plenty,  which  more  commonly  he 
holds,  and  placing  the  fore  finger  of  his  right  hand  upon  his  lips  ;  on  one  side  of  him  is  the  sun, 
and  the  moon  on  the  other  ;  on  his  head  he  has  a  vessel  of  some  sort  instead  of  a  crown. 

§199.  The  history  of  this  art  has  its  different  periods,  and  princi- 
pal changes  and  characteristics  in  reference  to  origin,  progress  and 
decline,  in  common  with  sculpture  or  image-work  in  general.  Like 
sculpture.it  depends  much  on  design;  its  advancement  is  effected 
by  the  same  causes  as  that  of  sculpture ;  so  also  is  its  decline ;  its  pro- 
gress, likewise,  presents  the  same  varieties  of  style,  the  rude,  the  more 
cultivated,  and  the  elegant.  It  is  probable,  that  soon  after  the  discov- 
ery of  precious  stones  men  began  to  etch  upon  them,  at  first,  perhaps 
mere  characters  or  simple  signs.  The  Bible  gives  the  earliest  notices 
of  the  art,  in  the  precious  stones  of  the  Ephod  and  the  Breast-plate 
of  Aaron,  on  which  were  inscribed  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel.  Gems  and  precious  stones  are  spoken  of  at  a  still  earlier 
period. 

Cf.  §  195.  3.— See  Gen.  ii.  12.  Job.  xxviii.  6.  16.  19.  Comp.  Lev.  xxvi.  1.  —  J.  J.  BellcrmanrL, 
Die  Uiim  und  Thummim,  die  altestens  Gemmen.  Berl.  1824.  8. 

§200.  The  Israelites  without  doubt  derived  the  art  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, among  whom  it  had  been  long  known,  and  had  been  promoted 
by  their  superstitious  ideas  respecting  the  wonderful  efficacy  of  such 
stones  in  the  preservation  of  health.  In  this  view  they  were  marked 
with  hieroglyphic  characters,  and  used  as  talismans,  or  amulets. 

1m.  Many  of  these  stones  yet  exist,  especially  of  a  convex  form  like  that  of 
the  beetle,  termed  Scarabcci  (xuoapoc)  ;  however,  many  of  them  were  wrought 
at  a  later  period,  after  the  time  of  Christ,  to  which  more  recent  class  belong 
also  those  called  by  the  name  of  Abraxas. 

2.  The  word  Abraxas,  being  interpreted  according  to  the  numerical  force 
of  its  corresponding  Greek  letters,  a  (i  o  a  I  a  g  ,  signifies  365,  the  number  of 
days  in  the  year.  It  is  said  to  have  been  fabricated  by  Basilides,  who  main- 
tained that  there  were  so  many  heavens  ;  or  by  some  one  of  the  sect  called 
Gnostics.  The  engraved  stones  designated  by  this  name  are  supposed  to  have 
proceeded  from  the  followers  of  this  sect  and  to  have  been  designed  as  a  sort 
of  amulets  or  talismans.  Great  numbers  of  them  are  preserved  in  the  cabi- 
nets of  Europe. 

Montfaucon  divides  the  gems  called  Abraxas  into  seven  classes  :  1.  those  with  the  head  of 
a  cock  usually  joined  to  a  human  trunk  with  the  legs  ending  in  two  serpents  ;  2.  those  with  the 
head  or  body  of  a  lion,  having  often  the  inscription  Mithras  •  3.  those  having  the  inscription  or 
the  figure  Serapis  ;  4.  those  having  Anubis,  or  scarabrei,  serpents,  or  sphinxes  ;  5.  those  having 
human  figures  with  or  without  wings  ;  6.  those  having  inscriptions  without  figures  ;  7.  those 
having  unusual  or  monstrous  figures.  The  term  Abraxas,  sometimes  written  Abrasax,  is  found, 
only  on  a  few.  A  specimen  of  the  first  class  is  given  in  our  illustrations,  Plate  V.  fig.  2. 
The  image  engraved  has  the  body  and  arms  of  a  man ;  in  the  right  hand  is  held  a  round 
shield  ;  in  the  left  the  flagellum;  the  head  is  that  of  a  cock  with  a  crest,  and  the  legs  assume 
the  form  of  serpents.  It  bears  the  inscription  1  A  UJ ,  *  u  o>,  which  is  commonly  found  on  these 
stones,  on  the  shield  or  on  some  other  part ;  this  may  be  intended  to  correspond  to  the  Jlebiew 
of  Jehovah  (see  Plate  I  a,  in  fig.  e,  line  b)  ;  the  word  Adonai  is  found  on  some  of  these  stones. 

A  very  singular  specimen  is  given  in  Walsh,  on  Coins  &c.  p.  68.  as  cited  §  213. The  mystie 

word  J^BPAQA  'ABPA  is  supposed  to  have  come  from  the  same  sect.     An  amulet  was  formed 
by  writing  these  letters  in  such  a  way  that  they  should  make  an  inverted  cone  or  triangle  with 

10* 


114 


ARCH.EOLGY  OF   ART. 


the  whole  word  at  the  base  and  the  letter  A  at  the  apex  ;  which  was  done  by  beginning  the 
word  one  place  farther  to  the  right  in  each  successive  line  and  also  cutting  off  at  each  time  one 
letter  from  the  end.    This  was  employed  as  a  charm  for  the  cure  of  a  fever. 

See  Mojitfaucon,  L'Antiquite  expliquee.  tomen.  p.  353  (part  2.  livre  iii.)  —  Joa.  Macarii, 
Abraxas  s.  Apistopistus  ;  antiquaria  disquisitio  de  Gemmis  Basilidianis.  Antv.  1657.  4. — P.  C. 
Jablonsky,  De  Nominis  Abraxas  vera  significatione,  in  the  Miscell.  Lips.  Nov.  (Bd.  7.  Th.  1.) 
—  J.  J.  Bellermann,  uber  die  Gemmen  mit  dem  Abraxas-bilde,  und  iiber  die  Scarabaeen-Gem- 
men.    Bed.  1817.  8. 

3.  The  most  fanciful  and  superstitious  notions  have  prevailed  respecting  the  marvelous  pow- 
ers of  gems.  Fabulous  accounts  of  the  origin  of  different  stones  were  invented  by  the  ancients. 
Particular  gems  were  imagined  to  hold  peculiar  relations  to  certain  planets,  constellations,  and 
months  of  the  year.  The  gem  appropriate  for  a  particular  month  was  worn  as  an  amulet  dur- 
ing the  month,  and  was  supposed  to  exert  a  mysterious  control  in  reference  to  beauty,  health, 
riches,  honor,  and  all  good  fortune  ;  as  e.  g.  a  sapphire  for  April,  an  agate  for  May,  and  an  eme- 
rald fox  June.  Different  gems  were  also  supposed  to  possess  specific  powers  ;  e.  g.  the  emerald 
was  an  antidote  to  poison,  and  a  preventive  of  melancholy  ;  the  amethyst  was  a  security  against 
intoxication,  if  worn  as  an  amulet  or  used  as  a  drinking-cup  ;  the  ruby  or  spinelle  was  a  pro- 
moter of  joy  and  a  foe  to  all  bad  dreams.  Such  notions  were  cherished  also  among  the  Ara- 
bians and  eastern  nations  ;  and  were  embraced  in  Europe  in  the  middle  ages.  Indeed,  to  un- 
derstand the  virtues  of  gems  was  esteemed  an  important  part  of  natural  philosophy,  and  trea- 
tises were  written  on  the  subject  (cf.  P.  II.  $268).  Marbodus,  a  monk  of  the  12th  century,  who 
was  made  bishop  of  Rennes,  wrote  a  poem  (De  gemmis)  setting  forth,  in  Latin  verse,  the  mi- 
raculous efficacy  of  precious  stones.  Cf.  JVarton's  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry.  Lond.  1824.  2d  vol.  p.  214. 
Twelve  gems  were  appropriated  as  symbolical  of  the  twelve  Apostles,  and  called  "  The  Apos- 
tle gems  ;"  the  hint  having  been  drawn  from  the  twelve  gems  representing  the  twelve  tribes  on 
Aaron's  breast-plate,  and  from  the  figurative  language  of  the  Apocalypse  of  John  (Rev.  xxi.  14, 
19,  20),  in  which  the  walls  of  the  new  Jerusalem  are  represented  as  having  twelve  foundations 
of  precious  stones,  inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  twelve  Apostles  of  the  Lamb. 

4.  We  may  mention  here  a  class  of  engraved  stones,  sometimes  called 
Socratic,  having  heads  of  various  animals  connected  with  the  form  or  feet  of  a 
cock,  or  other  devices,  among  which  is  found  a  head  resembling  Socrates. 

See  Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie,  &c.  vol.  n.  p.  399.— Joa.  Chifictii  Socrates,  s.  de  Gemmis  ejus  im- 
agine caelatis  Judicium.  Antv.  1662.  A.—Middlcton'' s  Antiq.  Tab.  xxi.  sect.  10.  cf.  Doddridge, 
Family  Expositor.  Note  on  Rev.  iv.  7.  (p.  913.  Am.  Ed.  Amherst,  1833.) 

§201.  Among  the  Egyptians,  lithoglyphy,  like  the  other  plastic 
arts,  and  on  account  of  the  same  hindrances  (§  169),  never  reached 
any  distinguished  excellence  or  perfection.  Stones  and  gems,  adorn- 
ed with  figures  in  relief,  were  much  less  common  among  them  than 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  with  whom  a  greater  degree  of  lux- 
ury in  general  favored  the  exercise  of  this  art  in  particular. 

"  The  ancients  appear  to  have  obtained  the  emerald  from  Egypt.  Cailliaud  has  succeeded  in 
finding  the  old  emerald  mines  in  the  the  Theban  deserts  on  the  Arabian  Gulf.  He  mentions 
having  found  subterranean  mines  capable  of  allowing  four  hundred  men  to  work ;  he  like- 
wise found  tools,  ropes,  lamps  and  other  utensils." 

§  202,  Among  the  Ethiopians  and  Persians,  and  other  nations  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  this  art  must  have  been  known  in  very  ancient  times, 
because  their  sculptured  stones  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient  Greek 
and  Roman  writers.  Persian  gems  are  still  in  existence  of  various 
kinds.  But  the  Etrurians  were  more  remarkable.  They  either  bor- 
rowed the  art  from  the  Egyptians,  or  very  soon  became  imitators  of 
the  Egyptian  manner  and  like  them  wrought  gems  in  the  form  of  the 
scarabaeus  or  beetle.  They  carried  their  skill  in  execution  much  fur- 
ther, but  not  to  the  point  of  Grecian  excellence.  We  probably  have  re- 
maining but  few  sculptured  gems,  really  Etruscan  :  most  of  those  so 
called  are  probably  of  Grecian  origin ;  at  least  the  evidence  that  they 
are  Tuscan  is  very  unsatisfactory. 

§  203.  Whether  the  Greeks  borrowed  this  art  from  Egypt  cannot  be 
decided  any  more  certainly  than  the  exact  time  when  they  became  ac- 
quainted with  it.  That  it  existed  in  Egypt  at  an  earlier  period  is  un- 
questionable ;  but  that  the  Greeks  must  therefore  have  borrowed  it 
from  that  country  by  no  means  follows.  Probably  it  arose  among 
them  at  the  same  time  with  sculpture.  It  seems  to  have  been  known 
in  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war,  although  Pliny  expresses  doubt  on  the 


GEM-ENGRAVING  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS.  115 

point.  This  writer  and  others  mention,  as  the  most  ancient  remarka- 
ble gem  among  the  Greeks,  that  belonging  to  the  signet  of  Poly  crates, 
king  of  Samos. 

lu.  This  seal  was  an  emerald  or  sardonyx  on  which  was  carved  a  lyre.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  this  jewel,  having  been  thrown  by  the  king  into  the  sea 
to  avoid  an  accident  that  threatened  him,  was  brought  back  by  a  fish  that  was 
served  at  his  table.  The  artist,  who  wrought  it,  was  Theodorus  of  Samos,  who 
flourished  about  530  years  before  Christ.  The  art  was  at  that  time  quite  im- 
perfect, but  afterwards  it  advanced  rapidly. 

2.  For  the  story  of  this  ring,  cf.  Herodotus,  iii.  39 — 41.  —  Pausanias,  viii.  14.  —  Pliny,  xxxiii.  1. 
xxxvii.  1.  —  "  In  the  temple  of  Concord  at  Rome,  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  a  sardonyx  was  shown 
which  was  said  to  be  the  ring  of  Polycrates.  It  was  kept  in  a  golden  box,  and  was  a  present 
from  Augustus.  According  to  Herodotus  the  stone  was  an  emerald."— Barthelevnf  s  Anachar- 
sis.  vol.  vi.  p.  265,  447. 

§  204.  The  art  of  gem-engraving  reached  its  highest  perfection 
among  the  Greeks  about  the  time  of  Alexander.  In  this  flourishing 
time,  no  graver  of  gems  equaled  Pyrgoteles  in  celebrity.  While 
Apelles  alone  was  allowed  by  Alexander  to  paint  his  likeness,  and 
Lysippus  alone  to  carve  his  statue,  Pyrgoteles  was  the  only  one  per- 
mitted to  sketch  his  miniature  on  the  precious  stone.  In  the  same 
period  lived  also  Sostratus,  whose  name  is  inscribed  on  some  of  the 
most  beautiful  gems  still  existing.  Somewhat  later,  although  it  is  not 
certain  precisely  of  what  time,  were  Apollonides  and  Cronius,  artists 
of  nearly  equal  celebrity.  Many  other  names  of  Grecian  lapidaries 
occur  both  on  existing  ancient  gems  and  in  ancient  writers.  Not 
much  reliance,  however,  is  to  be  placed  on  the  inscriptions  (cf. 
§198).  Some  of  the  names  are  the  following  :  Agathangelus,  Agatho- 
pus,  Aulus,  Alpheus,  Arethon,  Epitynchanus,  Albius,  Evodus,  Mycon, 
Admon,  ./Etion,  Anteros,  Gceus,  Pamphylus,  Philemon,  Sosocles* 
Tryphon,  &c. 

See  Chr.  Tlieoph.  de  Murr.  Bibliotheque  glyptographique.  Dresd.  1804.  8. — Fr.  Vettori,  Disser- 
tatio  glyptographica  &c.  Rom.  1739.  4. — D.  A.  Bracci,  Memoire  degli  anticbi  incisori,  chi  scol- 
pirono  i  loro  nome  in  Gemme  e  Camei.  Fir.  1784.  fol.  —  On  the  history  of  Gem-sculpture,  see 
references  §  213.  3. 

§  205.  The  Romans  possessed  this  art  only  as  the  conquerors  and 
lords  of  Greece.  Engraved  gems  were  highly  valued  among  them, 
and  were  bought  at  exorbitant  prices.  Yet  they  can  claim  no  proper 
merit  for  the  advancement  of  this  art,  because  all,  who  were  most  dis- 
tinguished in  it  among  them,  were  Greeks  by  birth.  Of  these,  Dios- 
corides  and  Solon,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  were  the  best.  Gems 
which  are  engraved  in  the  proper  Roman  manner  (and  such  are  re- 
cognized by  the  costume)  are  not  valued  so  highly  as  the  Grecian. — 
It  is  to  be  remarked  that  this  art  fell  at  the  same  time,  and  from  the 
same  causes,  with  the  other  arts.  In  the  middle  ages,  however, 
lithoglyphy  was  not  wholly  neglected,  since  to  this  period  belong 
the  stones  already  mentioned  (§  200)  as  passing  under  the  name  of 
Abraxas,  and  designed  for  magical  purposes. 

§  206.  The  use  of  engraved  stones  with  the  ancients  was  two-fold, 
for  seals,  and  for  ornaments ;  in  both  cases  it  was  common  to  make- 
of  them  rings.  The  early  use  of  gems  for  such  purposes  is  evident 
from  passages  in  the  Bible  (cf.  §  199).  For  seals,  the  figure  was 
generally  cut  below  the  surface  of  the  stone  («oo;r£) ;  but  when  the 
stone  was  designed  merely  for  ornament,  it  was  usually  formed  in  re- 
Jief  (&>#£).   The  ancients  made  collections  of  gems,  which  they  termed 


116  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

dactyliotliecce^ayTvXio&^y.ai,  from  SaxrvXtoc  a  ring;  artists  who  wrought 
these  gems  were  from  the  same  circumstance  called  3axTvlioykv<poi- 
Pliny  (xxxvii.  5.)  mentions  several  such  collections,  and  among  them 
that  of  Mithridates,  which  was  brought  to  Rome  to  the  Capitol  by 
Pompey.  Julius  Caesar  placed  six  different  collections  in  the  temple 
of  Venus  Genitrix;  and  Marcellus,  son  ofOctavia,  one  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo.  It  is  however  probable,  that  these  collections  were  com- 
posed, at  least  in  considerable  part,  of  gems  not  engraved. 

On  the  use  of  engraved  gems  for  seals  and  rings,  see  J.  Elmes,  Dictionary  of  the  Fine-  Aits. 
Lond.  1826.  8.  on  the  word  Seals. — Also  the  references  in  Salter's  Allg.  Theorie,  vol.  n.  p»394. 
—  P.  Mariette,  Traite  des  pierres  gravees.   Par.  1750.  2  vols.  fol. 

Some  specimens  of  seals  and  rings  are  given  in  our  Plate  V. — In  the  figures,  a,  b,  c,,d,  e,  are 
rings  (annuli)  suited  to  wear  upon  the  finger.  They  were  formed  of  some  metal,  with  some 
precious  stone  inserted.  Sometimes  the  inserted  gems  were  merely  polished  so  as  to  be  smooth 
and  brilliant,  as  in  fig.  d.  More  frequently  words  or  letters  were  engraved  on  the  stones,  as  in 
fig.  a,  which  has  the  initials  of  Jupiter  Optimus Mazimus.  Sometimes  the  sculpture  was  the  bust 
of  a  friend  or  some  distinguished  personage,  or  of  one  of  the  imaginary  gods,  as  in  fig.  b,  which 
shows  a  head  of  Mercury  ;  sometimes  it  was  merely  a  representation  of  some  common  article  or 
utility,  as  a  key  or  a  pruning  knife,  as  in  fig.  c  ,•  sometimes  it  contained  a  mythological  repre- 
sentation, as  in  fig./,  where  a  goat  and  satyr  are  dancing  together ;  or  some  ceremony  of  ancient 
superstition,  as  in  fig.  e,  where  we  see  perhaps  the  crooked  wand  (litv,us)  and  the  chicken,  in- 
dicating the  augury  called  tripudium.  In  short,  the  devices  were  exceedingly  various.  — 
Rings,  which  were  used  also  for  seals,  were  called  by  the  Romans  annuli  signatorii,  or  signet- 
rings.  —  It  should  be  remarked,  that  they  made  use  of  other  seals  (sigilla),,of  a  more  common 
sort,  which  were  made  of  the  less  precious  metals,  most  frequently  of  brass,  and  wrought  into 
a  great  variety  of  forms.  In  fig.  3,  we  have  a  common  sigitlum  of  this  kind,  resembling  in  form 
the  bottom  of  a  shoe  or  sandal  (calceus),  and  bearing  the  image  of  a  heart  and  the  name  of  prob- 
ably the  owner,  Ursinus,  in  the  genitive  case,  cut  in  relief.  Such  seals  appear  to  have  been 
employed  by  the  rich  Romans,  among  other  uses,  for  marking  their  wine  vessels. 

§  207.  Respecting  the  mechanical  operations  in  this  art  among  the 
ancients,  we  are  not  well  informed.  They  seem  to  have  been  similar 
to  the  methods  of  modern  artists,  except  that  the  ancients  perhaps  had 
some  unknown  way  of  giving  to  their  works  their  high  degree  of  deli- 
cacy, completeness,  and  finish.  For  the  ancient  gems  are  certainly 
marked  by  these  excellences,  united  with  singular  beauty  of  design, 
taste  in  arrangement,  variety  in  subject  and  illustration,  and  truth  in 
expression.  They  are  also  characterized  by  a  peculiar  purity  and 
polish,  and  great  fullness  and  freedom  in  the  sculpture. 

Laur.  Natter,  Traite  de  la  methode  antique  de  graver  en  pierres  fines,  comparee  avec  !a  me- 
thode  moderne.  Engl.  Transl.  Lond.  1754.  fol.  with  plates.  —  On  the  question  whether  the  an- 
cient artists  used  lenses  and  magnifying  glasses,  see  JVinckchnann,  Histoire  &c.  vol.  n.  p.  10&, 
as  cited  §  32.  4. 

§  208.  Yet  fixed  and  infallible  criteria  cannot  be  given  for  distin- 
guishing ancient  from  modern  gems,  or  spurious  from  genuine  an- 
tiques ;  since  modern  gem-engravers  have  approached  very  near  the 
perfection  of  the  ancient  artists,  and  have  surpassed  those  among  them 
who  were  of  a  secondary  rank.  The  discriminating  eye  and  judgment 
of  the  connoisseur  are  formed  perhaps  more  by  practice,  than  by  any 
general  rules ;  attention,  however,  must  be  paid  to  notice  the  material 
of  the  gem,  the  manner  and  air  of  the  etching,  the  nature  of  the  pol- 
ish, and  frequently  to  consider  and  compare  various  circumstances  in 
history  and  antiquities. 

See  Von  Vdtheim,  Sammlung  einiger  Aufsatze.  Hemst.  1800.  2Th.  8.— On  the  modes  of  pro- 
ducing fictitious  gems,  see  the  Encyclopmdia  Britannica,  and  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,  under 
the  word  Qeins. 

§209.  The  study  of  ancient  gems  is  recommended  by  its  manifold 
utility.  Aside  from  the  aids  to  literature  and  taste  which  it  affords 
in  common  with  the  study  of  antiquities  in  general,  it  has  a  peculiar 
advantage  from  the  fact,  that  we  have  remaining  a  greater  number 
and  variety  of  gems,  than  of  monuments  of  the  other  plastic  arts,  and 


IMITATIONS    OF    ENGRAVED    GEMS.  117 

that  they  are  in  a  better  state  of  preservation.  The  latter  circum- 
stance gives  them  a  preference  even  before  coins,  whose  impressions, 
notwithstanding  any  beauty  in  them,  by  no  means  equal  the  engrav- 
ings of  the  better  Greek  gems.  A  frequent  examination  of  them  may 
form  the  mind  to  a  quick  sense  and  correct  judgment  of  the  beantiful, 
enrich  the  fancy  of  the  poet  and  artist,  and  familiarize  the  student 
with  the  conceptions  and  the  spirit  of  ancient  genius. 

See  Klotz,  iiber  den  Nutzen  und  Gebrauch  der  geschnittenen  Steine  und  ihrer  Abdriicke.  Al- 
tenb.  1768.  8 — Also  Mariette,  cited  $  206.   and  Natter,  cited  $  207. 

§  210.  These  remains  of  ancient  art  have  been  rendered  much 
more  extensively  useful  from  the  ease  with  which  they  are  multiplied 
by  means  of  imitations.  Imitations  in  glass  are  the  most  valuable, 
because  in  color,  lustre,  and  translucency,  they  can  be  made  so  nearly 
like  the  originals,  that  it  is  at  first  even  difficult  to  distinguish  them. 
Something  similar  was  the  Vitrum  Obsidianum  o{  the  ancients.  Much 
less  valuable  are  impressions  in  sulphur  and  in  wax,  although  the  lat- 
ter have  an  advantage  in  the  facility  of  execution. 

1.  The  art  of  multiplying  copies  of  gems  by  means  of  impressions  on  colored 
glass,  or  the  vitrified  substance  called  paste,  is  interesting  not  only  to  mere 
antiquaries  and  artists,  but  also  to  men  of  taste.  It  is  of  considerable  antiquity, 
and  perhaps  was  practiced  by  the  Greeks.  It  is  supposed  to  be  alluded  to  by 
Pliny  ;  and  is  mentioned  by  Heraclius,  in  the  9th  century,  in  a  work  entitled  Dc 
coloribus  et  artibus  Romanorum.  Indeed  it  is  said,  that  among  the  existing 
antique  cameos  are  found  imitations  of  the  onyx  in  glass. 

Cf.  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvi.  26.  —  Encyclop.  Britann.  under  Gems.  —  Mariette,  as  cited  §  206. 
.vol.  i.  p.  93. — Fcuchtwanger,  p.  48,  as  cited  $  195. 

2.  The  translucid  substance  termed  Obsidianum  seems  to  have  received  its 
name  from  Obsidius,  a  Roman  who  first  brought  it  to  Rome  from  Ethiopia.  It 
is  considered  as  the  same  mineral  which  is  now  called  Obsidian,  and  has  been 
termed  lava-glass  in  reference  to  its  appearance,  in  which  it  resembles  glass, 
and  to  its  origin,  which  some  have  supposed  to  be  volcanic.  The  Romans 
manufactured  mirrors  and  gems  from  it. 

Cf.  Pin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvi.  67.  —  Launay,  Mineralogie  des  Anciens,  as  cited  §  195.  2.  vol.  t. 
p.  361.— R.  Jameson's  Mineralogy.  Edinb.  1820.  3  vols.  8.  vol.  i.  p.  319.— Compte  de  Caylus,  in 
the  Mem.  dc  VAcad.  des  Insc.  vol.  xxx.  p.  457. 

3w.  The  material  invented  by  Prof.  Lippert  of  Dresden,  which  is  a  fine 
white  substance,  is  very  useful  for  taking  casts  and  impressions.  The  casts 
in  this  show  the  work  to  better  advantage  perhaps  than  sulphur.  They  are  li- 
able to  be  injured  by  friction.  Lippert  prepared  a  series  of  casts  amounting  to 
3000  in  number,  of  which  each  1000  was  sold  separately. 

Those  of  the  first  thousand  were. arranged  and  described  by  Prof.  Christ  of  Leipsic,  and  those 
of  the  second  and  third  thousand  by  Prof.  Hcyne  of  Gbttingeu,  in  a  Latin  Catalogue.  Lips. 
1755 — 63.  4.  A  more  full  account  is  given  by  Lippert  himself,  in  his  Dactyliothek.  Lpz.  1767. 
2  vols.  4.  and  the  Supplement.  Lpz.  1776.  4. 

4.  The  pastes  and  imitations  of  Wedgewood,  the  distinguished  English  porce- 
lain manufacturer,  are  very  highly  esteemed.  "  His  imitations  of  jasper,  by 
which  cameos,  and  white  figures  in  relief,  are  raised  on  a  colored  ground,  are 
exquisitely  beautiful."  —  Wedgewood  and  Bentley  invented  a  peculiar  com- 
position, of  a  dark  appearance,  which  is  considered  as  very  useful  for  making 
copies  of  sculptured  stones. 

A  Catalogue  of  the  Casts  of  Wedgewood  and  Bentley  was  published  Lond.  1790.  8.— cf.  Sillimari>s 
Journal,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  244. 

5.  The  glass  pastes  of  James  Tassie,  a  native  of  Glasgow,  resident  at  Lon- 
don, have  acquired  great  celebrity.  His  collectio'n  of  impressions  of  ancient 
and  modern  gems  amounted  to  15,000.  His  pastes  were  brought  into  greater 
notoriety  by  the  jewelers,  who  inserted  them  in  seals,  rings,  and  other  orna- 
ments. 

An  account  of  his  numerous  impressions  was  published  under  the  following  title  :  A  De- 
scriptive Catalogue  of  a  general  collection  of  ancient  and  modern  Gems,  cast  in  colored  pastes, 
swhite  enamel,  and  sulphur  ;  by  J.  jTassie,^arranged  and  described  by  R.  F.  Raspe,—and  illus- 


1 18  ARCHAEOLOGY  op  art. 

•trated  with  Copperplates  ;  to  which  is  prefixed  an  Introduction  on  the  various  uses  of  this  col- 
lection, the  origin  of  the  art  of  engraving  on  stones,  and  the  progress  of  pastes.  Lond.  1791, 
-2  vols.  4. 

6.  Copies  of  coins  and  medals  are  also  multiplied  by  means  of  casts  in  sul- 
phur and  other  substances.  Thus,  e.  g.  the  medals  struck  in  commemoration 
of  events  in  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  are  imitated  and  made  known  extensively 
by  sulphur  casts  ;  the  medals  consisting  of  160  pieces ;  the  casts  forming  a 
suite  of  185  pieces  including  several  reverses. 

See  Laskei/s  Series  of  Bonaparte's  Medals,  royal  8vo.  Lond On  the  general  subject  of  pastes 

*nd  casts,  we  may  here  refer  to  Sulzer's  AHg.  Theorie  &c.  under  the  words  Mdruecke,  Abgues- 
se,  Paste. 

§211.  Of  the  great  number  of  existing  gems  only  a  few  will  bo 
named,  of  such  as  are  the  most  celebrated.  Of  this  class  are  the 
following  : — the  signet  of  Michael  Angelo  (cachet  de  Michel  Ange)y 
as  it  is  called,  in  the  Royal  Museum  at  Paris,  a  carnelian,  on  which 
is  represented  with  masterly  skill  an  Athenian  festival,  or  as  some 
think  (a),  the  training  of  Bacchus  ; — a  very  beautiful  Medusa's  head 
upon  a  chalcedony,  formerly  in  the  Strozzi  collection  at  Rome,  now 
in  possession  of  the  Baron  von  Schellersheim ; — the  head  of  Socra- 
tes on  a  carnelian  in  the  collection  of  St.  Mark's  at  Harlem ; — Bac- 
chus and  Ariadne  upon  a  red  Jasper  in  the  collection  of  the  Grand 
Duke  at  Florence; — the  heads  of  Augustus,  Maecenas,  Diomedes,  and 
Hercules,  inscribed  with  the  name  Dioscorides ; — a  head  of  Alexan- 
der, a  cameo  of  Sardonyx  (6),  with  an  inscription  scarcely  genuine  of 

the  name  Pyrgoteles. Among  the  largest  gems  remaining  (c),  are 

the  following  : — an  onyx  in  the  Imperial  collection  at  Vienna,  on  which 
is  exhibited  the  Apotheosis  of  Augustus  and  Livia ; — the  so  called 
Mantuan  Vessel,  formed  of  onyx  (cl),  in  possession  of  the  family  of 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick  ;  and  the  celebrated  (e)  Barberini  or  Portland 
vase. 

1.  (a)  It  has  been  remarked  that  the  seal  of  Michael  Angelo  affords  a  nota- 
ble instance  of  the  errors  and  controversies  of  antiquarians.  "  By  one  the 
subject  is  supposed  to  be  Alexander  the  Great  represented  as  Bacchus  ;  by 
another  it  is  thought  a  religious  procession  of  the  Athenians  ;  and  there  are 
others,  who  suppose  it  simply  a  vintage,  or  sacrifical  rites  relative  to  the  con- 
quest of  India.  But  it  is  said  to  be  proved,  that  instead  of  being  an  antique, 
this  gem  was  engraved  by  an  intimate  friend  of  Angelo  himself.  It  was 
bought  by  the  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  for  800  crowns, 
and  Louis  XIV.  having  afterwards  acquired  it,  frequently  wore  it  as  a  ring." 
(New  Edinb.  Encyc.) 

Cf.  New  Edinb.  Encycl.  under  Oems.—  Winckclmann  mentions,  as  one  of  the  finest  antique  gems, 
a  cameo  from  the  hand  of  Athenion,  preserved  in  the  Farnese  cabinet  at  Naples  ;  representing 
Jupiter  in  a  chariot  hurling  his  thunderbolts  and  driving  over  the  prostrate  Titans.  He  gives  an 
engraving  of  it.  Cf.  Histoire  &x.  vol.  n.  p.  112,  115,  as  cited  §  32.  4. 

2.  (b)  The  cameo  of  Sardonyx  bearing  the  head  of  Alexander  was  publish- 
ed by  Stosch  in  his  work  cited  below  (§213.  1).  It  is  also  given,  with  other 
supposed  portraits  of  that  conqueror,  in  a  paper  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Institute. 
Speaking  of  engraved  stones  which  present  in  relief  the  heads  of  illustrious 
personages,  Winch elmann  says,  the  first  rank  may  be  assigned  to  a  bust  of  Au- 
gustus, on  a  flesh  colored  chalcedony,  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican. Jameson 

mentions  as  very  fine  an  engraved  gem  of  heliotrope  (cf.  §195. 1.)  preserved  in 
the  national  or  royal  library  at  Paris  ;  it  represents  the  head  of  Christ  scourg- 
ed {Christ  Flagellt),  and  is  so  cut  that  the  red  spots  of  the  gem  represent  drops 
of  blood. 

Cf.  Mem.  de  VInstitut,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts.  vol.  i.  p.  615.—  Winckelmann,  Histoire  &c» 
livre  iv.  ch.  vn.  $  67-70.  R.  Jameson,  .Mineralogy.  Edinb.  1820.  3  vols.  8.— A  gem  with  a  beau- 
tiful female  head  and  bust  i3  noticed  in  the  Hist  de  VAcad.  Insc.  vol.  in.  p.  244.  Sur  une  Prime 
d'  Emeraud  antique  ;  supposed  by  some  to  represent  Eucharib,  the  celebrated  female  dancer  at 
Rome. 


COLLECTIONS    OF    ANCIENT    GEMS.  119' 

3.  (c)  Mongez,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  French  Institute,  describes  three  an- 
tique cameos  said  by  him  to  be  the  largest  known.  The  first  is  a  Sardonyx, 
in  the  cabinet  of  the  king  of  France,  and  is  called  the  Agate  of  Tiberius.  It 
is  of  an  irregular  oval  form,  nearly  one  foot  (un  pied)  in  length  and  about  ten 
inches  (dix  pouces)  in  the  greatest  breadth.  The  sculpture  on  it  exhibits  three 
Bcenes ;  one,  in  heaven,  is  the  apotheosis  of  Augustus  ;  another,  on  earth,  is 
the  investiture  of  a  priestess,  in  the  family  of  Tiberius,  for  the  worship  of  Au- 
gustus ;  a  third  scene  presents  captives  of  various  nations  of  the  earth. — The 
second  cameo  is  in  the  Imperial  cabinet  at  Vienna.  It  is  about  one  third  less 
than  the  one  just  specified,  and  represents  Tiberius  as  descending  from  a  char- 
iot.— The  third  is  a  Sardonyx,  which  in  1808  belonged  to  a  public  collection  in 
Holland ;  it  represents  Claudius  and  his  family  drawn  by  Centaurs. 

4.  (d)  "  The  concentrically  striped  onyxes,  which  are  very  rare,  were  much  prized  by  the  an- 
cients and  they  cut  upon  them  very  beautiful  figures  in  demyrelief.  Oneof  the  most  beautiful 
works  cut  in  this  variety  of  chalcedony  is  the  celebrated  Mantuan  vase,  which  was  seized  by 
the  Germans  at  the  storming  of  Mantua,  and  ever  since  has  been  preserved  in  the  Ducal  collec- 
tion in  Brunswick.    Several  beautiful  plates  of  onyx  are  preserved  in  the  Electoral  Cabinet  in 

Dresden  ;  there  is  one  valued  at  44,000  dollars." (e)  The  Portland  vase  is  not  formed  of  a 

natural  gem  ;  it  has  been  already  described  (cf.  §  173.  2). 

Mongez,  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnst.  Olasse  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Jlnc.  vol.  vin.  p.  370.— K.  A.  Bcettiger, 
TJeber  die  ^Echteit  und  das  Vaterland  der  antiken  Onyx-Kameen  von  ausserordentlicher  Grosse. 
Lpz.  1796.8. — Jameson,  as  above  cited,  vol.  i.  p.  244. 

§  212.  The  most  celebrated  collections  of  ancient  gems  are  the 
following: — 4he  Grand  Duke's  at  Florence,  which  contains  3000; — 
those  of  the  families  of  Barberini  and  Odescalchi  at  Rome>  the  latter 
of  which  formerly  belonged  to  Christina  queen  of  Sweden ; — the  royal 
Cabinet  or  Museum  at  Paris ; — the  collection,  formerly  belonging  to 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  now  at  Petersburg ; — some  private  collections 
in  London,  particularly  those  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  and  Count 
Carlisle  ; — the  Imperial  Cabinet  at  Vienna  ; — the  collection  of  the 
King  of  Prussia,  of  which  the  gems  formerly  belonging  to  Baron  de 
Stosch  form  the  largest  and  most  valuable  part ; — that  of  the  King  of 
Netherlands  at  Hague. 

See  Gurlitt,  as  before  cited  §  195. — Respecting  the  collections  in  England,  Waagcn,  as  cited 
$  190.  6. — On  the  Cabinet  of  the  grand  duke  at  Florence,  see  Johnson's  Philosophy  of  Travel- 
ing, p.  119,  as  cited  §  190.  6. The  Royal  Museum  at  Naples,  which  is  now  enriched  with 

the  treasures  of  several  private  collections,  contains  many  precious  stones,  besides  fine  stat- 
ues, bronze  figures,  vases,  and  antiques  in  glass. — See  Finati  (and  others),  Real  Museo 
Borbonico.  Nap.  1824-33.  8  vols.  4.— E.  Gerhard  &c  Th.  Panofka,  Neapels  Antike  Bild- 
werke ;  commenced  1828.. 

The  collection  of  gems  formerly  belonging  to  Baron  de  Stosch,  above  mentioned,  is  now 
lodged  in  the  Royal  Museum  at  B  e  r  1  i  n.  And  we  should  remark,  that  this  Museum  now  con- 
tains the  gerns  and  also  the  statues  and  other  antiques  formerly  deposited  in  the  Royal  Man- 
sion and  at  Sans  Souci  (cf.  $  190.  3).  It  also  contains  Holler's  collection  of  Vases  from  Cam- 
pania and  other  parts  of  Italy  ;  Bartoldiano's  collection  of  Antiques  in  Bronze ;  several  smaller 
collections  made  by  different  persons  ;  and  a  number  of  statues  recently  procured  from  Italy. 
It  is  called  a  splendid  assemblage. 

Casts  of  ancient  gems  or  medals  are  found  in  the  libraries  or  museums  of  most  public  insti- 
tutions.   The  Boston  Atheneum  has  several  cases. 

§  213.  Engravings  and  Plates  are  a  useful  help  in  attaining  a 
knowledge  of  sculptured  gems.  Various  works  containing  plates 
and  descriptions  of  the  most  remarkable  specimens,  with  historical 
and  critical  observations,  have  been  published. 

1.  Works  referring  to  particular  cabinets  or  collections. — A.  F.  Gorii,  Museum  F 1  o  r  e  n  t  i- 
num,  as  cited  $  191.  2.  The  1st  and  2d  volumes  treat  of  Gems.— Le  Museum  de  Florence, 
oh  Collection  des  Pierres  gravees,  Statues,  Medailies,  et  Peintures,  qui  se  trouvent  a  Florence 
principalement  dans  le  Cab.  du  Gr.  Due,  &c.  grave  par  David,  avec  explanations  par  Mulot< 
Par.  1781-88.  6  vols.  4.— Man gez,  Camees,  &c.  de  la  Galerie  de  F  1  o  r  e  n  c  e  et  du  Palais  Pitti, 

&c.  as  cited  §  191.  2i Winckdmann,  Description  de  Pierres  gravees  du  feu  Mr.  Le  Baron  d  e 

Stosch.  Flor.  1760.  4.—F.  Schlichtegroll,  Auswahl  vorzuglicher  Gemmeu  aus  der  Stosch- 
i  s  c  h  e  n  Sammlun£.  The  1st  vol.  Numb.  1797.  4.  A  2d  vol.  in  continuation,  under  the  title 
Dactyliotheca  Stoschiana.    Numb.  1806.  4.— P.  J.  Marictte,  Recueil  des  pierres  antiques  de  la 

collection  de  Mr.  de  Gravelle.    Par.  1735-37.  2  vols.  4. Le  Blond  et  De  la  Chau,  Description 

<de  principals  pierres  gravees  du  Cabinet  du  Due  d' Orleans.  Par.  1780-84.  2  vols,  fol. 
Abridged,  with  notes  by  J.  G.  Jacobi.  Ziir.  1796.  4. P.  J.  Mariette,  Recueil  de  pierres  gra- 
vees (aucveux)  du  Cabinet  du  Roi.    Par.  1750.  2  vols.  fol. J.  Eckel,  Choix  des  Pierree 


120  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  ART. 

gravees  dn  Cabinet  Imperial  des  Antiques,  representees  en  40  Planches,  .fee.    Vien.  1788.  4. 
P.  E.  Visconti,  Gemme  incise  d.  Cavaliere  G.  Girometti,  &c.     Rome,  1836.  fol. 

2.  Works  of  a  more  general  character. — Domen.  de  Rossi,  Gemme  antiche  figurate,  colle 
eposizioni  del  P.  A.  Maffei.  Rome,  1707-1709.  4  vols.  4. — Qbr.  GorUei  Dactyliotheca,  cum  notis 
Jac.  Gronovii.  Lugd.  Bat.  1695,  1707.  2  vols.  4. — Phil,  de  Stosch,  Gemmae  antiques  caelatae, 
sculptornm  nominibus  insignitre.  (sen  incisse  per  Bern.  Picart.)  Amst.  1724.  fol. — Qmadutii, 
Novus  Thesaurus  Gemmarum  veterum.  Rome,  1753.  fol. — J.  M.  Raponi,  Recueil  de  Pierres 
antiques  gravees,  &c.  Rome,  1786.  fol.  with  numerous  plates. — G.  Ogle,  Antiquities  Explain- 
ed, being  a  collection  of  figured  Gems,  illustrated  by  descriptions  from  the  classics.  Lond. 
1737.  4.— A.  L.  MiUin,  Pierres  gravees  inedites  tirees  des  plus  celebres  Cabinets  de  l'Europe. 

Par.  1817.  2  vols.  8. We  will  add  here  R.   Walsh,  Essay  on  Ancient  Coins,  Medals,  and 

Gems,  as  illustrating  the  Progress  of  Christianity  in  the  early  ages.    Lond.  1828.  12. 

3.  It  may  be  proper  to  mention  also  some  works  which  relate  to  the  subject  of  gem-engraving 
in  general,  or  to  the  theory  and  history  of  the  art. — Theophrasti,  Eresii,  7i£Qt  J.  id  tor  pifttiov, 
in  his  Opp.  ed.  Schneider,  cited  P.  II.  §  192.  2 ;  also  in  /.  de  Lact,  de  Gemmis  et  Lapidibus  libri  n. 
Lug.  Bat.  1647.  8 ;  in  English,  with  remarks  by  /.  Hill,  Lond.  1748 ;  and  in  German,  with  the 
remarks  of  Hill,  and  a  treatise  on  the  ancient  art  of  Engraving  on  Gems,  by  A.  M.  Baumgmrt- 
ner,  Niirnb.  1770.  8.—Discorides,  ntoL  v'Atjg  laroixijg,  5th  Book. — Pliny,  Natural  History, 
37th  Book.  —  Jo.  Kirchman,  de  Annulis  liber  singularis.  L.  B.  1672.  12. — Anselmi  Boetii  (de 
Boot)  Gemmarum  et  Lapidum  Historia,  aucta  ab  Adr.  Tollio.  L.  B.  1647.  8. — P.  J.  Mariette, 
cited  §  206.— L.  Natter,  cited  §207. — 1.  L.  Millin,  Introduction  a  l'Etude  des  Pierres  gravees. 
1796.  8,—Gurlitt,  iiber  die  Gemmenkunde.  Magdeb.  1798.  4. — See  also  Sutler's  Allg.  Theo- 
rie,  article  Geschnittene  Steine. — Encyc.  Americ.,  Edinb.  Encyc.,  &c- 


III. — Painting. 


§  214.  Painting,  as  a  fine  art  (y^«ytx>;,  Lwyoa(/u*>;),  is  the  represen- 
tation of  visible  objects  upon  a  plane  surface  by  means  of  figure  and 
color.  It  is  not  confined,  however,  to  the  mere  exhibition  of  mate- 
rial bodies  and  forms ;  but  expresses  also  their  invisible  powers  and 
immaterial  and  spiritual  nature  and  affections,  by  gestures,  attitudes, 
and  the  like.  It  also  employs  the  form  of  sensible  objects  allegori- 
cally  to  signify  things  very  different  from  what  actually  meets  the 
eye.  (Cf.  §  147.) — The  real  foundation  of  painting  is  laid  in  the 
art  of  designing,  that  is,  representing  objects  on  a  plane  by  lines  and 
strokes ;  by  the  advancement  of  which  in  correctness  and  beauty 
the  progress  of  painting  must  be  forwarded,  almost  as  a  matter  of 
course. 

§  215.  It  has  been  already  remarked  (§  155),  that  the  art  of  design- 
ing, or  sketching,  although  it  is  of  so  great  importance  as  a  foun- 
dation and  help  to  all  the  plastic  arts,  is  yet  probably  of  later  origin. 
So  the  art  of  coloring  merely  was  doubtless  of  earlier  origin  than 
painting,  properly  so  termed  ;  which  implies  the  filling  up,  with  col- 
ors suitably  chosen  and  applied,  of  an  outline  sketched  designedly. 
Yet  the  art  of  designing  and  painting  existed,  beyond  all  question,  in 
a  very  early  period,  although  we  cannot  determine  exactly  when,  or 
in  what  nation,  it  originated.  It  is  still  a  controverted  question, 
whether  it  existed  in  Greece  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war  ;  and  the 
negative  is  certainly  quite  probable.  This  however  would  not  imply 
that  it  did  not  then  exist  in  other  countries. 

§  216.  The  Egyptians  were  acquainted  with  this  earlier  than  the 
Greeks,  although  not  so  much  earlier  as  according  to  Pliny  (Nat. 
Hist.  xxxv.  5)  they  claimed.  Sketching  or  designing  seems  to  have 
become  common  among  them  quite  early.  Originally  the  art  was 
chiefly  temple-painting,  and  we  must  distinguish  between  that  which 


PLATE     VI. 


122  ARCHAEOLOGY    OP    ART. 

is  found  upon  the  walls  of  edifices,  and  that  upon  mummies  and  pa* 
pyrus  rolls.  Painting  remained  very  imperfect  in  Egypt,  as  did  the 
plastic  arts  in  general.  The  artists  applied  their  colors  in  uniform 
tints,  without  shading  or  contrast.  !?ome  paintings  found  in  Egypt 
seem  to  be  an  exception  to  this  remark,  but  they  were  probably  exe- 
cuted in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  by  Grecian  artists. 

1.  "  Egyptian  painting,  seldom,  if  ever,  attempts  more  than  an  outline  of 
the  object  as  seen  in  profile,  such  as  would  be  obtained  by  its  shadow.  To 
this  rude  but  always  well-proportioned  draught,  colors  are  applied,  simply 
and  without  mixture  or  blending,  or  the  slightest  indication  of  light  and 
shade.  The  process  appears  to  have  been,  first,  the  preparation  of  the  ground 
in  white ;  next,  the  outline  was  firmly  traced  in  black;  and,  lastly,  the  flat 
colors  were  applied.  The  Egyptian  artists  employed  six  pigments,  mixed  up 
with  a  gummy  liquid,  namely,  white,  black,  red,  blue,  yellow,  and  green;  the 
three  first  always  earthy,  the  remaining,  vegetable  or  at  least  frequently  trans- 
parent. The  specimens  from  which  we  derive  these  facts,  are  the  painted 
shrouds  and  cases  of  mummies,  and  the  still  more  perfect  examples  on  the 
walls  of  the  tombs.  It  can  furnish  no  evidence  of  extraordinary  experience 
or  practice,  that  these  paintings  still  retain  their  color  clear  and  fresh.  The 
circumstance  merely  shows  the  aridity  of  the  climate,  and  that  the  coloring 
matters  were  prepared  and  applied  pure  and  without  admixture."     (Memes.) 

Some  notices  of  Egyptian  painting  may  be  found  in  J.  O.  Wilkinson,  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  Egyptians.  Lond.  1837.  3  vols.  8.  with  some  colored  plates.  —  See,  also,  in  Denon  (as 
cited  §  238.  2.),  vol.  i.  p.  177,  a  notice  of  the  paintings  in  the  tombs  at  Thebes.  —  Lond.  Quart- 
Rev.  xix.  192,  421. 

2u.  That  painting,  or  at  least  the  art  of  coloring,  existed  early  among  the 
Chaldeans  and  Israelites  is  indicated  by  passages  in  the  Bible.  Ezek.  xxiii. 
14;  viii.  10  ;  comp.  Numb,  xxxiii.  52. 

§  217.  According  to  the  common  tradition  of  antiquity,  which 
agrees  well  with  the  natural  probability  of  the  case,  painting,  or 
rather  designing,  took  its  rise  originally  from  the  tracing  of  the  shad- 
ows of  objects  upon  a  wall,  and  marking  the  outline  with  carbon  or 
chalk.  Ardices  of  Corinth  and  Telephon  of  Sicyon  are  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who,  by  drawing  the  inner  parts,  presented  something 
more  than  the  outline,  and  indicated  light  and  shade.  The  earliest 
Greek  pictures  were  drawn  with  a  single  color,  and  are  thence  termed 
iiovo/odHtura;  a  red  color  was  chiefly  used,  perhaps  because  it  resem- 
bled that  of  flesh  in  the  human  body.  The  first  that  employed  vari- 
ous colors  appears  to  have  been  Bularchus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
Candaules,  king  of  Lydia,  about  720  B.  C. 

"  The  first  painting  on  record  is  the  battle  of  Magnete  by  Bularchus,  and 
purchased  by  Candaules,  King  of  Lydia,  for  its  weight  in  gold,  or  as  some 
say,  a  quantity  of  gold  coins  equal  to  the  extent  of  its  surface.  This  estab- 
lishes the  first  era  of  the  art  in  Greece."  But  painting  had  been  practiced 
for  several  centuries  preceding,  especially  at  Corinth.  The  art  is  said  to  have 
passed  through  several  gradations;  as,  simple  skiagraphy,  ox  shadow-paint- 
ing; the  monographic  style,  consisting  of  a  simple  outline;  monochromatic 
compositions,  in  which  one  color  only  was  employed ;  and  polychromatic , 
where  a  variety  of  hue  was  used,  but  without  shading.  It  is,  however,  hard- 
ly supposable  that  the  art  advanced  by  any  perfectly  regular  series  of  steps. 

See  Memes,  p.  120,  121,  as  cited  $  169.— Coylus,  (Dissertations  relat.  a  i'histoire  et  a  Part ;) 
Abhandlungen  zur  Geschichte  und  Kunst.  (bk.  ii.  p.  23.  74.)  Altenb.  1768.  2  vols.  4.— Ram- 
dohr,  Ueber  Malerei,  &c.  bk.  ii.  p.  176,  as  cited  §  226.  2. 

§  218.  The  succeeding  Greek  painters  used  only  four  principal 
colors;  viz.  white,  yellow,  red,  and  black;  which  are  called,  by 
Pliny,  3felinum,  Atticum,  Si7iopis  Pontica,  and  Atramcntum.  Of 
the  real  nature  of  these  pigments,  and  of  the  modes  of  mixing  and 
preserving  them,  we  know  but  little.     Oil  colors  appear  not  to  have 


ANCIENT    PAINTING.       ENCAUSTIC.  123 

been  known  to  the  ancients ;  they  always  used  water  colors,  to  which, 
especially  to  black,  they  sometimes  added  vinegar.  They  also,  es- 
pecially in  paintings  upon  plaster  or  in  fresco,  made  use  of  a  sort  of 
varnish  of  wax  to  increase  the  brightness  and  durability  of  the  col- 
ors. Both  these  objects  Apelles  effected  by  means  of  a  fine  black 
varnish  which  none  could  imitate. 

"  In  the  pictures  at  Naples  and  Rome,  is  greater  variety  of  coloring  than, 
from  some  passages  in  their  writings,  has  been  allowed  to  the  ancients.  And, 
indeed,  unless  Pliny  be  supposed  to  point  out  a  distinction  in  this  respect  be- 
tween the  practice  of  the  earlier  and  later  painters,  he  contradicts  himself; 
for  in  all,  he  enumerates  no  less  than  five  different  whites,  three  yellows,  nine 
reds  or  purples,  two  blues,  one  of  which  is  indigo,  two  greens,  and  one  black, 
which  also  appears  to  be  a  generic  expression,  including  bitumen,  charcoal, 
ivory,  or  lamp-black,  mentioned  with  probably  others."     (Memes,  p.  12S.) 

See  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxv.  5-42.  —  De  Covins,  on  certain  passages  of  Pliny,  &c.  Mem.  Acad. 
Inscr.  xxv.  149.— O.  E.  Lessing,  Vom  Alter'der  Oel-maherer  aus  dem  Theophilus  Presbyter, 
in  his  Scemmtliche  Schriften  (as "cited  $168),  vol.  vm.  p.  285.— F.  W.  Docring,  Progr.  de  coloribus 
Veterum.  Goth.  1788.  A.—Sliegliti,  uber  d.  Malerfarben  der  Griech.  und  Rom.  Lpz.  1817.  8.— 
JVinckelmann,  Histoire,  &c.  lib.  iv.  ch.  viii.  sect.  31. 

§  219.  Single  pieces  of  painting  were  usually  executed  upon  wood, 
and  therefore  called  niraxtc,  tabula;.  The  wood  of  the  larch  tree 
(larix)  was  preferred  on  account  of  its  durability  and  its  not  being 
liable  to  warp  out  of  shape.  They  painted  more  rarely  upon  linen 
cloth  ;  as  in  the  colossal  picture  of  Nero  mentioned  by  Pliny.  The 
most  common  kind  of  painting  was  that  upon  plaster  ;  which  is  now 
called  fresco-painting.  Less  common  was  drawing  or  painting  on 
marble  and  ivory. 

1  u.  The  fresco-painting  was  executed  upon  a  moist  as  well  as  upon  a  dry 
ground.  In  this  last  mode  of  painting,  the  colors  were  probably  laid  on  with 
a  peculiar  sort  of  glue  or  size,  since  in  many  pieces  of  this  kind  that  have 
been  found,  they  are  so  well  fixed  and  preserved,  that  a  wet  sponge  or  cloth 
may  be  drawn  over  them  without  injury.  Previous  to  the  paintings,  the  walls 
received  a  double  coating,  and  the  surface  was  carefully  polished. 

Beautiful  deep  blue  colors  have  been  found  in  the  fresco-paintings  on  the  walls  of  ancient 
Konian  structures.  "  In  clearing  away  the  rubbish  within  the  baths  of  Titus,  the  walls  of 
which  display  many  beautiful  specimens  of  fresco-painting,  the  painter's  room  was  discov- 
ered ;  and  in  several  of  the  jars  were  found  different  kinds  of  paint,  and  among  others  a  quan- 
tity of  the  beautiful  celestial  blue,  which  retained  its  lustre  and  freshness  so  remarkably  on  the 
walls.  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  on  analysis,  found  it  to  consist  of  a  frit  of  copper,  soda,  and  si- 
lex  ;  and  by  reconiposition  formed  the"  same  color  from  fresh  materials. 

Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xiv.407. — Rodeet  Rcim,  de  la  Peinture  chez  les  Anciens  (in  Winckel- 
mann's  Histoire,  &x.    Par.  1803.    (Vol.  in.  p.  59,  137.) 

2.  The  terms  niral  and  nnuxtov  seem  to  have  been  applied  to  any  material 
on  which  a  picture  was  drawn.  The  easel,  or  frame  to  which  the  material 
was  fixed,  while  the  artist  was  painting,  was  called  by  the  Greeks  dxoipag  ; 
•yqayig  and  vjcoynaipig  signified  the  style  and  pencil  (penicillus)  ;  zQwiiara  and 
tpatjuuy.a,  the  colors  ;  h\y.v&o<;,  the  box  in  which  they  were  kept.  Eiy.uv  signi- 
fied a  portrait  or  likeness  as  well  as  statue ;  a  mere  sketch  was  termed  vno- 
y(>«<p»,' ;  the  word  ozfayougn'u  signifies,  etymologically,  shadow-painting;  it  is 
commonly  interpreted  the  art  of  sketching  or  delineating. 

§  220.  There  was  a  kind  of  painting  peculiar  to  ancient  times, 
called  encaustic,  which  we  know  only  by  the  imperfect  description 
given  by  Pliny,  who  speaks  of  three  methods  of  it. 

1  u.  The  first  of  these  methods  consisted,  it  seems,  in  mingling  wax  with 
the  colors,  and  laying  them  on  by  means  of  fire  and  certain  instruments  called 
cauteria  (y.avTi)Qia).  The  second  was  employed  upon  ivory,  and  wTas  called 
r.tOTQwciQ,  because  the  outline  was  cut  in  the  ivory  by  a  pointed  graver,  termed 
xioxQov  (veruculum),  and  the  colors  afterwards  applied.  The  third  seems  to 
have  been  a  process  of  laying  on  melted  wax  by  means  of  a  brush.     A  fourth 


124  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

kind,  used  in  painting  upon  walls,  is  mentioned  by  Vitruvius.  Men  of  science 
and  artists  have  attempted  to  discover  and  restore  this  art. 

Pltny,  Nat.  Hist.  XXXV.  41. —  Vltruv.  De  Archit.  vii.  9. — Don  Vincenzo  Requeno,  Saggi  sul  ris- 
tabilimento  dell'  antica  arte  de'  Greci  e  de'  Romani  pittori.  Parma,  1787.  2  vols.  8  ;  in  French, 
Rome,  1786. — Battiger's  Geschichte  der  Enkaustik  der  Alten,  in  the  Journal  des  Lvxus  und  der 
Moden,  for  the  year  1794. — Rode  and  Rcim,  as  above  cited  in  Winckelmann,  vol.  in.  p.  161. — Cay- 
lus,  On  encaustic  painting,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxvm.  179.  English  Transl.  by  J.  H. 
Munz.  Lond.  1760.  8. — Phil.  Trans,  for  the  year  1751. —  Trans,  of  Soc.  for  Encouragement  of 
Arts.    Lond.  1787.— Suher's  Allg.  Theorie,  vol.  n.  p.  59. 

2u.  The  peculiar  mode  of  representing  visible  objects  which  was  termed 
mosaic-work,  is  often  included  under  the  denomination  of  painting.  This  has 
already  been  noticed  (cf.  §  167,  189).  —  Respecting  the  peculiar  method  of 
painting  glass  which  was  practiced  by  the  ancients,  we  know  but  little. 

Le  Vicil,  L'art  de  la  Peinture  sur  verre.  Par.  1774.  fol.  German  transl.  Num.  1780. — For 
an  account  of  attempts  to  restore  this  art,  Fiorillo's  Klein.  Schrift.  artistischen  Inhalts. — Cf. 

Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie.  article  Glasmahlcrey. — Edinb.  Encycl.  article  Glass. A  recent  traveler, 

speaking  of  the  show  rooms  of  the  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  at  Sevres 
in  France,  observes,  "  here  were  vases,  cups,  pitchers,  urns,  statues,  table  sets,  toys,  chim- 
ney ornaments,  all  of  the  most  splendid  and  costly  character.  The  ware  itself  is  of  the  most 
perfect  kind,  and  then  the  painting  and  the  gilding,  and  the  setting  of  brilliants  and  precious 
stones,  add  immensely  to  the  expense.  Brogniard  (the  director,  1835)  has  added  much  to  the 
painting  department  by  his  discoveries  in  the  art  of  painting  glass.  He  is  said  to  have  ascer- 
tained the  means  of  equaling  all  the  ancient  colors  in  glass  except  the  red." 

§  221.  Our  judgment  respecting  the  merits  of  the  ancients  in 
painting  we  derive  in  a  great  degree  from  the  unanimous  encomi- 
ums of  their  writers.  We  infer  it  also  from  their  known  excellence 
in  other  arts,  which  are  kindred  to  it,  and,  like  it,  essentially  con- 
nected with  the  art  of  designing.  From  the  few  imperfect  and  bad- 
ly preserved  specimens  of  ancient  painting  ever  seen  by  the  moderns 
no  valid  arguments  can  be  drawn.  Many  questions  therefore  re- 
pecting  the  subject  of  ancient  painting  remain  unsettled ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, whether  the  artists  understood  perspective.  Their  greatest 
attention  seems  to  have  been  given  to  coloring. 

Fiorillo,  on  the  Perspective  of  the  Ancients  (in  his  Kl.  Schrift.  cited  §  220). —  Comte  de  Cay- 
lus,  on  the  same  subject,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxm.  320  ;  also  as  cited  §  217. — Sallier,  on 
the  same  topic,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vni.  97. — Memes,  History  of  Sculpture,  &.c.  p.  127. — Cf.  Sui- 
ter's Allg.  Theorie.  vol.  in.  p.  686. 

§  222.  Among  the  Greeks  there  were  schools  of  painting  as  well 
as  of  sculpture.  The  four  most  celebrated  were  at  Sicyon,  Corinth, 
Rhodes,  and  Athens.  Hence  there  were  different  styles  and  tastes 
in  the  art,  the  Asiatic  and  the  Helladic,  the  Ionian,  Sicyonian,  and 
Attic ;  the  three  last  being,  however,  modifications  of  the  second. 
Sicyon  especially  was  looked  upon  as  the  native  land  and  nursery  of 
the  best  painters.  But  paintings  were  not  by  any  means  so  numer- 
ous in  Greece  as  were  works  of  sculpture.  —  The  most  flourishing 
period  of  the  art  was  about  the  time  of  Alexander.  Some  of  the 
most  celebrated  masters  were  Polygnotus,  Apollodorus,  Zeuxis,  Par- 
rhasius,  Timanthes,  Eupompus,  Pamphylus,  Apelles,  and  Protogenes. 

1.  The  history  of  painting  among  the  Greeks  is  divided  by  Memes  into  four 
periods.  The  first  terminated  with  Bularchus,  B.  C.  720,  whose  battle- 
piece  has  been  mentioned  (§  217).  The  second  period  extends  from  Bular- 
chus to  Zeuxis,  about  400  B.  C.  Polygnotus  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  in 
this  period  ;  his  pictures  were  admired  by  Pliny  at  the  distance  of  six  hun- 
dred years.  Towards  the  close  of  this  period,  the  pencil  is  said  to  have  been 
first  used  by  Appollodorus  of  Athens,  the  instructor  of  Zeuxis.  The  third 
commences  with  Zeuxis  and  ends  with  Apelles.  who  flourished  about  330 
B.  C.  In  this  period  great  improvement  was  made,  in  which  the  genius  of 
Zeuxis  opened  and  led  the  way.  Parrhasius,  Timanthes,  Eupompus,  and 
Pamphylus,  the  master  of  Apelles,  are  named  among  the  distinguished  paint- 
ers of  this  era.     The  fourth  period  is  dated  from  the  time  of  Apelles.     This 


PAINTING   AMONG    THE    ROMANS.  125 

age  witnessed  the  full  glory  and  decline  of  the  art.  Apelles  is  said  to  have 
united  the  excellences  which  had  been  separately  exhibited  in  his  predeces- 
sors. His  Venus  Anadyomene,  which  was  long  "  afterwards  purchased  by 
Augustus  for  one  hundred  talents,  or  £20,000  sterling,  was  esteemed  the  most 
faultless  creation  of  the  Grecian  pencil,  the  most  perfect  example  of  that 
simple  yet  unapproachable  grace  of  expression,  of  symmetry  of  form,  and 
exquisite  finish,  in  which  may  be  summed  up  the  distinctive  beauties  of  his 
genius."  Protogenes  of  Rhodes,  a  contemporary  of  Apelles,  was  next  to  him 
in  merit.  Nicias  of  Athens  was  a  reputable  painter.  Later  were  Nicoma- 
chus,  Pasius,  and  others,  with  whom  the  art  began  to  decline. 

Levesque,  Sur  les  progres  successifs  de  la  peinture  chez  les  Grecs;  Mem.  de  VInstitut,  Classe 

de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts,  vol.  I.  p.  374. Respecting  the  principal  artists  above  named,  and  their 

work3  ;  Bcettiger,  Ideen  zur  Archaeologie  der  Malerei.  Dresd.  1811.  8. — Oedoyn  &  De  Caylus, 
on  Polygnotus"  Mem.  Acad.  laser,  vi.  445,  &  xxvn.  34. — Brottier,  on  a  painting  of  Protogenes, 
Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xlvi.  463. — Irnauld,  La  vie  et  les  ouvrages  d'Apelle,  in  the  same  Mem.  Sec. 
xlix.  200. —  C.  de  Caylus,  La  Venus  d'Apelles  dite  Anadyomene,  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  Inscr. 
xxx.  442,  with  a  plate  drawn  from  a  figure  in  bronze. —  Quatr.  de  Quincy,  Sur  de  defi  d'Apel- 
les et  de  Protogenes,  Mem.  de  PlnsLtut,  Classe  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  v.  p.  300,  with  curious 
plates.  Cf.  Plin.  xxxv.  10.— A  famous  painting  of  Zeuxis  is  described  in  the  Ztv^ig  of  Lu- 
cian. 

2.  Respecting  the  comparative  number  of  paintings  and  statues  in  Greece, 
the  following  statement  is  in  point.  "  Pausanias  mentions  the  names  of  one 
hundred  and  sixty-nine  sculptors,  and  only  fifteen  painters  ;  while  after  three 
centuries  of  spoliation  he  found  in  Greece  three  thousand  statues,  not  one  of 
them  a  copy,  he  describes  only  one  hundred  and  thirty-one  paintings."  —  It 
may  be  also  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  Greeks  preferred  busts  to  portraits, 
and  this  branch  of  painting  does  not  seem  to  have  been  so  much  cultivated  as 
others.  "  While  Pausanias  enumerates  eighty-eight  masterpieces  of  history, 
he  mentions  only  half  the  number  of  portraits,  which  he  had  seen  in  his  trav- 
els through  Greece  in  the  second  century." 

See  Memes,  p.  120,  ss.— Cf.  M.  Heyne,  Sur  les  causes  de  la  perfection  k  laquelle  Part  parvint 
chez  les  Grecs,  et  sur  les  epoques  qu'il  paroit  avoit  eu  chez  ce  peuple  ;  in  tVinckelmann's  His- 
toire,  &c. 

§  223.  In  Italy  painting  was  early  cultivated.  Evidence  of  its 
advancement  is  given  by  those  rich  vases,  already  mentioned  (§  173), 
which  are  generally  termed  Etruscan,  but  are  probably  the  work 
chiefly  of  Grecian  artists.  It  may  be  remarked,  that  the  color  which 
fills  up  the  figures,  mostly  red  or  black,  was  the  proper  ground  color 
of  these  vessels,  and  that  the  color  of  the  surrounding  space  was 
laid  on  afterwards.  It  is  possible  that  these  paintings  are  copied 
from  larger  pictures  of  the  best  Greek  masters,  and  so  may  furnish 
us  some  means  of  judging  of  the  conceptions  and  devices  of  those 
artists. 

See  BcrMiger's  Griech.  Vasengem'alde. — J.  Christie's  Disquisitions  en  the  Painted  Greek 
Vases.— Lanii,  D.  Vasi  dipinti.  Firenze,  1805.— Cf.  Mem.  de  Vlnstitut,  Classe  d'Lit.  et  Hist. 
Jlnc.  "  sur  un  Vase  peint  apporte  de  Sicile,"  vol.  in.  p  38.  with  a  plate. 

§  224.  At  Rome  also,  in  early  times,  there  were  various  paintings. 
But  after  the  subjugation  of  the  Grecian  territories  they  were  more 
numerous  and  more  valuable.  The  Romans,  however,  did  not  labor 
to  signalize  themselves  in  this  art,  but  were  contented  with  posses- 
sing the  best  pieces  of  Grecian  painters,  some  of  whom  resided  at 
Rome,  particularly  under  the  first  emperors.  Yet  Pliny  has  record- 
ed the  names  of  several  native  artists,  as  Pacuvius,  Fabius,  Turpi- 
lius,  and  duintus  Pedius. 

Pacuvius,  known  also  as  a  tragic  poet  (cf.  P.  II.  §  353),  was  one  of  the  first  Romans  distin- 
guished as.  a  painter.    A  piece  which  he  executed  for  the  temple  of  Hercules,  in  the  Forum 

Boarium,  was  particularly  celebrated.     Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxv.  4. Comte  de  Caylus,  Sur  les 

princes,  qui  ont  cultive  les  arts,  (Roman  emperors  and  others,)  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxix.  160. — 
Cf.  Life  of  Mich.  Angelo,  in  the  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge. 

11* 


126  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

§  225.  But  painting,  like  the  sister  arts,  ere  long  declined  and  fi- 
nally became  almost  extinct,  from  various  causes  ;  the  irruptions  of 
the  northern  tribes,  the  dominions  of  the  Goths  and  Lombards,  the 
controversy  of  the  Iconoclasts  in  the  eighth  century,  the  general  cor- 
ruption of  taste,  and  the  general  want  of  knowledge  and  refinement. 
The  art  was  not  wholly  lost,  but  the  uses  made  of  it,  and  the  per- 
formances actually  produced  by  it,  were  such  as  tended  only  to  bring 
it  into  greater  neglect. 

See  Fiorillo's  Geschichte  der  zeichnenden  Kiinste.    Cf.  §  183. 

§  226.  After  the  revival  of  the  arts,  much  curiosity  was  awakened 
respecting  the  monuments  of  ancient  painting.  A  considerable  num- 
ber, which  were  concealed  in  ruined  buildings,  tombs,  and  the  like, 
or  had  remained  unnoticed,  were  sought  out;  and  by  means  of  plates 
and  copies,  a  knowledge  of  them  was  communicated  to  amateurs  of 
the  art. 

1  u.  Among  these  monuments  are  the  pictures  found  on  the  pyramid  of  C. 
Cestius,  of  the  time  of  Augustus  ;  some  paintings  on  the  walls  of  the  palace 
and  baths  of  Titus,  of  which  some  are  preserved  in  the  Escurial  at  Madrid  ; 
some  antique  paintings  preserved  at  Rome,  in  the  palaces  Massimi  and  Bar- 
berini,  and  particularly  the  piece  called  the  Aldobrandine  festival,  formerly  in 
the  Villa  Aldobrandini,  now  in  the  pope's  collection.  We  may  mention,  as 
among  the  most  remarkable,  the  pictures  found  in  the  tomb  of  the  Nasos  in  the 
year  1675.  Many  remains  of  ancient  painting  were  discovered  at  Hercula- 
neum,  Pompeii,  and  Stabise,  which  are  still  preserved  in  the  museum  at  Por- 
tici.  They  are  above  a  thousand  in  number,  most  of  them  upon  dry  plaster  or 
chalk,  but  some  upon  a  moist  ground,  or  proper  fresco-paintings.  Many  of 
them,  by  being  exposed  to  the  light  and  air,  lost  their  colors.  Others  were 
mutilated  and  injured  in  detaching  them  from  the  walls,  before  a  safe  and  suc- 
cessful method  was  discovered. 

Respecting  the  tomb  of  Cestius,  see  Descriiione  di  Romana  Anticka,  con  le  Autorita  di 
Panvinio,  Nordini,  &x.  Rom.  1697.  —  Winckclmann,  Histoire  Sec.  livre  iv.  ch.  8.  §  13.  Note. — 
Johnson's  Phil,  of  Travel,  p.  178.  cited  §190.1.  —  L'Abbe  Rive,  Hist.  Crit.  de  la  Pyram.  de  C. 
Cestius.  Par.  1790.  —  A  view  of  this  tomb  is  given  in  our  Plate  XV.  fig.  3. For  an  expla- 
nation of  the  Aldobrandine  festival,  see  Battiger's  arch'aologische  Ausdeutung  &c.  Dresd.1810.  4. 

—  Winckelmann,  Histoire  &c.  livre  iv.  ch.  8.  §8. Of  the  pictures  in  the  tomb  of  the  Nasos, 

with  others,  plates  were  published  in  Bartoli  and  Bellori,  Picturaa  antiquis  Cryptarum  Roman- 
arum  et  sepulchri  Nasonum.     Rom.  1738.  (it.  1750,  1791.)  fol.      Cf.   Gravii  Thes.  Ant.  Rom. 

tome  xii.  p.  1021,  and  Winckelmann,  Histoire,  &c.  livre  iv.  ch.  10.  §  8.   liv.  vi.  ch.  6.  §  13. 

On  the  paintings  discovered  at  Herculaneum,  see  the  stately  work  entitled  Le  Antichita 
di  Ercolano,  cited  §  243.  2.  Five  volumes  of  it  relate  more  particularly  to  the  paintings  :  viz. 
vols.  1st,  2d,  3d,  4th  and  7th,  which  bear  the  title  of  Le  Pitturc  antiche  d'F.rcolano.  —  On  the 
monuments  of  ancient  painting,  see  also  Winckelmann'' s  Histoire  &c.  livre  iv.  ch.  8.  —  There 
are  some  notices  of  paintings  found  at  Pompeii,  in  the  work  styled  Pompeii,  republished  from  the 
English  edit.  Bost.  1833.  12.  with  wood-cuts. 

2  7/.  It  will  be  proper  to  mention  here  other  works  that  treat  of  the  painting 
of  the  ancients. 

Franc.  Junii  de  Pictura  Veterum  Libri.  III.  Roterod.  1694.  fol.  in  Germ.  Transl.  Breslau. 
1777.  8. — Mr.  Durand,  Histoire  de  la  peinture  ancienne,  extraite  de  l'histoire  naturelle  de  Pline. 
Lond.  1725.  fol.  —  Geo.  Trumbull's  Treatise  on  Ancient  Painting.  Lond.  1740.  fol.  with  50  en- 
gravings of  ancient  paintings.  —  History  of  painting  among  the  Greeks,  in  J.  J.  Rambach,  Ver- 
such  einer  pragmatischer  Litter'arhistorie.  Halle,  1770.  8.  —  Reim,  iiber  die  Malerei  der  Alten. 
Berl.  1787.J  cf-  Winckclmann,  Histoire  de  l'Art.  (Paris,  1803.  tome  n.  2eP.  p.  69).— C.  A.  Batti- 
ger's Ideen  zur  Arch'aologie  der  Malerei.  Dresd.  1811.  8.  —  J.  J.  Grund,  Malerei  der  Griechen. 
Dresd.  1810.  2  vols.  8.  —  F.  Kuegler,  Handbuch  der  Geschichte  des  Malerie  von  Constantine 
dem  Grossen  &c.  Berl.  1837.  2  vols.  8.  —  J.  G.  Legrand,  cited  $  243.  1.  —  Crozc-Magnan,  Dis- 
cours  Historique  sur  la  Peinture  &.c.  belonging  to  the  M  u  s  e  e' Francaise,  cited  $191.  —  Lanii's 
Geschichte  der  Malerei ;  transl.  by  A.  Wagner,  with  additions  by  Quandt.  1833.  '  Ramdohr,  iiber 
Malerei  und  Bildhauerei  in  Rom.  Lpz.  1799.  3  vols.  8.  —  There  is  a  valuable  but  rare  work, 
from  the  zeal  of  Count  Caylus,  Recueil  des  peintures  antiques  imitees  fidelement  pour  les  cou- 
leurs  et  pour  le  dessein,  d'apres  les  dessseins  colories  faits  par  P.  S.  Bartoli.  Paris,  1757.  (im- 
proved, 1784.)  fol.  —  Raoul-Rochette,  Peintures  Antiques  Inedits,  precedees  de  Recherches  sur 
l'Emploi  de  la  Peintures  dans  le  decoration  des  Edifices  sacrees  et  publics  chez  les  Grecs  et  chez 
les  Romains.  Par.1836.  fol.  illustrated  by  plates;  a  Supplement  to  his  Monum.  Incd.  cited  $191. 4. 
—See  Sulzer's  Allg.  Theorie,  Art.  Mahlcrey. 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  ART.  127 


IV. — Architecture. 


§  227.  Architecture  may  be  contemplated  in  two  different  points 
of  view, — as  a  mechanic  art,  or  as  a  fine  art.  In  the  latter  view  it  is 
to  be  considered  here ;  that  is,  so  far  as  the  general  rules  of  taste  are 
applicable  to  it ;  so  far  as  it  has  not  mere  utility,  comfort,  or  durability, 
but  rather  beauty  and  pleasure,  for  its  object.  Order,  symmetry,  noble 
simplicity,  fair  proportions  and  agreeable  forms,  are  the  chief  pecu- 
liarities that  are  requisite  to  render  a  building  a  work  of  taste  ;  and 
these  are  the  points  to  which  the  artist  and  the  observer  must  turn 
their  attention. 

lu.  In  its  origin  architecture  was  only  a  mechanic  art,  and  scarcely  deserved 
that  name.  It  commenced  in  the  first  human  society,  as  men  must  have  imme- 
diately felt  the  need  of  defence  against  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  violence  of 
storms,  and  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts.  The  dwellings  of  men,  after  they  were 
dispersed  and  lived  in  an  unsettled  state,  were  at  first,  it  is  likely,  caves  and 
clefts  of  rocks  ;  and  then  huts  and  cabins,  rudely  constructed,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  climate  and  the  genius  of  the  occupants,  of  reed,  cane,  boughs, 
bark,  mud,  clay,  and  the  like. 

2w.  The  writings  of  Moses  (Gen.  iv.  17.  xi.  4.)  present  the  earliest  notices 
of  architecture  in  the  residence  of  Cain,  and  the  tower  of  Babel. 

§  228.  "  There  are  three  grand  causes  of  structure  and  form  in  architecture ; 
three  leading  principles,  which  not  only  originated  the  primeval  elements  of 
design,  but  which  to  a  great  degree  have  governed  all  the  subsequent  combi- 
nations of  these.  This  influence  extends  not  merely  to  the  essentials  of  sta- 
bility, equilibrium,  and  strength,  but  has  suggested  the  system  of  ornament. 
These  master  dispositions  are,  first,  the  purpose ;  secondly,  the  material  of  ar- 
chitecture ;  and  thirdly,  the  climate." 

Climate  will  necessarily  exert  some  influence  on  architecture ;  chiefly,  how- 
ever, upon  the  external  arrangements.  According  to  the  latitude  of  the  situa- 
tion, buildings  will  be  contrived  to  admit  or  exclude  the  sun,  to  give  shelter 
from  biting  cold,  or  to  secure  against  scorching  heat,  or  merely  to  yield  shade, 
without  immediate  reference  to  either  extreme.  All  these,  however,  will  not 
affect  the  internal  harmonies  or  properties  of  the  constituent  parts.  Climate, 
therefore,  is  only  modifying,  not  creative,  as  the  two  other  causes  ;  it  may 
suggest  composition,  but  hardly  design. 

§  229.  "  The  materials  employed  in  architecture  have  influenced  its  forms 
and  character ;  not  only  in  the  peculiar  styles  adopted  in  different  countries  ; 
but  likewise  in  the  general  principles  of  the  science.  The  choice  of  materials 
in  the  first  instance  is  determined  by  the  resources  of  the  particular  country ; 
but  the  arrangement  of  the  materials  must  be,  in  some  measure,  determined  by 
laws  which  are  universal,  and  over  which  taste  and  ingenuity  can  exert  only 
a  limited  control.  Since  a  mass  of  stone  is  heavier  in  all  positions,  and  weaker 
in  most  positions,  than  timber  of  equal  dimensions,  it  is  obvious  the  whole 
structure,  that  is,  the  system  of  architecture,  will  be  modified  as  the  one  or  the 
other  material  is  employed.  In  wooden  erections,  the  supporting  members 
may  be  much  fewer  and  less  massive  than  in  structures  of  stone  ;  because,  in 
the  former,  the  horizontal  or  supported  parts  are  both  lighter,  and  will  carry 
an  incumbent  weight — as  a  roof — over  a  much  wider  interval  than  in  the  lat- 
ter. It  is  apparent,  also,  even  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  stability,  that,  in 
constructing  edifices  of  stone,  whether  of  the  perpendicular  or  horizontal  mem- 
bers, the  dimensions  would  be  greater  than  in  elevations  of  wood  ;  and  in  the 
case  of  columnar  structures,  that  the  altitude,  in  proportion  to  the  diameter, 
would  be  far  less  in  stone  than  in  timber  supports.  Hence  the  two  grand 
characteristics  of  a  massive  or  solemn,  and  a  light  or  airy,  architecture. 
Hence,  also,  when  genius  and  taste  had  begun  to  consider  the  arrangements 
of  necessity  and  use  in  the  relations  of  effect  and  beauty,  new  combinations 
would  be  attempted,  which  approached  to  one  or  other  of  these  leading  divis- 


PLATE    VI    a. 


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ARCHITECTURE.       ITS  BRANCHES.       EGYPTIAN.  129 

ions.  It  must,  however,  be  obvious,  that  the  field  of  these  experiments  is  nar- 
rowed by  the  very  principles  on  which  they  would  be  first  suggested.  In  the 
art  we  are  now  considering,  the  human  agent  has  less  power  over  the  inert- 
ness of  matter  than  in  any  other.  Imagination  comes  in  contact  with  reality 
at  every  step." 

1  w.  In  early  times,  wood  seems  to  have  been  the  most  common  material.  But  the  use  of 
this  in  building  presupposes  the  invention  of  various  instruments  and  tools,  which  probably 
were  made  of  stone,  earlier  than  of  metal  ($10).  Edifices  of  stone  were  of  later  origin,  as  the 
construction  of  such  demands  a  greater  advance  in  knowledge.  We  learn  from  Moses  (Ex.  i. 
14.  v.  7 — 14),  that  in  his  times  burnt  bricks  were  common  in  Egypt.  How  early  hewn  stone, 
mortar,  and  gypsum,  were  employed  in  building,  cannot  be  determined.  Several  auxiliaries 
seem  evidently  prerequisite ;  as,  for  example,  machines  for  collecting  the  materials,  and  for 
working  metals,  especially  in  iron.  In  Egypt,  a  country  destitute  of  wood,  appears  to  havo 
been  the  earliest  and  most  frequent  use  of  stone,  which  the  people  could  easily  transport  upon 
their  canals,  from  inexhaustible  quarries. 

2.  In  Plate  I.  of  our  illustrations,  figures  7,  and  8,  are  seen  several  of  the  tools  employed  by  the 
ancients  in  architecture  and  in  the  mechanic  arts  ;  they  are  given  by  Montfaucon  (vol.  in.  pi. 187, 
189)  as  taken  from  ancieni  monuments,  in  part  from  the  tomb  of  Cossutius.  Among  them  are  the 
saw,serra;  the  hammer  and  mallet,  tudes,  vialleus;  the  hatchet  or  adze,  scalprum,ancia;  the  square, 
norma;  the  rule  and  compass,  regulaet  circinus;  the  plumb-line,  amussis,  or  perpendiculum ;  the 
instrument  for  cutting  lines,  or  carving,  cwlum,  scalper ;  a  sort  of  gimlet  or  piercer,  Urehra  ;  and 
other  tools  whose  use  is  not  obvious,  as  one  with  a  spear-head  and  a  star,  cuspis  stellifer,  and 
another  consisting  of  a  handle,  capulus,  and  a  sort  of  notched  wheel,  rotula  serrata,  perhaps 
designed  for  marking,  by  its  revolution,  equidistant  points  or  dots. 

3.  The  influence  of  the  material  in  modifying  the  style  of  architecture  is  strikingly  exhibit- 
ed, when  we  contrast  the  ancient  structures  reared  in  Egypt  with  those  of  Palestine  and  Sy- 
ria. We  see  the  heavy  and  massive  style  in  those  mysterious  edifices,  still  standing  as  land- 
marks between  known  and  unknown  time.  "  In  the  ponderous  members  of  these  solemn 
piles,  the  narrowness  of  the  intervals,  the  crowded  pillars,  the  massive  base,  and  the  lessened 
perpendicular,  is  found  every  principle  previously  assumed  as  characteristic  of  that  architec- 
ture, which  would  be  governed  by  necessity  before  the  sensation  of  beauty  had  been  felt,  or  at 
least  methodized.  In  that  region  of  Asia,  already  noticed  as  the  scene  of  the  earliest  recorded 
labors  of  the  art,  wood  was  abundant.  From  the  descriptions  of  Holy  Writ  we  accordingly 
find,  that  this  material  was  much  employed  even  in  their  most  sacred  and  important  build- 
ings. Thus,  though  few  details  capable  of  giving  any  just  architectural  notions,  are  preserved 
of  Solomon's  Temple,  it  is  yet  plain,  that  cedar  wood  was  the  chief  material  both  for  roofs  and 
columns,  that  is,  both  for  supported  and  supporting  members.  Hence,  the  temples  of  Pales- 
tine, and  of  Syria  generally,  by  which  we  understand  the  Asia  of  the  Old  Testament,  already 
described,  were  more  spacious,  but  less  durable,  than  those  of  Ejrypt,  and  with  fewer  upright 
supports.  Of  this,  a  singularly  striking  proof  occurs  in  the  catastrophe  of  the  House  of  Da- 
gon,  when  Samson,  by  overturning  only  two  columns,  brought  down  the  whole  fabric.  In  an 
edifice  constructed  on  the  plan  of  the  Egyptian  temple,  where  pillar  stands  crowded  behind 
pillar,  in  range  beyond  range,  to  give  support  to  the  ponderous  architrave  and  marble  roof,  the 

overturning  of  two  of  these  columns  would  produce  but  a  very  partial  disintegration." It 

is  obvious,  that  the  style  may  have  a  different  modification,  when  different  materials  are  com- 
bined in  the  same  structure,  as  was  evidently  the  case  in  the  buildings  of  Persepolis.  The 
marble  columns  were  connected  by  cross-beams  of  wood,  and  they  probably  supported  a  roof 
of  light  structure  ;  and  they  are  accordingly  loftier,  further  apart,  and  fewer  in  number,  than 
in  Egyptian  buildings.     {Memes,  p.  233,  ss.) 

§  230.  The  purpose  of  a  building,  or  use  for  which  it  was  designed,  would 
necessarily,  in  an  early  stage  of  art  as  well  as  in  a  later,  in  a  great  measure 
determine  both  the  magnitude  and  the  form.  The  purpose  or  design  of  struc- 
ture is  the  foundation  of  a  division  of  Architecture  into  three  general  kinds, 
or  grand  branches,  Civil,  Military,  and  Naval.  The  two  latter,  which  treat  of 
ships,  castles,  towers,  forts,  and  the  like,  come  not  into  consideration  among 
the  fine  arts.  The  former  is  subdivided  according  to  its  various  purposes  into 
Sacred,  Monumental,  Municipal,  and  Domestic. 

Sacred  architecture  appears  among  the  earliest  efforts  of  the  present  race  of 
man.  "  The  first  impress  of  his  existence  left  upon  the  soil,  yet  moist  from 
the  waters  of  the  deluge,  was  the  erection  of  an  altar ;  and  the  noblest  evi- 
dence of  his  most  accomplished  skill  has  been  a  temple." 

Monumental  architecture  is  also  of  very  early  origin.  Pillars  of  stone  and 
mounds  of  earth  are  the  primitive  records  both  of  life  and  death.  Mounds  or 
barrows  have  been  used  for  monumental  purposes  throughout  the  globe.  The 
pyramids  of  Egypt  and  India  may  be  considered  as  mounds  of  higher  art  and 
more  durable  materials.  Columns  and  triumphal  arches  are  a  species  of  mon- 
umental structures. 

Under  the  head  of  Municipal  architecture  may  be  included  all  public  build- 
ings more  especially  connected  with  the  civil  and  social  affairs  of  men  ;  as 
for  example,  halls  of  legislation  and  justice,  baths,  theatres,  and  the  like. 

Domestic  architecture  refers  particularly  in  the  dwellings  of  individuals, 
whether  palaces,  manors,  villas,  or  common  houses. 

§  231.  It  was  in  the  east,  and  particularly  in  Egypt,  that  architec- 


130  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    ART. 

ture  first  reached  any  considerable  improvement,  and  this  was  in  re- 
spect of  solidity  and  grandeur  rather  than  beauty.  The  Egyptians 
in  their  most  celebrated  works  of  this  art  seem  to  have  intended  to 
awaken  the  wonder  of  the  latest  posterity,  rather  than  to  gratify  the 
taste  of  the  connoisseur.  Their  most  famous  structure  was  the  La- 
byrinth of  extraordinary  extent,  situated  near  lake  Moeris,  the  work 
of  twelve  Egyptian  kings.  Their  pyramids  and  obelisks  too,  which 
were  probably  designed  both  for  monumental  erections  and  for  dis- 
play, are  ever  remarkable  for  grandeur  and  solidity. 

1.  The  temples  of  the  Egyptians  should  be  noticed  as  among  their  remark- 
able structures.  One  of  the  most  ancient  and  celebrated  is  the  Memnonium 
at  Thebes.  It  is  represented  as  having  been  about  200  feet  wide  and  600  feet 
long ;  with  an  extensive  propylseon,  of  which  above  200  feet  are  still  ob- 
served. In  this  is  a  colossal  statue  of  Osymandyas,  which  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  the  vocal  statue  of  Memnon,  but  must  be  distinguished  from  it. 
Cf.  §169.2.  —  Another  celebrated  temple,  called  the  finest  in  Egypt,  is  that  at 
Denderah  ;  this  however  belongs  to  a  later  period,  being  ascribed  by  Belzoni 
to  the  age  of  the  first  Ptolemy.  —  Monolithal  temples  are  mentioned  among 
the  Egyptian  structures.  One  of  great  size,  and  consisting  of  a  single  mass 
of  stone,  is  described  by  Herodotus  as  having  been  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock 
and  transported  from  Elephantis  to  Sais,  and  placed  near  the  temple  of  Neith, 
which  was  itself  another  very  celebrated  edifice.  Another  monolithic  tempi© 
is  found  at  Anteeopolis. 

Quatrimere  de  Quincy,  De  l'Architecture  Egyptienne.  Par.  1803.  4.  with  18  plates.  Cf.  Re- 
view of  it  in  the  Amcr.  Quarterly,  vol.  v.  p.  1. — Lenormant,  Musee  des  Antiquites  Egyptiennes, 
ou  Recueil  des  Monum.  Egypt.  Architecture,  Statuaire,  &c.  Begun  Par.  1836.  fol.  Plates  with 
explanatory  text. — Orobert,  Description  des  Pyramids  de  Ghize.  Par.  1800.  (Transl.  into  Ger- 
man, Gera,  1808.)— Clarke,  Travels  in  Greece,  Egypt,  Sec— Belzoni,  Narrative  of  the  recent 
operations  and  discoveries  within  the  pyramids,  temples,  &c.  in  Egypt  and  Nubia.  Lond. 
1820. — Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xvi.  8 ;  xvn.  166;  xix.  195,  394. — Buckingham's  Lectures,  JV. 
York  Observer,  Oct.  27,  1838.— Zoega,  De  origine  et  usu  obeliscorum.    Rome,  1797.  fol.  —  See 

also  references  given  P.  V.  §  177. For  a  view  of  some  obelisks,  see  Montfaucon,  Antiq. 

Expliq.  vol.  n.  pi.  cxliii.  ;  and  Denon,  as  cited  §  238.  A  view  of  some  on  a  smaller  scale  is 
given  in  our  Plate  VII.  figs.  15, 14,  10.  This  plate  exhibits  the  comparative  height  and  mag- 
nitude of  various  celebrated  structures,  both  ancient  and  modern. — In  Plate  Via.  figs.  a,b,ct 
are  seen  specimens  of  Egyptian  columns,  which  may  show  the  massiveness  of  style  prevalent 
in  Egyptian  edifices.  Fig.  a  represents  a  column  of  a  tomb  at  Silsilis ;  as  given  in  Denon'a 
plate  xliii.  (as  cited  §  238),  it  appears  still  more  massy.  On  Egyptian  pillars  see  farther  re- 
marks, §  238.  3. — For  a  view  of  a  massy  Egyptian  door-way,  see  our  Plate  XXV.  fig.  c. On 

Egyptian  art  in  general,  consult  especially  Mueller's  Archsologie,  cited  §  32.  4. 

It  may  be  proper  to  advert  to  the  fact,  that  excavations  in  the  pyramids  are  now  going  on 
(1838),  and  that  several  chambers  have  been  opened  without  discovering  any  thing;  in  one, 
however,  was  found  a  cartouch  of  hieroglyphics,  i.  e.  a  proper  name  in  the  hieroglyphical  al- 
phabet.   Cf.  P.  III.  $  96.  3. 

2.  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  architectural  remains  are  found  in  the  re- 
gions of  central  America,  which  bear  a  very  striking  resemblance  to  those  of 
^gypt-  These  are  said  to  be  the  monumental  relics  of  a  great  nation,  whose 
existence  had  become,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  a  matter  of  vague 
record  under  the  name  of  "  giants  and  wandering  masons."  They  are  called 
Tultecan  monuments.  Among  these  remains  are  pyramids,  some  of  them 
said  to  be  larger  than  those  of  Egypt.  The  pyramid  at  Cholula  resembles  the 
tower  of  Babel  as  described  by  Herodotus.  There  are  also  temples  and  other 
structures,  the  most  remarkable  being  at  the  city  of  Palenque,  where  are 
likewise  bas-reliefs  and  other  sculptured  monuments. 

Del  Rio,  Ruins  of  an  Ancient  City,  lately  discovered  in  Guatimala.  Lond.  1822.  4. — Bul- 
lock's Travels  in  Mexico.— Nebel's  Archseologi&il  Voyage.  Par.  1835.— Dupaix,  Antiquites 
Mexicaines.  Par.  1836.  fol.  The  author  was  at  the  "head  of  a  Commission  sent  out  by  the 
Spanish  government  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the  subject.— Cf.  Jlmer.  Bib.  Repository^ 
No.  xxvn.  July,  1837,  p.  219 — Also  the  Republication  of  Quarterly  and  other  Reviews.  Oct. 
1836,  p.  17,  137. 

3.  We  may  properly  here  advert  to  the  Cyclopean  architecture.  In  Greece 
and  Italy  there  are  celebrated  remains  of  vast  rock-built  walls  and  fortresses, 
which  are  called  Cyclopean,  because  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Cyclops. 
In  the  regions  of  America  above  mentioned  there  are  structures  which  very 
much  resemble  them,  called  by  the  natives,  granaries  of  the  giants.  The 
most  celebrated  of  these  remains  in  Greece  are  at  Tiryns  and  Mycenae.  They 


GRECIAN   ARCHITECTURE,       TEMPLES.  131 

consist,  in  both  places,  of  a  wall  or  fortification,  inclosing  the  summit  of  & 
nearly  insulated  rock,  the  Acropolis,  in  the  language  of  the  later  Greeks  ? 
the  enclosure  of  which  was  at  once  a  palace,  a  fortress,  and  a  temple  They 
are  composed  of  large  blocks  of  unhewn  stone ;  the  blocks  are  generally  po- 
lygonal and  well  fitted  to  each  other.  At  Tiryns  the  enclosure  is  about  220 
yards  in  length  and  60  in  breadth,  At  My  cense  the  enclosure  is  300  yards 
Dy  200  ;  in  the  eastern  side  a  remarkable  gateway  still  exists,  called  the  Gate 
of  Lions,  from  two  lions  rudely  sculptured  over  the  lintel. 

W.  Oell,  Argolis,  or  Itinerary  of  Greece.  Lond.  1807.  4,  with  plates.—  E.  D.  Clarke,  Trav- 
els in  Egypt,  Greece,  &c.  Lond.  1824. 10  vols.  8. — Pompeii,  p.  64.  as  cited  §  226,  1«— W*  Hamil- 
ton, Fortresses  of  ancient  Greece,  in  the  ArchiEologia,  (cited  §  242.  3),  vol.  xv.  p.  315. — Class. 
Jour.  vol.  v.  p.  262. 

§  232.  In  Asia  Minor  architecture  must  have  made  considerable 
advances  by  the  time  of  Homer.  Of  this  there  is  evidence  from  the 
descriptions  he  gives  of  buildings  in  both  his  epic  poems,  even  if  we 
allow  much  for  poetic  ornament  and  exaggeration.  As  examples, 
notice  the  description  of  the  palace  of  Priam  at  Troy  (a),  and  of 
Paris  (b),  and  especially  the  palace  of  Alcinous,  king  of  Phaeaciafe,), 
and  that  of  Ulysses  in  several  passages  of  the  Odyssey.  The  manner 
also  in  which  Homer,  in  these  poems  and  in  the  hymns,  speaks  of 
temples,  seems  to  presuppose  a  construction  of  such  edifices  by  no 
means  rude. 

(a)  II.  vi.  243.— (h)  II.  vi.  313.— (c)  Odyss.  vii.  85.— On  the  condition  of  domestic  architec- 
ture as  exhibited  in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  see  Memes,  p.  252,  as  before  cited  $  169.— Also  Sal- 
tier, Etat  de  1 'Architecture  au  temps  d'Homere,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxvu.  19,— Cf.  Muel- 
ler's Hist,  and  Ant.  of  Doric  Race,  bk.  iv.  ch.  i.  j 

§  233.  Yet  the  art  was  very  far  from  the  perfection,  which  it  af- 
terwards attained  among  the  Greeks.  With  them,  its  most  flourish- 
ing period  may  be  dated  from  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century 
before  Christ.  During  about  a  century  succeeding  this  date,  or  be- 
tween the  time  of  Pericles  and  Alexander,  there  were  erected  in 
Greece,  and  particularly  at  Athens,  a  vast  number  of  superb  edifices 
of  various  kinds  ;  temples,  palaces,  theatres,  gymnasia,  porticos,  &c. 
Religion,  policy,  emulation,  luxury,  all  united  to  encourage  and  ad- 
vance architecture,  which  the  Greeks  were  the  first  to  raise  fully  to 
the  rank  of  a  fine  art.  It  was  however  chiefly  upon  public  buildings 
that  they  bestowed  their  care.  Private  dwellings,  even  those  of  the 
more  celebrated  personages,  and  in  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the 
art,  were  comparatively  simple  and  free  from  ornaments. 

For  a  historical  view  of  Grecian  architecture,  consult  Memes,  p.  248.— JVew  Edinb.  Encyclop* 
Art.  Civil  Architecture. — Hirt,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  and  Stieglitz  ;  both  cited  §243.  4. — On 
the  origin  of  Grecian  architecture,  comp.  Chateaubriand,  Travels  in  Greece,  &c.  translated  by 
F.  Schoberl  (p.  354.)  Am.  edit.  N.  Yk.  1814. 

§  234.  The  countless  multitude  of  divinities  occasioned  an  im- 
mense demand  for  temples  ;  and  those  consecrated  to  a  particular  deity 
were,  both  in  number  and  magnificence,  proportionate  to  his  supposed 
dignity  and  importance.  These  structures  were,  in  general,  not  de- 
signed to  receive  within  them  assemblies  of  worshipers,  but  to  form 
as  it  were  habitations  and  memorials  of  their  appropriate  gods.  Hence 
they  were  often  small  in  size.  They  were  usually  raised  so  as  to  be 
entered  by  an  ascent  of  steps,  ornamented  Vith  statues,  and  with  pil- 
lars erected  completely  around  them,  or  at  least  in  their  front. 

lu.  The  porch  or  space  in  front  was  called  nqovaog.  In  the  Dorian  temples, 
the  doors  were  brought  to  a  point  at  the  top,  and  generally,  it  was  by  these 
openings  alone  that  light  was  admitted ;  they  were  commonly  lighted  also  by 
lamps  within.  The  interior  was  adorned,  on  the  covering  and  on  the  walls, 
with  the  ornaments  both  of  architecture  and  sculpture. 


132  ARCHAEOLOGY    OP    ART. 

Quatr.  de  Quiney,  sur  la  maniere  dont  etoient  eclaires  les  temples  des  Grecs  et  des  Romains, 
Mem.  de  P Justitut,  Classe  d'Hist.  ct  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  in.  p.  166. 

2.  The  temple  was  frequently  surrounded  by  an  enclosed  court  (tkq^o'/.oc), 
which  often  included  a  grove,  statues,  and  buildings  appertaining  to  the  temple. 
The  body  of  the  temple  was  usually  quadrangular,  oblong,  and  enclosed  by 
walls  ;  this  was  the  temple  in  the  strict  sense  ;  and  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
the  vuog  ;  by  the  Romans  the  cella.  The  number  and  disposition  of  the  pillars 
which  were  employed  to  adorn  it,  gave  occasion  for  the  architectural  terms 
used  to  designate  different  kinds  of  temples.  Vitruvius,  in  this  way,  discrimi- 
nates seven  kinds. 

In  our  Plate  XVI,  are  given  plans  to  represent  these  kinds.  The  first,  is  the  Temple  with 
Antes  (1),  which  has  only  square  columns  or  pilasters  on  the  sides,  with  two  square  columns  or 
pilasters  in  front,  one  at  each  angle,  and  two  round  columns  between  them  ;  as  in  fig.  d  in  the 
Plate.  —  The  second,  the  Prostyle  (2),  having  a  row  of  columns  in  the  front,  and  only  in  front ; 
as  in  fig.  e. —  Third,  the  Amphiprostyle  (3),  having  columns  at  both  ends  ;  as  in  fig./.  —  Fourth, 
the  Peripteral  (4),  having  a  single  row  of  columns  extending  wholly  around  the  building;  as  in 
fig.  a;  and  also  in  fig.  h,  in  which  the  cell  and  its  surrounding  colonnade  is  circular.  If  the 
wain  of  the  cell  were  thrown  back  so  as  to  fill  the  intercolumniations,  the  temple  was  called 
Pseudo-peripteral.  —  Fifth,  the  Dipteral  (5),  having  a  double  range  of  pillars  around  the  whole 
cell  ;  as  in  fi.  c.  —  Sixth,  the  Pseudo-dipteral  (6),  having  one  row  of  pillars  only,  these  pillars 
being  at  the  same  distance  from  the  cell  as  in  Dipteral  temples,  and  the  inner  row  of  pillars 
being  omitted.  —  Seventh,  the  Hypcothral  (7),  was  so  named  because  the  temple  was  open  to  the 
sky  ;  it  was  also  marked  by  the  number  of  its  columns,  being  the  largest  and  most  magnificent 
kind  of  temple  ;  it  was  dipteral,  having  a  double  row  around  it,  and  amphiprostyle,  having  ten 
pillars  besides  at  each  end  ;  it  has  also  a  range  of  columns  within  the  cell,  as  in  fig.  b.— There 
was  another  variety,  termed  Monopteral  (8),  which  consisted  of  a  circular  colonnade,  without  a 

cell,  but  with  an  altar  in  the  centre  ;  as  in  fig.  g. Temples  were  also  designated  according 

to  the  nearness  of  their  columns  to  each  other  ;  being  called  Pycnvstyle  (a),  when  the  columns 
were  placed  in  the  closest  order  allowed,  i.  e.  one  diameter  and  a  half  apart ;  Systyle  (b),  when 
they  were  two  diameters  apart ;  Eustyle  (c),  when  two  diameters  and  a  quarter ;  Diastyle  (d), 
when  three  diameters  ;  and  Arceostyle  (e)  when  the  interval  was  greater. 

(1)' jtvraiQqti) .      \^)JJqdarv?.og.     (3)  *  AuipinqbOTvlog.      ^)IItqi.Tcrtqog.     (5)Jl- 

Tirtoog.      (6)  WivSod'iTiTsQoc;.      (?)  a  Ynai9Qo$.       (8)  MovonrsQog.   («)  Uvy.ru- 

orvlog.     (b)2iOTv?.og.     (c)  }Evorv?.og.     (d)Jiuorv?.og.     ^^  Aqaiuarvkog. 

See  Vitruvius,  On  the  Temples  and  Intercoluminations  of  the  Ancients.  Lond.  1794.  8.  with 
plates.  —  J.  Bigelow,  Elements  of  Technology.  Bost.  1829.  8 Pompeii,  p.104.  as  cited  $  226.1. 

3.  Among  the  temples  most  celebrated  for  their  extent  and  magnificence 
were  the  following  ;  that  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  ;  those  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  and 
Miletus  ;  those  of  Jupiter  at  Athens  and  Olympia ;  and  that  of  Minerva, 
called  the  Parthenon,  at  Athens.  The  temples  at  Agrigentum  in  Sicily  were 
celebrated  ;  especially  that  of  Jupiter,  called  also  the  temple  of  the  Giants, 
a  colossal  building  now  completely  in  ruins.  The  dimensions  of  the  temple  of 
Diana  of  Ephesus  were  425  feet  by  220  ;  those  of  Jupiter  at  Athens,  354  feet  by 
171 ;  and  those  of  Apollo  Didymaeus,  303  by  164. 

I? Abbe.  May,  Temples  anciens  et  modernes.  Par.  1774.  2  vols.  8. — Stieglitz,  as  cited  §  243. 4. 
—  Wlnckelmann,  Observations  sur  le  temple  de  Girgenti ;  in  the  Histoire,  8fc.  cited  $  32.  4.  vol. 
ii. — Hirt.  Beschreibung  des  Temple  der  Diana  zu  Ephesus.  Berl.  1809.  4.—ArundclPs  Seven 
Churches  of  Asia  (containing  remarks  on  the  temple  of  Diana). — Falconer,  Pliny's  account  of 
Diana's  temple,  &c.  in  the  Arclwcologia  (as  cited  §  242.  3),  vol.  xi.  p.  1.  —  Comte  de  Caylus,  La 
Diana  d'Ephese  et  son  temple,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxx.  428 — For  comparative  view 
of  the  Parthenon,  Temple  of  Giants,  and  other  structures,  see  Plate  VII.  fig.  17,  18,  &c.  See 
Plate  XVI. — For  a  notice  of  existing  Greek  temples,  see  New  Edinb.  Encycl.  article  Civil  Arch- 
itecture.— Also  Stuart's  Dictionary  (Lond.  1830.  3  vols.  8),  under  the  words  Temple,  Agrigen- 
tum, 4"c. — Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vn.  301 ;  xi  v.  514.     Consult  the  references  below,  ft  243. 

§  235.  The  ancient  theatres  were  structures  of  vast  extent,  some- 
times wholly  built  of  marble.  They  had  on  one  side  the  form  of  a 
semicircle  with  its  ends  somewhat  prolonged,  and  on  the  other  side 
the  ends  were  united  by  a  building  passing  directly  across  from  one 
to  the  other.  The  Greek  theatre  was  divided  into  three  principal 
parts.  One  was  the  stage  or  scene  (oy.ip^)  in  the  part  extending 
across  the  semicircle  ;  this  was  appropriated  to  the  actors.  A  second 
was  the  part  occupied  by  the  spectators,  who  sat  in  the  concentric 
rows  (idcjiiu,  ordines)  around  the  semicircle  ;  this  part  strictly  speak- 
ing was  the  theatre  (^iarqov,  called  also  y.Zo.ov,  cavea).  The  third 
was  between  these  two,  and  called  the  orchestra  (oo/^roa),  being 
the  part  assigned  to  the  choir  of  mimes,  singers,  and  dancers. 


ARCHITECTURE.      THEATRES.       GYMNASIA.  133 

ltt.  The  seats  for  spectators  rose  behind  each  other  in  regular  succession  ; 
they  were  often  however  divided  into  two  or  three  compartments,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  building,  by  means  of  wide  passages  {Siatuiuara,  prcecinctio- 
nes)  running  the  whole  length  of  the  seats  and  concentric  with  them.  There 
were  likewise  openings  or  stair- ways  (xXiuaxtg)  passing  like  radii  to  the  semi- 
circle, transversely  to  the  seats.  These  free  spaces  facilitated  the  distribution 
of  the  audience.  The  several  portions  or  compartments  of  seats  between 
them  (xsQxidsg)  resembled  wedges  in  shape,  and  were  called  cunei  by  the  Ro- 
mans. The  magistrates  and  distinguished  persons  took  the  lowest  seats,  in 
the  portion  (called  (Sov?.svTiy.bv)  nearest  the  stage.  The  successive  rows  of 
seats  were,  by  a  definite  arrangement,  appropriated  to  other  citizens,  and  were 
often  designated  by  a  specific  name;  e.  g.  a  certain  part  was  assigned  to 
youth  and  called  i<prt§ir.bv.  A  particular  place  was  also  reserved  for  strang- 
ers. Outside  of  the  whole  part  occupied  by  the  spectators  there  was  usually 
a  portico. 

2.  The  Greeks  usually  constructed  their  theatres  on  the  side  of  a  hill ;  and 
when  the  nature  of  the  place  allowed,  as  at  Chseronea,  Argos,  and  other 
places,  many  of  the  seats  were  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.  The  principal  in- 
stances now  known  of  theatres  built  on  a  plain  are  those  of  Mantinea  and 
Megalopolis.  The  size  of  the  Grecian  theatres  is  sometimes  very  great.  It 
is  asserted  that  the  theatre  of  Bacchus  at  Athens  was  capable  of  containing 
30,000  persons.  The  theatre  at  Epidaurus  is  366  feet  in  diameter  ;  those  at 
Argos  and  Sparta  were  about  500.— Cf.  P.  IV.  §  89,  238. 

3  m-.  The  edifices  called  Odea,  designed  for  the  exhibitions  (§  65)  of  musi- 
cians, poets,  and  artists,  were  constructed  in  a  manner  similar  to  theatres. 
The  most  celebrated  was  that  of  Pericles  ("S2dtirov)  at  Athens. 

A  plan  of  a  Greek  theatre,  from  Vitruvius,  is  given  in  Plate  VI.  fig.  1. For  a  more  full 

description  of  Greek  theatres,  see  Stuart's  Dictionary  of  Architecture. — inthon's  Lempriere. — 
Pompeii,  (cited  $  226,)  p.  213. — H.  Ch.  Oenelli,  das  Theater  zu  Athen,  hinsichtlich  auf  Archi- 
tectur,  Scenerie  und  Darstellungskunst.  Berl.  1818.  4. — Boindin,  du  Theatre  des  Anciens,  in 
Hist,  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  $c.  vol.  i.  p.  136,  with  plate. — Oroddeck,  De  theatri  Gneci  partibus, 
&c.  in  Wolf's  Liter.  Analekten,  vol.  n.  p.  99.— For  notices  of  remains  of  particular  theatres, 
consult  Clarke's  Travels,  Gell's  Itinerary,  Dodwell's  Class.  Tour,  &c.  Cf.  $  243.— Respecting 
the  Odea,  see  Martini,  cited  $  65.— See  also  P.  V.  $  107  S3.  $  58  ss. 

§  236.  The  Gymnasia,  or  schools  for  bodily  exercises,  first  intro- 
duced at  Lacedaemon,  became  afterwards  common  in  the  Greek  cit- 
ies, and  were  adopted  among  the  Romans.  They  consisted  of  sev- 
eral buildings,  or  particular  parts,  which  were  united  together,  and 
thus  formed  often  very  spacious  structures  capable  of  holding  many 
thousand  persons.  The  principal  Gymnasia  of  Athens  were  three  ; 
that  of  the  Lyceum,  that  of  the  Cynosarges,  and  that  of  the  Acad- 
emy.    (Cf.  §  74.) 

The  following  description  notices  the  principal  parts  of  the  ancient  Gym- 
nasium or  Palaestra;  it  is  adapted  to  the  plan,  which  is  given,  after  Vitruvius, 
in  Plate  XIII.  fig.  4. — The  upper  portion  of  the  figure  represents  the  eastern 
end,  on  which  was  the  principal  entrance.  The  shaded  square,  with  the  ar- 
row in  it  pointing  to  the  left  side,  is  the  Peristylium,  which  was  also  called 
the  Palcestra,  the  place  for  wrestling ;  including  the  Splicer isterium,  or  place 
for  playing  ball  {(HpaiQiorrjQiov).  Around  this  were  the  Porticos  (aroai),  with 
seats  (Jitdoai).  Around  these  were  various  rooms  ;  Halls,  where  philoso- 
phers and  others  might  enjoy  intellectual  entertainment,  a,  a  ;  the  Ephebeum 
(i(pri§airov),  b,  where  the  youth  attended  to  preparatory  exercises ;  the  Cory- 
ceum  (y.wovy.eiov),  c,  so  called,  it  is  said,  from  its  having  a  sack  of  sand  sus- 
pended from  the  roof  for  some  gymnastic  purpose  ;  this  is  by  some  considered 
as  the  same  room  with  the  Apodyterium  (ajioSvri'^iov),  or  room  for  undressing; 
the  Elmothesium  (i?.aio6iaiov,  ie?.Ei7tr>'lQior),f,  the  room  for  anointing  the  wrest- 
lers, or  such  as  had  bathed;  the  Conisierium  (xonan'oiov),  where  the  dust 
was  kept  for  sprinkling  those  that  had  been  anointed.  There  were  also  rooms 
for  bathing,  in  cold  or  hot  water,  as,  e,  g,  k,  i,  called  by  the  Romans  Frigida- 
rium,  Tepidarium,  Laconicum ;  also  a  room,  A,  for  the  stove.  The  Stadium, 
(orudiov),  o,  is  here  placed  on  the  north  side  of  the  structure.     On  the  south 

12 


134 


ARCHEOLOGY    OF    ART. 


and  west  were  the  Xvotol,  covered  places  designed  for  exercise  in  bad  weath- 
er ;  and  the  Xvaru,  which  were  walks  open  at  top,  and  designed  for  exercise 
in  pleasant  weather.     This  structure  is  about  one  stadium  square. 

See  Barthelcmifs  Anacharsis,  ch.  viii.  —  Potter's  Archaeol.  Graec.  bk.  viii.  Boyd's  edition, 
p.  42;  where  is  a  plan  of  the  remains  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Ephesus. — Stieglitz  Archasologie  der 
Baukunst.  Weimar,  1801.  —  The  details  are  derived  from  Vitruvius,  on  Architecture,  5th  bk. 
Cf.  P.  II.  $  498. 

§  237.  Porticos  (oroai}  portions)  were  very  common  and  important 
works  of  Greek  and  Roman  architecture,  and  were  constructed  either 
alone  by  themselves,  or  in  connection  with  other  buildings,  temples, 
theatres,  baths,  market-places,  and  the  like.  They  served  at  the 
same  time  for  protection  against  the  sun  and  rain,  for  secure  and  con- 
venient public  promenades,  for  common  places  of  resort  where  friends 
might  meet,  and  where  philosophers,  especially  the  Peripatetics,  im- 
parted instruction.  They  consisted  of  columns  or  pillars,  with  greater 
or  less  spaces  between  them  (intercolumnia),  where  statues  were  often 
fixed,  while  the  interior  was  decorated  with  paintings.  They  were  not 
always  covered  above,  but  were  generally  long  and  spacious.  There 
was  one  at  Rome  a  ihousand  paces  in  length,  and  thence  termed  Porti- 
cus  Miliaria.    One  of  the  principal  at  Athens  was  that  styled  Pacile. 

On  the  paintings  in  the  Pcecile,  cf.  Harris,  Miscellanies,  vol.  iv.  p.  264. — See  $  74. 

§  238.  There  were  three  forms  of  pillars  (orp.ai,  arvUi)  'm  use 
among  the  Greeks,  commonly  called  the  three  orders  of  architecture  ; 
the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian.  The  Doric  exhibits  the  greatest 
simplicity  and  solidity  ;  the  Ionic  has  proportions  more  agreeable  and 
beautiful ;  the  Corinthian  is  most  highly  ornamented,  and  was  less 
frequently  employed  in  large  and  public  buildings.  The  Tuscan 
and  Composite  orders  are  not  of  Grecian  origin ;  the  former  was,  as 
its  name  imports,  from  Etruria;  the  latter  was  of  Roman  invention. 

1.  Although  a  particular  description  of  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  dif- 
ferent orders  may  belong  more  properly  to  the  theory  of  architecture  than  to 
its  archaeology,  yet  the  classical  scholar  should  have  some  information  on  the 
subject.  On  this  account  the  Plate  VI  a.  is  inserted  ;  and  the  following  re- 
marks and  explanations  of  terms  are  given.  They  are  necessarily  brief;  but 
it  is  hoped  that  they  may  serve  to  excite,  in  the  minds  of  such  as  may  use  this 
Manual,  more  interest  than  classical  scholars  of  our  country  have  usually  felt 
in  cultivating  the  taste  in  reference  to  an  art  so  noble  and  elevating. 

The  front  of  any  edifice,  claiming  notice  as  a  production  of  the  architectural  art,  is  called  its 
fasade  (fas-sade).  This,  when  viewed  perpendicularly,  presents  three  parts,  which  are  readily 
distinguished  ;  the  columns,  which  usually  first  strike  the  eye  of  the  observer,  and  which  form 
the  middle  part ;  the  pedestal,  which  forms  the  lower  part,  and  supports  the  columns ;  and  the 
entablature,  which  is  the  upper  part,  and  rests  upon  the  columns.  These  three  parts  may  be 
noticed  and  discriminated  in  an  instant  by  glancing  at  fig.  17,  or  fig.18,  in  Plate  VII. ;  or  at  fig.  1, 
or  fig.  3,  in  Plate  XVI.     Two  of  these  parts,  the  column  and  the  entablature,  are  seen  in  the 

figures  /,  g,  h,  i,  j,  and  k,  in  Plate  VI  a.  In  some  ancient  edifices,  constructed  after  the 

art  began  to  decline,  a  portion  of  the  pedestal  directly  under  each  column,  and  also  a  portion 
of  the  entablature  directly  above  it,  were  made  more  prominent  than  the  remaining  portions  ex- 
tending between  the  columns  ;  thus  forming  an  appearance  which  is  exhibited  in  fig.  I,  of  Plate 
VI  a.  ;  in  which  the  proper  column  and  those  more  prominent  portions  of  the  pedestal  and 
entablature,  taken  together,  seem  to  form  merely  a  column  or  pillar ;  a  peculiarity  which  in 
part  has  occasioned,  in  modern  times,  the  absurd  mistake  of  making  the  squared  prominence 
of  the  entablature  a  part  of  the  column  itself,  and  then  placing  another  entablature  above  it. 
— Each  of  the  parts  already  named  is  subdivided  again  into  three  other  parts.  The  pedestal, 
also  called  the  stylobate,  is  divided,  as  may  be  seen  in  fig.  I,  into  the  plinth,  p,  at  the  very  bot- 
tom ;  the  die,  d,  in  the  middle ;  and  the  cornice,  or  surbase,  co,  at  the  top.  The  column  con- 
sists, as  may  be  seen  in  fig.  k,  of  the  base,  b,  resting  on  the  cornice  of  the  pedestal ;  the  shaft,  s, 
the  middle  and  longest  part;  and  the  capital,  c,  the  ornamented  portion  at  the  top.  The 
entablature  includes  the  architrave  or  epistylium,  ar,  the  lower  portion  ;  the  frieze,  f,  in  the 
middle ;  and  the  cornice,  co,  at  the  top.  To  the  different  parts  above  named  various  moldings 
may  be  attached,  which  need  not  be  described.  —  The  pediment  of  a  building  is  the  triangular 
face  above  the  entablature  ;  formed  hy  the  cornice  of  the  entablature  and  the  projecting  ex- 
tremities of  the  two  sloping  sides  that  make  up  the  roof  (see  Plate  XVI.  fig.  1.) ;  these  projec- 
tions are  sometimes  called  the  cornice  of  the  pediment,  and  the  flat  triangular  portion  between 
them  is  called  the  tympanum.  This  part  of  the  edifice  was  often  richly  adorned  with  statues 
and  bas-reliefs. 


PLATE     VII 


1.  Great  Pyramid.  7.  Salisbury  Spire.  13.  Nelson's  Column. 

2.  Spire  of  Mechlin.  8.  Notre  Dame,  Paris.  14.  Obelisk,  front  of  St.  Peter's. 

3.  St.  Peter's.  9.  Pagoda  by  Sir  W.  Chambers.  15.  Cleopatra's  Needle. 

4.  St.  Paul's.  10.  Wellington's  Testimonial.  16.  Leaning  Tower  at  Pisa. 

5.  Strasbur?h  Cathedral.  11.  Monument,  London.  17.  Temple  of  the  Giants,  Agri- 


6.  Hotel  de  Ville,  Brussels.  12.  Trajan's  Column 


18.  Parthenon. 


[gentum. 


136 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OP  ART. 


The  architectural  orders  are  discriminated  by  certain  peculiarities  in  the  column  and  the  en- 
tablature  ;  there  are  three  respects  in  which  these  peculiarities  may  appear  :  1.  the  proportion* 
of  the  column  ;  2.  the  form  of  the  capital ;  3.  the  ornaments  of  the  entablature.  —  The  Doric 
is  the  earliest  and  most  massive  of  the  Grecian  orders.  Its  proportions  vary  in  different  ancient 
edifices  ;  in  those  at  Athens,  the  height  of  the  column  is  about  six  times  the  width  at  the  base, 
which  is  always  called  the  diameter;  in  older  buildings,  as  at  Paestum,  the  column  is  but  four 
or  five  diameters  in  height.  Its  capital  is  formed,  as  may  be  seen  in  fig.  p,  by  a  few  annulets 
or  rings  at  the  extremity  of  the  shaft,  a  molding  above  them  of  the  kind  called  echinus,  and 
above  this  a  flat  portion  called  the  abacus.  The  pure  Doric  column  had  no  base,  and  had  twenty 
superficial  flutings,  as  in  fig.  g,  which  is  a  specimen  of  the  time  of  Pericles,  when  it  is  thought 
to  have  been  in  its  greatest  perfection  ;  as  employed  by  the  Romans  it  usually  had  a  base,  as  it 
appears  in  fig.  h,  a  specimen  of  the  Roman  Doric  ;  in  which  the  height  is  increased  to  eight 
diameters,  and  the  capital  is  more  complicated.  The  entablature  of  the  Doric,  as  may  be  noticed 
in  fig.  g,  and  in  fig.  h,  presents  an  architrave,  usually  perfectly  plain  ;  a  frieze,  marked  by  per- 
pendicular oblong  prominences,  called  triglyphs,  which  are  divided  each  into  three  parts  by 
vertical  furrows  and  ornamented  beneath  by  guttce  or  drops  ;  with  a  cornice  composed  of  a  few 
large  moldings  having  on  their  under  side  a  series  of  square  sloping  projections  called  mutules, 
which  resemble  the  ends  of  rafters  and  are  also  ornamented  beneath  by  guttce.  The  spaces 
of  the  frieze  between  the  triglyphs  were  called  metopes,  and  commonly  contained  sculptures  in 
bas-relief.     The  Elgin  sculptures,  representing  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithaa,  were  metopes  of  the 

Parthenon. The  Ionic  is  a  lighter  order  than  the  Doric  in  its  proportions  ;  the  column  is 

usually  eight  or  nine  diameters  in  height ;  having  a  base  called  Attic,  composed  of  several  mold- 
ings. Its  capital  is  instantly  known  by  the  spiral  volutes  on  its  opposite  sides,  as  is  seen  in  fig. 
t,  and  in  fig.  5 ;  on  the  shaft  between  these  volutes  are  moldings  which  may  vary  with  the 
pleasure  of  the  artist ;  but  above  the  volutes  is  always  an  abacus  molded  at  the  edges.  The 
regular  Ionic  capital  has  two  pairs  of  parallel  volutes  ;  the  Romans  gave  it  a  different  form,  in 
which  it  had  four  pairs  of  diagonal  volutes.  The  Ionic  entablature  presents  an  architrave  plain 
or  merely  lined  by  a  molding  horizontally  attached  as  in  fig.i ;  a  frieze  perfectly  plain  and  un- 
broken ;  a  cornice  composed  of  various  moldings,  and  usually  marked  by  a  row  of  small  square 

ornaments  somewhat  resembling  teeth  and  called  dentels.  The  Corinthian  order  is  still 

lighter  than  the  Ionic.  Its  proportions  allowed  a  column  often  ten  diameters  in  height.  The 
base  of  the  column  was  like  the  Ionic,  but  more  complicated.  Its  capital  presents  the  shape  of 
an  inverted  bell ;  and  is  richly  ornamented,  as  in  fig.  j,  and  fig.  q,  having  around  it  two  rows 
of  acanthus  leaves,  and  above  them  eight  pairs  of  small  volutes,  and  upon  these  the  abacus, 
which  was  marked  by  truncated  angles  and  by  concave  sides,  each  adorned  with  a  flower  in 
the  centre.  —  This  capital,  according  to  Vitruvius,  had  its  origin  in  accident.  By  the  tomb  of  a 
Corinthian  virgin,  an  affectionate  nurse  had  left  a  basket  containing  various  articles  precious 
in  the  estimation  of  the  virgin  while  alive ;  on  the  basket  was  a  tile  to  protect  the  contents  ;  an 
acanthus  plant,  on  which  the  basket  chanced  to  rest,  had  pushed  its  shoots  and  foliage  around 
the  basket  up  to  the  tile,  in  a  beautiful  manner,  as  in  fig.  u;  in  this  state  it  was  seen  by  the 
sculptor  Callimachus,  and  suggested  to  him  an  idea  of  architectural  ornament,  to  which  he 
soon  gave  reality  in  the  Corinthian  capital.  Notwithstanding  this  delightful  little  story,  it  is 
most  probable  that  the  capital  in  question  was  a  mere  improvement  upon  some  Egyptian  model, 
such  e.  g.  as  is  given  in  fig.  c.  The  entablature  of  the  Corinthian  order  resembles  that  of  the 
Ionic,  differing  from  it  chiefly  by  having  more  complicated  moldings,  and  by  having  on  the 
cornice  a  row  of  projections  which  correspond  to  the  Doric  mutules,  but  are  ornamented  each 

with  a  volute  or  a  leaf,  and  are  called  modillions.  The  Tuscan  order  was  quite  similar  to 

the  Doric  ;  it  is  given  in  fig.  /.  Its  proportions  are  lighter,  as  the  column  was  seven  diameters 
in  height.  The  column  has  a  base  which  is  very  simple.  Its  capital  is  generally  as  simple  as 
the  Doric.     Its  entablature  is  somewhat  like  the  Ionic,  but  more  plain.      This  order  is  the  one 

most  entirely  stripped  of  ornament.  The  Composite  order  is  exhibited  in  fig.  k,  formed 

out  of  the  Corinthian  by  merely  combining  together  the  Corinthian  capital  and  the  Roman  Ionic 
capital  with  diagonal  volutes.    The  frieze  has  a  convex  surface  instead  of  a  plane  one. 

In  reference  to  the  columns  in  all  the  orders,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  they  are  fluted  or  not 
according  to  the  choice  of  the  builder.  Sections  of  fluted  or  reeded  columns  are  seen  in  fig.  w, 
x,  and  y,  of  Plate  VI  a. Pilasters  are  a  sort  of  square  column  attached  to  the  wall  of  a  build- 
ing, and  projecting  from  it  sometimes  only  a  sixth  of  their  diameter,  and  sometimes  as  much 
as  a  third.  They  are  often  constructed  with  the  peculiar  ornaments  of  the  several  orders, 
although  this  was  not  originally  the  practice. 

2.  The  best  specimens  of  the  Doric  order  are  found  in  the  Parthenon,  the 
Propylsa,  and  the  Temple  of  Theseus,  at  Athens  ;  of  the  Ionic,  in  the  edifice 
called  Erectheum,  at  Athens  (cf  P.  V.  §107),  consisting  of  two,  and  according 
to  some  of  three  temples  ;  of  the  Corinthian,  in  the  choragic  monument  of  Lysi- 
crates,  the  small  but  elegant  structure,  at  Athens,  sometimes  called  the  Lamp 
of  Demosthenes.  —  Of  the  Tuscan  there  are  no  remains  (§  241).  The  best  ex- 
ample of  the  Composite  is  presented  in  the  Arch  of  Titus.  The  Corinthian 
appears  to  have  been  the  favorite  order  with  the  Romans.  —  The  monumental 
columns  of  Trajan  and  Antonine,  already  mentioned  on  account  of  their  sculp- 
tured ornaments  (cf.  §188),  are  Doric. — The  column  at  Alexandria,  celebrated 
as  Pompey's  Pillar,  is  represented  as  having  "  a  fine  shaft  surmounted  by  a 
Corinthian  capital  executed  in  the  worst  manner." 

3.  Our  Plate  VI  a.  is  enriched  by  cuts  of  a  great  variety  of  columns  ;  those  belonging  to  the 
regular  orders  have  been  sufficiently  explained  ;  the  specimens  of  Saracenic,  Gothic,  and  Chi- 
nese, will  be  mentioned  below  (§  245) ;  tho  Egyptian,  Persepolitan,  and  Hindoo,  we  will  no- 
tice here.  In  fig.  d,  we  have  a  very  singular  column,  from  the  famous  Cave  at  Elephanta, 
near  Bombay,  a  remarkable  subterranean  structure,  excavated  by  the  ancient  Hindoos  out  of 
the  solid  rock.  In  fig.  e,  a  column  from  the  ruins  of  Persepolis  is  represented  ;  the  capital  is 
very  peculiar,  seeming  to  combine  several  in  one,  and  being,  it  is  said,  beautiful  in  appearan.  ce, 


ARCHITECTURE.     THE  ORDERS.     ORNAMENTS.  137 

The  columns  of  Egyptian  buildings  vary  greatly  in  their  proportions  and  style.     Nothing 

like  any  regular  distinction  of  orders  any  where  appears.  The  relative  height  is  usually  below 
that  of  the  common  Doric,  being  in  general  not  more  than  four  and  a  half  diameters.  In  ap- 
pearance the  columns  sometimes  resemble  the  plain  trunk  of  a  tree  ;  sometimes  bundles  of  reeds 
or  of  the  plant  papyrus,  bound  together  at  different  distances,  as  in  fig.  c.  The  capitals  present, 
it  is  said,  nearly  all  the  flowers  peculiar  to  the  country,  the  capsules,  petals,  pistils,  and  most 
minute  parts  being  exhibited.  In  fig.  c,  is  shown  a  capital,  which  resembles  those  found  in  the 
temple  of  Hermontis,  and  in  the  temple  of  Apollinopolis  at  Edfow,  bearing  parts  of  the  lotus 
flower.  Elegant  capitals  were  formed  by  combining  the  branches,  leaves,  and  fruit  of  the  palm 
tree ;  by  weaving  together  the  stems,  leaves,  buds,  and  flowers  of  the  lotus ;  and  by  inter- 
mingling these  or  other  flowers  and  plants  with  the  vine  and  the  papyrus.  "  On  beholding," 
says  Denon,  "  so  many  varieties  of  form,  and  such  richness  in  the  ornaments,  united  with" so 
much  grace  in  the  contour,  one  is  astonished  that  the  invention  of  architecture  should  have 
been  ascribed  to  the  Greeks  on  their  own  testimony,  and  that  the  three  orders  should  have  been 
considered  the  only  truths  of  that  art."  The  head  of  the  goddess  Isis  was  sometimes  wrought 
into  the  capitals,  adorned  with  the  various  symbols  of  her  imaginary  attributes,  as  in  fig.  6, 
which  is  a  specimen  from  the  celebrated  temple  of  Denderah. — Cf.  Denon,  as  cited  just  below, 

plates  xxix,  xxxiv,  xliv,  xlv,  xlvi.  On  the  Cave  of  Elephanta,  Ooldingham,  Memoir  in  the 

Asiat.  Researches,  vol.  iv.  —  On  Hindoo  architecture,  Langles,  cited  §243.  3. 

For  a  view  of  Poinpey's  Pillar,  see  plate  3d  of  the  Atlas  accompanying  Denon's  Travels  &c. 
Lond.  1804.  2  vols.  4.  cf.  vol.  i.  p.  17.  —  For  a  view  of  the  Parthenon  and  temple  of  Theseus, 
see  our  Plate  XVI.  1.  3. — of  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  Plate  VI.  A. — of  Trajan's  column, 
Plate  VII.  12.  —  For  a  brief  account  of  the  five  orders,  see  Bigelow's  Technology.  Bost.  1829.  8. 
containing  views  of  several  Greek  and  Roman  edifices  reduced  to  the  same  scale  :  also  Ameri- 
can Family  Magazine,  1837,  vol.  5.  p.  65,  140,  &c.  —  For  explanation  of  terms,  illustrated  by 
plates,  Stuart's  Dictionary.  —  Cf.  §  243.  4. 

§  239.  Various  ornaments,  exterior  and  interior,  were  used  in  an- 
cient architecture.  In  the  best  periods  of  the  art  they  were  introduced 
with  propriety,  taste,  and  in  moderate  number  ;  but  in  later  times  too 
abundantly,  and  so  as  to  destroy  both  beauty  and  convenience.  Among 
the  exterior  ornaments,  for  example,  were  the  following  :  statues  upon 
the  ends  of  the  buildings  ;  bas-reliefs  on  the  architrave  ;  imitations  of 
human  forms  combined  with  the  pillars,  like  the  Caryatides  and  At- 
lantes ;  with  various  embellishments  in  the  capital  and  entablature, 
and  about  the  doors,  vaults,  and  other  openings.  In  the  interior,  the 
ceiling  and  walls  were  ornamented  with  stucco-work,  gilding,  paint- 
ing, and  mosaic.  The  ordinary  decoration  of  an  apartment  consisted 
in  coloring  the  walls  and  attaching  to  them  small  pictures  of  diversi- 
fied character.  Ceilings  adorned  with  fretwork  were  called  by  the 
Greeks  tparrafiata',    by  the  Romans,  tecta  laqueata  or  lacunaria. 

See  notices  of  ornaments  in  the  buildings  at  Pompeii,  in  Pompeii  (cited  §  226.),  p.  449,  156, 
163,  166,  &c.  —  L.  Vulliamy,  Examples  of  Ornamental  Sculpture  in  Architecture,  drawn  from 
the  originals  in  Greece,  &c.  engraved  by  A.  Moses.  Lond.  1828.  fol.  40  plates.  —  C.  H.  Tatham, 
Grecian  and  Roman  Ornaments.   Lond.  1825.  fol.  96  plates. 

§  240.  The  most  celebrated  Greek  architects  were  the  following  : 
DcBclalus,  to  whom  are  attributed  many  of  the  most  ancient  and  ex- 
tensive structures  of  Greece,  with  much  exaggeration  and  mere  fable 
however  (§174) ;  Ctesiphon  or  Chersipkron,  celebrated  as  builder  of 
the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus ;  Callimachus  (not  the  poet),  who 
was  also  a  sculptor,  and  said  to  be  the  inventor  of  the  Corinthian  Or- 
der ;  Dinocrates,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  and  was  era- 
ployed  by  him  in  building  Alexandria  in  Egypt;  Sostratus,  a  favorite 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who  erected  the  celebrated  tower  of  Pharos  ; 
JEpimachus,  an  Athenian,  known  by  a  stupendous  war-tower  con- 
structed by  him  for  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  in  the  siege  of  Rhodes. 

Franc.  Milizia,  Memorie  degli  Architetti  antichi  e  moderni.  Parm.  1781.  2  vols.  8.  A  cata^ 
logue  of  Greek  and  Roman  architects  may  be  found  in  Junius,  de  Picture  Veterum,  as  cited 
«  226.  2.  —  also  in  Stuart's  Dictionary  (Appendix  No.  1),  with  a  notice  of  their  works  and  the 
time  when  they  flourished. 

§  241.  In  Italy,  almost  as  early  as  in  Greece,  architecture  was  cul- 
tivated, especially  in  Etruria.  The  Tuscan  order  is  among  the  proofs 
of  this.     In  the  early  times  of  Rome,  also,  many  temples  and  other 

12* 


138  ARCHJSOLOGY    OF    AET. 

buildings  were  erected  there  by  native  art.  But  their  architecture 
was  greatly  improved  afterwards,  when  the  Romans  imitated  Grecian 
models,  and  many  Greek  architects  of  celebrity  resided  in  Rome.  As 
the  power,  refinement,  and  luxury  of  Rome  advanced,  splendid  archi- 
tectural works  were  multiplied,  and  thus  arose  in  rapid  succession 
temples,  amphitheatres,  markets,  baths,  bridges,  aqueducts,  palaces, 
manors,  &c.  These  buildings  were  magnificent  not  only  from  their 
architecture,  but  in  their  various  embellishments,  for  which  the  other 
arts,  especially  sculpture  and  painting,  were  brought  into  requisition. 
The  most  distinguished  Roman  architects  were  chiefly  Greeks  by  birth, 
or  scholars  and  imitators  of  Grecian  masters;  the  following  may  be 
named ;    Cossutius,  Hermodorus,  Vitruvius,  Rabirius,  Frontinus. 

Time  has  not  spared  a  single  edifice  of  the  Etruscans  ;  the  Tuscan  order  is  therefore  known 
only  from  the  description  of  Vitruvius.  Yet  some  sepulchres  exist  in  Italy  whose  architec- 
ture agrees  with  the  character  ascribed  to  the  Tuscan  buildings.— Mueller,  Die  Etrusken.  Cf. 
$  109,  173. 

1.  "According  to  the  account  given  by  Vitruvius,  the  public  buildings  of  the 
Romans  in  the  regal  and  consular  times  were  rude  enough,  exhibiting  a  state 
of  the  science  as  already  described  among  the  early  nations  of  the  East — ver- 
tical supports  of  stone,  with  wooden  bearers.  This  continued  to  be  their 
style  of  design  and  practice,  till  extending  empire  brought  the  Romans  ac- 
quainted with  the  arts  of  the  Dorian  settlements  on  the  eastern  and  southern 
shores  of  Italy.  Down  to  the  conquest  of  Asia  and  the  termination  of  the 
republic,  Rome  continued  a  "  city  of  wood  and  brick."  Only  with  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  empire  and  the  reign  of  Augustus,  with  the  wealth  of  the 
world  at  command,  and  the  skill  of  Greece  to  direct  the  application,  com- 
mences the  valuable  history  of  architecture  among  the  Romans. — Of  all  the 
fine  arts,  poetry  not  excepted,  architecture  is  the  only  one  into  which  the  Ro- 
man mind  entered  with  the  real  enthusiasm  of  natural  and  national  feeling. 
Success  corresponded  with  the  exalted  sentiment  whence  it  arose  ;  here  have 
been  left,  for  the  admiration  of  future  ages,  the  most  magnificent  proofs  of 
original  genius.  This  originality,  however,  depends  not  upon  invention  so 
much  as  upon  application  of  modes.  To  the  architectonic  system,  indeed,  the 
Romans  claim  to  have  added  two  novel  elements  in  their  own  Doric,  or  Tus- 
can, and  Composite  orders.  But  in  the  restless  spirit  of  innovation  which 
these  betray,  the  alleged  invention  discovers  a  total  want  of  the  true  feeling 
and  understanding  of  the, science  of  Grecian  design.  As  far  as  concerns  the 
invention  of  forms,  and  the  just  conception  of  the  elemental  modes  of  Greece, 
the  Romans  failed.  Their  architecture  was  imperfect,  both  as  a  system  of 
symmetry,  and  as  a  science  founded  upon  truth  and  taste." 

2.  "But  when  their  labors  are  viewed  as  regards  the  practice  of  the  art,  their 
merits  are  presented  under  a  far  different  aspect.  Whether  the  magnitude, 
the  utility,  the  varied  combinations,  or  the  novel  and  important  evidences  of 
their  knowledge,  be  considered,  the  Romans,  in  their  practical  works,  are  yet 
unrivalled.  They  here  created  their  own  models,  while  they  have  remained 
examples  to  their  successors.  Though  not  the  inventors  of  the  arch,  they, 
of  all  the  nations  of  antiquity,  first  discovered  and  boldly  applied  its  powers ; 
nor  is  there  one  dignified  principle  in  its  use  which  they  have  not  elicited. 
Rivers  are  spanned,  the  sea  itself,  as  at  Ancona,  is  thus  enclosed  within  the 
cinture  of  masonry  ;  nay,  streams  were  heaved  into  air,  and,  borne  aloft 
through  entire  provinces,  poured  into  the  capital  their  floods  of  freshness  and 
health.  The  self-balanced  dome,  extending  a  marble  firmament  over  head, 
the  proudest  boast  of  modern  skill,  has  yet  its  prototype  and  its  superior  in 
the  Pantheon. 

The  same  stupendous  and  enduring  character  pervaded  all  the  efforts  of 
Roman  art,  even  in  those  instances  where  more  ancient  principles  only  were 
brought  into  action.  Where  the  Greeks  were  forced  to  call  the  operations  of 
nature  in  aid  of  the  weakness  of  art,  availing  themselves  of  some  hollow 
mountain  side  for  the  erection  of  places  of  public  resort,  the  imperial  masters 
of  Rome  caused  such  mountains  to  be  reared  of  masonry,  within  their  capital, 


ARCHITECTURE.       ROMAN    EDIFICES.    BATHS.  139 

for  the  Theatre,  Amphitheatre,  and  Circus.     Palaces  —  Temples  —  Baths 

Porticos  —  Arches  of  Triumph  —  Commemorative  Pillars  —  Basilica,  or  Halls 
of  Justice  —  Fora,  or  Squares  —  Bridges  —  without  mentioning  the  astonish- 
ing highways,  extending  to  the  extremities  of  the  empire  —  all  were  construct- 
ed on  the  same  grand  and  magnificent  plan."     Memes,  p.  270. 

Cf.  on  the  Grandeur  of  Grecian  works,  Chateaubriand  (cited  $  233),  p.  146.— On  Roman  Ar- 
chitecture, see  also  Schmll,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  n.  p.  191 Ant.  Mongez,  Sur  les  travaux  pub- 

liques  des  Romains,  Mem.  del'Institut,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts,  vol.  i.  p.  492. 

3.  The  edifices  designed  for  public  baths,  although  differing  in  magnitude  and  splendor  and  in 
the  details  of  arrangement,  were  all  constructed  on  the  same  common  plan.  "  They  stood 
among  extensive  gardens  and  walks,  and  often  were  surrounded  by  a  portico.  The  main  build- 
ing contained  spacious  halls  for  swimming  and  bathing ;  others  for  conversation  ;  others  for 
various  athletic  exercises  ;  others  for  the  declamation  of  poets,  and  the  lectures  of  philosophers  ; 
in  a  word,  for  every  species  of  polite  and  manly  amusement."  Those  erected  by  the  emperors 
especially  had  these  appendages,  and  were  of  a  great  magnificence.  "Architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting,  exhausted  their  refinements  on  these  establishments,  which  for  their  extent  were 
compared  to  cities;  incrustations,  metals,  and  marble,  were  all  employed  in  adorning  them. 
The  baths  of  Caracalla  were  ornamented  with  two  hundred  pillars,  and  furnished  with  sixteen 
hundred  seats  of  marble  :  three  thousand  persons  could  be  seated  on  them  at  one  time.  Those 
of  Diocletian  surpassed  all  the  others  in  size  and  sumptuousness  of  decoration  ;  and  were,  be- 
sides, enriched  with  the  precious  collection  of  the  Ulpian  library.  We  can  entertain  some  idea 
of  the  extent  of  this  edifice,  when  we  are  told  that  one  of  its  halls  forms  at  present  the  church 
of  the  Carthusians,  which  is  among  the  largest  and  at  the  same  time  most  magnificent  temples 
of  Rome.  Here  we  are  furnished  with  one  of  the  many  monuments  of  the  triumphs  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  despite  of  the  most  persevering  and  cruel  persecutions  of  the  then  sovereigns  of  the 
world.  On  this  very  spot,  where  the  organ  and  the  choral  strain  of  devotion  are  now  daily 
heard,  Diocletian  is  said  to  have  employed  in  the  construction  of  his  baths  forty  thousand  Chris- 
tian soldiers,  whom,  after  degrading  with  all  the  insignia  of  ignominy,  he  caused  to  be  massa- 
cred when  the  edifice  was  completed.— It  may  be  added  that  "the  private  baths,  at  some  of  the 
villas  of  the  rich,  vied  in  splendor  with  the  public  therms.  According  to  Seneca,  the  walls 
were  of  Alexandrian  marble,  the  veins  of  which  were  so  disposed  as  to  resemble  a  regular  pic- 
ture ;  the  basins  were  set  round  with  a  most  valuable  kind  of  stone  imported  from  the  Grecian 
islands  ;  the  water  was  conveyed  through  silver  pipes,  and  fell  by  several  descents  in  beautiful 
cascades  ;  the  floors  were  inlaid  with  precious  gems  ;  and  an  intermixture  of  statues  and  co- 
lonnades contributed  to  throw  an  air  of  elegance  and  grandeur  over  the  whole."  (Bell  on  Baths. 
Philad.  1831.  12.) 

The  following  description  is  drawn  principally  from  the  public  baths  discovered  at  Pompeii. 

It  will  apply  substantially  to  the  Greek  baths  (P.  IV.  $170.)  as  well  as  the  Roman "  The 

building,  which  contained  them,  was  oblong,  and  had  two  divisions  ;  the  one  for  males,  and 
the  other  for  females.  In  both,  warm  or  cold  baths  could  be  taken.  The  warm  baths,  in  both 
divisions,  were  adjacent  to  each  other,  for  the  sake  of  being  easily  heated  In  the  midst  of  the 
building,  on  the  ground-floor,  was  the  heating-room,  hypocaustum,  by  which  not  only  the  water 
for  bathing,  but  sometimes  also  the  floors  of  the  adjacent  rooms,  were  warmed.  Above  the 
heating-room  was  an  apartment  in  which  three  copper  kettles  were  walled  in,  one  above  an- 
other, so  that  the  lowest  (caldarium)  was  immediately  over  the  fire,  the  second  (tepidarium) 
over  the  first,  and  the  third  (frigidarium)  over  the  second.  In  this  way,  either  boiling,  luke- 
warm, or  cold  water  could  be  obtained.  A  constant  communication  was  maintained  between 
these  vessels,  so  that  as  fast  as  hot  water  was  drawn  off  from  the  caldarium,  the  void  was  sup- 
plied from  the  tepidarium,  which,  being  already  considerably  heated,  did  but  slightly  reduce 
the  temperature  of  the  hotter  boiler.  The  tepidarium,  in  its  turn,  was  supplied  from  the  piscina 
or  frigidarium,  and  that  from  the  aqueduct ;  so  that  the  heat,  which  was  not  taken  up  by  the 
first  boiler,  passed  onto  the  second,  and  instead  of  being  wasted,  did  its  office  in  preparing  the 
contents  of  the  second  for  the  higher  temperature  which  it  was  to  obtain  in  the  first.  The  cop- 
pers and  reservoir  were  elevated  considerably  above  the  baths,  to  cause  the  water  to  flow  more 
rapidly  into  them.  The  terms  frigidarium,  tepidarium,  and  caldarium,  are  applied  to  the  apart- 
ments in  which  the  cold,  tepid,  and  hot  baths  are  placed,  as  well  as  to  those  vessels  in  which 
the  operation  of  heating  the  water  is  carried  on. 

The  bathing-rooms  had,  in  the  floor,  a  basin  of  mason-work,  in  which  there  were  seats,  and 
round  it  a  gallery,  where  the  bathers  remained  before  they  descended  into  the  bath,  and  where 
all  the  attendants  were.  In  the  division  of  the  Pompeian  baths  supposed  to  belong  to  the  men, 
the  principal  public  entrance  led  directly  into  the  vestibule,  a  sort  of  court,  along  three  sides  of 
which  there  ran  a  portico  or  walk  (ambulacrum).  Seats  were  ranged  round  the  walls,  perhaps 
for  the  slaves,  who  accompanied  their  masters  to  the  bath.  In  this  place  was  the  box  for  the 
quadrans  (fourth  of  an  as,  less  than  a  farthing),  the  piece  of  money  given  as  a  fee  for  bathing 
by  each  visiter.  A  corridor  or  small  passage,  in  which  were  found  above  500  lamps,  conducted 
from  the  court  into  the  room  for  undressing,  apodyterium.  This  room  had  three  seats,  made  of 
lava,  with  a  step  to  place  the  feet  on.  The  room  was  stuccoed  from  the  cornice  to  the  ground, 
highly  finished  and  colored  yellow.  In  the  vaulted  roof  was  a  window  with  a  single  large  pane 
of  glass  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  325).  Various  ornaments  were  carved  in  the  cornice.  The  floor  was 
paved  with  white  marble  in  mosaic.  Several  doors  communicated  with  the  room.  One  of  these 
led  to  the  cold  bath,  frigidarium.  This  was  a  round  chamber,  encrusted  with  yellow  stucco, 
having  its  ceiling  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone,  apparently  once  painted  blue.  It  was  lighted 
by  a  window  near  the  top.  In  it  were  four  niches,  equi-distant  from  each  other,  with  seats, 
sclwlm,  in  them  for  the  bathers.  There  was  also  a  basin,  nearly  13  feet  in  diameter  and  2  feet 
9  inches  deep,  entirely  lined  with  white  marble,  with  two  marble  steps  to  aid  the  descent  into  it, 
and  a  sort  of  cushion,  pulvinus,  also  of  marble,  at  the  bottom,  for  the  bathers  to  sit  upon.  An- 
other door  of  the  undressing-room  opened  into  a  passage  leading  to  the  tepidarium,  or  warm 
chamber,  so  called  from  its  warm  but  soft  and  mild  temperature,  which  prepared  the  body  of 
the  bather  for  the  more  intense  heat  of  the  vapor  and  hot  baths,  and  also  softened  the  transition 


140  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  ART. 

from  the  hot  bath  to  the  external  air.  This  room  was  divided  into  a  number  of  niches  or  com- 
partments, was  lighted  by  a  window  with  a  bronze  frame  of  four  panes  of  glass,  and  had  many 
ornaments  in  stucco.  A  door-way  led  from  it  into  the  caldarium  or  sudatorium.  This  apartment 
exactly  corresponded  to  the  directions  laid  down  by  Vitruvius,  for  constructing  the  vapor-bath. 
Its  length  was  twice  as  great  as  its  breadth,  exclusive  of  the  laconicum  at  one  end,  and  the  lava- 
crum  at  the  other.  It  was  stuccoed  like  the  other  rooms,  painted  yellow  and  decorated  with  va- 
rious ornaments.  The  floor  and  walls  of  the  sudatorium  were  made  hollow,  that  the  heated  air 
might  pass  freely  around  :  the  design  was  to  furnish  a  sudatory  of  dry  air  ;  "  it  corresponds 
precisely  with  a  hot  stove  room  of  the  present  day,  except  that  the  stove  proper  was  beneath 
and  outside  the  sudatorium."  The  laconicum  was  a  large  semi-circular  niche,  seven  feet  wide 
and  three  feet  six  inches  deep,  in  the  middle  of  which  was  placed  a  vase  for  washing  the  hands 
and  face,  called  labrum ;  this  was  a  large  basin  of  white  marble,  elevated  three  feet  six  inches 
above  the  pavement  and  about  five  feet  in  diameter,  into  which  the  hot  water  bubbled  up 
through  a  pipe  in  the  centre  :  an  inscription  on  this  labrum  states  that  it  cost  750  sesterces. 
There  is  in  the  Vatican  a  magnificent  Porphyry  labrum,  found  in  one  of  the  imperial  baths  at 
Rome.  The  lavacrum,  or  hot-bath,  at  the  other  end  of  the  room,  was  twelve  feet  long,  four  feet 
four  inches  wide,  and  one  foot  four  inches  deep  ;  entirely  of  marble,  into  which  the  hot  water 
was  conveyed  by  a  pipe  ;  it  was  elevated  two  steps  above  the  floor  ;  the  descent  into  it  was  by 
a  single  step,  which  formed  a  continuous  bench  around  it  for  the  convenience  of  the  bathers. 

Besides  the  rooms  thus  described,  there  was  also  a  room  called  the  unctuarium  or  elmothesium  ; 
in  which  the  bathers  anointed  their  bodies  with  oil  before  taking  their  exercise,  or  with  perfumes 
ufter  bathing.  This  room  was  usually  stored  with  pots  containing  numerous  varieties  of  ungu- 
ents appropriated  to  different  parts  of  the  body  (P.  IV.  §  170).  There  was  likewise  another  room, 
in  which  various  exercises  were  performed  before  taking  the  bath  ;  this  room  was  sometimes 
called  ephebium,  more  frequently  sphmristerium,  because  the  favorite  exercise  was  the  ball.  The 
conisterium  was  an  apartment  where  was  kept  the  powder  which  was  sprinkled  over  the  body 
after  the  exercises  just  mentioned.  In  the  more  splendid  imperial  baths  there  were  various 
other  rooms  and  halls. 

Those  who  went  to  bathe,  first  proceeded  to  the  apodytcrium,  where  they  took  oft*  their  clothes 
and  committed  them  to  the  care  of  the  capsarii,  slaves  employed  for  the  purpose  by  the  overseer, 
balneator.  Thence  they  proceeded  to  the  unctuarium,  where  they  were  anointed  by  other  slaves, 
alipta.  Thence  they  proceeded  to  the  sphwristerium,  to  engage  in  some  of  the  exercises  of  that 
apartment.  From  this  room  they  went  to  the  caldarium.  In  taking  the  hot-bath  in  the  latter 
room,  they  sat  upon  the  step  or  bench  already  described,  which  was  below  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Here  they  scraped  themselves  with  instruments  called  strigiles,  usually  of  bronze, 
sometimes  of  iron  ;  or  this  operation  was  performed  by  an  attendant  slave.  From  drawings  on 
a  vase  found  at  Canino,  it  is  inferred  that  the  bathers,  after  the  use  of  the  strigilis,  rubbed  them- 
selves with  their  hands,  and  then  were  washed  from  head  to  foot  by  having  pails  or  vases  of 
water  poured  over  them.  They  were  then  dried  carefully  with  cotton  or  linen  cloths,  and 
covered  with  a  light  shaggy  mantle,  called  gausape.  On  quitting  the  caldarium,  they  went  in- 
to the  tepidarium,  and,  after  some  delay,  thence  into  the  frigidarium ;  but  are  supposed  not 
generally  to  have  bathed  in  these  rooms  at  the  public  therms,  but  to  have  used  them  chiefly  to 
soften  the  transition  from  the  intense  heat  of  the  caldarium  to  the  open  air.  The  bathing  was 
usually  followed  by  an  anointing  of  the  body  with  the  perfumed  oils  of  the  elaeothesium,  after 
which  the  clothes  left  in  the  apodyterium  were  resumed. 

For  fuller  details,  with  notices  of  some  of  the  imperial  baths,  see  Pompeii,  p.  153.  —  The  most 
copious  work  on  the  Roman  Baths  and  their  remains  is  that  of  Cameron,  entitled  The  Baths  of 
the  Romans  explained  and  illustrated.  Lond.1772.  fol.  with  the  illustrations  of  Palladio,  75  plates. 

—  Cf.  Les  Thetmea  des  Romains,  dessinees  par  Andre  Palladio  <fec.  Vicenza,  1785.  fol.  — 
See  also  6.  A.  Blouct,  Restauration  des  Thermes  d'Ant.  Caracalla.    Par.  1828.  fol.  fine  plates. 

—  J.  B.  Piranesi,  vol.  2d,  as  cited  §  243.  2. 

§  242.  The  strength  and  solidity  of  Greek  and  Roman  edifices 
were  such  as  to  have  easily  preserved  them  to  distant  ages,  had  it  not 
been  for  earthquakes,  conflagrations,  and  the  desolations  of  war.  The 
remains  of  ancient  architecture  yet  standing  are  highly  interesting ; 
especially  those  in  Greece  and  Italy. 

lu.  Only  some  of  the  principal  can  here  be  named.     (Cf.  P.  V.  §  52,  106.) 

—  Magnificent  ruins  of  cities  remain  on  the  sites  of  Palmyra,  Heliopolis,  Per- 
sepolis.  In  Egypt,  monuments  of  earlier  and  later  architecture  are  present- 
ed in  pyramids,  obelisks,  and  temples.  —  At  Athens  we  see  still  the  ruins  of 
the  celebrated  temple  of  Minerva,  and  traces  of  other  beautiful  temples  at 
JEghm,  Eleusis,  Corinth,  Thessalonica,  Ephesus,  Priene,  Antioch,  &c. ;  ruins 
of  theatres  are  found  at  Athens,  Smyrna,  Mylasa,  Hierapolis  ;  of  palaces  and 
royal  mansions,  at  Alabanda,  Ephesus,  Magnesia.  —  Still  more  numerous  and 
in  better  preservation  are  the  remains  of  Roman  architecture;  e.g.  at  Rome, 
the  Pantheon,  the  temple  of  Vesta,  several  porticos,  the  Coliseum  or  Amphi- 
theatre of  Vespasian,  ruins  of  the  theatres  of  Pompey  and  Marcellus,  and  of 
splendid  aqueducts,  the  baths  of  the  Emperors,  the  pillars  and  triumphal 
arches  already  named  (§  188),  gates,  bridges,  tombs,  mausolea,  &c. 

2.  France  exhibits  some  monuments  of  Roman  architecture,  particularly  at 
Nismes.  Some  remains  also,  principally  of  military  structures,  have  been 
found  in  England. 

§  243  u.  Besides  the  numerous  accounts  of  these  various  remains  given  by 


REMAINS    OP   ANCIENT    ARCHITECTURE.  141 

modern  travelers,  there  are  works  prepared  expressly  to  make  them  known, 
with  engravings  and  explanations  ;  such  are  the  following. 

1.  Remains  in  Greece,  or  Grecian  architecture.  Le  Roy  (or  Leroi),  Les  Ruines  des  plus 
beaux  monumens  de  la  Grece.  1758.  2d  ed.  1770.  2  vols.  fol.  The  first  picturesque  tour  of 
Greece  ;  the  drawings  not  always  accurate. — Robert  Sayer,  Ruins  of  Athens.  Lond.  1759.  fol. 
Stuart  and  Revett,  The  Antiquities  of  Athens.  Lond.  1762-1816.  4  vols,  fol.— The  same,  ed- 
ited by  W.  Kinnard,  with  many  valuable  additions.  1825-30.  4  vols.  fol.  200  plates.— Chand- 
ler, Revett,  and  Pars,  Ionian  Antiquities.  Lond.  1769-97.  2  vols,  fol.— The  same,  1817.  2  vols, 
imp.  fol.  with  fine  plates. — Choiseul-Goufher,  Voyage  pittoresque  de  la  Grece.  Par.  1782.  fol. — 
P.  O.  Brmnsted,  Voyages  dans  la  Grece,  accompagnes  deRecherches  Archeologiques.  Par.  1826. 
Wilkins,  Atheniensia,  or  Remarks  on  the  Topography  and  Buildings  of  Athens.  1816.  8. — The 
unedited  Antiquities  of  Attica.  By  the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  and  edited  by  Wilkins,  Deering, 
and  Bedford.    1817.  imp.  fol.  79  plates.— By  the  same,  Dilettanti  Society,  The  Antiquities  of 

Ionia.    Lond.  1817-21.   2  vols,  fol J.  S.  Stanhope,  Olympia,  or  Topography  illustrative  of  the 

ancient  state  of  the  plain  of  Olympia.  1824.  imp.  fol.  with  fine  plates.— R.  C.  Cockerell,  Grand 
Restoration  of  Athens,  its  Temples,  Sculpture,  &c.  Engraved  by  J.  Coney.  1829.  large  fol. 
— By  the  same,  Elucidation  of  the  Temple  of  JEgina.—F.  Gartner,  Architectural  Monuments 
of  Greece  and  Sicily.  Munster,  1819.  fol.  in  German,  with  lithographic  plates.—  Wm.Wilk- 
ins,  The  Antiquities  of  Magna  Graecia.  Cambridge,  1807.  fol.— Delagardettc,  Les  Ruines  de 
Paestum,  ou  Posidonia.  Par.  1799.  fob— J.  Hittorfs,  Architecture  Antique  de  la  Sicile.  Par. 
1825-30.  6  livraisons,  with  plates.— J.  G.  Legrand,  Monumens  de  la  Grece,  ou  Collection  des 
Chefsd'oeuvres  d'Architecture,  de  Sculpture,  et  de  Peinture  antiques,  &c.  Par.  (first  volume 
published)  1808.  fol. In  Kruse's  Hellas  is  a  notice  of  works  on  the  subject. 

In  a  Memoir  prefixed  to  Chateaubriand's  Travels  in  Greece  (cited  §  233)  is  found  a  brief  notice 
of  the  state  of  Athens  and  her  monuments  since  the  Christian  era,  and  of  the  travelers  who 
have  visited  and  described  the  remains  of  Greece.  He  closes  with  the  following  remark  :  "  It 
is  a  melancholy  reflection,  that  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe  have  done  more  injury  to  the 
monuments  of  Athens  in  the  space  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  than  all  the  barbarians  to- 
gether for  a  long  series  of  ages  ;  it  is  cruel  to  think  that  Alaric  and  Mahomet  II  respected  the 
Parthenon,  and  that  it  was  demolished  by  Morosini  and  lord  Elgin."  —  Several  travelers  must 
be  added  to  Chateaubriand's  list.  —  An  incomplete  notice  of  modern  travelers  in  Greece  is  also 
given  in  the  anonymous  work  entitled  History  of  Modern  Greece,  with  a  view  of  the  Geography, 
Antiquities,  and  present  condition,    (from  the  Engl,  edit.)     Bost.  1827.  8. 

2.  Remains  in  Italy.  —  G.  Vasi,  Magnificenze  di  Roma  Antica  e  Moderna.  Rom. 
1747.  3  vols.  4.  two  hundred  views  with  descriptions.  —  Pronti  (incisore),  Nuoya  Rac- 
colta di  cente  Vedutine  Antichedellacitta  di  Roma  &c.  Rom.  1795.  4.  containing  100  views.  — 
Giamb.  Piranesi,  Le  antichita  Romane.  Rom.  1756.  4  vols.  fol.  —  R.  Venuti,  Descrizione  topo- 
grafica  ed  istorica  di  Roma  antica  e  moderna.  Rom.  1763,  66. 2  vols  4. — Barbault,  Le  plus  beaux 
monumens  de  Rome  ancienne.    Rom.  1761.  fol.  —  R.  Venuti,  Veteris  Latii  antiquitatum  am- 

plissima  collectio.   Rom.  1769—80.  7  vols.  fol. int.  Desgodeti,  Les  edifices  antiques  de  Rome 

dessines  &c.  Par.  1682.  it.  1697.  it.  1779.  fol.  Engl,  transl.  by  G.  Marshall,  1771.  2  vols.  fol.  — 
Fr.  Piranesi,  Raccolta  de'  tempi  antichi.  Rom.  1780.  fol.  —  The  complete  works  of  Giov.  B. 
(John  Baptist)  Piranesi,  published  after  his  death  by  his  son  Francit  Piranesi,  in  29  vols.  fol. 
containing  nearly  2000  plates.    For  contents  of  these  vols,  see  Stuart's  Dictionary  (cited  $238. 

2.),  Appendix  II G.  L.  Taylor  and  E.  Cresy,  Architectural  Antiquities  of  Rome.   Lond. 1821  ss. 

2  vols.  imp.  fob—  G.  Valadier,  Raccolta  delle  piu  insigni  Fabbriche  di  Roma  Anticha  e  sue  Ad- 
jacenze.  Rom.  1810—26.  imp.  fol.  63  plates.— Sir  W.  Gell,  Topography  of  Rome.—  G.  Valadier, 
Arco  di  Tito.  Rom.  1822.  4.  8  plates.  —  Ant.  Mbby,  Del  Foro  Romano,  della  Via  Sacra  &c. 
Rom.  1819.  8.— Robert  Adam,  Architectural  remains  in  Rome  &c.  from  drawings  by  Clerisseau. 
^-Rossini,  Veduta  di  Roma;  101  large  folio  Views  of  the  most  remarkable  antiquities  and  build- 
ings in  Rome  and  its  neighborhood.  Rom.  1823.  4.—Montfaucon' s  Antiquite  expliquee,  as  cited 
P.  Ill,  $12.  2.  (d).— Le  Antichi  d'Ercolano,  &c.  Napol.  1765—92.  9  vols.  fol.  with  a  great  number 
of  engravings  oif  buildings,  and  also  of  busts,  statues,  paintings,  bas-reliefs,  &c.  discovered 
among  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum.— Sir  W.  Hamilton,  Discoveries  at  Pompeii  (with  plates)  in  the 

Archaologia,  as  below  cited,  vol.  iv.  p.  160 Sir  W.  Gell  and  J.  P.  G.  Deering,  Pompeiana,  or 

Topography  &c.  of  Pompeii.  Lond.  1824.  2  vols.  8.  imp.  —  Bibent,  Plan  of  Pompeii.  Par.  1826. 
—  Cooke's  Delineations.   Lond.  1827.  2  vols.  fol.   90  plates.  —  F.  Mazois,  Ruines  de  Pompeii. 

Par.1830 Pompeii,  as  cited  $226. The  splendid  work  entitled  Viaggio  Pittorico  della  Tus- 

cana  (Firenze,  1803.  3  vols,  fol.)  contains  some  views  of  ancient  Remains. 

3.  Remains  in  other  countries.  —  R.  Adam,  Ruins  of  the  Palace  of  Diocletian,  at  Spalatro  in 
Dalmatia.  Lond.  1764.  Cf.  Gibbon,  Hist.  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xii.— L.  Langles,  Monumens  Anciens 
et  Modernes,  de  l'Hindoustan.  Par.  1818.  2  vols.  fol.  —  Morier,  Journey  through  Persia.  Cf. 
Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  ix.  57.— R.  Kerr  Porter,  Travels  in  Persia.— Alex,  de  Labor  de,  Voyage  Pitto- 
resque de  l'Espagne.  Par.  1812.  2  vols,  fol.— Cassas,  Voyage  Pittoresque  de  la  Syrie,  de  la  Phe- 
nicie,  de  la  Palestine  et  de  la  Basse  Egypte.  2  vols.  fol.  with  many  plates. — R.  Wood,  Ruins  of 
Palmyra.  Lond.  1753.  fob— By  same,  Ruins  of  Balbec.  Lond.  1757.  fob  —  F.  C.  Gau,  Antiqm- 
tes  de  la  Nubia.  Par.  1824.  fol.  —  Denon,  Voyages  dans  La  Basse  et  la  Haute  Egypte.  —  The 
ancient  and  royal  Palace  of  Persepolis,  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great.  Lond.  1739.  21  plates. 
~-Seynes,  Monumens  Romains  de  Nismes.  Par.  1818.  fol.  16  plates.— Various  notices  of  Roman 
Remains  in  England  are  found  in  the  work  styled  Archceologia,  or  Miscellaneous  Tracts  pertain- 
ing to  Antiquity,  published  by  the  society  of  Antiquaries.  Lond.  1770  ss.  26  vols.  4.  (the  26th 
vol.  in  1836).  Also  in  the  work,  published  by  the  same  society,  entitled  Vetusta  Monumenta. 
6  vols,  fob— Also  Gordon's  Itinerary.— Hutton's  Roman  Wall.  Lond.  1802.— See  Catalogue,  in 
Stuart,  below  mentioned.  .  ,._ 

4.  It  will  be  proper  to  add  in  this  place  some  of  the  principal  works  pertaining  to  the  history 
and  theory  of  Architecture.— C.  le  Roy,  Observations  sur  les  edifices  des  anciens  peuples.  Par. 
1768.  4— C.  L.  Stiecrlitz,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst  der  Alten.  Leipz.  1792.  8.  —  By  same,  Archa- 
ologie  der  Baukunst  der  Griechen  und  Romer.  Weimar,  1801.  8.— A.  Hirt,  die  Baukunst  nach 
den  Grundsatzen  der  Alten.  Berb  1809.  fol.  50  plates.  — By  same,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst  bei 
den  Alten.  Berl.  1821.  2  vols.  4.— By  some,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst  (from  the  earliest  time  to 
the  present.).  Numb.  1827.  —  The  two  following  are  said  to  be  valuable,  in  reference  to  archi- 


142  ARCHEOLOGY    OF   ART. 

tecture  as  well  as  the  other  arts  :  Rumohr's  Kunstgeschichtliche  Italianische  Forschungen.1827; 
A.  Wendt,  Ueber  die  Hauptperioden  der  schbnen  Kunst.  1833. L.  Le  Brun,  Theorie  de  1' Ar- 
chitecture Grecque  et  Romaine,  &c.  Par.  1807.  fol.  26  plates.  —  W.  Wilkins,  The  Civil  Archi- 
tecture of  Vitruvius  ;  containing  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen's  Inquiry  into  the  Beauty  of  Grecian 
Architecture.  Lond.  1812—17.  2  vols.  4.  41  plates.  —  Pug-in,  New  Parallel  of  the  Orders  of  Ar- 
chitecture, according  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  and  modern  Architects,  transl.  from  the  French 
of  C.  Normand.  Lond.  1829.  fol.  62  plates. — Jos.  Gwilt,  Rudiments  of  Architecture,  practical  and 
theoretical.  F.  S.  A.  Lond.  1826.  8.  with  plates  and  vignettes.  —  I.  Rondelet,  Traite  Theorique 
et  Pratique  de  l'Art  de  Batir  Par.  1829,  30.  6  vols.  4.  with  plates.  —  Asher  Benjamin,  Practice  of 
Architecture,  &c.  Bost.  1836.  4.  with  60  plates  ;  a  work  much  used  by  common  practical  archi- 
tects.   See  Stuart's  Dictionary,  (cited  §  238.  2.)  Append.  II,  where  is  a  catalogue  of  works 

relating  to  Architecture,  arranged  in  13  classes. 

§  244.  Although,  strictly  speaking,  it  is  only  classical  art  that  belongs  to 
our  subject,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  allude  here  to  a  style  of  architecture 
which  grew  up  after  the  dismemberment  of  the  Roman  Empire.  "  The  arts 
degenerated  so  far,  that  a  custom  became  prevalent  of  erecting  new  buildings 
with  the  fragments  of  old  ones,  which  were  dilapidated  and  torn  down  for  the 
purpose.  This  gave  rise  to  an  irregular  style  of  building,  which  continued  to 
be  imitated,  especially  in  Italy,  during  the  dark  ages.  It  consisted  of  Grecian 
and  Roman  details,  combined  under  new  forms,  and  piled  up  into  structures 
wholly  unlike  the  antique  originals.  Hence  the  names  Greco- Gothic  and  Ro- 
manesque architecture  have  been  given  to  it.  It  frequently  contained  arches 
upon  columns,  forming  successive  arcades,  which  were  accumulated  above 
each  other  to  a  great  height.     The  effect  was  sometimes  imposing." 

The  Cathedral  and  Leaning  Tower  at  Pisa  (see  Plate  VII.  16),  and  the  Church  of  St.  Mark 
at  Venice,  are  named  as  the  best  specimens  of  the  Greco-Gothic  style.  The  ancient  Saxon  ar- 
chitecture in  England  was  in  some  respects  similar  ;  as  e.  g.  in  the  Cathedral  at  Ely,  which 
exhibits  arches  upon  columns;  a  specimen  of  which  is  given  in  Plate  VI  a.  fig.  n.  The  same 
peculiarity  is  seen  in  some  remains  of  Diocletian's  palace  at  Spalatro.  Of  these  we  have  a  speci- 
men in  fig.  m  of  Plate  VI  a;  in  which  arches  appear  between  the  columns  and  the  entablature. 

§  245.  Besides  the  different  styles  which  have  been  named,  Egyptian,  Gre- 
cian, Roman,  and  Greco-Gothic,  there  are  three  others  which  we  ought  just  to 
mention  ;  viz.  the  Saracenic,  Gothic,  and  Chinese. 

"  The  Chinese  have  made  the  tent  the  elementary  feature  of  their  architec- 
ture ;  and  of  their  style  any  one  may  form  an  idea  by  inspecting  the  figures 
which  are  depicted  upon  common  China  ware.  The  Chinese  towers  and  pago- 
das have  concave  roofs,  like  awnings,  projecting  over  their  several  stories. 
The  lightness  of  the  style  used  by  the  Chinese  (a)  leads  them  to  build  with  wood, 
sometimes  with  brick,  seldom  with  stone." 

The  Saracenic  style  is  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  form  of  the  arch,  which 
is  a  curve  constituting  more  than  half  a  circle  or  ellipse.  It  is  exhibited  in 
the  buildings  of  the  Moors  and  Saracens  in  Spain,  Egypt,  and  Turkey.  A 
flowery  ornament  called  Arabesque  is  common  in  the  Moorish  buildings.  The 
Alhambra  at  Grenada  furnishes  a  specimen  (b)  of  this  style.  —  The  Minaret,  a 
tall,  slender  tower,  appears  in  the  Turkish  mosques. 

The  Gothic  style  is  not  so  called  in  order  to  designate  a  mode  of  building 
derived  from  the  Goths.  The  name  was  first  applied  as  a  term  of  repspach  to 
the  edifices  in  the  middle  ages,  which  were  at  variance  with  antique  models. 
It  is  now  chiefly  employed  to  designate  a  style  of  building  religious  edifices, 
introduced  in  England  six  or  eight  centuries  ago  and  adopted  nearly  at  the 
same  time  in  France,  Germany,  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  "  Its  principle 
seems  to  have  originated  in  the  imitation  of  groves,  and  bowers,  under  which 
the  Druids  performed  their  sacred  rites.  Its  characteristics,  at  sight,  are  its 
pointed  arches,  its  pinnacles  and  spires,  its  large  buttresses,  clustered  pillars, 
vaulted  roofs,  profusion  of  ornaments,  and  the  general  predominance  of  the 
perpendicular  (c)  over  the  horizontal." 

(a)  A  specimen  of  this  style  is  given  in  Plate  VII.  9. — A  Chinese  column  is  given  in  Plate  VI  a. 
fig.  t,  from  the  viceroy's  palace,  at  Canton. 

(b)  In  Plate  VI  a,  fig.  o,  we  have  a  specimen,  from  the  Alhambra,  of  Moorish  double  columns, 
supporting  arches  which  are  adorned  with  arabesque. 

(c)  Specimens  of  the  Gothic  style  appear  in  Plate  VII.  2, 5, 6, 7.— A  specimen  of  clustered  pil- 
lars forming  one,  and  supporting  an  arch,  is  given  Plate  VI  a,  fig.  r,  from  Salisbury  Cathedral. 
A  twisted  pillar,  from  a  cloister  belonging  to  St.  Paul's  church  at  Rome,  is  seen  in  fig.  v.  The 
figures  z,  1,  and  2,  are  sections  of  different  Gothic  columns. See  Bigelow,s  Technology, 


ch.  vii.  as  cited  §  238.  3.— On  the  early  use  of  the  pointed  arch,  in  oriental  countries,  see  E.  D. 
e,  Travels  in  Various  Countries,  &c.  p.  4.  vol.  in.  ed.  N.  Yk.  1815.  —  On  Gothic 


ture,  J.  Gwilt,  Origin  and  Progress  of  Goth.  Arch,  transl.  from  the  German  of  Q.  Moller.  Lond. 
1826.  8.— A.  Pugin,  Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture.  Lond.1823. 2  vols.  4 — O.  D.  Whittington, 
Survey  of  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  France.  Lond.  1816.  8.    Cf.  Lond.  Q,uart.  II.  126.  vi.  62. 


PART   II 


BRIEF    HISTORY 


OF 


CLASSICAL   LITERATURE, 


OR 


GENERAL  VIEW 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  AUTHORS. 


PLATE     VIII. 


HIPPOCRATES 


HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 


Introduction. 

§  1.  The  Greeks,  beyond  any  other  nation  of  antiquity,  enjoyed 
a  happy  union  of  important  advantages  for  the  promotion  of  civili- 
zation and  literature. 

1 1.  The  nature  of  their  country,  washed  on  every  side  by  the  sea,  with 
its  coasts  formed  into  numerous  gulfs  and  peninsulas,  afforded  the  people 
peculiar  facilities  for  mutual  intercourse.  The  singular  mildness  of  their  cli- 
mate was  such  as  to  favor  the  happiest  development  of  the  physical  and  in- 
tellectual powers,  uniting  a  vigorous  constitution  with  a  lively  imagination 
and  profound  sensibility. 

O.  Hermann,  De  Mythologia  GnBcorum  antiquissima.  Lpz.  1817, —  JVackler,  Geschichte  der 
Litteratur,  vol.  i.  p.  106,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  34. 2. 

2t.  Their  free  forms  of  government  afforded  powerful  motives  to  stimulate 
exertion.  The  commerce  with  foreign  countries  furnished  a  source  of  favor- 
able influence.  Equally  favorable  were  the  high  honors  and  substantial  re- 
wards bestowed  on  knowledge  and  merit.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  ex- 
istence of  slavery  contributed  to  the  literary  advancement  of  the  Greeks,  as 
it  left  the  citizens  more  leisure  for  public  life  and  study.  But  a  more  fortu- 
nate circumstance  was,  that  oriental  influence  never  established  among  the 
Greeks  any  thing  like  the  system  of  casts,  which  prevailed  in  Egypt  and 
some  of  the  Asiatic  states,  and  which  confined  the  arts  and  sciences  by  a  sort 
of  hereditary  right  to  the  priests. 

Sicldcr's  Kadraos,  &c.  1818.— 6.  Hermann,  De  Hist.  Gr.  Primordiis.    1818.— Cf.  P.  I.  $  34,40. 

3  u.  The  plan  and  scope  of  Grecian  education  deserves  also  to  be  men- 
tioned here.  It  was  in  general  more  adapted  to  the  common  purposes  of  the 
whole  community  than  in  modern  times,  and  was  less  modified  by  the  indi- 
vidual and  private  aim  of  the  pupil.  The  apparent  good  of  the  state  was  the 
object  constantly  in  view.  This  gave  to  all  their  ideas  and  efforts  not  only  a 
definite  direction,  but  also  a  liberal  and  diffusive  character.  In  this  circum- 
stance we  find  one  obvious  source  of  the  permanent  excellence  and  utility  of 
the  Greek  writers  and  their  works.  Here  was  a  foundation  for  their  preemi- 
nent and  lasting  renown. 

On  education  among  the  Greeks  ;  cf.  P.  I.  $  63,  64  ,75.  To  the  references  there  given,  we 
add  the  following  ;  C.  F.  A.  Hochheimer,  Versuch  eines  Systems  der  Erziehung  der  Griechen. 
Dess.  1785.  2  vols.  8.—O.F.  Ooess,  Die  Erziehungswissenschaft  nach  den  Grunds'atzen  der 

Griechen  und  Rb'mer,  &c.     Ansh.  1808.  8 A.  H.  JYiemeyer,  Orisinalstellen  der  Gr.  und  Rom. 

Classiker  uber  die  Theorie  der  Erziehung.  Halle,  1813.  8.—F.  R.  Jacobs,  Ueber  die  Erziehung 
der  Griechen  zur  Sittlichkeit  ;  in  his  Vermischte  Sihriften,  vol.  in.— Good's  remarks  on  Greek 
and  Roman  education  ;  in  his  Book  of  Nature.  Lect.  XI.— F.  Cramer,  Geschichte  der  Erzie- 
hung in  Alterthume.     Elberf.  1822-33.  2  vols.   8. 

§  2.  No  nation  in  the  history  of  letters  is  so  celebrated  as  the 
Greeks.  And  the  imperious  obligation  is  laid  upon  every  one,  who 
makes  any  pretensions  to  literature,  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  lan- 
guage and  the  most  valuable  productions  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 
This  knowledge  is  alike  essential  to  the  statesman,  the  orator,  the 
physician,  the  theologian,  philosopher,  historian,  and  antiquarian; 
to  the  polite  scholar  and  the  philologian,  to  the  connoisseur  and  the 
artist,  it  is  absolutely  indispensable. 
13 


146  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

See  an  elegant  and  masterly  discussion  on  the  Study  of  Greek  Literature, 
by  Rev.  Mr.  Cheever,  in  the  American  Quarterly  Register,  vol.  iv.  p.  273;  v. 
p.  33,  218.  The  writer  aims  "  to  prove  that  Greek  literature  ought  to  be  pro- 
foundly studied.  —  First,  for  the  native  excellence  of  the  Greek  classics ; 
Second,  for  the  invigorating  discipline  which  this  study  affords  the  mind  : 
Third,  for  the  practical  knowledge  and  mastery  of  our  own  native  language  ; 
Fourth,  and  most  important,  as  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  theology." 

For  references  on  the  value  and  importance  of  classical  studies,  see  P.  I.  §  29.  To  those 
there  given  we  add  the  following  ;  F.  F.  Friedemann,  ParJLnesen  fur  studirende  jiinglinge  auf 
Gymnasien  und  Universitliten.  Brunsw.  1827.  "  A  collection  from  the  greatest  scholars,  on 
the  importance,  methods,  &c.  of  classical  study  ;  with  valuable  notes."  A  second  improved 
edition,  1833.  8.—Fr.  Thiersch,  Ueber  gelehrte  Schulen,  &c.  1826.  8.— J.  C.  Jahn,  Jahrbucher 
fiir  Philologie  und  Pddagogik.  Lpz.  1826.  Vol.  n.  p.  181 :  where  is  a  valuable  article  with 
references  to  recent  works.  This  philological  and  classical  journal  has  a  very  high  reputation  ; 
it  was  commenced  in  1826,  and  is  still  continued,  in  numbers,  forming  3  volumes  a  year. 

§  3.  But,  independent  of  these  considerations,  the  language  itself 
presents  sufficient  inducements  to  the  study  ;  such  is  its  own  intrin- 
sic beauty  ;  the  high  degree  of  perfection  it  exhibits,  above  all  other 
languages;  its  unequaled  richness  in  the  most  significant  words  and 
combinations  ;  its  symmetrical  structure  and  syntax  ;  its  elegance  in 
turns  of  expression  ;  the  singular  skill  in  the  arrangement  of  its  par- 
ticles, clauses  and  members ;  and  its  wonderful  harmony  in  prose  as 
well  as  poetry.  These  are  excellences  which  impart  to  the  best 
works  of  the  Greeks  a  charm  in  outward  dress  fully  corresponding  to 
the  value  of  their  contents. 

Cf.  P.  I.  $  39.—  T.  Q.  Trendclenberv's  Vergleichung  der  Vorziige  der  deutschen  Sprache  mit 
den  Vorz.  der  lat.  und  griech.  iin  Vierten  Bande  der  Schriften  der  deutschen  Gesellsch.  zu 
Mannheim.  Fr»nkf.  1788.  8. — Aug.  Schelz,  Versuch  iiber  den  Werth  der  alten  Sprachen  und 
das  stud,  der  Lit.  der  Griech.  fur  Jurist.  Frankf.  a.  d.  O.  1810.  8.— Coleridge,  Study  of  Greek 
Poets,  p.  34,  as  cited  §  21.—  Class.  Jour.  vi.  242;  xi.  144;  xm.  168. 

§  <±t.  Respecting  the  origin  of  the  Greek  language  and  the  causes 
of  its  perfection  we  have  already  remarked  (P.  I.  §  35-39).  Here 
we  may  further  remark,  that  in  the  different  provinces  and  settle- 
ments of  the  Greeks  arose  those  differences  in  their  language  which 
are  named  dialects.  The  principal,  which  are  found  in  written  com- 
position, are  four ;  the  /Eolic,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Attic. 

The  Jtcolic  prevailed  in  the  northern  parts  of  Greece,  in  some  northern 
islands  of  the  iEgean  sea,  and  especially  in  the  JEolic  colonies  in  the  north- 
western part  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  chiefly  cultivated  by  the  lyric  poets  in 
Lesbos,  as  Alcseus  and  Sappho,  and  in  Eceotia  by  Corinna.  It  retained  the 
most  numerous  traces  of  the  ancient  Greek.  The  Latin  coincides  with  this 
more  than  with  any  other  of  the  Greek  dialects. 

The  Doric  was  spoken  chiefly  in  the  Peloponnesus,  with  a  few  places  north 
of  the  Isthmus,  in  the  Doric  colonies  in  the  southern  part  of  Italy,  and  in  Sic- 
ily. It  was  particularly  distinguished  by  the  use  of  what  was  termed  the 
broad  sound  of  the  vowels  (nXarttaaftof).  The  most  eminent  writers  in  this 
dialect  were  Theocritus  and  Pindar.  Bion,  Moschus,  Stesichorus,  and  Bac- 
chylides  also  used  it. 

The  Ionic  was  the  softest  of  the  dialects,  in  consequence  of  its  numerous 
vowels,  and  its  rejection  of  aspirated  letters.  It  was  spoken  chiefly  in  the 
colonies  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  neighboring  islands. 
The  principal  writers  in  this  were  Homer,  Hesiod,  Anacreon,  Herodotus,  and 
Hippocrates. 

The  Mtic  was  considered  the  most  refined  and  perfect  of  the  dialects,  free 
from  the  extremes  of  harshness  and  softness.  It  had  its  seat  at  Athens,  and 
prevailed  in  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Grecian  literature.  It  is  the  dia- 
lect used  by  many  of  the  best  writers  of  Greece ;  ^schylus,  Sophocles,  Eu- 
ripides, Aristophanes,  Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Plato,  Isocrates,  Demosthenes, 
and  others* 

These  dialects  passed  through  different  changes,  and  included  under  them 


INTRODUCTION.      DIALECTS.     PRONUNCIATION.  147 

several  varieties.  They  may  be  traced  to  hco  primary  dialects,  as  the  Ionic 
and  Attic  were  originally  nearly  or  quite  the  same,  and  the  Doric  and  iEolic 
were  at  first  the  same,  or  had  a  common  basis.  Their  first  distinct  and  defi- 
nite separation  from  two  into  four,  may  be  referred  to  the  time  when  the  JEoli- 
an  and  Ionian  colonies  were  planted  in  Asia  Minor,  between  1030  and  1100  B.  C. 

On  the  colonies  referred  to,  see  Mitford's  Greece,  ch.  v.  §2.  —  On  the  dialects,  J.  F.  Facii 
Compendium  Dial.  Grac.  Norimb.  1782. — Mieh.  Mattaire,'  Grac.  Ling.  Dialecti.  Lips.  1807. 
E.  W.  Stun,  de  Dial.  Macedon.  et  Alexand.  Lips.  1807.  —  Hermann,  Progr.  de  Dialectis.  Lips. 
1807. — By  same,  de  Dialecto  Pindari.  Lips.  1809.— Also  see  Matthim's  Greek  Grammar  ;  Rubin- 
soil's  Buttman,  §  I. ;  and  Stuart's  Grammar  of  New  Testament.  —  On  the  Doric  peculiarities, 
see  Mueller's  Dorians,  vol.  u.  App.  viii.  —  On  the  reasons  for  the  use  of  particular  dialects  by 
particular  poets,  Cla is.  Journ.  xvu.  82. 

The  following  remarks  are  from  Ms.  notes  of  Lectures  by  Hermann,  1834.  "  We  need  a  work 
on  Dialects  ;  for  the  written  language  and  also  for  the  spoken.  The  dialects  of  the  written  lan- 
guage should  be  divided  into  the  Epic,  the  Lyric,  and  the  Tragic.  On  the  two  first,  we  have 
scarcely  any  thing.  I  have  done  something  ;  very  little.  On  the  Tragic,  Kuhlstadt  (?)  is  toler- 
ably good  ;  also  the  notes  of  Porson  and  Elmsly.  On  the  popular  dialect,  Stcpkanus  (in  his 
Thesaurus)  is  the  best.  —  Gregory  on  the  dialects,  and  the  notes  to  it,  are  poor.  Mattaire  is 
imperfect.  On  the  dialect  of  Herodotus,  Struve  is  pretty  fair.  On  the  Doric  and  ^olic,  there 
is  nothing  very  good  ;  Bopp's  Comparative  Grammar  is  the  best." 

§  5.  The  true  pronunciation  of  Greek,  since  it  must  be  viewed  as 
a  dead  language,  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty. 

\u.  The  principal  difference  in  the  actual  pronunciation  of  modern  scholars  on 
the  European  continent  is  in  the  enunciation  off;,  «»,  oi,  u,  ov  and  »v,  which 
are  sounded  in  two  different  ways.  Erasmus  and  Reuchlin,  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, were  the  distinguished  original  advocates  of  the  two  modes  respectively  ; 
and  from  this  circumstance  one  is  termed  the  Erasmian  and  the  other  the 
Reuchlinian  method.  Very  probably  there  was  a  different  utterance  of  these 
vowels  in  the  different  provinces  among  the  Greeks. 

2.  Those  who  adopt  the  Reuchlinian  method  sound  >;,  or,  and  st,  like  the 
continental  i  (as  in  machine)  ;  at  like  e  in  there  ;  and  v  in  av  and  si  like  /or  v. 
Those  who  follow  Erasmus  sound  tj  like  a  in  hate  ;  ai  like  ai  in  aisle  ;  si  like 
ei  in  height;  oi  like  oi  in  Boiotia ;  av  and  sv  like  an  and  eu  in  Glaucus  and  Eurus 
(Robinson  s  Buttman,  §  2.  6).  The  former  are  often  called  lotista.  and  the  lat- 
ter Etistce,  from  their  respective  modes  of  sounding  the  vowel  i; ;  these  terms 
instantly  suggest  to  a  continental  scholar  the  ground  of  their  application  ;  but 
to  an  English  or  American  eye  and  ear,  they  would  best  convey  the  meaning 
by  being  written  and  spoken  eotistae,  or  etista;  and  dtistm  (ctists  and  otists). 
In  England  and  in  this  country,  especially  in  the  northern  schools  and  semi- 
naries, it  has  been  the  common  practice  to  sound  the  Greek  vowels  according 
to  the  prevailing  analogy  of  the  vernacular  tongue.  The  controversy  between 
Reuchlinians  and  Erasmians  has  therefore  excited  little  interest  among  us. 

For  references  to  authors  who  have  discussed  the  subject,  consult  Harles,  Introductio  in  His- 
toriam  Lingua?  Graecjs  (Prol.  §  7,  and  Supplement).  Harles  expresses  the  opinion  hinted  above 
in  this  section,  that  the  vowels  bad  not  always  and  in  all  places  a  uniform  sound. — Cf.  Messrs. 
de  Port-Royal,  Gk.  Gram.  Pref.  ix.—Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xi.  471. 

3u.  The  chief  difficulty  in  pronouncing  Greek  is  found  in  the  expression  of 
what  is  called  the  accent.  The  tone  in  Greek  is  placed  upon  short  syllables 
as  well  as  long  ;  in  German,  it  accompanies  regularly  only  long  syllables. 
The  consequence  is,  that  in  reading  Greek  with  the  accent  always  placed 
where  the  Greek  tone  is  marked,  a  German  naturally  violates  quantity,  and  in 
verse  destroys  all  poetical  measure.  Yet  attention  and  practice  will  enable 
one  to  give  the  accent  to  the  syllable  marked  by  it,  and  at  the  same  time  re- 
gard and  exhibit  the  quantity  in  his  pronunciation. 

4.  The  mode  of  expressing  what  is  called  the  accent,  is  viewed  as  a  subject 
of  greater  importance  than  the  sound  of  the  vowels.  In  giving  an  accent  to  a 
syllable  in  an  English  word  we  thereby  render  it  a  long  syllable,  whatever 
may  be  the  sound  given  to  its  vowel,  and  in  whatever  way  the  syllable  may 
be  composed  ;  so  that  as  above  stated  in  relation  to  the  German,  an  English 
accent,  or  stress  in  pronunciation,  accompanies  only  a  long  syllable.  The  con- 
sequence is  that,  if  we  in  pronouncing  Greek  put  our  accent  wherever 
the  Greek  tone  (toioc)  occurs,  we  shall  in  many  cases  grossly  violate  the  laws 
of  quantity  ;  because  the  Greek  tone  is  placed  on  short  syllables  as  well  as 
long  ones.  "Let  one  take,  for  example,  the  word  uvBoorrtug,  and  attempt  to 
place  the  stress  on  the  first  syllable,  and  yet  make  the  second  seem  as  long  in 


148  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

quantity.  He  will  certainly  find  some  difficulty.  It  is  of  no  consequence  in 
the  matter,  which  sound  he  gives  to  a  in  the  first,  the  open  or  contracted  ;  the 
quantity,  to  an  English  ear,  is  the  same  whether  he  says  an'thropos,  or  an'thro- 
pos. Nor  does  it  make  any  difference,  as  to  the  point  in  question,  whether  he 
givc3  to  a>  in  the  second  the  contracted  sound  or  the  open  ;  in  either  case,  the 
quantity  will  be  the  same  to  English  ears,  whether  he  says  an'throp  os,  or  an' - 
thro  pos,  and  must  be  the  same  in  English  verse,  just  as  in  the  two  words 
hig'ot  cd  and  temp'  6  ral.     Now  in  this  difficulty  what  shall  the  student  do  ?  " 

Three  different  methods  have  been  followed  by  different  persons.  One  is  to  persevere  in  the 
effort  to  separate  stress  and  quantity,  and  give  stress  in  all  cases  to  the  syllable  which  has  the 
Greek  tone,  and  at  the  same  time  to  pronounce  that  syllable  and  the  others  with  a  prolongation 
or  curtailment  of  sound  according  to  their  prosodial  quantity.  Many  distinguished  scholars 
recommend  this  effort,  as  Matthias,  Michaslis,  Foster,  Buttman,  and  others,  with  the  assurance, 
that  perseverance  will  attain  the  object.  But  it  is  believed  that  very  few,  if  any,  ever  succeed- 
in  the  effort.  Bwckh  is  said  always  to  follow  both  accent  and  quantity  ;  and  Hermann  to  do  it 
in  prose,  while  he  confesses  his  want  of  success  in  poetry.  It  is  indeed  not  very  difficult  to 
give  a  mere  elevation  to  the  syllable  that  has  the  tone,  and  still  pronounce  it  in  half  the  time  em- 
ployed in  uttering  either  of  the  other  syllables.  Such  enunciation,  however,  must  to  our  ears 
seem  like  singing  rather  than  accented  pronunciation.  Nor  is  elevation  by  any  means  synony- 
mous with  our  accent ;  for  the  syllable  which  has  the  stress,  in  our  language,  is  not  always 
elevated  above  the  others  in  enunciation,  but  is  very  often  depressed  below  them.  —  A  second 
method  is  to  place  the  stress  always  on  the  syllable  which  has  the  Greek  tone,  and  make  no 
effort  to  exhibit  the  relative  quantity  of  the  syllables.  This  is  done  by  the  modern  Greeks,  and" 
is  perfectly  easy  for  us.  But  it  is  a  method,  which  inevitably  violates  all  the  prosodial  meas- 
ures, and  utterly  destroys  Greek  versification.  On  this  account,  chiefly,  scholars  in  this  country,, 
although  often  urged,  have  been  reluctant  to  adopt  it.  —  The  third  mode  is  to  place  the  stress 
on  the  syllable  (whether  the  Greek  tone  be  on  that  syllable  or  not)  on  which  it  would  fall  by- 
Latin  analogy;  i.  e.  on  the  penult,  if  the  penult  be  long,  or  the  antepenult,  if  the  penult  be  short. 
This  method,  of  course,  is  very  easy  for  us,  and  it  also  accords  with  the  Greek  prosodial  quan- 
tity far  better  than  the  second,  although  it  does  not  by  any  means  perfectly  harmonize  there- 
with. It  however  makes  distinctly  perceptible  the  quantity  of  the  penult  in  all  words  of  three  or 
more  syllables;  and  this  is  nearly  all  that  can  be  accomplished  by  modern  utterance,  even  accord" 
ing  to  Buttman's  statement,  although  he  advocates  a  regard  to  the  Greek  tone  in  pronunciation. 

On  the  second  method  above  named  ;  J.  Pickering's  Memoir  on  the  Pronunciation  of  Ancient 
Greek.    Camb.  1818.  4. — Liscovius,  Ueber  die  Aussprache  des  Griechischen. — Bloch,  Revision 

der  Lehre  von  Ausprache  des  Altgriechischen.    1826. For  the  cited  statement  of  Buttm ami ; 

Robinson's  Buttmann,  §  7,  note  7. — Cf.  Rales  for  Pronouncing-  Latin  and  Greek,  and  a  Method  of 

Logical  Analysis  applied  So  Cheek  Composition.    Amherst,  Mass.  1834.  32  pp.  12mo. On  this 

subject,  also,  the  following  works  may  be  mentioned.  John  Foster,  An  essay  ou  the  Differ- 
ent Nature  of  Accent  and  Quantity,  with  their  Use  in  the  English,  Latin,  and  Greek  Lan- 
guages, &c.  Third  edition,  containing  Dr.  IT.  Galhf's  Two  Dissertations  against  pronouncing 
the  Greek  according  to  Accents.  Loud.  1820.  8.—  William  Primatt,  Accentus  Redivivi,  or  a  De- 
fence of  an  accented  pronunciation  of  Greek  prose.  Camb.  17G4  8. — Metronariston,  or  a  new 
pleasure  recommended  in  a  Dissertation  upon  a  part  of  Greek  and  Latin  Prosody.  Lond. 
1797.  8. — J.  Walker's  Key  to  the  classical  pronunciation  &c.  with  observations  on  Greek  and 
Latin  Accent  and  Quantity.  Lond.  1798.  8.  Boston,  1818.  24.—  William  Mitford,  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Principles  of  Harmony  in  Language,  &c.  Lond.  1804.  8. —  Wagner,  cited  P.  I.  $51.. 
— See  also  Harlcs,  Introductio  &c.  Prol.  §  t>,  and  Supplement. 

§  6.  It  is  important  to  begin  the  acquisition  of  this  language  at  an 
early  period  of  life.  But  a  tedious,  unfruitful  mode  of  study  must 
be  avoided,  lest  a  language  so  beautiful  and  excellent  should  become 
disgusting  to  youth.  The  pupil  must  first  be  well  grounded  in  the 
principles  of  the  Grammar,  the  understanding  of  which  and  the  fix- 
ing of  them  in  the  memory  may  be  aided  by  exercises  in  the  trans- 
lation of  easy  passages  from  suitable  text-books. 

The  best  mode  of  studying  and  teaching  the  languages-  has  been  a  fruitful 
theme  for  discussion.  In  this  place  a  few  general  remarks  only  will  be  offered. 

1.  Perhaps  no  one  method  of  teaching  can  be  devised,  which  shall,  by  its 
essential  peculiarities  as  a  method,  be  the  best  in  all  circumstances.  It  is  es- 
sential to  great  success,  that  the  teacher's  own  mind  should  be  roused  to 
wakeful  activity  and  interest ;  and  also  that  the  student  should  be  put  upon  a 
kind  and  degree  of  exertion  which  really  tasks  him,  and  which  yet  is  fully 
within  his  present  ability.  It  must  be  obvious  to  every  observer,  that  the 
method,  which  might  secure  these  objects  in  some  cases,  would  utterly  fail  in 
others.  The  teacher,  therefore,  who  relies  upon  any  plan,  as  possessing  in 
itself  certain  efficacy,  and  on  that  account  promising  infallible  success,  will 
inevitably  be  disappointed.  The  efficacy  of  any  method  will  depend  very 
much  on  his  own  spirit  and  feelings  ;  and  if  he  trusts  to  a  favorite  method 
merely  or  chiefly  as  such,  however  successful  it  may  be  when  executed  with 


INTRODUCTION.       METHODS    OF    STUDYING  GREEK.  149 

his  own  mind  glowing  with  enthusiasm,  he  will  soon  discover,  that  his  meth- 
od will  not  work  by  magic  ;  as  a  machine  or  instrument  employed  with  wake- 
ful ardor  by  him  it  accomplishes  much;  but  it  can  do  little  or  nothing  of  itself 
alone.  The  judicious  and  skillful  teacher  will  be  regularly  guided  by  certain 
general  principles,  but  will  ever  be  on  the  alert  to  watch  among  his  pupils 
the  first  flagging  of  interest  in  his  present  methods,  and  put  himself  to  devise 
new  expedients  to  forward  his  ultimate  object. 

2.  The  analytical  and  synthetical  methods,  as  they  have  been  termed,  have 
often  been  brought  into  comparison.  The  former  is  less  adapted  for  the  study 
of  a  dead  language  than  for  almost  any  other  branch  of  learning  to  which  it 
can  be  applied.  Much  has  been  urged  in  its  favor  in  this  study,  but  only 
doubtful  evidence  can  be  adduced  from  experience.  Where  there  is  time  suf- 
ficient and  constant  oral  instructions  can  be  afforded,  such  a  method  is  no  doubt 
adequate.  But  no  abiding  foundation  is  laid  until  the  student  is  well  ground- 
ed in  the  principles  of  grammar,  as  hinted  in  the  section  above.  The  princi- 
ples of  grammar  are  nothing  but  classifications  or  synthetic  statements  of  those 
facts  respecting  the  language,  which  by  the  analytic  process  the  pupil  learns 
by  induction  from  a  series  of  particular  cases  ;  i.  e.  if  he  learns  them  by  the 
analytic  process  in  reality  ;  but  in  point  of  fact,  he  usually  learns  them,  if  he 
learns  them  at  all,  because  his  teacher  orally  states  the  general  facts  to  him 
again  and  again,  as  successive  particular  instances  occur;  and  thus  when  one 
of  these  facts  has  been  stated  so  often  that  he  cannot  help  remembering  it,  he 
has  learned  simply  what  he  learns  when  he  commits  to  memory  from  his 
grammar  the  rule  or  principle,  in  declension  or  syntax,  which  presents  that 
one  general  fact ;  and  the  former  process  is  as  truly  synthetic  as  the  latter, 
with  only  this  difference,  that  the  pupil  commits  the  thing  to  memory  from 
hearing  it  said  over  and  over  again  by  the  master,  instead  of  committing  it  in 
a  vastly  shorter  time  and  in  a  more  accurate  form  from  his  grammar  at  the 
outset. 

The  remark  of  the  author  above,  that  the  fixing  of  the  principles  of  gram- 
mar in  the  memory  may  be  aided  by  suitable  accompanying  exercises,  is  just 
and  important.  Much  of  the  prejudice  against  the  method,  which  has  been 
called  synthetic,  has  arisen  from  the  practice  of  forcing  the  beginner  to  spend 
many  weeks  in  merely  committing  the  grammar  to  memory.  It  is  far  better 
that  he  should  be  put  upon  the  application  of  what  he  learns  as  he  learns  it, 
and  that  he  should  be  furnished  with  exercises  adapted  for  the  purpose.  This 
is  the  method  most  generally  practiced  in  the  schools  of  our  country.  Most 
of  the  elementary  books  now  in  use,  in  the  study  of  both  Greek  and  Latin, 
contain  portions  designed  for  such  exercises. 

A  very  good  help  for  acquiring  and  fixing  in  this  way  the  principles  of  Greek  Grammar  is 
the  following;  Lessons  in  Greek  Parsing,  or  Outlines  of  the  Greek  Grammar,  illustrated  by 
appropriate  exercises  in  Parsing  ;  by  Cliavncy  A.  Goodrich.    New  Haven,  1829. 

Attempts  have  recently  been  made  in  England  to  introduce  (in  the  language  of  the  advo- 
cates of  the  system,  to  restore)  the  method  of  Interlinear  Translation.  A  series  of  text-books 
has  been  published  adapted  to  this  design.  The  Greek  course  commences  with  Selections  from 
Lucian's  Dialogues.  The  beginner  is  freed  from  the  toil  and  delay  of  studying  a  grammar  or 
turning  to  a  lexicon.  The  translation  is  given  word  for  word,  the  English  directly  under  the 
Greek,  and  the  learner  is  expected  to  be  able,  on  examination  by  the  master,  to  render  the 
Greek  into  English  word  for  word,  and  also  without  the  book  to  give  the  English  for  each 
Greek  word,  and  the  Greek  for  each  English  word.  The  second  volume  in  the  course  consists 
of  the  odes  of  Anacreon,  and  is  to  be  studied  in  the  same  way,  but  accompanied  with  the 

study  of  a  grammar  adapted  to  the  plan. For  an  account  of  this  system,  see  An  Essay  on  a 

system  of  Classical  Instruction,  combining  the  methods  of  Locke,  Milton,  Ascham,  and  Colet  5 
the  whole  series  being  designed  to  exhibit  a  Restoration  of  the  primitive  mode  of  Scholastic 
Tuition  in  England.    Lond.  1829.    Cf.  Land.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  lxxvii. 

3.  It  is  sometimes  asked  whether  a  youth  should  begin  with  Greek  or  with 
Latin.  The  question  is  not  perhaps  of  so  much  importance  as  some  have 
supposed.  But  it  may  be  observed,  that  some  of  the  most  distinguished  schol- 
ars, both  in  this  country  and  others,  as  Pickering,  Wyttenbach,  &c.  have 
thought  that  the  classical  course  should  commence  with  Greek.  The  chief 
remark  we  wish  to  urge  here  is,  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  that  both 
languages  should  be  commenced  in  early  life  ;  although  very  high  attain- 
ments have  been  made  by  persons  who  began  classical  study  at  a  compara- 
tively advanced  age. 

4.  Whatever  methods  are  employed  in  the  first  stages,  it  is  obvious  that  as 

13* 


150  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

the  student  advances  his  attention  should  be  turned  to  various  points  by  suit-' 
able  exercises.  Tbe  habit  of  thoroughly  analysing  sentences  upon  grammat- 
ical principles  must  be  formed  and  never  lost.  It  is  a  profitable  exercise  to 
the  most  advanced  scholar  occasionally  in  his  readings  to  select  a  sentence 
and  go  ovei  it  in  a  perfectly  minute  examination  of  every  word  and  make  a 
formal  statement,  even  a  written  one,  of  all  that  is  true  respecting  it  in  its 
place  in  that  sentence. 

On  the  importance  of  thorough  study,  see  Hint?  on  the  study  of  the  Greek  Language  by  Prof. 
Stuart,  in  the  Bibl.  Repository,  No.  vi.  vol.  II.  p.  200. 

Another  exercise,  which  will  be  found  of  much  utility,  is  that  of  analyzing 
upon  logical  principles.  This  analysis  extends  of  course  beyond  the  parts  of 
a  single  sentence,  and  examines  not  only  the  mutual  relations  of  those  parts, 
but  also  the  nature  and  ground  of  the  connection  between  the  sentences.  It 
may  be  united  with  a  tracing  out  of  the  train  and  order  of  thought  in  the 
mind  of  the  author  through  successive  paragraphs  or  a  whole  piece. 

The  nature  of  this  exercise  is  partially  exhibited  in  A  Method  of  Logical  Analysis  applied  to 
Greek  Composition,  cited  above  §  5.  3. — Cf.  A.  J.  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  Principles  of  General  Gram- 
mar, adapted  to  the  capacity  cf  youth,  and  proper  to  serve  as  an  Introduction  to  the  study  of 
Languages.    Part  iii.  as  tra"n>l.  by  D.  Fosdick.    Andov.  1834.    12. 

Exercises  in  oral  or  written  translation  from  the  original  into  the  vernacular 
are  of  indispensable  importance.  It  is  advantageous  to  vary  the  mode  of  trans- 
lating. The  scholar  may  sometimes  be  required  to  give  the  vernacular  for  the 
original,  word  for  word,  taken  in  grammatical  order,  a  mode  absolutely  essen- 
tial with  beginners  ;  sometimes  he  may  proceed  exactly  in  the  order  of  the 
original,  a  method  which  will  be  found  very  useful  in  gaining  familiarity  with 
an  author's  mode  of  thinking  and  with  the  idioms  of  the  language.  Some- 
times he  may,  either  before  or  after  reading  the  original,  translate  a  sentence 
or  passage  as  a  whole,  giving  as  far  as  possible  the  exact  meaning  of  the  au- 
thor's words,  in  the  best  words  of  the  vernacular,  and  using  only  vernacular 
idioms  ;  a  method  of  peculiar  advantage  in  cultivating  accuracy  and  prompt- 
ness in  the  use  of  the  vernacular.  Loose  and  paraphrastic  translations  cannot 
be  safely  indulged  even  in  advanced  scholars. 

Various  other  exercises,  connected  with  inquiries  on  the  facts  and  allusions, 
the  sentiments,  figures,  and  general  scope  of  the  original,  and  with  topics  of 
history,  chronology,  geography,  arts,  and  antiquities,  wTill  be  suggested  to  ev- 
ery competent  teacher. In  all  cases  it  is  to  be  kept  in  mind,  that  repeated 

reviewing  cannot  be  too  much  recommended. 

On  the  last  point  and  on  this  whole  subject,  see  Dissertations  on  the  importance  and  best 
method  of  studying  the  Original  Languages  of  the  Bible,  by  Jahn,  with  notes  by  M.  Stuart. 
Andov.  1821.  Also,  Observations  on  the  importance  of  Greek  Literature  and  the  best  method 
of  studying  the  classics,  translated  from  the  Latin  of  Prof.  Wvtteabach.  Boston,  1820. — Cf. 
Prof.  A.  S.  Pad.ard,  On  the  best  method  of  studying  the  ancient  Languages  ;  in  the  Lectures 
before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction.  Boston,  1834.  8. — //.  Felton,  Dissertation  on  read- 
ing the  Classics.     Lond.  1718.  12.     1730.  8. 

Translating  from  the  vernacular  into  the  language,  which  the  student  wishes 
to  learn,  is  eminently  useful.  In  the  study  of  Greek  this  exercise  has  been 
practiced  among  us  much  less  than  in  the  study  of  Latin  ;  owing  chiefly  to 
the  want  of  suitable  helps  to  enable  the  learner  to  begin  it  in  the  outset  of  his 
course.  The  student  should  commence  the  writing  of  Greek  as  soon  as  he 
enters  upon  h's  Chrestomathy  or  Reading-Book. 

5.  How  far  Reading-Books,  comprising  mere  extracts  and  selections,  should 
be  used,  has  been  a  subject  of  inquiry.  In  this  country  for  many  years,  until 
recently,  the  course  of  study  has  been  chiefly  confined  to  such  books  in  the 
Colleges  as  well  as  other  schools.  Lately,  objections  have  been  urged  which 
have  awakened  some  prejudice  against  them.  No  friend  of  learning  can  ob- 
ject to  the  reading  of  "  whole  authors,"  which  has  been  demanded.  But  the 
time  allowed  to  Greek,  in  the  present  systems  of  study  at  our  Colleges,  is 
not  sufficient  for  reading  the  who!e  of  more  than  one  or  two  important  authors. 
Yet  that  the  student,  who  would  derive  full  advantage  or  pleasure  from  the 
study,  must  go  beyond  his  Collectanea  or  Excerpta,  needs  not  to  be  stated.  In 
what  order  it  is  best  to  read  the  Greek  authors  is  less  obvious.  The  Odyssey 
of  Horner  and  Anabasis  of  Xcnophon  are  adapted  for  an  early  place  in  the 
course. 

Cf.  Prof.  Stowc's  Remarks  in  the  Bibl.  Repository,  vol.  n.  p.  740.— J.  G.  Schilling,  Leber  den 


INTRODUCTION.       INSTRUCTION    IN    GREEK.  151 

Eweck  und  die  Methode  beym  Lesen  der  Gr.  u.  Rom.  Class.    Hamb.  &  Kiel,  1795,  '97.  2.- 

Abth.  8.—Fr.  Crevzer,  Das  acad.  Stud,  des  Alterthums.     Heidelb.  1807.   8 K.  O.  Schelle, 

Welche  alta  class.  Autoren,  wie,  in  vvelcher  Folge  und  Verbindung  mit  andern  Studien  soil 
man  sie  auf  Schulen  lesen?  Lpz.  1«24.  -J  Bde  8.— H.  Salzer,  Gedanken  iiber  d.  beste  Art  d.- 
class.  Schriftst.  zu  lesen.  Bed.  17(i5.  8. —  Thiersch,  Ueber  Schulen,  <fcc.  3te  Abth.  as  cited 
above  §  2.— Cf.  Fahrmann,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  29.  4. 

6.  The  following  extract,  (rum  the  Calendar  of  the  London  University  for  1832,  may  not  be 
wholly  without  interest ;  since  it  gives  a  view  of  the  method  of  instruction  proposed  to  be 
followed  in  that  Institution,  as  presented  in  outline  by  the  two  Professors  of  the  classical  de- 
partment. 

"  The  instruction  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  classes  is  communicated  by  daily  examination  of 
the  students  in  certain  portions  of  a  Latin  or  Greek  author  (for  which  they  are  required  to 
prepare  at  home) ;  by  questions  on  the  subject-matter  and  the  words  of  the  author ;  by  re- 
marks on  the  peculiarities  of  the  language  and  on  important  facts  ;  by  reference  to  books,  or 
parts  of  books  ;  by  the  aid  of  maps,  plans,  views,  models,  coins,  medals,  &c.  ,•  and  finally,  by 
requiring  from  the  students  translations  from  these  two  languages  into  English,  and  from  Eng- 
lish into  Latin  or  Greek,  with  other  exercises  of  various  kinds. — There  are,  in  all  the  classes, 
regular  examinations  at  Christmas,  Easter,  and  the  close  of  the  Session,  conducted  chiefly  af- 
ter the  Cambridge  plan,  by  written  answers  to  questions  privately  printed  ;  by  these  it  is  de- 
termined to  whom  Certificates  of  Proficiency  shall  be  granted  and  the  prizes  awarded." 

Outline  of  Course  in  Latin  Language  and  Literature. —  "The  instruction  in  this  department 
will,  from  the  commencement  of  the  Session  1831-2,  be  divided  into  three  courses,  as  follows. 
— The  Junior  Class  will  begin  with  two  or  three  books  of  Ciesar's  Gallic  War.  A  certain  por- 
tion of  this  will  be  daily  translated  by  the  student  himself,  in  the  lecture  room.  But  to  make 
him  accurately  acquainted  with  the  language,  he  will  be  called  upon,  both  orally  in  the  Lec- 
ture room,  and  in  writing  out  of  it,  to  translate  a  number  of  short  sentences  from  English  into 
Latin.  All  of  these  will  be  selected  from  Cassar's  own  writings,  so  as  to  illustrate  the  differ- 
ent idioms,  as  they  from  time  to  time  occur.  Those  for  immediate  translation  will,  of  course, 
be  very  simple  ;  while  such  as  are  to  be  translated  out  of  the  lecture-room  will  be  of  a  diffi- 
culty somewhat  greater,  but  still  simple.  These  exercises  are  already  prepared,  and  will  be 
printed  before  the  autumn  of  the  next  year.  No  English-Latin  Dictionary  will  be  required  by 
the  student ;  all  those  words  for  which  he  might  want  to  consult  such  a  book  will  be  supplied 
with  the  exercises.  After  he  has  thus  overcome  the  difficulties  occurring  in  narrative,  he  will 
read  Terence's  Andria  where  the  idioms  peculiar  to  dialogue  will  present  themselves.  These 
also  will  be  fully  explained  to  him,  and  impressed  upon  his  memory  in  the  same  way,  viz.  by 
easy  passages,  carefully  selected  for  translation  from  the  other  plays  of  Terence,  and  those  of 
Plautus.— The  Manilian  Oration  will  close  the  Session.— In  this  class  by  far  the  largest  share  of 
the  student's  attention  will  be  directed  to  the  idioms  and  structure  of  the  language.  At  the 
same  time  it  will  not  be  forgotten,  that  an  acquaintance  with  certain  portions  of  history,  ge- 
ography, and  antiquities  is  necessary  to  the  full  understanding  of  every  Latin  author.  The 
translations  from  English  into  Latin  will  be  required  four  times  a  week,  and  once  a  week  a 

written  translation  from  the  text  of  the  author. The  Senior  Class  will  commence  with  the 

21st  and22d  books  of  Livy,  and  the  9th  book  of  the  ^Eneid  ;  they  will  afterwards  read  part  of 
Cicero's  Letters  and  the  Satires  or  Epistles  of  Horace.  In  connection  with  the  two  prose  writ- 
ers, there  will  be  regular  exercises  adapted  to  each  author,  as  in  the  Junior  class  ;  but  they 
will  be  of  a  more  difficult  character.  In  this  class  also,  a  weekly  translation  from  some  por- 
tion of  the  text  will  be  required. In  the  Higher  Class  the  instruction  will  be  of  a  different 

character.  The  Professor  will  himself  translate  and  explain  some  portion  of  a  more  difficult 
Latin  author,  or  read  a  lecture  connected  with  the  history,  antiquities,  or  language  of  Rome. 
— Thus  in  the  Session  1831-2,  it  is  proposed,  that  the  subject  should  be,-lst.  A  play  of  Plautus  ; 
fragments  of  Ennius  and  the  earlier  writers,  with  some  of  the  oldest  inscriptions ;  and  a 
Course  of  Lectures  on  the  etymological  structure  of  the  Latin  language. — 2d.  History  of  Cice- 
ro's times,  illustrated  by  his  Orations  and  Epistles." 

Outline  of  Course  in  Greek  Language  and  Literature.  —  "  There  are  two  regular  academical 
classes,  Junior  and  Senior,  besides  a  class  for  more  advanced  students.  In  the  Junior  and 
Senior  classes  instruction  is  given  daily,  except  Saturday  ;  in  the  Higher  class,  twice  a  week. 
—  Junior  Class.  This  class  is  intended  for  those  young  students  who  enter  the  University  at 
the  earliest  period  that  is  recommended  ;  and  also  for  students  of  a  more  advanced  age,  who 
have  learned  Greek  only  a  short  time,  and  wish  to  avail  themselves  of  the  more  elementary 
kind  of  instruction.  The  Anabasis  of  Xenophon  is  the  text-book,  of  which  small  portions  are 
read  daily,  except  Saturday.  At  the  commencement  of  the  Session,  the  etymological  structure 
of  the  language  is  developed  by  explaining  the  particular  forms  that  occur  in  each  lesson,  and 
by  exhibiting  on  the  black  board  other  examples  of  the  classes  to  which  they  belong.  Each 
lesson  is  twice  read  on  successive  days,  and  the  more  difficult  parts  are  also  translated  and 
explained  by  the  Professor.  Written  translations  of  certain  portions  are  required  once  a  week, 
and  they  are  corrected  with  reference  both  to  the  meaning  and  the  mode  of  expression.  One 
student's  exercise  is  also  selected  to  be  read  aloud  in  the  lecture-room  by  the  Professor,  who 
makes  such  remarks  as  he  may  judge  proper,  and  calls  on  other  students  to  read  aloud  parts 
of  their  exercises,  and  to  explain  any  thing  in  them  that  is  imperfect  or  obscure.  When  this 
exercise  has  been  corrected,  each  student  is  expected  to  be  able  to  give  orally,  and  with  closed 
book,  the  Greek  text  corresponding  to  the  English,  which  the  Professor  reads  out  in  short  por- 
tions, and  whenever  it  is  practicable,  in  distinct  propositions.  To  aid  the  student  still  further 
in  acquiring  the  language  by  written  exercises,  short  English  sentences  are  given  him  to  be 
turned  into  Greek,  the  model  or  example  to  be  imitated  being  always  contained  in  some  part 

that  li!^  has  read,  and  to  which  he  is  referred During  the  Session  the  Professor  explains  the 

geography  of  Greece,  and  the  Greek  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  gives  also  such  in- 
struction on  the  geography  of  Asia  as  is  necessary  to  understand  the  narrative  of  Xenophon. 
Every  well  ascertained  fact  of  physical  or  modern  political  geography  that  can  elucidate  an- 
cient geography  comes  within  the  plan.  These  explanations  are  always  followed  by  examina- 
tion. The  student  is  recommended  to  use  the  maps  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge,  and  is  referred  to  others  on  a  larger  scale  in  the  Lecture  room  and  the  Library.  — 


152 


HISTORY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 


The  subject  matter  of  the  Anabasis  is  explained  to  the  student,  as  well  as  the  language  ;  it 
being  the  Professor's  design  to  connect,  as  far  as  he  is  able,  all  kinds  of  useful  information 
with  the  accurate  study  of  the  Greek  text. — For  the  Session  1830-31,  the  first  four  books  of  the 

Anabasis  are  read.    In  the  Session  1831-32,  the  last  three  will  be  read. The  Senior  Class. 

This  class  is  intended  for  those  who  have  passed  through  the  Junior  Class,  and  for  others  who 
have  come  prepared  to  enter  it.  The  general  plan  for  the  Junior  Class  applies  to  this  also,  with 
such  modifications  as  the  higher  acquirements  of  the  pupils  may  render  necessary.  In  the 
Session  1830-31,  the  class  reads  Herodotus,  Book  iii. ;  the  Orestes  of  Euripides ;  and  two  books 
of  the  Iliad.     In  the  Session  1831-32,  the  Senior  Class  will  read  Herodotus,  Book  viii.  ;  the 

Persae  of  iEschylus  ;  and  two  books  of  the  Odyssey. Higher  Class.    The  object  of  this 

class  is  to  assist  those  students  of  more  advanced  age  or  acquirements,  who  are  privately  pros- 
ecuting their  Greek  studies.  For  this  purpose  the  Professor  explains  some  portion  of  a  Greek 
author^  by  translating  the  Greek  text,  making  the  necessary  remarks  on  the  subject  matter  and 
the  words,  and  by  referring  the  students  to  books,  maps,  coins,  &c.  for  further  illustration.  It 
is  his  intention  to  choose  for  explanation  such  books  as  will  be  most  instructive  to  older  pu- 
pils ;  Thucydides,  the  Attic  orators,  Homer,  Aristophanes,  &.c.  During  part  of  each  Spring 
Course,  Greek  inscriptions  will  be  explained  to  the  class,  from  Bacilli's  Corpus  Inscriptionum, 
and  from  the  marbles  of  the  British  Museum. 
On  the  studies  of  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  England,  cf.  North  Amer.  Rev.  for  Jan.  1837. 

For  a  notice,  by  Prof.  B.  Sears,  of  the  mode  of  instruction  in  the  celebrated  Orphan-house 

Gymnasium  at  Halle,  see  the  Annals  of  Education  for  the  year  1834.  —  There  is  a  late  work  on 
the  state  of  education  in  the  west  of  Europe  ;  Fr.  Thiersch,  Ueber  den  gegenwirtigen  Zustand 
des  offentlicher  Unterrichts  in  Deutchland,  Holland,  Frankreich,  und  Belgium.  1838.  3  Parts. 

It.  Here  it  will  be  in  place  to  mention  some  of  the  numerous  and 
various  helps  which  the  student  in  Grgek  may  bring  to  his  aid. 

1.  Chrestomathies  and  Reading  Books.    There  j  emicae  Juventius  &c.   1st  edit.  Edinb.  1789.  97. 

are  many  which  are  valuable.  2  vols.  8.    Many  editions  have  been  published  ; 

Jo.  Math.  Gcsneri  Chrestomathia  Graeca.  Lips,    as  e.  g.  the  8th  edit,  of  1st  vol.  and  4th  edit,  of 

1731.   Several  later  editions.  2d  vol.  under  the  care  of  6.  Dunbar,  Edinb. 

Christ.  Frid.  Matthias,  Chrestomathia  Graeca.    1816,17;  and  the  1st  Lond.  edit,  under  the  care 

I  of  C.  J.  Bluomfield,  Lond. 1821;  and  the  3d  edit, 
n  1830  ;  and  several  American  editions  ;  par- 


Mosc.1773. 

Frid.  Andr.  Stroth,  Eclogae,  sive  Chrestom. 
Graec.   Quedl.  1776. 

Jo.  Frid.  Facius,  Griechische  Blumenlese. 
Numb.  1783. 

Jo.  Heinr.  Martin  Ernesti,  Erstes  Vorberei- 
tungsbuch  der  griechischen  Sprache.  Altenb. 
1784. 

F.  Gedike's  griechische  Lesebuch.  (edited  bv 
Buttmann)  Berlin, 1821.  8. 

J.  C.  F.  Heinztllmann? s  griech.  Lesebuch. 
Halle,1816.  8. 

F.  Jacobs,  Elementarbuch  der  Griech.  Sprach. 
Jena,  1824.  4.  Th.  8.  This  has  been  a  very 
common  text-book  in  Germany.  It  consists  of 
four  parts  or  Courses.  The  first  is  designed  for 
beginners,  and  is  the  part  published  in  this 
country  under  the  title  of  The  Greek  Reader. 
The  second  part,  styled  Attika,  consists  of  ex- 
tracts illustrating  the  history  of  Athens,  from 
the  historians  and  orators.  The  third,  styled 
Socrates,  is  composed  of  philosophical  extracts. 
The  fourth  is  styled  Poetischc  Blumenlese,  and 
consists  of  poetical  pieces.  The  Boston  Stere- 
otype Edition  of  the  Reader  contains  some  of 
the  extracts  of  the  second  and  of  the  fourth  parts 
of  the  original  work  :  this  is  the  best  American 
edition,  entitled  The  Greek  Reader  by  Frederic 
Jacobs,  Professor  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Gotha, 
&c.  4th  American  from  the  9th  German  edit. ; 
adapted  to  the  Grammars  of  Buttmann  &  Fisk. 

A.  Dalzel,  -*Jru?.ty.Ta  c  E/.~/.ij>iy.u~ Haaora, 
sive  Collectanea  Graeca  Minora  ad  usum  Tiro- 
num  accommodata.  2d  edit.  Edinb. 1791.  Sev- 
eral editions  have  been  published  in  this  coun- 
try. It  was  the  common  text-book  for  begin- 
ners until  the  publication  of  the  Greek  Reader, 
and  is  still  used  in  some  of  the  schools.  The 
following  is  considered  as  the  best  edition  : 
Collectanea  Grceca  Minora,  with  explanatory 
notes  collected  or  written  by  A.  Dalzel,  Prof, 
of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
Sixth  Cambridge  edition ;  in  which  the  Notes 
and  Lexicon  are  translated  into  English. 

Wyttenbach,"  Eyj.oyut  f  IoTuoixui  ;  Qr  Se- 
lecta  Principum  Historicorum.  2d  ed.  Amst.1808. 
It  has  been  pronounced  an  admirable  selection. 

A.  Dalzel,  .Avu7.hy.Ta' Es.?.rtvix.u  Mtttova, 


ticularly  under  the  care  of  J.  S.  Popkin,  Camb. 
1824;  the  notes  of  Prof.  Popkin,  very  briefly 
and  modestly  expressed,  are  very  valuable, 
and  this  edition  is  considered  as  altogether  the 
best  extant.  —  A  third  volume  was  added  by 
Prof. Dunbar,  Edinb. 1819,  comprising  a  greater 
quantity  of  Greek  than  the  first  or  second  ;  it 
has  not  been  re-published  in  this  country.  — 
The  Grceca  Majora  has  been  until  recently,  for 
many  years,  the  principal  text-book  in  our 
colleges.  Cf.  $  6.  5.  —  A  few  editions  of  par- 
ticular authors  have  been  published  in  our 
country,  designed  for  the  use  of  schools  and 
colleges  ;  e.  g.  Robinson's  Portion  of  Homer  ; 
Felton's  Iliad  of  Homer  ;  Woolsey's  Alcestis  of 
Euripides,  and  other  tragedies  ;  Stuart's  CEdi- 
pus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles  ;  Cleveland's  Ana- 
basis of  Xenophon.  —  Publications  of  this  class 
are  now  increasing  in  England ;  as  among 
them  may  be  mentioned  the  Valpy  Greek  Clas- 
sics, and  the  editions  of  Prof.  Lmg.  —  Highly 
commended  is  the  following  collection  :  Fr. 
Jacobs  &.  V.  C  F.  Rost,  Bibliotheca 
Grae  ca,  viror.  doct.  recognita  et  commentari- 
is  in  usum  Scholarum  instructa.  Gothae,  (com- 
menced) 1826.  8.  It  was  to  comprise  18  vols, 
for  prose  writers  and  20  vols,  for  poets  ;  is  not 
yet  completed.' 

2.  Grammars.  It  would  be  almost  endless  to 
name  all  the  meritorious.  The  following  are 
among  the  noted. 

Jacobi  fVellcri,  Grammatica  Graeca.  (edit. 
Fischer.)  Lips.  1781.  8. 

J.F.Fischeri  Animadversiones,quibus  J.  Wel- 
leri  Gram.  Graeca  emendatur&x.  (ed.  Kuinoel) 
Lips.1798— 1801.  3  vols.  8. 

Trendelenburg's  Anfangsgriinde  der  griech. 
Sprache.  Leipz.  1805.  8. 

Buttmann' s  griech.  Schul-grammatik.  Berl. 
1824.  1831.  —  Same,  transl.  by  Edward  EverM. 
Bost.  1822.     Abridged  (G.  Bancroft). 

Buttmann's  Ausfahrliche  griech.  Sprachlehre. 
Berl.  1819.  1827.  2  vols.  8.  The  want  of  the 
syntax  in  this  work  is  supplied  by  G.  Bern- 
hardy's  large  volume  on  Greek  Syntax,  pub- 
lished 1829  (8vo.  with  the  title,  Wissenschaft- 
liche  Syntax  der  Griechischen  Sprache),  and 


sive  Collectanea  Graeca  Majora,  ad  usum  Acad-  j  much  commended  by  Tholuck 


INTRODUCTION.      HELPS  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  GREEK. 


153 


A.  Matthm,  Ausfiihrliche  gr.  Grammatik. 
Leipr..  1807.  8.  2d  edit.  1827.  —  Same,  transl.  by 
Ed.  V.  Bloomfield  (ed.  J.  Kenrick).  Lond.  183-2. 
A  3d  ed:t.  was  nearly  prepared  before  the  death 
of  Matthias  ;  since  published. 

JiV.  Thiersch,  Grammatik  des  gemeinen  und 
Homerischen  Dialekts.  Lpz.1819.  8.  3ded.l836. 

V.  Ch.  Fr.  Rost,  griech.  Grammatik.  3d  edit. 
Gotting.  1825.  Rost's  Greek  grammar,  trans- 
lated from  the  German.  Lond.  1827.  8.  A  5th 
edit,  of  the  original,  1836. 

Kuhner  has  published  a  School  Grammar ; 
called  the  best  by  Tholuck. 

We  add  the  following  :  Bell's  Compendious 
Grammar.  —  Jones's  Philosophical  Grammar. 
Cf.  Class.  Journ.  xn.  23.  —  The  Port  Royal 
Greek  Grammar  ;  A  new  method  &c.  Transl. 
from  the  French  of  the  Messrs.  de  Port  Royal 
by  T.  Nugent,  (latest  ed.)  Lond.1817.—  Smith's 
Greek  Grammar.   Bost.  1809. 

The  following  are  the  Grammars  more  com- 
monly used  in  our  schools :  the  Gloucester ; 
Moore's ;  Valpy's ;  Hachenberg's,  or  rather 
Goodrich's ;  Buttnann's  by  Everett:  Fisk's, 
and  Anthon's.  —  It  may  be  remarked  that  one 
chief  difference  between  these  Grammars  re- 
spects the  plan  of  classing  the  nouns  and  verbs  ; 
some  reducing  the  declensions  to  three,  and  the 
conjugations  to  three  or  two  ;  others  retaining 
the  larger  numbers  of  the  old  systems.  Some 
excellent  thoughts  on  this  subject  are  found  in 
a  pamphlet  styled  Remarks  on  GreckGi-ammars. 
(printed,  not  published.  Bost.  1825.)  —  A  brief 
history  of  Greek  grammars  may  be  found  also 
in  J.  C.  Bloomfield's  Preface  to  the  Translation 
of  Matthias  above  cited. To  the  more  ad- 
vanced student,  Buttmann's  Larger  Greek 
Grammar,  translated  by  Edward  Robinson  (An- 
doverl833.),  will  be  most  satisfactory.  —  For 
the  theological  student  we  mention  in  addition, 
G.  B.  Winer's  Grammar  of  the  New  Testament, 
transl.  by  Stuart  and  Robinson.  Andover,  1825. 
A  3d  ed.  of  Winer,  Lpz.1830.  8.  much  improved 
and  highly  valued  ;  a  4th  edit.  Lpz.  1836.  —  A 
Grammarof  the  N.  Testament  by  Prof.  Stuart. 
Ando.1834.— In  speakingof  grammatical  helps, 
it  is  proper  to  refer  to  the  treatises  of  the  Greek 
refugees,  as  those  learned  men  have  sometimes 
been  termed,  who  on  the  capture  of  Constanti- 
nople by  the  Turks  fled  into  Italy.  These  trea- 
tises were  published  by  Aldus.  (See  Hodius  and 
Ba-rnerus,  as  cited  P.  I.  $85. 1.)  —  Concerning 
the  Aldine  Collection  of  their  grammatical  trea- 
tises, cf.  §  133  below.  —  The  ancient  gramma- 
rians  may  also  be  mentioned  ;  as  the  writers 
just  named  doubtless  drew  from  these  sources. 
See  notice  of  the  Grammarians  on  a  subsequent 
page  ;  $i29  ss.  —  The  Scholiasts  likewise  may 
be  named,  or  those  who  wrote  Greek  commen- 
taries on  ancient  authors.  These,  whatever 
there  may  be  in  their  comments  that  is  puerile, 
dull,  or  false,  nevertheless  furnish  some  valu- 
able assistance.  Among  the  most  important 
works  of  the  kind,  are  the  commentaries  of  Ul- 
pian  on  Demosthenes,  and  Eustathius  on  Ho- 
mer. —  On  the  value  of  the  scholiasts,  see  Chla- 
denius,  as  cited  below,  §  133. 

3.  Lexicons.  A  number  are  now  offered  to  the 
choice  of  the  student. 

Henrki  Stcphani  Thesaurus  Graec.  Ling.  Ge- 
nev.  1572.  4  vols.  fol.  This  is  the  most  exten- 
sive. A  Supplement  was  published  by  Daniel 
Scott :  Appendix  ad  Stephani  Thesaurum. 
Lond.  1745.  2  vol*,  fol.  An  improved  edition 
of  the  Thesaurus  was  commenced,  Lond.  1815  ; 
completed,  1825.  {Valpy  ed.)  Cf.  Lond.  Quart. 
Rev.  No.  xliv.  —  A  third  edition  was  begun, 
Par.  1831,  superintended  by  M.  Hase,  see  Lond. 
Quart.  Rev.  No.  ci.  ;  Btbl.  Repos.  No.  xv.  'I  he 
work  is  in  progress  (under  Hase  and  the  two 
Dmdorfs),  12  or  14  Nos.  having  been  hsued; 
"  it  is  an  improvement  upon  the  Engl,  edition, 


and  embodies  nearly  all  the  Greek  learning  of 
the  age." 

Juan.  Scapulce,  Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum,  &c, 
Basil,  1579.  fol.  Oth.  ed.  Bazil,  1605  ;  Lugden, 
1683  ;  Glass.  1816.  2  vols.  4.  Still  ranked  next 
to  Stephanus.  The  principal  words  are  ar- 
ranged alphabetically,  and  under  them  are  the 
derivatives  and  compound  words  :  there  is  be- 
sides a  complete  alphabetical  index. 

Hedericus,  Grajcum  Lex.  Manuale,  cura  J.  A. 
Ernesti.   Lips.  1796  ;  Edinb.  1827.  8. 

Jo.  Dan.  a  Lennep,  Etymoloeicum  Ling.  GrffiC 
(Ed.  Scheid.)  Traject.  ad  Rhen.  1790.  2  vols.  8. 

J.  G.  Schneider's  griechisch-deutsches  Wtfr- 
terbuch.    Lpz.1819.    Supplement,  1821. 

F.  Passow,  Handwbrterbuch  der  Griechisch. 
Sprache.  Lpz.  1831.  2  vols.  8.  This  4th  was 
the  last  ed.  by  Passow.  His  plan  was  in  each 
successive  edition  to  make  the  Lexicon  com- 
plete for  the  interpretation  of  some  additional 
author  or  authors  until  it  should  become  a  full 
Thesaurus  of  the  Greek  language.  The  work 
has  been  committed  to  Rost,  who  is  expected 
to  carry  out  the  plan.— Rost  has  published  a 
School  Lexicon,  said  to  be  very  good  in  the  de- 
velopment and  arrangement  of  significations. 

John  Jones,  The  Tyro's  Greek  and  English 
Lexicon.    2d  ed.  Lond.  1825. 

Cornelii  Schrevelii  Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum. 
13th  ed.  Lond.  1781.— Translation  of  Schreve- 
lius's  Greek  Lexicon  into  English,  for  the  use 
of  Schools.  Lond.  1826.  8.— The  Greek  Lexi- 
con of  Schrevelius,  translated  into  English, 
with  many  additions,  by  John  Pickering  and 
Daniel  Oliver.     Boston,  1826. 

J.  Groves,  A  Greek  and  English  Dictionary, 
&c.    Lond.  1826.  8. 

James  Donnegan,  A  new  Greek  and  Enslish 
Lexicon.  2d  ed.  Lond.  1831.  Revised  and  en- 
larged bv  R.  B.  Patton.     Boston,  1832.  8. 

W.  Pope,  Etymologisches  Worterbuch  der 
Griech.  Sprache,  &c.     Berl.  1835.  8. 

E.  Robinson,  Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament- 
Boston,  1836.  8.  This  is  indispensable  to  the 
critical  study  of  the  New  Testament. 
"There  are  Lericons  illustrating  particular  au- 
thors ;  thev  will  be  mentioned  in  speaking  of 
the  authors.— Respecting  the  various  Lexicons 
and  Glossaries  composed  by  ancient  authors  ; 
see  the  notice  of  Grammarians  below,  §  129- 
147. 

4.  There  are  various  subjects  on  which  the 
student  may  desire  more  full  investigations 
than  can  be   given  in  a  Grammar  or  Lexicon. 

(a)  Idioms  and  Synonyms. 

Gul.  Budmi  Commentary  Line.  Graec.  Par. 
1548.  (4th  ed.)  Basil,  155S.  fol. 

Franc.  Vigerus,  de  praecipuis  graec.  diet,  id- 
intismis.  Cum  animadversionibus  Hoogeveeni, 
Zeunii,  et  Hermanni.  (impr.  ed.)  Lips.  1822.  8. 
The  work  of  Vigerus  is  compiled  from  that  of 
Budasus.— New  ed.  by  Hermann,  1834. 

./.  Seager,  Vigerus  Greek  Idioms  abridged  and 
translated  into  English,  with  original  notes. 
Lond.  1828.  8. 

Lockhart's  Idioms  of  the  Greek  Language, 
accurately  arranged  and  translated.   12. 

Nelson's  Greek  Idioms.  8. 

Mart.  Rylandus,  Synonymia  Latino-Grasca. 
(opera  Ha-.schelii.)  Gen.  1646.  12.  The  Latin 
terms  and  phrases  are  arranged  alphabetically, 
and  under  them  the  corresponding  Greek. 

A.  Pillon,  Traite  des  Synonymes  et  Homo- 
nymes  Grecs.  Traduit  du  Grec  d'Ammonius. 
Par.  1824.  8.     Cf.  $  141. 

(b)  Ellipsis  and  Pleonasm. 

Lamb.  Bos,  Ellipses  Grascae,  etc.  Norimberg, 
1763  ;   Lpz.  1808 ;   Glasg.  1813.  8. 

J.  Sean-er,  The  Gr.  Ellipses  of  Bos,  abridged 
and  translated  into  English.     Lond.  1830.  8. 

Fur<ratdt,  Les  idiotismes  de  la  langue  grecque 
avec  les  ellipses,  &x.    Par.  1784.  8. 


154 


HISTORY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 


Bj.  TVeiske,  Pleonasmi  Graeci.    Lpz.  1807.   8. 

G.  Hermann,  Dissert,  de  Ellip.  et  Pleon.  in 
Graeca  Lingua,  in  the  Museum  Antiquitatis  Stu- 
diorum,  (vol.  i.)     Berl.  1808.  8. 

We  will  mention  here,  Kuster  on  the  Middle 
Voice.     Cf.  Class.  Jour.  xv.  304  ;  xvm.  157. 

(c)  Derivation  and  Composition. 

L.  C.  Valknmri,  Observationes  academ.  qui- 
bus  via  munitur  ad  origines  graec.  investigan- 
das.   (Ed.  Seheid.)    Traject.  ad.  Rhen.  1790. 

Jo.  Dan.  a  Lennep,  de  Analogia  linguae  Grae- 
cae.  (Ed.  Schdd.)    Traject.  ad  Rhen.  1790. 

Jo.  Christ.  Struchtmeyeri,  Rudimenta  Ling. 
Graec.  (Ed.  Seheid.)     Zuthphen.  1797. 

T.  Nugent,  The  Primitives  of  the  Gr.  tongue, 
with  the  most  considerable  Derivatives  and  a 
collection  of  English  words  derived  from  the 
Greek.     Lond.  1801.  8. 

J.  W.  Gibbs,  Table  of  Greek  Correlatives  ;  in 
Simmon's  Amer.  Journal  of  Science,  &c.  vol. 
xxxiv.  p.  337. 

(d)  Particles. 

Devarius,  Graecae  Linguae  particulis.  (Ed. 
J.  Gottf.  Reusmann.)     Lpz.  1785.  8. 

R.  K/otz,  Devarii  Liber  de  Graec.  L.  Particu- 
lis. Lpz.  1835.  8.  This  vol.  contains  an  ex- 
act reprint  of  Devarius.  A  second  volume  is 
promised  ;  to  contain  notes  expected  to  prove 
highly  valuable. 

J.  A.  Hartung,  Lehre  von  den  Partikeln  der 
Griech.  Sprache.  Erlang.  1833.  2  vols.  8.  Said 
by  Tholuck  to  be  the  best  work  on  the  subject. 

Prof.  Stuart,  on  the  use  of  iva,  Bibl.  Repos. 
and  Quart.  Observ.  No.  xvn.  Jan.  1835. 

Hem.  Hoogeveen,  Doctrina  particularum  ling, 
graec.  Delphis.  1769.  2  vols.  4.  There  is  an 
abridgment  by  Schuetz.  Lpz.  1806 ;  Glasg.  1813. 

J.  Seager,  Hoogeveen  on  the  Greek  Parti- 
cles, abridged  and  translated  into  English. 
Lond.  1830.  8. 

(e)  Preposition  and  Article. 

C.  F.  Hachenberg,  De  significatione  praeposi- 
tionum  graec.  in  compositis.    Ultraj.  1771.  8. 

Moor  &  Tate,  on  the  Prepositions.  Cf.  Class. 
Jour.  i.  896  j  in.  24,470. 

Middleton's  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article  ap- 
plied to  the  criticism  of  the  Greek  Testament. 
Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  n.  187. 

Granville  Sharpe,  Remarks  on  the  uses  of  the 
definite  article  in  the  Greek  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament.   (Amer.  ed.)  Philad.  1807. 

Prof.  Stuart,  in  Bibl.  Reposit.  No.  xiv.  April, 
1834. 

(/)  Dialects. 

Mattaire's  Greek  Dialects  abridged  and  trans- 
lated by  Rev.  J.  Seager.     Lond.  1831.  8. 

C.  L.  Struve,  Quaestionum  de  dialecto  Herod- 
oti  Specimen.     Konigsb.  1829.  4. 

JEmilii   Porti,   Lexicon   lonicum.      Francof. 
1603. — By  same,  Lexicon  Doricum.    Francof. 
1603.— See  $  4  and  $  146. 
(g)  Accents. 

K.  Guttling,  Lehre  von  den  griech.  Accent- 
en.  Rudolst.  1820.  8.  English  Translation. 
Lond.  1830.  8. 

M.  Stuart,  Practical  Rules  for  Greek  Accents 
and  Quantity.  Andover,  1826.— See  §  5,  and 
P.  I.  $  51. 

(A)  Prosody,  Metre,  and  Quantity. 

T.  Morell,  Lexic.  Graeco-Prosodiacurn.  (Ed. 
Edv.  Maltby.)    Cantab.  1815. 

J.  B.  Seale,  Analysis  of  Greek  Metres.  Camb. 
1804. 

Benj.  Heath,  Notae  sive  Lectiones  ad  Tragic. 
Graec.  &.c.    Oxon.  1762. 

A.  Apcl's  Metrik.     Lpz.  1814. 

Godof.  Hermanni,  De  metris  poet,  graec.  et 
rom.    Lips.  1796. 

G.  Hermann,  Elementa  doctrinae  metricae. 
Lips.  1816  ;  Glasg.  1817. 
J.  Seager,  Hermann's  Elements  of  the 


Doctrine  of  Metres,  abridged  and  translated 
into  English.    Lond.  1830.  8. 

Tate's  Introduction  to  the  principal  Greek 
Tragic  and  Comic  Metres. 

Dunbar's  Prosodia  Graeca,  or  Exposition  of 
the  Greek  Metres.    8. 

Maccaul's  Metres  of  the  Greek  Tragedians 
explained.    8. 

J.  Brasse,  Greek  Gradus;  or  Greek,  Latin, 
and  English  Prosodial  Lexicon.  Lond.  1830.  8. 

Ed.  Maltby,  D.  D.,  A  new  and  complete  Gr. 
Gradus,  &c.    Lond.  1830.  8. 

Graffe's  Prosodiacal  Lexicon  of  the  Greek 
Language,  collected  from  the  Heroic  Poets.  12. 

C.  Anthon,  System  of  Greek  Prosody  and 
Metre.    N.  York,  1838. 

5.  In  writing  Greek,  the  beginner  needs  the 
help  of  some  Book  of  Exercises.  The  follow- 
ing may  be  named. 

Hunting  ford' s  Greek  Exercises. — Ncilson's. — 
Valpy's,  by  Cairns.  N.  York,  1831.— Dunbar's. 
— Fisk's — John  Kenrick,  An  Introduction  to 
Greek  Prose  Composition,  from  the  German  of 
V.  C  F.  Rost  &.  E.  F.  Wuestemann. 

6.  In  order  to  a  thorough  and  successful  pur- 
suit of  classical  literature,  it  is  indispensable 
to  attend  considerably  to  the  subjects  of  An- 
tiquities, Mythology,  and  Archaeology  in  gen- 
eral. On  topics  pertaining  to  the  Archaeology 
of  Literature  and  Art,  we  refer  to  the  sections 
in  Part  First  of  this  Manual ;  on  other  topics 
of  Antiquities  and  Mythology,  to  the  sections 
of  Parts  Third  and  Fourth. 

7.  An  important  class  of  helps  is  composed  of 
such  as  illustrate  the  subjects  of  Chronology, 
Geography,  History,  and  Biography. 

(a)  Classical  Dictionaries.  This  phrase  de- 
signates works  which  include  more  or  les3 
fully  all  the  subjects  just  named  ;  with  an  al- 
phabetical arrangement. 

Dictionnaire  (de  Sabbathier  de  Chalons)  pour 
l'intelligence  des  auteurs  classiques  grecs  et 
latins,  tant  sacres  que  profanes,  contcnant  la 
Geographic,  l'Histoire,  la  Fable  et  les  Antiqui- 
tes.     Par.  1766-90.  37  vols. 

L'Abbe  Sabatier  de  Castres,   Siecles  Payens. 
Par.  1784.  8  vols. 
Furgault,  Dictionnaire  Geographique,  Histor- 
ique,  et  Mythologique.    Par,  1776. 
Dictionnaire    Historique.       Lyon.    1804.      13 
vols.  12. 

Math.  Christophe,  Diet,  pour  servir  a  l'intelli- 
gence des  Auteurs  Classiques,  Sec.    Par.  1805. 
2  vols.  8. 
Bouillet,  Dictionnaire  Classique.    Par.  1832. 
2  vols.  8. 
Lempriere's  Classical  Dictionary.     (1st  ed.) 
Oxf.  1688.     Many  more  recent  editions.     The 
best,  by  C.  Anthon.    N.  York,  1833.  2  vols.  8. 
A.  Pauly,  Real  Encyclopedic  der  classischen 
Alterthumswissenschaft.  Commenced,  Stuttg. 
1838.  8.  issued  in  Numbers. 

(b)  Geography.  The  Epitome  of  Classical 
Geography  given  in  this  Manual  (P.  V.),  being 
studied  with  Butler's  Atlas,  will  be  found  suf- 
ficient for  all  elementary  purposes. 

Christ.  Cellarii  Notitia  Orbis  Antiqua.  Lips. 
1701-06.  2  vols.  4.  Also  1771,  1773. 
R.  Manncrt,  Geographie  der  Griechen  und 
Romer.  Numb.  1787  sqq.  10  vols.  8. 
F.  Aug.  Ukcrt,  Geographie  der  Griech.  und 
Rom.  von  der  fruhesfen  Zeiten  bis  auf  Ptole- 
maeus.  Weimar,  1816.  With  maps.  "  The 
best  classical  geographer." 

Cramer,  Geographical  and  Historical  Descrip- 
tion of  Anc.  Greece.  Lond.  1828.  3  vols.  8. 
Kruse,  Hellas.  Lpz.  1825.  3  vols.  8.  "Good." 
J.  Rennell,  The  Geographical  System  of  He- 
rodotus explained,  &c.  (2d  ed.)  Lond.  1836. 
2  vols.  8. 
D'Anville's  Ancient  Geography.    2  vols.  8. 


INTRODUCTION.   HELPS  IN  THE  STUDY  OP  GREEK. 


155 


There  are  many  smaller  works,  as  Mayo's 
Epitome  of  Ancient  Geography  ;  Pye's  Dic- 
tionary of  Ancient  Geography  j  Laurent's  In- 
troduction ;  Long's,  &C. 

S.  Butler,  Geographia  Classica,  with  an  At- 
las.   Phil.  1831. 

The  works  of  modern  travelers  will  be  use- 
ful. DodweWs  Classical  and  Topographical 
Tour  through  Greece.  Lond.  1819.  2  vols.  4. — 
De  Choiseul-Gouffier,  Voyage  Pittoresque  de  la 
Grece.  Par.  1782.  With  valuable  plates.  Cf. 
P.  V.  $  116. 

On  the  history  of  Geography,  cf.  P.  I.  $  27. 

Some  Atlas  the  student  should  have  constant- 
ly at  hand. 

D'Anville's  Atlas  Orbis  Antiqui.  12  sheets  fol. 

Wilkinson's  Atlas  Classica. 

Oxford  Atlas  of  Ancient  Geography,  contain- 
ing nearly  100  Maps,  Plans,  &c.  4. 

The  Eton  Comparative  Atlas  of  Ancient  and 
Modern  Geography  upon  a  new  plan,  giving 
two  distinct  Maps,  one  ancient  and  the  other 
modern,  of  the  same  country.    50  plates.  4. 

Bean's  Classical  Atlas,  remodeled  from  the 
ancient  Maps  of  Cellarius. 

(c;   Chronology.     An  Introduction  to  Classi- 
cal Chronology  is  given  in  this  Manual,  P.  V. 

J.  C.  Gatterer,  Abriss  der.  Chronologic  Gbtt. 
1777. 

D.  H.  Hegewisch,  Einleitung  in  die  histor- 
ische  Chronologie.  Hamb.  1811.  Translated 
into  English,  by  J.  Marsh.    Burlingt.  1837.  12. 

Hale's  Analysis  of  Chronology  and  Geogra- 
phy, History  and  Prophecy.  Lond.  1830.  4 
vols.  8. 

T.  Plaifair,  System  of  Chronology.    Edinb. 

1784.  fo'l. 

J.  Blair,  Chronology,  &c.  from  the  Creation 
to  the  year  1802.  Lond.  1803.  fol.  57  tables  ; 
with  14  maps. 

Lavoisne's  Atlas  Genealogical,  &c. 

J.  Picot,  Tablettes  Chronologiques  de  l'His- 
toire  Universelle.    Geneva.  1808.  3  vols.  8. 

Buret  de  Loi>gchantps,Les  Fastes  Universels, 
ou  Tableaux  Historiques,  Chronologiques,  &x. 
Par.  1821. 

Ludw.  Ideler,  Handbuch  der  mathematischen 
und  technischen  Chronologie.   Aus  den  Quel- 

len  bearbeitet.    Berl.  1826.  2  vols.  8.     Highly 

commended. 

Priestley's  System  of  Biography.   Phil.  1803. 

8.  with  a  chart.     Not  without  value. 
Goodrich's  Elair's  Outlines  of  Chronology  is 

a  useful  compend. 

(d)  History  and  Biography. 
Chaudon  et  Delandine,   Dictionnaire  Histor- 

ique.    20  vols. 
Adam's  Classical  Biography. 
Mitford's  History  of  Greece.    Boston,   1823. 

8  vols.  8, 
Gillie's  History  of  Ancient  Greece.  4  vols.  8. 
Mueller's  History  and  Antiquites  of  the  Do- 
ric Race.     Translated  from  the  German  by 

Tuffncll  &  Lewis.    Oxf.  1830.  2  vols.  8. 
C.  Thirlwull,  History  of  Greece,  in  Lardner's 

Cabinet  Cyclopaedia. 
Schlosser's  Weltgeschichte.     Lpz.  1817-24.  5 

vols.  8. 
P.  A.  de  Golberg,   Histoire   Universelle    de 

l'Antiquite.  Par.  1828.  3  vols.  8.  Translat- 
ed from  the  German  of  F.  C.  Schlosser.    Cf. 

Westminster  Rev.  Jan.  1834. 
Cf.  P.  IV.  $  8,  9. 

8.  Benefit  as  well  as  pleasure  may  be  deriv- 
ed from  works  giving  philosophical  reflec- 
tions, or  elegant  and  popular  views,  on  subjects 

embraced  in  classical  study.    We  put  here  the 

following. 
F.  Heeren's  Reflections   on  the    Politics  of 

Ancient  Greece.    By  6?.  Bancroft.  1824.  8. 


F.  Schlegel's  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Lit- 
erature.   Phil.  1818.  2  vols.  8. 

A.  W.  Schlegel's  Lectures  on  Dramatic  Liter- 
ature.   By  J.  Black,  Lond.  1815.  2  vols.  8. 

Campbell's  Letters  on  the  Greek  Historians. 
We  may  name  here  also, 

JV.  F.  Moore,  Lectures  on  Greek  Literature. 
New  York,  1835.  8. 

9.  Among  the  very  important  aids  in  this 
study,  are  those  which  may  be  called  Histories 
of  Greek  Literature,  or  Introductions  to  the 
History  of  Greek  Literature,  giving  compre- 
hensive notices  of  the  Greek  authors,  their 
different  works,  and  the  various  editions, 
translations,  commentaries,  &c.  The  design 
of  the  sketch  of  Greek  Literature  given  in  the 
present  work,  is  to  furnish  the  scholar  with  a 
help  of  this  kind.  But  he  will  wish  to  be  re- 
ferred to  others. 

J.  A.  Fabricii,  Bibliotheca  Grseca.  Hamb. 
1790-1809.  (Ed.  by  Theoph.  Christ.  Harles.)  12 
vols.  4to.  The  most  complete,  although  very 
deficient  in  method. 

Theoph.  Ch.  Harles,  Introductio  in  historiam 
Lingua?  Gnucae.Altenb. 1792-95.  with  Supplem. 
Jen.  1804-1806.  5  vols.  8. 

By  the  same,  Notitia  brevior  literaturae  grsc. 
Lips.  1812.  8. 

Jo.  Ernest.  Imman.  Walch,  Introductio  in 
linguam  Graecam.  Jen.  1772. 

M.  D.  Fuhrmann,  Handbuch  der  klassischen 
Literatur.  Rudolst.  1804-1810.  4  vols.  8. 

By  tlie  same,  Kleineres  Handbuch,  &c.  Ru- 
dolst. 1823.  8. 

T.  A.  Rienwcker,  Handbuch  der  Geschichte 
der  Griech.  Lit.  Berl.  1802. 

God.  Ern.  Groddek,   Historiae  Graecorum  lit— 
erariae  Elementa.    Viln.   1811.     A  new  ed. 
commenced,  1821. 
G.  C.  F.  Mohnike,  Geschichte  der  Literatur 

der  Griechen  und   Rb'mer.  Greifsw.   1813.   8. 

Considered  an  excellent  abridgement. 

L.  Schaaff,  Encyklop'Adie  der  klassischen  Al- 

terthumskunde.  Magd.  1820.  2  Th.  8.— a  3d  ed. 

in  1826  —a  4th  in  1837. 

F.  Passow,  Grudziige  der  Griech.  und  Rom. 
Literaturgeschichte.  Berl.  1816.4.— 2d  ed.  1829. 

L.  fVachler,  Handbuch  der  Gesch.  der  alten 
Literatur.  Frankf.  1822.  8. 

G.  Bernhardt,  Grundriss  der  Griech.  Literatur, 
mit  einem  vergleichende  Ueberblick  der  RS- 
mischen.  Halle.  1836.  8.  pp.  530. 

J.  C.  O.  Schincke,  Handbuch  der  Geschichte 
der  Griech.  Literatur  fur  Schul-unterricht. 1837. 

F.  SchwU,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque, 
&c.  (2d  ed.)  Paris,  1823.  8  vols.  8.  Prof. 
Anthon  has  made  much  use  of  it  in  his  last 
edition  of  Lempriere's  Classical  Dictionary 
(1833),  which  the  student  may  consult  on  the 
Greek  and  Latin  authors  with  great  advantage. 
There  is  a  German  translation  :  F.J.  Schwarze 
&  Jtfor.Pi/i<fer,Geschichte  der  Griech.  Literatur 
von  F.  Schbll,— mit  Berichtungen  und  Zusaet- 
zen  &c.  Berl.  1828—31.  3  vols.  8.  This  is 
much  more  valuable  than  the  original,  being 
made  under  the  supervision  of  Schoell,  at  Ber- 
lin, and  containing  additions  by  himself  and 
the  translators.  It  is  the  most  satisfactory  work 
of  the  kind. 

Biooraphica  Classica,  or  the  Lives  and  Charac- 
ters of  all  the  Classic  Authors.  Lond. 1740. 1759. 
8.  —  Edw.  Manwaring,  Historical  and  Critical 
Account  of  the  most  eminent  classic  authors  in 
Poetry  and  History.   Lond.  1837.  8. 

10.  Works  purely  bibliographical,  treating  of 
translations  and  editions,  are  also  useful. 

De-sen,  Literatur  der  deutsch.Uebersetzungen 
der  Griechen.  Altenb.l797.2vols.8.  Supplem. 
Erlang.1801.-F.  A.  Ebert,  Allgemeines  biblio- 
graphisches  Lexicon.  Lpz.1821.— Brueggemann, 


156  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 


View  of  the  English  editions,  translations,  and 
illustrations  of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin 
authors  with  remarks.  Stett.1797.8.  Supplem. 
1801.  "8.  —  Renouard,  Catalogue  de  la  Bibliothe- 
que  d'un  Amateur.  Par.  1819.  4  vols.  8.— C.  F. 
Debure,  Bibliographie  Instructive,  ou  Traite  de 
la  connoissance  des  livres,  &c.  Par.  17(33 — 82. 
10  vols.  8.  —  Britnet,  Manuel  du  Libraire  et  de 
l'Amateur  de  Livres.  Par.  1820.  4  vols.  8.  — 
6?.JV..B/rAm,Bibliograph. Handbuch  der  Griech. 
und  Rom.  Literatur.  Leipz.  1800.  2  vols.  8.  — 
The  Bibliographical  Dictionary.  Lond.  1802 — 4. 
6  vols.  12.   with  Supplement.  1806.   2  vols.  12. 


du  choix  des  livres.  Dijon.  1823.  2  vols.  8.  -— 
J.  W.  Moss,  Manual  of  Classical  Bibliography. 
Lond.  1827.  2  vols.  S.—D^bdin's  Introduction  to 
the  knowledge  of  rare  and  valuable  editions  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics.  (4th  ed.)  Lond. 
1827.  2  vols.  8.— F.  W.  Hoffmann's  Bibliograph- 
isches  Lexicon  der  Lit.  der  Griech.  und  d.  Riirn. 
Lpz.  1830.  8.  By  the  same,  Handbuch  zur  Bii- 
cherkunde  fur  Lehre  und  Studium  der  beiden 
alten  Classichen  und  Deutsche  Sprache.  Lpz. 
1838.  —  T.  L.  A.  Scliweigcr,  Handbuch  der 
Classischen  Bibliographie.  Lpz.1832.  3  vols.  8. 
very  valuable. — Van  Fraet, Catalogue  des  livrea 


O.  Peignot,  Manuel  du  Bibliophile,  ou  traite    imprimes  sur  Velin.  Par.  1824.  3  vols.  8. 

§  8.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  history  of  Greek  literature. 
The  method  pursued  will  be,  to  treat  of  the  principal  authors,  classing 
them  under  the  departments  in  which  they  were  chiefly  eminent,  and 
Tanging  them  in  chronological  order.  Before  noticing  the  authors, 
in  any  department  individually,  a  general  view  of  the  character  and 
progress  of  that  department  will  be  given.  In  order  to  secure  greater 
distinctness  of  conception,  the  whole  extent  of  time  included  will  first 
be  divided  into  a  few  periods,  which  will  be  regarded  in  the  general 
view  of  each  department. 

It  will  be  most  convenient  to  adopt  the  division  of  Schb'll,  in  his  History  of  Greek  Literature, 
which  has  been  already  repeatedly  quoted,  and  is  the  principal  source  from  which  the  transla- 
tor has  drawn  in  the  additions  made  to  Eschenburg  in  this  part  of  the  work. 

§  9.  The  history  of  Greek  literature  embraces  more  than  twenty-seven  hun- 
dred years.  In  this  long  space  of  time  many  changes  must  have  occurred  in 
the  circumstances  of  the  people  which  affected  the  character  of  their  literature. 
The  more  obvious  and  remarkable  of  these  changes  may  be  selected  to  aid  us  in 
dividing  the  history  into  several  periods.  Some  division  of  this  kind  is  neces- 
sary to  avoid  confusion.     Six  periods  may  thus  be  readily  distinguished. 

The  first  is  the  period  preceding  and  terminating  with  the  capture  of  Troy, 
B.C.  1184.  The  proper  history  of  Greece  does  not  extend  further  back  than  to 
this  event,  so  much  is  every  thing  previous  darkened  by  the  fictions  of  my- 
thology. 

The  second  period  extends  from  the  capture  of  Troy  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Athenian  Constitution  by  Solon,  B.C.  about  600.  In  this,  Greek  literature 
may  be  said  to  have  had  its  rise,  commencing  in  poetry  ;  although  there  are  a 
few  names  of  poets  assigned  to  the  previous  ages.  Prose  composition  does  not 
belong  to  the  period. 

The  third  period  is  from  the  time  of  Solon  to  that  of  Alexander,  B.  C.  336. 
During  this  period  Grecian  literature  reached  its  highest  perfection.  But  the 
liberty  of  Greece  expired  at  the  battle  of  Chffironea,  and  from  that  time  her 
literature  declined. 

The  fourth  period,  beginning  with  the  subjection  of  Greece  to  the  Macedo- 
nians, ends  with  her  subjection  to  the  Romans,  by  the  capture  of  Corinth, 
B  C.  146.  In  this  period  genius  and  fancy  ceased  to  be  the  peculiarity  of  the 
literature,  and  gave  place  to  erudition  and  science. 

The  fifth  period  reaches  from  the  fall  of  Corinth  to  the  establishment  of  Con- 
stantinople as  the  seat  of  the  Roman  government,  A.  D.  325.  During  this  pe- 
riod, Greece  was  but  a  comparatively  unimportant  province  of  a  vast  empire. 
Her  literature  also  was  thrown  wholly  into  the  shade  by  the  lustre  of  the  Ro- 
man, which  enjoyed  now  its  greatest  brilliancy. 

The  sixth  period  terminates  with  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks, 
A.  D.  1453.  The  Greek  language  was  still  in  quite  extensive  and  honorable 
use,  but  neither  the  people  nor  their  literature  ever  rose  from  their  depression. 
After  a  succession  of  adverse  events,  Greek  letters  were  at  length  driven  from 
their  last  refuge  in  the  east  to  a  few  seats  of  learning  in  Italy. 

These  periods  may  be  designated  by  characteristic  names  :  the  Fabulous, 
the  Poetic,  the  Athenian,  the  Alexandrian,  the  Roman,  and  the  Byzantine. 

§10.  In  noticing  the  most  important  authors  and  prominent  circumstances 
*n  the  literary  history  presented  in  this  vast  field,  the  following  order  will  be 


HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE.  157 

adopted.  The  Poets  will  take  the  first  place ;  next  we  put  the  Orators  ;  then 
successively,  the  Sophists  and  Rhetoricians,  the  Grammarians,  the  Writers  of 
Epistles  and  Romances,  the  Philosophers,  the  Mathematicians  and  Geographers, 
the  writers  styled  Mythographers ,  the  Historians,  and  finally  the  Authors  on 
Medicine  and  Natural  History.  A  glance  at  the  icritings  of  the  early  Christians 
in  the  Greek  language  will  be  subjoined. 


/. — Poetry  and  Poets. 

§11%.  Among  the  Greeks  poetry  appeared  much  earlier  than  prose ;  indeed, 
the  literature  of  all  ancient  nations  commenced  with  poetical  composition. 
Moral  and  religious  maxims,  principles  of  social  and  political  action,  physical 
phenomena,  wonderful  events,  and  the  praise  of  eminent  men,  formed  the 
chief  subjects  of  the  earlier  Greek  poetry.  Probably  addresses  to  the  Deity, 
practical  rules  of  conduct,  proverbial  sentiments  and  oracles,  were  first  clothed 
in  verse.  This  was  not  originally  committed  to  writing,  but  sung  by  the  poets 
themselves,  who  often  wandered  as  minstrels  from  place  to  place,  and  by  liv- 
ing rehearsals  extended  the  knowledge  and  influence  of  their  own  verse  and 
that  of  others.  It  was  not  until  eminent  poets  had  sung,  that  the  rules  of  po- 
etry, in  its  several  branches,  could  be  formed ;  as  they  are  necessarily  drawn 
from  observation  and  experience. 

§  12.  The  Greeks  received  much  of  their  civilization  from  Egypt  and  Phoe- 
nicia (cf.  P.  I.  §  33,  40)  ;  something  perhaps  was  derived  from  India;  but  it 
was  in  Thrace  that  the  Greek  muses  first  appeared.  Here,  in  Thrace,  the 
traditions  of  the  most  remote  antiquity  centre  and  lose  themselves,  ascribing 
to  this  country  the  origin  of  religion,  of  the  mysteries,  and  of  sacred  poetry. 
The  mountains  of  Thessaly  'and  the  vicinity,  Olympus,  Helicon,  Parnassus 
and  Pindus,  became  the  sanctuaries  of  this  poetry.  Here  the  lyre  and  harp 
were  invented.  In  Thessaly  and  Boeotia,  provinces  in  later  times  destitute 
of  men  of  genius  and  letters,  there  was  scarcely  a  fountain,  river,  or  forest,  not 
invested  with  some  interesting  association,  i  In  a  word,  the  poetry  with  which 
the  civilization  and  literature  of  Greece  commenced,  came  from  the  northern 
portions  of  the  land.  Tradition  has  preserved  the  names  of  several  poets, 
who  lived,  or  originated,  in  those  regions  as  early  as  about  1250  or  1300  years 
before  Christ.  Among  these  were  Linus,  Eumolpus,  Melampus.  and  Tha- 
myris. 

North  Amer.  Rev.  vol.  xxi. — Beck's  Allg.  Welt  und  Vcelker  Geschichte.  I.  319.— Heyne,  de 
Musarura  religione  ejusque  orig.  et  caus.  (in  the  Comment.  Soc.  Oott.  vni.) 

§  13.  The  first  Poets  of  Greece  were  at  the  same  time  musicians.  Music 
and  poetry  were  at  first  always  united,  or  it  may  perhaps  be  more  correctly 
said,  that  music,  song,  and  dance  together  constituted  poetry,  among  the 
Greeks.  It  is  not  easy  to  form  an  idea  of  their  various  melodies,  but  they 
must  have  been  of  a  simple  kind,  and  each  sort  of  music  seems  to  have  had 
a  particular  sort  of  poetry  attached  to  it.  Music  purely  instrumental  the  ear- 
ly Greeks  appear  to  have  valued  very  little.  The  constituent  branches  of 
poetry,  just  mentioned,  were  important  parts  of  education.  The  dance  was 
soon  separated,  and  became  a  distinct  object  of  attention,  which  at  length  re- 
sulted in  the  practice  of  the  various  exercises  comprehended  under  the  broad 
name  of  the  Gymnastic  art.  At  length  song  also  began  to  be  distinguished 
from  music,  and  poetry  assumed  shapes  and  forms  less  adapted  for  instrumen- 
tal accompaniment. 

On  the  origin  and  progress  of  Greek  poetry,  see  Schmll,  vol.  i.  ch.  ii. — Suiter's  Allg.  Theorie 
der  schonen  Kunste,  art.  Dichtkunst  and  the  references.  —  Dr.  Brown,  Dissertation  on  the  rise, 
union  and  power,  the  progressions,  separations  and  corruptions  of  Poetry  and  Music.  Lond. 
1763.  4.—C.E.L.Hirschfeld,  Plan  der  Gesch.  der  Poesie,  Bereds.  Mus.  Mahl.  &c.  unterd;Griech. 
Kiel,  1770.  8.— Creuzer's  histor.  Kunst.  d.  Griechen.— F.  Schickel's  Hist,  of  Lit.  Lect.  l.  —  He 
Ten's  Reflections,  &c.  ch.  xv.— 6.  J.  Vossius,  de  Vet.  Poet.  Grrec.  et  Lat.  temporibus.  Amst. 
1654.  4.— Fr.  Jacobs,  (brief  history  of  Gk.  Poetry,)  in  the  CharaJa.  d.  vomehmst.  Dichter.  vol.  i. 

as  cited  §  47 Hartmann,  Versuch  einer  allg.  Geschichte  d.  Dichtkunst.   Lpz.  1797.— Fr.Schlc- 

gel,  Gesch.  d.  Poesie  d.  Griech.  und  Romer.    Berl.  1798. 

14 


158  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

§  14.  Poetry  and  music  were,  from  the  earliest  periods,  favorite  pursuits  or 
amusements  of  the  Greeks;  and  their  poetry  assumed,  in  the  course  of  its  his- 
tory, almost  every  possible  form. 

The  first  poetry  was  adapted  to  some  instrumental  accompaniment,  and 
might  be  therefore  properly  enough  included  under  the  term  lyrical  used  in  a 
general  sense.  But  as  it  consisted  chiefly  of  hymns  to  the  gods,  or  songs  re- 
ferring more  or  less  to  religious  subjects,  it  may  more  properly  be  considered 
as  a  distinct  variety  under  the  name  of  sacred. 

Three  of  the  most  important  forms  of  Grecian  poetry  were  the  lyric,  the  epic, 
and  the  dramatic,  in  each  of  which  there  were  authors  of  the  highest  celebrity. 

Other  kinds,  which  are  well  worthy  of  notice,  were  the  elegiac,  the  bucolic, 
and  the  didactic.  The  epigram  and  the  scolion  were  distinct  and  peculiar  forms. 
There  were  other  varieties  or  names,  which  may  be  explained  in  connection 
with  those  already  mentioned  or  separately,  as  the  gnomic,  cyclic,  erotic,  and 
sillic. 

On  the  division  of  poetry  into  different  kinds,  cf.  .7.  J.  Eschenbunf's  Entwurf  einer  Theorie 
und  Literatur  der  schonen  Redekiinste.  (4th  ed.)  Berl.  1817.  8.  (Poetik  §  7.)  —  W.  SchlegeVs 
Dramat.  Lit.  vol.  i.  p.  38.   Lond.  1815.  —  Blair's  Lectures. 

§  15.  (a)  Sacred  Poetry.  Under  this  may  be  included  all  that  was  produced 
antecedently  to  Homer,  or  what  is  often  called  ante-Homeric  poetry.  It  is 
sometimes  designated  by  the  name  of  Orphic  poetry,  from  the  circumstance 
that  Orpheus  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  poets  of  the  period  and  class  here 
referred  to.  It  has  also  been  called  the  poetry  of  the  Thracian  school,  as  hav- 
ing its  origin  and  seat  chiefly  in  the  region  of  Thrace  and  the  vicinity. 

The  general  nature  and  subject  of  this  poetry,  consisting,  as  has  been  men- 
tioned, of  hymns  and  religious  songs  (vuroi,  sometimes  also  called  ruuoi),  are 
such  as  suggest  the  name  of  sacred  here  applied  to  it.  The  poets  probably 
united  in  their  persons  the  triple  character  of  bard  (aouhg),  priest  (itQsvg), 
and  prophet  (uuvrtc).  The  principal  names  which  escaped  oblivion  were  Li- 
nus, Olen,  Melampus,  Eumolpus,  Thamyris,  Tiresias,  Orpheus,  and  Musebus. 
There  are  pieces  extant  ascribed  to  some  of  these,  particularly  to  Orpheus  and 
Musseus  ;  but  nothing  probably  that  is  genuine,  except  a  few  imperfect  frag- 
ments. 

Although,  when  we  speak  of  the  sacred  poetry  of  the  Greeks,  we  usually 
mean  only  the  pieces  ascribed  to  ante-Homeric  writers,  yet  it  should  be  re- 
marked that  the  hymn  (?  uvoc)  in  praise  of  the  gods  was  not  peculiar  to  that 
age.  Hymns  were  composed  by  subsequent  poets,  but  did  not  hold  a  specially 
prominent  place,  and  are  commonly  included  in  the  class  of  lyric  productions. 
Several  hymns  are  ascribed  to  Homer.  Callimachus,  after  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander, wrote  a  number. 

On  the  Thracian  school,  &c.  cf.  North  Jlm.cr.  Rev.  vol.  xxi.  p.  393.  —  On  the  Hymns  of  the 
Greeks,  Fr  d.  Sneedorf,  de  Hymnis  veterum  Grsecorum.  Hafn.  1786.  8.—Souchay,  Dissertations 
fiur  les  Hymnes  des  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  de  I? Acad,  des  Inscr.  xii.  1.  xvi.  93.  —  Sulzer's  Allg. 
Theor.  Art.  Hijmne.  Cf.  Loirth's  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews.  Lect.  xxix.  — 
Sckaall  (vol.  i.  262.  in.  336.)  has  a  division  of  hymns  into  four  classes  :  Mystic,  Homeric,  Lyric, 
and  Philosophic. 

§16.  Among  the  productions  comprehended  in  the  sacred  poetry,  it  is  proper 
to  notice  the  oracles  (/C'W<")j  which  were  ascribed  to  the  Sibyls.  The  name 
Ztpv'O.a  is  commonly  derived  from  2 log  (for  Jiog)  and  BovXi],  and  was  synony- 
mous with  prophetess.  What  the  ancients  have  said  of  the  Sibyls  is  obscure 
and  perplexing.  As  many  as  ten  are  enumerated  on  the  authority  of  Varro. 
A  very  high  antiquity  was  assigned  to  some  of  them.  A  few  fragments  of  the 
oracles  ascribed  to  these  are  preserved.  The  eight  books  now  extant,  called 
the  Sibylline  oracles,  are  spurious,  evidently  fabricated  since  the  Christian  era. 

Dionysius  Halicarnasseus  (iv.  62)  is  the  chief  authority  for  the  story  of  the  Sibyl,  who  is  said 
to  have  offered  nine  books  of  oracles  for  sale  to  Tarquin  II.  He  strifes,  that  the  three  books, 
which  Tarquin  finally  purchased  (after  she  had  destroyed  six,  and  for  the  stun  first  demanded  for 
the  whole), were  carefully  kept  in  a  stone  chest  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and  were  de- 
stroyed when  the  capitof  was  burnt ;  and  that  subsequently  to  this,  those  extant,  in  his  time  were 
collected.  He  speaks  of  them  as  acrostics,  aXQoart/tig.  They  are  said  to  have  been  partly  in  ver- 
ses and  partly  in  symbolical  hieroglyphics  {Servins  on  JF.n.  iii.444.  and  vi.74.),  written  on  palm- 
leaves.  They  appear  evidently  to  have  been  of  Grecian  origin  and  in  the  Greek  language. 
The  phrase  libri  fatales  was  applied  to  them  in  common  with  other  supposed  prophecies  pre- 
served with  them  in  the  capital.  (Lactant.  Div.  Inst.  i.  6. 12.)—  '1  he  work  now  extant  is,  in  the 
language  of  Paley,  "  nothing  else  than  the  Gospel  history  woven  into  verse  ;"  and  "perhaps 
was  at  first  rather  a  fiction  than  a  forgery  ;  an  exercise  of  ingenuity,  more  than  an  attempt  to 


POETRY.   SACRED.   EPIC.  159 

deceive."  The  early  fathers  frequently  cited  the  Sibylline  oracles  in  favor  of  Christianity. 
They  are  also  cited  by  Josephus.  Bishop  Horseley  has  ably  coutended ,  that  the  original  Sibyl- 
line oracles  included  records  of  actual  predictions  somehow  communicated  to  families  and  na- 
tions not  belonging  to  the  Jewish  race.  —  A  manuscript,  which  contained  334  verses,  called  a 
14th  book  of  the  Sibylline  oracles,  was  discovered  by  the  Abbe  Mai  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at 
Milan,  and  published  by  him  in  1817. 

See  Schall,  Hist.  Litt.Gr.  i.  51.  —  Fabricius,  Bibliothec.  Grasc.  vol.  i.  p.  248.  in  ed.  of  Harles — 
Onvphirus  de  Sibyllis,  in  the  work  entitled  Sib  y  11.  Orac.  a  J.  Opsopceo,  cum  latina  interpreta- 
tioneS.  Castalionis. Par.  1607.  8. — J.  Vossius,T)e  Sibyllinis  aliisque  quae  Christi  natum  praecess.  Ora- 
culis.  Oxf.  1680.— Lad.  Prateus,  in  his  Juvenal ;  not.  Sat.  3.—D.  Blondell,  Des  Sibylles  celebrees 
tant  par  l'antiq.  payenne  que  les  SS.  peres.  Charent.1652.  4.  Engl.  Transl.  by  J.Davies.  Lond. 
1660.  fol. — Freret,  Recueil  des  predictions  de  Sibylle  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxiii.  187. — 
Clavier,  Memoire  sur  les  oracles  des  Anciens.  Par.  1818.  8.  pp.  176. The  most  complete  edi- 
tion of  the  Oracles  is  that  of  S.  Galleeas  (Gale?)  Gr.  &  Lat.  Amst.  1689.  4.— J.  Floyer,  The  Si- 
bylline oracles,  translated  from  the  best  Greek  copies,  &c.  Lond.  1713.  8.— Cf.  Jortin,  Remarks 
on  Eccles.  History,  vol.  i.  p.  183  of  ed.  Lond. 1751. 

The  productions  belonging  to  what  is  here  called  sacred  poetry,  constituted  the  whole  litera- 
ture of  the  Greeks  antecedently  to  the  Trojan  war.  There  are  indeed  some  other  works  now 
extant,  which  are  ascribed  to  personages  said  to  have  lived  before  that  time  ;  snch  e.  g.  as  the 
Egyptian  Hermes  Trismegistus,  and  Horus  Apollo,  or  Horapollon,  and  the  Persian  Zoroaster. 
But  the  time  when  they  lived  is  matter  of  dispute  ;  especially  the  time  of  Zoroaster,  some  plac- 
ing him  less  than  600  years  before  Christ.  And,  however  early  they  may  have  lived,  the  writ- 
ings in  Greek,  under  their  names,  are  either  fabrications,  or  translations  made  at  a  much  later 
period. 

SchaeU,  i.  59,  297.  v.  110.  vi.  321.  —  Cf.  Harles,  Brevior  Notitia  Literat.  Grasc.  p.  12,  as  cited 
§  7.  9.  —  Anquetil  &  Foucher,  On  Zoroaster,  in  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  xxvn,  xxx,  xxxt, 
xxxiv,  xxxvn,  xxxix,  xl.  —  C.  P.  Meiners,  De  Zoioastris  vita  in  the  Nov.  Comment.  Soc.  Scient. 
Gotting.  vol.  vin.  ix.— Cf.  below  §183.  3. 

§17.  (b)  Epic  Poetry.  As  the  poet  gradually  lost  the  sacred  and  mystic 
character  with  which  he  had  been  invested,  poetry  assumed  more  of  the  epic 
form.  It  aimed  more  to  interest  and  amuse  the  multitude,  who  gathered  around 
the  wandering  minstrel,  especially  at  festivals  and  shows,  to  hear  his  song  and 
tale.  The  minstrels  bore  the  name  of  Rhapsodists  (f PuxVoiSo'L).  Their  songs 
partook  more  of  the  nature  of  narratives  than  those  of  the  religious  bards. 
They  freely  indulged  in  fiction ;  a  new  term  was  soon  introduced,  expressive 
of  this  ;  they  were  said  to  make  their  pieces  (/toi«>,  7toi»/t^c)  ;  while  the  for- 
mer were  only  said  to  sing  (taltiir,  aoldog).  They  were  not  restricted  in  the 
choice  of  subjects.  They  clothed  in  new  and  exaggerated  forms  the  oldest 
recollections  and  traditions  ;  they  rehearsed  the  genealogy  of  the  gods,  the 
origin  of  the  world,  the  wars  of  the  Titans  and  the  Giants,  the  exploits  of  the 
demigods  and  heroes. 

The  poets  were  numerous  after  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  They  brought 
to  its  perfection  hexameter  verse,  which  had  been  employed  by  preceding  bards  ; 
and  from  this  time  it  was  restricted  chiefly  to  epic  poetry. 

§  18.  All  the  poets  of  this  class  were  wholly  eclipsed  by  Homer,  who  is 
justly  styled  the  father  of  epic  poetry,  and  who  remains  to  this  day  acknowl- 
edged prince  of  epic  poets.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  Homeric  poems 
were  the  principal  foundation  of  the  whole  literature  of  the  Greeks.  Yet  it 
has  been  supposed  by  many,  that  they  were  not  committed  to  writing  (cf.  § 
50.  4)  until  the  time  of  Solon  and  Pisistratus,  at  the  close  of  the  second  or 
beginning  of  the  third  period  before  mentioned  (§9).  They  were  then  col- 
lected into  a  body,  and  constituted  the  first  production  that  circulated  among 
the  Greeks  in  a  written  form.  It  was  a  splendid  model,  and  received  with 
high  and  lasting  admiration  by  every  class  of  the  people.  The  influence  of 
these  poems  in  Greece  is  beyond  calculation.  "  From  Homer,"  says  Pope, 
"  the  poets  drew  their  inspiration,  the  critics  their  rules,  and  the  philosophers 
a  defence  of  their  opinions  ;  every  author  was  fond  to  use  his  name,  and  ev- 
ery profession  writ  books  upon  him  till  they  swelled  to  libraries.  The  war- 
riors formed  themselves  upon  his  heroes,  and  the  oracles  delivered  his  verses 

for  answers." The  history  of  Grecian  epics  ends  as  it  begins,  essentially, 

with  Homer.  The  only  poet  near  his  time  who  has  enjoyed  much  celebrity 
is  Hesiod,  who  wrote  in  hexameter,  and  is  usually  ranked  among  the  epic 
poets,  although  his  principal  work  belongs  rather  to  the  didactic  class.  There 
is  a  story  of  a  poetical  contest  between  Hesiod  and  Homer,  in  which  the  for- 
mer bore  away  the  prize  ;  but  it  is  a  fabrication,  and  the  tradition  on  which 
the  story  was  founded,  probably  grew  out  of  a  conjectural  comment  on  the 
passage  of  Hesiod,  where  he  alludes  to  a  prize  gained  by  him  at  Chalcis,  but 
says  nothing  of  Homer.  Cf.  P.  I.  §  65. 


160  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

§  19.  During  the  whole  of  the  third  period  into  whieh  we  have  divided  th> 
history  of  Greek  literature,  from  Solon  to  Alexander,  we  do  not  find  a  single 
epic  poem.  The  Perseid  of  Chcerilus  of  Samos  is  lo&t,  and  if  extant  would 
not  secure  its  author  a  rank  above  his  contemporaries  in  the  class  of  later  Cyc- 
lic poets.  The  Thebaid  of  Antimachus  of  Colophon,  which  is  also  lost,  was 
much  commended  by  some  of  the  ancient  critics  >  but  it  seems  to  have  been 
of  a  mythological  cast  rather  than  properly  epic.  In  other  departments  poe- 
try flourished  in  the  highest  degree ;  but  in  this  Homer  had  closed  the  path 
to  glory. 

Cf.  Schcell,  n.  122-127— A.  F.  JVfe&e,  Choerili  Samii  quae  supersunt.  Lips.  1817.  8.— C.  A.  G. 
Schellenburg,  Antimachi  Colophonii  fragmenta,  nunc  primum  conquisita.    Hal.  1786.  8. 

§  20.  In  the  next  period,  the  Alexandrian  age,  we  meet  with  but  one  name 
of  any  celebrity,  Apollonius  Rhodius,  author  of  the  Argonautics,  who  flour- 
ished about  200  years  B.  C.  Three  other  epic  poets  are  mentioned,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  age  ;  Euphorion  of  Chalcis  ;  Rhianus  of  Bene  in  Crete,  orig- 
inally a  slave  ;  and  Musa^usof  Ephesus,  who  lived  at  Pergamos.  Each  is  said 
to  have  written  several  poems  ;  which  are  wholly  lost.  (Scholl.  Hist.  livr.  iv. 
ch.  30.) 

In  the  fifth  period,  from  the  supremacy  of  the  Romans,  B.  C.  146,  to  the 
time  of  Constantine,  A.  D.  325,  there  were  several  didactic  poems  in  hexam- 
eter, but  not  an  epic  appeared  that  has  secured  remembrance. 

In  the  last  period,  after  the  seat  of  empire  was  removed  to  Constantinople, 
there  was  a  crowd  of  inferior  poets,  or  verse  makers,  hanging  about  the  court. 
Many  performances  were  composed  in  hexameter.  The  principal,  that  can 
be  called  epic,  are  the  Dionysiacs  of  Nonnus,  and  the  Paralipomena  of  Quin- 
tus  Calaber,  which,  although  some  critics  have  highly  praised  them,  will  be 
read  but  very  seldom.  The  Destruction  of  Troy  by  Tryphiodorus  may  also 
deserve  to  be  named. 

On  epic  poetry  in  general ;  Eschenburg's  Entwurf,  p.  196. — P.  le  Bossu,  Traite  du  Poeme 
Epique.  5th  ed.  Haye,  1744.  2  vols.  12.  English  Transl.  Lond.  J719.  8. — R.  Blackmore,  On 
Epick  Poetry,  in  his  Essays,  &c.  Lond.  1716.  8. — H.  Pemberton,  Observations  on  Epic  Poe- 
try. Lond.  1738.  8. — Kames,  Elements  of  Criticism,  ch.  xxii. — Blair,  Lectures  on  Rhetoric, 
lect.  xlii. —  Vatry,  and  De  la  Barre,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  ix.  228,  239. 

On  the  epic  poetry  of  the  Greeks  ;  Sckall,  i.  97,  n.  122. — Fr.  Schlegel,  Geschichte  der  Poesie 
der  Griechen  und  Romer.     Berl.  1798.  8. — Herder,  Von  dem  Ursprung  des  Epos  ;  in  his  Adra- 

stea. — Spitzner,  De  versu  Grasco  heroico.     Lips.  1816.  8. See  also  Sulzer's  Allg.  Theorie  ; 

under  Heldengedkht. — Encycl.  Am&r.  under  Epic. 

§  21.  (c)  The  Cyclic  poets  and  the  Homeridce.  Although  there  was  no  great 
epic  poet  after  Homer,  there  were  many  who  imitated  his  manner  and  sung 
of  the  same  or  similar  subjects.  Some  of  these,  perhaps  most  of  them,  were 
Rhapsodists,  who  publicly  rehearsed  portions  of  Homer  and  other  poets,  as 
well  as  their  own  verses.  This  led  to  the  composition  of  the  pieces  called 
sometimes  hymns  (vutoL),  being  addressed  to  some  deity  ;  and  also  proems 
(IlQooiuia),  because  they  were  a  sort  of  introduction  to  the  rehearsal  which 
followed.  The  Rhapsodists,  who  chiefly  rehearsed  or  imitated  Homer,  have 
been  called  the  Homeridce.  (Scholl,  Hist.  liv.  ii.  ch.  iv.)  But  to  all  these  po- 
ets, as  a  class,  the  term  Cyclic  was  applied  by  the  ancient  grammarians.  The 
name  is  derived  from  xifxXog,  a  circle,  and  was  given  because  their  poetry  was 
confined  to  a  certain  round  or  cycle  of  subjects  and  incidents.  Their  per- 
formances were  of  the  epic  character,  but  are  almost  totally  lost.  The  cycle 
of  subjects  treated  by  them  included  the  whole  extent  of  Grecian  story, 
real  and  fabulous,  from  the  origin  of  the  world  down  to  the  sack  of  Troy. 
They  are  sometimes  called  the  poets  of  the  epic  cycle  ;  and  have  been  divid- 
ed into  two  classes ;  such  as  treated  of  the  mythology  and  legends  anterior  to 
the  Trojan  war,  termed  poets  of  the  Mythic  Cycle;  and  those  who  treated  of 
the  various  incidents  connected  with  that  war  from  the  decision  of  Paris  to 
the  death  of  Ulysses,  termed  poets  of  the  Trojan  Cycle.  It  is  easy  to  perceive 
how  the  term  cycle  should  obtain  its  metaphorical  sense  of  a  monotonous  and 
spiritless  author. 

The  Cyclic  poets  are  interesting  to  us  chiefly  from  the  fact,  that  they  fur- 
nished the  sources  whence  subsequent  poets  drew  their  materials.  Virgil 
and  Ovid  are  said  to  have  borrowed  largely  from  those  authors. 

There  were  several  poets  in  the  period  between  Solon  and  Alexander,  who 
treated  of  subjects  belonging  to  the  epic  cycle,  and  are  sometimes  called  the 


POETRY.       EFIC.      LYRIC.  161 

later  Cyclic  poets.  (Scholl.  liv.  iii.  ch.  xv.)  In  the  last  period  also  of  Gre- 
cian literature  the  poets,  who  are  called  epic,  are  rather  mere  imitators  and 
copiers  of  the  Cyclic  tribe,  and  might  be  classed  with  the  same  ;  as  e.g.  Quin- 
tus  Calaber,  Tryphiodorus,  and  Tzetzes. 

On  the  Rhapsodists,  cf.  Suiter's  Alls.  Theorie,  vol.  u.  p.  561. — Coleridge,  Introduction  to 

Study  of  Greek  Poets,  (p.  45,  Philad.  1831.) — Wolf,  Prolegomena  ad  Homerum Chartere  der 

vornehmsten  Dichter,  vol.  II.  p.  5.  iiber  die  Dichtkunst  der  Griechen  im  heroischen  Zeitalter, 
nach  dem  Homer. 

On  the  Cyclic  poets,  see  especially  Fr.  Wvllner,  De  Cyclo  Epico  Poetisque  Cyclicis.  Mo- 
nasterii  (Munster),  1825.  8.  A  work  (according  to  John's  Jahrbucher  for  1828)  of  solid  learn- 
ing and  sound  judgment.  Wvllner  mentions,  by  their  Greek  titles,  twenty-seven  poems  as  be- 
longing to  the  Epic  Cycle. — See  Heyne^s  Excurs.  1  ad  iEn.  n. — Fabricii  Bib.  Graec.  i. — Schall, 
liv.  ii.  ch.  iv. — Schwartz,  Dissertationes  selectae  (ed.  Harless.)  Erlang.  1778. — Bouchaud,  An- 
tiquites  Poetiques,  ou  Dissert,  sur  1.  Poetes  cycliques.  Par.  1799.  8. — Dodwell,  de  Cyclis,  cited 
P.  V.  $  193. — The  chief  original  source  of  information  is  a  passage  taken  from  Proclus ;  see 
Bibliothek  d.  jilt.  Lit.und  Kunst.  i.  66. — Photii  Bib.  ed.  Schott.  p.  980. — Heinrichsen,  De  Carmin- 
ibus  Cypriis,  Havniae.  (Copenhagen),  1828. —  W.  Mutter,  De  Cyclo  Graecorum  Epico.  Lpa. 
1829. —  G.  Langc,  Ueber  die  Kyklischen  Dichter,  &.c.  Mainz,  1837.  8. — Jahn's  Jahrbucher,  for 
1830,  vol.  n.  p"  240. —  Osann,  in  the  Hermes,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  185. 

The  names  and  works  of  some  of  these  poets  are  given  on  the  Iliar  Table.  This  is  a  tablet 
of  marble  on  which  the  capture  of  Troy  and  events  connected  with  it  are  represented  by  little 
figures  in  bas-relief,  with  names  added.  It  was  found  among  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  temple 
on  the  Via  Appia,  and  is  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  capitol  at  Rome.  Its  date  is  not 
known  ;  probably  not  before  the  time  of  Virgil.     See  Montfaucon,  Antiq.  Expl.  tome  iv. 

§  22.  (d)  Lyric  Poetry.  It  has  already  been  remarked,  that  in  the  earliest 
poetry  of  Greece,  music  and  song  were  united.  The  hymns  and  other  mythic 
pieces  of  the  sacred  poetry  were  adapted  to  some  instrumental  accompani- 
ment. The  rehearsals  of  the  Rhapsodists  and  epic  minstrels  were  not  with- 
out the  music  of  the  harp  or  lyre,  employed  at  least  in  proems  and  interludes. 

But  the  poetry  distinctively  called  lyric  originated  later.  It  commenced 
probably  in  odes  sung  in  praise  of  particular  gods  ;  partly  addressed  to  them 
like  hymns,  and  partly  recounting  their  deeds.  Of  these  there  were  many 
varieties;  as  the  IJaiuv,  an  ode  to  Apollo  originally,  afterwards  to  any  god; 
'YTzoQ/tffta,  a  song  accompanied  with  dancing  as  well  as  music  ;  JiGvyauSoc, 
an  ode  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  There  was  also  a  class  of  songs,  called  IT0006- 
3ia,  used  on  festivals  and  in  processions  ;  as  the  Jacfrt^fonixu,  sung  by  virgins 
bearing  laurel  branches  in  honor  of  Appollo  ;  T^moSr^oQixu,  sung  when  the 
sacred  tripods  were  carried  in  procession  ;  ^Oa/oyoQix'u,  sung  by  youth  carry- 
ing branches  and  clusters  of  the  vine  in  honor  of  Minerva.  There  were  odes 
giving  thanks  for  deliverances,  especially  from  epidemics,  'Sjulolftta*,  and 
others  supplicating  help  and  relief,  'Evxrtxa.  Diana  was  celebrated  in  the 
songs  called  "Oimtyyoi ;  Ceres,  in  the  * IovZoi ;  Bacchus,  in  the  ^  l^uxyoi  ; 
Apollo,  in  the  <f>i?.riXiudai. 

§  23.  But  lyric  song  was  not  confined  to  the  praises  of  the  gods  and  to 
religious  festivals.  The  enthusiasm  awakened  by  the  revolutions  in  favor  of 
liberty  burst  forth  in  effusions  of  lyric  poetry.  The  tumult  and  excitement 
of  republican  contests  and  hazards  seem  to  have  been  congenial  to  its  spirit. 
It  admitted  a  free  license  and  variety  of  metres,  and  was  suited  to  every  im- 
aginable topic  that  could  awaken  lively  interest.  It  was  shortly  extended  to 
almost  every  concern  of  life,  and  the  weaver  at  the  loom,  the  drawer  of  water 
at  the  well,  the  sailor  at  his  oars,  and  even  the  beggar  in  his  wanderings,  had 
each  his  appropriate  song,  and,  so  generally  was  music  cultivated,  they  could 
usually  accompany  it  with  the  lyre. 

Accordingly  we  find  numerous  species  of  songs  spoken  of  in  the  classics. 
Odes  to  heroes  were  of  three  varieties  ;  the  'Eyxioiaov.  proclaiming  the  deeds 
of  the  person  celebrated;  ^Enairbc,  his  virtues ;  and  'Ennlxior,  his  victories. 
There  were  different  forms  of  nuptial  odes  ;  the  Tvftsvaiot  and  yaui'^.ia,  sung 
at  the  wedding ;  aiutursia,  in  conducting  the  bride  home;  Irci&a'J.uiua,  at  the 
door  of  the  bed-chamber.  The  l'uu§og  was  a  sort  of  bantering  satirical  song ; 
the  nalyvia  were  of  a  similar  but  more  sportive  and  loose  cast.  The  rcaiSixa 
and  nao&tvia  were  sung  by  choirs  or  companies  of  boys  and  virgins.  The 
tiosaiojrai,  %tli66via,  and  y.oQoniaiiaTa  were  songs  of  mendicants.  Finally, 
without  enumerating  any  more,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  Ilgen  has  pointed 
out  about  thirty  different  kinds,  in  a  treatise  on  the  convivial  songs  of  the 
Greeks.    (Cf.  §  27.) 

14* 


162  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

C.  D.  Ilgen,  2y.o/.tu  h.  e.  Carmina  conviv.  Grsec.  Jen.  1798.  8.  —  Burette,  Sur  la  Musique 
Ancienne,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  laser .  as  cited  P.  I.  $63. — Souehay,  Sur  l'epithalame,  Mem. 
Acad.  laser,  ix.  303.  —  Cf.  Fuhrmaaa,  Klein.  Handbuch  zur  Kentniss  griech.  und  rom.  class. 
Schriftsteller.   Rudoldst.  1823.  p.  113. 

§  24.  It  has  been  observed  that  lyric  poetry  allowed  a  great  variety  of  metres. 
Many  of  these  were  afterwards  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  lyric  poets 
supposed  to  have  invented  them.  A  great  license  was  also  indulged  in  the  form 
of  the  stanzas  or  strophes  in  which  the  lyric  pieces  were  composed,  both  as  to 
the  number  of  verses  or  lines  included  in  them,  and  the  order  or  succession  of 
lines  of  different  metres.  The  earliest  and  simplest  form  of  strophe  consisted 
of  two  lines  or  verses  of  different  metre.  The  second  form  seems  to  have  in- 
cluded four  verses,  consisting  of  at  least  two  metres,  used  by  Alcaeus,  Sappho, 
and  Anacreon.  But  strophes  of  a  more  artificial  composition  were  employed 
by  Alcman  and  Stesichorus.  Those  of  Pindar,  and  such  as  are  used  in  the 
choral  parts  of  tragedy,  exhibit  the  greatest  art  in  their  construction. 

On  the  metres  and  strophes  consult  Hermann  and  Seager,  as  cited  §  7.  4.  (h) 

§  25.  Lyric  poetry  began  to  flourish  at  the  close  of  the  second  period  we 
have  pointed  out,  from  the  Trojan  war  to  Solon,  and  after  epic  had  reached  its 
height.  The  most  ancient  of  the  lyric  poets  (as  distinguished  from  the  mythic, 
epic,  and  cyclic  poets),  whose  name  is  recorded,  was  Thaletas  of  Crete,  in- 
duced by  Lycurgus  to  remove  to  Sparta.  (Cf.  Plutarch  on  Lycurgus.)  Archi- 
lochus,  Alcman,  Alcaeus,  and  Sappho,  flourished  just  before  Solon,  or  about 
the  same  time,  and  were  all  celebrated  among  the  ancients,  particularly  the 
first  and  last  of  them  ;  but  we  have  nothing  of  their  writings  except  a  few 
fragments. 

In  the  next  period,  between  Solon  and  Alexander,  lyric  poetry  was  culti- 
vated with  increased  ardor  and  splendid  success.  Simonides,  Stesichorus,  and 
Bacchylides,  are  mentioned  with  praise.  Many  other  names  of  less  note  are 
also  preserved  ;  as  Lasus,  Hipponax,  Ibycus,  Pratinas,  Asclepiades,  Glycon  and 
Phalrecus,  Melanippides,  Timotheus,  Telestes,  and  Philoxenes.  Several  po- 
etesses also  adorned  the  circle  of  lyric  authors  in  this  age;  as  Erinna,  Myrtis, 
Corinna,  Telesille,  and  Praxilla.  But  it  is  not  from  any  of  the  writers  we  have 
named,  that  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Greeks  derives  its  high  reputation  among 
modern  scholars  ;  for  of  all  their  works  almost  every  thing  has  perished ;  a  loss 
which  some  of  the  mutilated  portions  remaining  cause  us  much  to  regret. 

Time  has  been  more  sparing  in  reference  to  the  performances  of  two  other 
poets,  to  whom  the  judgment  of  all  has  ascribed  the  palm  of  pre-eminent  excel- 
lence in  lyric  verse,  Anacreon  and  Pindar.  Each  of  these  excels,  yet  their 
characteristics  are  totally  opposite.  Anacreon  sings  of  women  and  roses  and 
wine  ;  Pindar  of  heroes,  of  public  contests,  of  victories  and  laurels.  The  one 
melts  away  in  amatory  softness;  the  other  is  ever  like  the  foaming  steed  of 
the  race,  vaulting  in  the  pride  of  conscious  strength,  or  the  furious  war-horse, 
dashing  fearlessly  on,  over  every  obstacle.  Under  these  masters,  Grecian  ly- 
rics were  advanced  to  their  greatest  perfection. 

§  26.  The  ancients  speak  of  nine  as  the  principal  lyric  poets,  viz.  Alcman, 
Alcseus,  Sappho,  Stesichorus,  Ibycus,  Anacreon,  Simonides,  Pindar,  and  Bac- 
chylides. It  will  be  observed  that  all  these  have  been  already  mentioned. 
The  age  of  Pindar  completes  essentially  the  history  of  lyric  poetry  in  Greece, 
as  that  of  Homer  does  the  history  of  epic.  No  eminent  genius  appears  after 
him. 

In  the  next  period  after  the  time  of  Alexander,  we  hear  of  two  or  three 
poetesses,  as  Anyta,  Nossis,  and  Mcero  ;  and  some  of  the  poets  at  Alexandria 
wrote  lyrical  pieces,  as  Philetas,  Lycophron,  and  Callimachus.  But  after  the 
Roman  supremacy  we  shall  scarcely  find  a  strictly  lyrical  production  noticed 
in  the  fullest  detail  of  Grecian  poetry. 

On  the  subject?  and  varieties  of  Lyric  Poetry,  see  Escheabara-,'s  Entwurf  einer  Theorie  &c. 
as  before  cited.  —  Encxjc.  Amer.  under  Lyric.  —  On  the  general  character  and  history  of  Greek 
Lyric  Poetry,  see  Preface  to  Dacier's  Transl.  of  Horace.  —  M.  de  la  JVauze,  Sur  lea  chansons  de 
l'ancienne  Grece,  in  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  laser,  ix.  320.— Barney's  Gen.  Hist.  .Music.  Lond.1776. 4. 
—  Meusnier  de  Querloa,  Mem.  Histor.  sur  la  chanson  en  gen.  et  en  part.  Francoise.  Par.  1765. 
3  vote.  8.  —  Historical  Essay  on  the  Orig.  and  Prog,  of  National  Song.  pref.  to  Select  coll.  Engl. 
Songs.  Lond.  1783.  3  vols.  8.  —  Saher's  Allg.  Theorie.  Artie.  Ode,  Lied,  &c. 

§  27.    (e)  The  Scolion  {oxoUlv  aoua).     This  was  a  species  of  poetry,  which 


POETRY.      LYRIC.       ELEGIAC.  163 

appeared  before  the  time  of  Solon,  and  flourished  especially  in  the  period  be- 
tween him  and  Alexander.  It  was  nearly  allied  to  lyric  poetry  ;  or,  more 
properly  speaking,  was  only  a  peculiar  form  of  it,  consisting  of  little  songs, 
designed  for  social  purposes,  and  particularly  used  at  banquets  and  festive  en- 
tertainments. 

The  word  oxo?.iov,  employed  to  designate  the  kind  of  song  here  described,  has  troubled 
the  grammarians.  It  properly  signifies  something  crooked  or  distorted  (detoilrne),  and  evidently 
indicates  something  irregular  in  the  poetry  to  which  it  is  applied.    The  question  has  arisen, 

wherein  consisted  the  irregularity  ? According  to  Suidas,  the  Greeks  had  three  modes  of 

singing  at  the  table.  First,  all  the  guests  forming  a  joint  chorus  chanted  a  paean  accompanied 
by  the  harp,  in  honor  of  some  god.  Then,  the  harp  was  passed  from  guest  to  guest,  beginning 
with  the  one  occupying  the  chief  place,  and  each  was  requested  to  sing  some  morceau  or  sonnet 
from  Simonides,  Stesichorus,  Anacreon,  or  other  favorite  author.  If  any  one  declined  playing, 
he  might  sing  without  the  harp,  holding  in  his  hand  a  branch  of  myrtle.  There  was  a  third 
manner,  which  required  absolutely  the  accompaniment  of  the  harp,  and  something  of  the  skill 
of  an  artist.  Hence  the  harp  did  not  pass  in  order  from  guest  to  guest,  but  when  one  performer 
had  finished  some  couplets,  he  presented  the  myrtle-branch  to  another  qualified  to  continue  the 
song  and  music.  This  one,  having  completed  his  part  in  turn,  gave  the  branch  to  a  third,  and 
so  on.  Along  with  the  myrtle  was  presented  also  to  the  singer  the  cup  or  vase,  which  from  this 
practice  gained  the  name  of  'lodog.  From  this  mode  of  passing  the  harp,  in  an  irregular  man- 
ner, the  poem  thus  recited  was  termed  oxoXibv.  — Plutarch,  on  the  other  hand,  states  that  the 
scolia  were  accompanied  with  the  sound  of  the  lyre  ;  that  this  instrument  was  presented  to 
each  guest,  and  those  who  were  unable  to  sing  and  play  could  refuse  to  take  it ;  he  adds  that  the 
axo?.iuv  was  so  called  because  it  was  neither  common  nor  easy.  But  he  gives  also  another 
explanation,  according  to  which  the  myrtle  branch  is  represented  as  passing  from  couch  to 
couch  in  the  following  way  -.  the  first  guest  on  the  first  couch  passed  it  to  the  first  on  the  second 
couch,  and  he  to  the  first  on  the  third  ;  it  was  then  returned  to  the  first  couch,  and  the  guest 
occupying  the  second  place  there,  having  sung  and  played,  passed  it  to  the  second  on  the  sec- 
ond couch,  and  thus  it  went  through  the  whole  company.     From  this  crooked  manoeuvring  the 

songs  of  the  table  were  called  oy.o7.iu.  These  explanations  are  too  subtle  to  be  perfectly 

satisfactory.  It  seems  much  more  simple  to  suppose  the  name  to  have  referred  originally  to  the 
irregularity  of  metre,  in  which  respect  the  scolion  seems  to  have  had  unlimited  license.  The 
subjects  of  these  songs  were  not  always  the  pleasures  of  the  table  and  the  cup.  They  often 
treated  of  more  serious  matters,  including  sometimes  the  praise  of  the  gods.  Songs  for  popular 
use,  and  those  designed  to  enliven  manual  labor  and  domestic  care,  as  those  of  shepherds, 
reapers,  weavers,  nurses,  &c.  went  under  the  common  name  of  oy.o/.iu.  The  earliest  known 
author  of  scolia,  or  according  to  Plutarch  the  inventor  of  music  adapted  to  them,  is  Terpander, 
of  Antissa  in  Lesbos,  who  lived  about  670  B.  C.  Other  authors  of  such  pieces  are  recorded  ;  as 
Clitagorus  the  Lacedaemonian,  Hybrias  of  Crete,  Timocreon  of  Rhodes.  Archilochus,  and 
other  lyric  poets,  composed  pieces  which  belong  to  the  class  here  described. 

See  M.  dc  la  Nauze,  Burette,  and  Ilgen,  cited  §  23,  26,  especially  the  latter.  —  H.  H.  Cludius, 
von  den  Skolion  der  Griechen,  in  the  Bibl  d.  alt.  Litter,  u.  Kunst.  No.  1. — Schcell,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr. 
livre  ii.  ch.  5. 

§  28.  (b)  Elegiac  Poetry.  The  origin  of  elegiac  poetry  was  an  ancient  theme 
of  dispute  if  we  may  credit  Horace  :  Quis  tamen  exiguos  elegos  emiserit  auctor, 
Grammatici  certant,  et  adhuc  subjudice  lis  est.  "It  appears,"  says  Scholl,  "that 
the  grammarians  of  Alexandria  (for  to  these  Horace  doubtless  alludes)  raised 
this  question  from  their  confounding  times  and  terms.  The  matter  becomes 
clear  when  we  give  to  terms  their  proper  meaning.  It  is  necessary  to  distin- 
guish between  the  ancient  i/.eysla  of  Callinus,  and  the  later  E/Lfyoc,  the  inven- 
tion of  which  has  been  attributed  to  Simonides.  The  first  was  merely  a  lyric 
piece,  particularly  a  war-song,  composed  of  distichs  with  hexameter  and  pen- 
tameter alternating,  the  original  form  of  Ionian  lyrics.  The  word  ^?.syog  (from 
a-',  alas  !  and  Uyto)  signifies  a  lamentation ;  and  any  lyric  poem  on  a  mournful 
subject  was  so  termed.  The  Attic  poets,  when  they  sung  on  a  mournful  theme, 
employed  the  distich  of  alternate  hexameter  and  pentameter,  which  had  been 
previously  used  in  the  war-song.  It  was  now  that  this  distich  received  the 
name  tZsyslu,  from  the  new  class  of  subjects  to  which  it  was  applied;  for  it 
was  not  originally  so  called,  but  went  by  the  general  name  of  tnog,  afterwards 
restricted  to  heroic  verse.  The  term  was  therefore  the  name  of  a  kind  of  metre 
or  strophe,  rather  than  a  kind  of  poetry.  The  grammarians,  overlooking  this, 
called  the  two  kinds  by  the  name  of  elegy,  because  the  metre  was  the  same  in 
both." 

Callinus  of  Ephesus  is  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  first  poem  composed  in 
elegiac  metre.  He  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  lived  about  684  B.C.  Oth- 
ers place  him  much  earlier.  The  fragment  ascribed  to  him  is  part  of  a  song 
stimulating  his  compatriots  to  fight  valiantly  against  their  enemies  the  Mag- 
nesians.  Tyrtaeus  is  next  in  time,  immortalized  by  his  songs  composed  for  the 
purpose  of  rousing  and  encouraging  the  Spartans  in  a  war  with  Messenia. 


164  HISTORY  OP  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

§  29.  The  first  example  of  the  new  application  of  the  elegiac  metre  (i.  e.  to 
mournful  themes)  is  said  to  have  been  given  by  Mimnermus  of  Colophon  in  Ion- 
ia,about  590  B.C.  The  few  verses  remaining  of  him  breathe  a  sweet  melancholy, 
deploring  the  rapid  flight  of  youthful  days,  and  the  brevity  and  ills  of  human 
life. 

But  Simonides  is  considered  as  the  inventor  of  the  proper  elegy,  although 
he  neither  devised  the  metre,  nor  first  applied  it  to  topics  of  a  saddening  cast; 
but  it  was  after  Simonides  that  the  name  f/.syog  Was  given  to  a  poem  of  con- 
siderable size  in  distichs  of  hexameter  and  pentameter.  Most  of  his  pieces 
which  are  preserved  are,  however,  epigrams  rather  than  elegies.  Antimachus 
a  lyric  poet,  Euripides  the  tragic  writer,  and  Hermesianax,  are  mentioned 
among  the  authors  of  elegies  in  the  period  now  before  us,  between  Solon  and 
Alexander. 

In  the  next  period,  the  only  elegiac  writer  of  any  importance  was  Callima- 
chus  ;  although  Alexander  the  yEtolian  and  Pliiletas  of  Cos  are  named.  Cal- 
limachus  was  much  admired  and  imitated  by  the  Romans.  After  him  elegiac 
verse  does  not  appear  to  have  been  cultivated  at  all  among  the  Greeks. 

In  conclusion,  very  little  of  the  Greek  elegiac  poetry  remains  to  us,  but 
some  of  the  fragments  we  have  are  in  strains  peculiarly  soft  and  sweet. 

On  the  origin  of  Greek  Elegiac  Poetry,  see  ./.  V.  Francke,  Callinus  sive  Qusestiones  de  orig. 
carm.  elegiaci.  Alton.  1816.  8.  —  C.  A.  Bottiger,  Abh.. ueber  d.  Fabel  vom  Marsyas,  in  Wie- 
land's  Attisch.  Museum,  B.  i.  St.  S.-^Schwll,  Hist.  Gk.  Litt.  livre  ii.  ch.  5. — On  Greek  elegiac 
poetry  generally,  Fraguier,  Sur  l'elegie  Gr.  &  Lat.  in  the  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.  (tome  vm. 
ed.  d'Amst.)  Par.  ed.Vol.  vi.  p.  277. — Souchay,  Discerns,  sur  les  Elegiaques  grecs,  in  the  Menu 
de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  vn.  333,  352.  —  Esehenburg's  Entwurf  (cited  $  14.)  p.  165. 

§  30.  (g)  Bucolic  or  Pastoral  Poetry.  This  species  of  poetry  is  supposed  to 
have  taken  its  rise  from  the  rustic  songs  of  Sicilian  shepherds.  Its  invention 
is  ascribed  to  a  certain  Daphnis,  who  lived  in  the  early  fabulous  ages,  and  en- 
joyed the  reputation  of  a  divine  descent,  while  he  pastured  his  flocks  at  the 
foot  of  mount  JEtna. 

But  Theocritus,  belonging  to  the  Alexandrine  age  of  Grecian  literature, 
may  be  considered  as  the  father  of  bucolic  song.  The  Idyl  had  not  been  culti- 
vated by  any  writer  before  him.  This  term,  from  iiSv/./.iov,  signifies  a  little 
picture,  a  representation  in  miniature,  a  delicate  piece  of  poetical  drawing. 
The  Greek  Idyl  does  not  seem  to  have  been  confined  to  any  one  topic  exclu- 
sively, yet  was  chiefly  employed  in  representing  the  scenes  of  pastoral  life. 
Its  external  form  was  marked  by  the  use  of  the  Hexameter  verse  and  the  Do- 
ric dialect.  Theocritus  carried  it  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  ;  and  in  pasto- 
ral poetry,  no  poet,  ancient  or  modern,  has  surpassed  him. 

In  fact,  Greek  bucolic  poetry  begins  and  ends  with  Theocritus.  Two  other 
poets  belonging  to  the  same  age,  viz.  Bion  and  Moschus,  are  commonly  ranked 
in  the  class  of  bucolic  or  pastoral  writers.  But  neither  of  them  is  considered 
as  equal  to  Theocritus  ;  and  the  subjects  and  scenes  of  their  poetry  have  more 
of  the  lyrical  or  mythological  than  of  the  pastoral  character. 

On  Pastoral  Poetry  in  general  ;  Bern,  dc  Fontenelle,  Disc,  sur  lanat.  de  l'eclogue.  P.  1688.  8. 
—  Ch.  CI.  Genest,  Diss,  sur  la  Poes.  pastor.  &c.  Par.  1707.  12.  —  Florian,  Ess.  sur  la  Pastorale, 
in  Pref.  to  his  Esielle.  Par.  1788.  12.  —  Fraguier,  Sur  l'eclogue,  in  Mem.  dc  I'Acad.  des  laser,  ii. 
121.  —  Pope,  Disc,  on  Pastoral  Poetry,  in  Towson's  Miscell.  Lond,  1707.  8.  —  The  Guardian, 
Xo.  28,  30,  32. Aremberry,  Poetry  on  a  new  Plan.  Lonri.  1762.  8 Blair's  Lectures. 

On  Greek  Pastoral  Poetry  ;  Al.Guully  dc  Bois  Robert,  Disc,  sur  les  anc.  Poet,  biicol.  de  Sicile, 
in  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.  Vol.  v.  p.  85.  —  Jacq.  Hardion,  Hist,  du  Berger  Daphnis.  in  the 
same  Mem.  &c.  vol.  vi.  p.  459.  —  TVarton,  dfcpoesi  bucolica  Grmc.  preface  to  his  edit,  of  Theo- 
critus. Oxon.  1770.  —  Arethusa,  cder  die  bukolisch.  Dichter  des  Alterthums.  Berl.  1806 — 10. 
2  Bde.  4.  —  Schmll,  Hist.  Gr.  Litt.  livre  iv.  ch.  33 — Midler's  Dorians,  bk.  iv.  ch.  6.  $10.— Class. 
Journ.  xx.  124.  xvn.  74. 

§  31.  (h)  Didactic  Poetry.  In  this  form  of  poetry,  the  literature  of  the  Greeks 
was  not  peculiarly  rich.  The  objects  which  didactic  poetry  has  in  view,  may 
be  included  under  two  heads  ;  it  aims  to  give  instruction,  either  in  what  per- 
tains to  morals,  or  in  what  pertains  to  science  or  art.  In  the  earliest  specimen 
of  didactic  poetry  among  the  Greeks — the  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod — there 
is  a  combination  of  both  ;  the  first  book  chiefly  consisting  of  moral  precepts, 
and  the  second  of  rules  of  husbandry,  concluding  however  with  a  repetition  oi 
precepts  on  the  conduct  of  life.  This  production  belongs  to  the  period  before 
Solon. 

The  next  productions,  which  we  meet  in  the  account  of  Grecian  didactic 


POETRY.     BUCOLIC.     DIDACTIC.  165 

poetry,  consist  wholly  of  moral  precepts  or  sentences  (yvwuai).  From  this 
circumstance,  the  writers  have  been  called  Gnomic  poets.  The  poetry  consists 
of  pithy  maxims,  expressed  with  brevity  and  force.  The  metrical  form  may 
have  been  chosen  principally  for  the  sake  of  memory.  Pythagoras,  Solon, 
Theognis,  Phocylides  and  Xenophanes,  are  the  chief  among  the  Gnomic  poets. 
Fragments  remain  ascribed  to  each  of  these  ;  not  all,  however,  considered  gen- 
uine, especially  the  Goldei^Verses  of  Pythagoras,  and  the  Exhortation  of  Pho- 
cylides. 

There  was  a  peculiar  species  of  composition,  to  which  it  may  be  proper  here 
to  allude,  as  another  form  of  didactic  poetry;  viz.  the  fable  or  apologue  (ano- 
7.oyog  and  7.oyoo).  The  most  ancient  Greek  fables  are  two  or  three  ascribed  to 
Archilochus  and  Stesichorus,  and  one  found  in  Hesiod.  The  most  celebrated 
fables  are  those  of  ^Esop,  who  lived  in  the  age  of  Solon.  They  were  probably 
composed  in  prose.  Socrates  translated  some  of  them  into  verse.  They  were 
collected  in  a  body  by  Demetrius  Phalereus,  and  a  translation  of  them  is  said  to 
have  been  made  about  the  same  time  into  elegiac  verse.  In  the  age  of  Augus- 
tus they  were  translated  into  the  verse  called  Choliambics,  by  Babrius.  This 
metrical  version  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  basis  of  the  modern  copies,  which 
are  in  prose,  and  belong  perhaps  more  properly  to  the  subject  of  philosophy. 

On  the  Greek  Gnomic  Poetry  ;  Meiner's  Gesch.  d.  Wissenchaften  in  Griechenland  u.  Rom. 
Lemgo  1781.  8.  —  Heyne's  Pref.  to  Sentent.  vetustiss.  Gnom.  poetarum  Op.  Lips.  1776.  2  vols.  — 
J.  Frobenius,  Scriptores  Gnomici  &e.  Bas.  1521.8.  containing  fragments  of  about  seventy  poets. 
—  Brunck,  Gnomici  Poet.  Grseci,  cited  below  §  47 1.  —  U.  H.  Rohde,  De  veter.  poetar.  sapientia 
gnomica,  &c.   Havn.  1800.  8. 

On  the  Apologue  or  Fable  generally  ;  Eschenburg,  Entwurf,  p.  94.  —  Gellert,  Diss,  de  Poesi 
Apolog.  eorumque  scriptoribus.  Lips.  1744.  4.  —  SwZzer's  Allg.  Theor.  Art.  Fabel.  —  Lessing\t 
Abhandlungen,  in  his  Vier  Buechern  asopisch.  Fabeln.  Berl.  1777.  8.  —  On  the  Greek  Fable  ;  J. 
M.  Heusinger,  Dissert,  de  gr.  JEs.  Fabulis.  Ger.  1741.  8.  —  Eschenburg,  Entwurf,  &c.  p.  102.  — 
Schcdl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.  livre  iii.  ch.  9. 

§  32.  The  Alexandrine  age  presents  several  didactic  poets.  The  first  in 
chronological  order  were  two  Sicilians,  Dicsearchus  and  Archestratus.  The 
former  wrote,  in  iambic  verse,  a  geographical  description  of  Greece.  He  was 
a  disciple  of  Aristotle,  and  left  also  some  philosophical  pieces.  The  latter 
traversed  many  lands  examining  the  subject  of  human  food  and  nourishment, 
and  gave  the  result  of  his  experience  and  research  in  a  poem  entitled  Gas- 
trology.  At  the  very  close  of  the  period  was  Nicander,  of  Colophon,  or  of  iEto- 
lia  according  to  others.  His  two  poems  (called  Qr^iay.lx,  relating  to  venomous 
bites;  and  'Aks^KpuQ/naxa,  relating  to  other  poisons)  have  more  of  poetic  ele- 
gance than  of  scientific  merit.  His  Georgics  and  Metamorphoses  (r£T£ooiot:- 
utra),  both  lost,  are  said  to  have  furnished  hints  to  Virgil  and  Ovid. 

But  the  first  place  in  point  of  excellence  belongs  to  Aratus,  who  flourished 
at  the  Macedonian  Court,  about  270  B.  C.  His  astronomical  poem  is  highly 
commended  by  the  ancients.  Cicero  translated  it  into  Latin  verse.  Aratus  is 
the  poet  quoted  by  Paul  before  the  Areopagus.     (Acts  xvii.  28.) 

In  the  next  period,  after  the  capture  of  Corinth,  B.  C.  146,  there  were  also 
several  writers  belonging  to  the  class  now  under  notice  ;  but  none  of  them  of 
much  celebrity.  Among  the  principal  were  Babrius  or  Babrias  and  Oppian. 
The  former  has  been  already  mentioned  as  author  of  a  metrical  version  of  the 
apologues  of  JEsop.  The  latter  wrote  on  fishing  and  hunting ;  a  third  poem, 
not  extant,  on  folding,  is  also  ascribed  to  him.  The  following  are  likewise 
mentioned  :  Apollodorus  of  Athens,  who  wrote  a  poetical  chronology  (Xqovix'u), 
and  a  description  of  the  earth  (r>~jg  neyLoSog)  ;  Scymnus  of  Chios,  and  Dionysius 
of  Charax,  authors  each  of  a  Voyage  of  the  World  (Jlto^'y^ffic  oly.ovuivrtg);  He- 
liodorus,  author  of  a  poem  entitled  ' Ano/.viiy.a  ;  and  Marcellus  of  Sida,  in  the 
time  of  the  Antonines,  who  wrote  a  poem  of  forty-two  books  on  medicine  (/?»/S- 
?.la  iarqixa). 

After  the  seat  of  the  Roman  government  was  changed,  there  were,  as  has 
been  mentioned,  numerous  inferior  poets.  Several  of  them  would  fall  into 
the  class  of  didactic  poets,  but  they  scarcely  deserve  to  be  named.  Among 
them  were  Naumachius,  author  of  a  poem  on  astrology;  Dorotheus,  author  of 
a  poetical  treatise  on  triangles,  and  another  on  the  places  of  the  stars ;  and 
Manual  Philes,  who  wrote  on  the  peculiarities  of  animals  (ZZtoi  t<o<av  ?dw~ 
T7jTog). 

On  Didactic  Poetry  in  general ;  Eschenburg,  Entwurf  &c.  V.— Marviontel,  Poetique  T.  II. 


166  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

ch.  22.— Racine,  Reflex,  sur  la  poesie.  ch.  7.—  Warton's  Diss,  on  Did.  Poetry  (pref.  to  Trans,  of 
Virgil).— Essay  pref.  to  Dnjden>s  Trans,   of  Virg.   Georg.— Suher's  Allg.   Theor.  art.  Lehrge- 

dicht. On  the  Greek  Didactic  Poets,  Manso's  Abh.  in  the  Nachtr.  zu  Sulzer,  B.  iii.  49.  and 

vi.  359.— Schmll,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  L.  iii.  ch.  8, 9.  L.  iv.  32.  52.  L.  vi.  ch.  74. 

§  33.  {i)  Erotic  Poetry.  Under  this  denomination  are  included  such  poetic- 
al performances  as  refer  particularly  to  the  subject  of  love.  It  is  some- 
times applied  to  a  class  of  lyrical  pieces,  whichjBcere  of  an  amatory  char- 
acter (tuortixa  ptltj)'  Alcman,  or  Alcmaeon,  who  lived  at  Sparta,  B.  C. 
about  470,  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  erotic  poety  in  this  sense  of  the 
phrase.  Most  of  his  poems  were  of  a  class  called  jrao&tvia,  or  praises  of 
virgins.  His  songs  were  very  popular  with  the  ancients,  and  were  sung 
by  the  Spartans  at  table  with  those  of  Terpander.  Alcseus,  Sappho,  and 
Anacreon  wrote  pieces  of  the  same  description. 

But  the  term  erotic  is  generally  applied  by  critics  to  another  class  of 
writings  ;  viz.  several  productions  of  a  later  period,  chiefly  in  prose,  which 
had  something  of  the  nature  of  novels,  or  modern  works  of  fiction.  They 
were  truly  a  species  of  romance,  and  properly  therefore  may  be  noticed  as 
a  distinct  branch  of  literature.  In  this  place  we  shall  speak  only  of  such 
authors  as  wrote  in  verse.  There  were  three  writers  in  the  period  after 
Constantine  the  Great,  who  composed  poems,  which  may  be  justly  ranked 
among  the  performances  here  described.  The  most  eminent  of  them  was 
Theodorus  Prodromus  a  learned  philosopher  and  theologian,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century,  author  of  a  great  variety  of  poetical  pieces.  "  Scrip- 
sit  carmina"  says  Harles,  "  invita  autem  Minerva."  The  principal  was  his 
romance,  in  iambic  verse,  entitled  the  love  of  Rhodanthe  and  Dosicles.  The 
other  two  were  Constantine  Manasses,  and  Nicetas  Eugenianus ;  both  lived 
about  the  same  time  with  Prodromus.  The  work  of  the  former,  the  loves  of 
Aristander  and  Callithea,  is  nearly  all  lost ;  that  of  the  latter,  the  loves  of 
Drosilla  and  Charicles,  in  nine  books,  is  extant.  They  were  both  in  the  verse 
called  political. 

Schmll,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  livr.  ii.  ch.  5.  livr.vi.ch.  74.—"  On  appelle  ■politiques  des  vers  de  quinze 
syllables,  dans  lesquels  on  n'observe  pas  la  quantite  ;  ils  ont  la  cesure  apres  la  huitieme  syl- 
lable, et  1'accent  sur  l'avant  derniere.'    Cf.  Hermann  (on  Metre),  lib.  ii.  c.  xxix.  26. 

§  34.  (k)  The  Epigram.  The  term  iniyqainia  originally  signified  merely  an 
inscription,  and  from  this  use  the  poetry  so  called  derived  its  prevailing  char- 
acter. The  Greek  epigram  served  for  a  motto  on  a  pillar  or  an  offering  to  a  god, 
an  explanation  or  memento  under  a  painting,  a  panegyric  on  a  statue  or  a 
monument,  an  epitaph  on  a  grave-stone.  Of  course  we  could  not  expect  it  to 
be  strikingly  marked  by  that  smartness  of  manner  and  sharpness  of  wit  and 
point,  which  modern  taste  demands.  It  usually  expressed  a  simple  idea,  a 
sentiment,  a  reflection,  a  regret,  a  wish;  inspired  by  the  accidental  sight  of  a 
monument,  an  edifice,  a  tree  or  other  object;  or  awakened  by  the  recollection 
of  something  agreeable,  melancholy,  or  terrible  in  the  past.  Here  we  propose 
to  mention  some  of  the  authors  of  different  ages  to  whom  epigrams  are  ascribed. 

A  few  are  referred  to  the  time  antecedent  to  Solon.  Those  ascribed  to  Homer 
are  the  most  ancient,  but  their  genuineness  is  doubted.  One  worthy  of  its 
reputation  bears  the  name  of  JEsop. 

There  are  various  epigrams  belonging  to  the  two  periods  between  Solon  and 
the  Roman  supremacy,  some  said  to  be  from  the  most  distinguished  authors. 
Indeed  most  of  the  poets,  it  is  probable,  composed  occasionally  these  little 
pieces.  Anacreon,  Erinna,  JEschylus,  Euripides,  and  especially  Simonides  of 
Ceos,  may  be  named.  The  latter  defeated  ^Eschylus  in  competition  for  the 
prize-inscription  at  Thermopylae.  —  A  single  epigram  is  referred  to  Socrates  ; 
one  to  Thucydides ;  thirty  to  Plato,  but  without  foundation.  Three  by  the 
painter  Parrhasius  are  preserved  by  Athenams. 

The  Alexandrine  age  abounded  in  epigrammatists  ;  more  than  thirty  are 
enumerated.  The  mosteminent  were  Callimachus,  and  Leonidas  of  Tarentum. 
The  latter  left  a  hundred  epigrams,  in  the  Doric  dialect,  among  the  best  that 
are  preserved. 

In  the  next  period,  the  number  of  epigrammatists  was  still  larger ;  above 
forty  writers  are  named  between  the  fall  of  Corinth  and  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine, and  a  great  number  of  their  pieces  are  extant.  Among  them  is  the  poet 
Archias,  less  celebrated  for  his  own  productions  than  by  the  oration  of  Cicero 


POETRY.      EPIGRAMS.      ANTHOLOGIES.  167 

in  his  behalf.  Diogenes  Laertius,  the  biographer,  also  has  a  place  here.  We 
have  the  largest  number  of  pieces  from  Meleager  and  Lucilius.  The  latter,  a 
contemporary  of  Nero,  published  two  books  of  epigrams,  of  which  more  than 
a  hundred  remain,  chiefly  of  a  satirical  cast.  Some  of  the  emperors  amused 
themselves  in  writing  poetry  of  this  description;  we  have  several  pieces  from 
Trajan.  In  this  period,  collections  of  epigrams  began  to  be  compiled  and  pub- 
lished under  different  titles.  They  are  now  called  Anthologies,  and  will  be 
described  in  the  next  section. 

After  Constantine,  it  was  chiefly  in  the  epigram  that  the  poets  labored,  or 
gained  any  distinction.  Between  forty  and  fifty  different  writers  are  mentioned, 
pagan  and  Christian.  The  more  eminent  among  them  were  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen  (§  292),  Paul  Silentarius,  the  consul  Macedonia,  and  Agathias  of  Myri- 
na  (cf.  §  257J. 

Besides  the  epigrammatists  that  have  been  now  alluded  to  under  the  differ- 
ent periods  of  Greek  literature,  the  Anthologies  contain  the  names  of  nearly 
one  hundred  others,  whose  epoch  has  not  been  ascertained. 

On  the  Greek  epigrams  ;  F.  Jacobs,  Delectus  Epigramm.  Gracorum  (a  vol.  of  the  Bibliotheca, 
cited  §  7.  1.)  in  the  Introduction. — Lessing,  on  epigrams,  in  his  Vermischte  Schriften  (Melanges). 
Berl.  1771. 8 — Herder,  in  his  Zerstreutc  Blatter.  Golha,  1785,  86.  (Samml.  I.  II.)—  Franc.  Vavas- 

sor,  De  Epigrammate,  in  his  Opera.  Amst.  1709.  fol C.  Q.  Scnntag,  Hist.  Poeseos  Gr.  brevi- 

oris,  ab  Anacr.  usq.  ad  Meleag.  ex.  Anthol.  Gr.  adumbrata.  Lips.  1785.— Scha.ll,  livre  iii.  ch.16. 
livre  iv.  ch.  51.   livre  vi.  ch.  72. 

§  3ot.  Anthologies.  The  Greek  Anthologies  (Blumenlesen)  are  collections  of 
small  poems,  chiefly  epigrams,  of  various  authors.  Many  of  the  pieces  are  re- 
markable for  their  beauty  and  simplicity  in  thought  and  their  peculiar  turns 
of  expression.  These  collections  began  to  be  compiled  during  the  decline  of 
Greek  literature.  Several  of  these  collections  were  made  before  the  fall  of 
Carthage,  but  seem  to  have  been  formed  with  more  reference  to  the  historical 
value  of  the  inscriptions  than  to  their  poetical  merit.  The  collection  of  Polemo 
Periegetes  was  of  this  early  class,  which  are  entirely  lost.  Next  to  these,  the 
first  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  was  made  by  Meleager  of  Gadara  in 
Syria,  B.  C.  nearly  100.  It  was  entitled  Zrtcpavog,  the  crown  or  garland,  and 
contained  the  better  pieces  of  forty-six  poets,  arranged  alphabetically.  The 
next  was  by  Philippus  of  Thessalonica,  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  with  the  same 
arrangement.  A  little  after,  under  Hadrian,  about  A.  D.  120,  a  collection  of 
choice  pieces  was  formed  by  Diogenianus  of  Heraclea.  About  one  hundred 
years  later,  Diogenes  Laertius  gathered  a  body  of  epigrams  composed  in  honor 
of  illustrious  men  ;  from  the  variety  of  metres  in  them,  it  was  styled  riuitut- 
tqov.  In  the  second  or  third  century,  Strato  of  Sardis  published  a  compilation 
including  most  of  the  poets  embraced  in  the  anthology  of  Meleager,  and  some 
of  those  embraced  in  the  work  of  Philippus,  together  with  several  others.  It 
was  entitled  Bm9ttHj  Movaa.  But  that  which  may  be  considered  as  the  third 
Anthology  was  published  in  the  sixth  century  by  Agathias  of  Myrina,  who  has 
already  been  named  as  one  of  the  more  eminent  epigrammatists  after  the  time 
of  Constantine.  This  bore  the  title  of  Ki'yJ.og,  and  consisted  of  seven  books, 
into  which  the  pieces  were  distributed  according  to  their  subjects.  In  the 
tenth  century  a  fourth  collection  was  made  by  Constantine  Cephalas,  of  whom 
nothing  else  is  known.  In  preparing  it  he  made  use  of  the  preceding  compi- 
lations, especially  that  of  Agathias,  but  inserted  also  pieces  of  ancient  authors 
not  introduced  in  them.  The  epigrams  and  other  pieces  are  arranged  accord- 
ing to  subjects,  in  fifteen  sections.  Finally  in  the  fourteenth  century,  Maxi- 
mus  Planudes,  a  monk  of  Constantinople,  the  same  who  collected  the  fables  of 
iEsop,  formed  a  fifth  Anthology.  Planudes  arranged  the  pieces  included  in  his 
collection  in  seven  distinct  books. 

The  two  last  mentioned,  that  of  Cephalas  and  that  of  Planudes,  are  the  only 
Anthologies  now  extant.  That  of  Planudes  was  first  printed  in  1494,  and  the 
collection  of  Cephalas  was,  after  that,  almost  entirely  forgotten.  In  1606,  a 
manuscript  copy  of  Cephalas  was  found  by  Claude  Saumaise  (Claudius  Sal- 
masius),  in  the  library  at  Heidelberg. 

Of  the  Anthology  of  Planudes  the  following  are  the  principal  editions  :  —  Hair.  Etienne 
(Hear.  Strnhanus),  Par.  1566.  4.—  Weckcl,  Fnuikf.1600.  fol.— An  edition  at  Naples,  1796.  5  vols.  4. 
with  an  Italian  translation. — Jerome  de  Bosch,  Utrecht,  1795,  98.  3  vols.  4.  with  a  translation  in 
Latin  verse  by  Hugo  Orotius,  and  a  supplement  containing  additional  pieces  ;  De  Bosch  added 


168  HISTORY    OP    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

a  4th  vol.  of  Notes,  by  himself  and  Claud.  Sahnasius ;  a  5th  was  published  by  D.  J.  Van  Lennep, 
1822.  ("belle  et  bonne  edition."  Scholl.) 

The  discovery  of  the  manuscript  copy  of  Cephalas  excited  much  interest  in  the  literary  world. 
Salmasius  made  preparations  for  publishing  an  edition,  but  died  without  having  accomplished 
(he  work  ;  having  delayed  it  from  conscientious  scruples,  as  is  said,  about  publishing  some  of 
the  amatory  pieces.  After  his  death,  J.  Ph.  d'  Orviile  engaged  in  preparing  for  an  edition  of 
Cephalas  ;  but  he  also  died  without  effecting  it,  and  his  papers  passed  to  the  library  at  Leyden. 
Some  portions  of  the  work  of  Cephalas  were  published,  in  the  mean  time,  by  J.  Jensius,  at  Rot- 
terdam,1742,  and  J.  H.  Leich,  at  Leipzic,1745.  But  after  D'  OrviMe,  the  next  principal  labor  upon 
this  Anthology  was  by  J.  J  Reiske,  who  published  his  work  under  the  title  Anthologize  gr.  a  C. 
Cephala  condita?  libri  m.  &c.  Lips.  1754.  8.  This  was  republished,  with  a  valuable  preface,  by 
Thos.  Warton,  Oxf.  1766.  2  vols.  12.  Reiske  having  declined  editing  the  impure  pieces  which 
constituted  the  12th  section  of  Cephalas,  they  were  published  by  Chr.  Ad.  Klotz,  under  the  title 
Stratonis  aliorumque  vet.  poet.  gr.  epigrammata  eel.   Altenb.  1764.  8. 

A  more  complete  collection  of  Greek  epigrams  and  small  poems  is  found  in  Brunch,  Analecta 
veterum  poetarum  Graecorum.  Argent.  2d  "edit.  1785.  3  vols.  8.  Each  piece  is  placed  under  the 
name  of  the  author  to  whom  it  is  ascribed. — A  new  edition  was  afterwards  published  by  Fred. 
Jacobs,  Anthologia  Graeca,  sive  poetarum  graecorum  lusus,  ex  recensione  Brunckii.  Lips.  1794. 
13  vols.  8. ;  the  first  4  vols,  contain  the  text,  more  correct ;  the  5th  consists  of  various  tables  and 
references  ;  the  remaing  8  contain  a  valuable  commentary  by  Jacobs. — By  the  same,  Anthologia 
Graeca,  ad  fidem  cod.  olim  Palatini  nunc  Parisini,  ex  apographo  Gothano  edita,  curavit,  epi- 
grammata in  cod.  Pal.  desiderata  et  annotat.  critic,  adjecit  F.  Jacobs.  Lips.  1813,  17.  3  vols.  8. 
("un  corps  complet  des  epigrammes  grecques  restantde  l'antiquite."  Scholl.)— The  text  of  this 
edition  is  followed  in  the  stereotype  edition  of  Tauchnitz.  Lipz.  1819.  3  vols.  12mo. — There  are 
smaller  collections :  by  A.  F.  Kanne.  Halle,  1799.  8. ;  A.  Weichert.  Meizen.  1823.  8.  ;  Melea- 
ger's  Sinngedichte  [epigrams],  by  Manso.  Jena,  1789.  8.  ;  and  by  Gr<efe.  Leipz.  1811.  8. — Engl, 
translations  of  some  of  the  pieces,  by  Robert  Bland  and  others,  Collections  from  the  Greek  An- 
thology, comprising  the  fragments  of  early  lyric  poetry,  with  specimens  of  all  the  poets  included 
in  Meleager's  Oarland.  Lond.  1833.  Reviewed  in  Blackwood's  Mag.  June,  1833.  —  There  are 
tasteful  translations  into  German  of  some  of  the  most  beautiful  pieces  in  Herder's  Zerstreute 
Blaetter.  Gotha,  1785.  8.  ;  several  also  in  Tempe  (by  F.  Jacobs).  Leipz.  1803.  2  vols.  8.  —  Cf. 
Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  ix.—Lond.  Q,uart.  Rev.   x.  139. 

For  accounts  of  Anthologies,  &c.  see  Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  livr.  v.  ch.  51.  livr.  vi.  ch.  72. — 
Fuhrmann,  Kleineres  Handbuch,  &c.  p.  83,  474.— Schneider,  Analecta  critica  Fasc.  I. — F.Jacobs, 
Prolegomena,  in  his  Anthol.  Orcec.  Lips.  1794.  ss. — Harles,  Introd.  in  Hist.  L.  G.  Proleg.  vol.  i. 
p.  91. 

§  36.  (I)  Dramatic  Poetry.  Dramatic  poetry  took  its  rise  from  the  religious 
ceremonies  of  the  Greeks.  It  was  an  essential  part  of  the  public  worship  of 
the  gods,  especially  of  Bacchus  at  Athens,  that  there  should  be  choirs  com- 
posed of  a  sort  of  actors,  who  should,  with  dancing,  singing,  and  instrument- 
al music,  represent  some  story  relating  to  the  divinity  worshiped. 

Herodotus  states,  that  the  people  of  Sicyon  thus  represented  by  actors  the 
adventures  of  Adrastus,  whom  they  honored  as  a  god,  and  although  referring 
to  a  period  anterior  to  the  existence  of  dramatic  poetry,  he  calls  these  choirs 
of  actors  tragic,  because  they  represented  the  sufferings  (ra  TtaQsa)  of  Adras- 
tus. Suidas  and  Photius  mention  Epigenes  the  Sicyonian  as  the  inventor  of 
tragedy.  Themistius  asserts  expressly,  that  tragedy  was  invented  by  the  Sic- 
yonians,  and  perfected  by  the  Athenians.  —  The  father  of  history  also  states, 
that  when  the  inhabitants  of  JEg'ma.  took  away  from  the  Epidaurians  the  stat- 
ues of  two  national  divinities  of  the  latter,  and  erected  them  in  their  own 
island,  they  instituted  in  honor  of  the  same,  choirs  of  females  under  the  di- 
rection of  a  male  leader,  in  imitation  of  the  Epidaurians.  These  choirs,  in 
the  worship  rendered  to  the  divinities,  performed  what  might,  by  an  anachro- 
nism similar  to  the  other  just  mentioned,  be  called  comic  dramas. 

At  Athens,  as  has  been  intimated,  there  were  choirs  like  those  of  Sicyon 
and  iEgina,  that  performed  a  part  in  the  festivals  of  Bacchus.  Sometimes 
representing,  by  their  dances,  songs,  and  gestures,  the  expeditions  of  Bac- 
chus and  other  events  of  his  life,  sometimes  yielding  to  the  intoxication  that 
accompanies  the  pleasures  of  the  vintage,  they  constantly  vaunted  the  praises 
of  the  god,  to  whom  they  were  indebted  for  the  vine.  These  performances 
were  conducted  with  a  high  degree  of  licentiousness  both  in  language  and  in 
action. 

In  these  performances  the  drama  had  its  origin.  Probably  at  first  they  did 
not  include  what  is  now  understood  either  by  action  or  by  fable.  The  songs 
employed  were  lyric  in  their  nature.  Those  sung  by  the  choirs  of  Sicyon 
and  iEgina  were  lyric,  but  of  a  tragic  or  comic  character.  But  at  length  it 
began  to  be  a  custom  to  interrupt  the  song  of  the  choir  by  the  representation 
of  some  scene  or  action,  which  was  called  dyaua  or  tTitioodiov,  that  is,  some- 
thing acted  or  something  brought  in.  The  murder  of  Bacchus  or  Osiris  by 
Typhon  was,  it  is  likely,  one  of  the  most  common  subjects  thus  represented. 


TRAGEDY.  169 

But  subjects  of  a  grotesque  character  would  also  be  natural,  from  the  great 
license  attending  the  Dionysiac  festivals.  Gradually,  and  from  causes  of 
which  tradition  preserves  no  account,  three  distinct  kinds  or  varieties  of  rep- 
resentation arose  ;  and  these  laid  the  foundation  of  the  three  branches  of  the 
Greek  drama,  viz.  tragedy,  comedy,  and  satyre. 

§37.  (1)  Tragedy.  The  etymology  of  the  word  tragedy  is  uncertain  ;  perhaps 
it  was  derived  from  the  circumstance  that  a  goat  (r^uyoe)  was  the  prize  re- 
ceived by  the  conqueror.  Tragedy  was  an  improvement  upon  the  chorus  of 
the  Bacchian  festivals,  and  for  a  long  time  retained  marks  of  its  origin  ;  hav- 
ing taken  its  rise,  beyond  question,  from  the  songs  at  these  annual  festivals 
of  the  god  of  dissipation,  when  the  poet  who  furnished  the  most  popular  piece 
was  rewarded  with  a  goat,  or  perhaps  a  goat-skin  of  wine.  The  chorus  was  a 
principal  and  essential  part  of  the  tragedy  ;  it  was  lyric  in  structure,  and  like 
other  lyric  poems  usually  presented  the  regular  division  of  strophe,  antistro- 
phe,  and  epode.  In  tragedy  the  chorus  was  charged  with  the  exposition  of 
the  fable  ;  it  praised  the  gods  and  justified  them  against  the  complaints  of  the 
suffering  and  the  unhappy  ;  it  sought  to  soothe  the  excited  passions  and  to 
impart  lessons  of  wisdom  and  experience,  and  in  general  to  suggest  useful 
practical  reflections. 

The  chorus  usually  never  quitted  the  stage,  but  remained  during  the  whole  performance. 
Their  presence  was  indispensable,  because  the  tragedy  was  not  as  among  the  moderns  divid- 
ed into  acts  ;  it  served  also  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  piece.  The  chorus  was  usually  com- 
posed of  men  of  advanced  age  and  experience,  or  of  young  virgins  of  uncontaminated  minds. 
The  number  of  /oqbvtui  was  at  first  quite  large;  in  the  Eumenides  of  iEschylus  it  con- 
sisted of  fifty ;  biit  after  the  representation  of  that  piece,  it  was  limited  to  fifteen.  It  was  di- 
vided into  two  portions,  each  having  its  chief  or  head  styled  kooim/jcjo?.  When  united  they 
were  jointly  under  the  direction  of  a  leader  styled  ^oo^ybc  or  iitcio/oqoc.  When  they  took 
part  in  the  dialogue,  it  was  done  by  the  Coryphteus  or  leader.  The  portion  strictly  lyrical 
was  sung  by  the  whole  chorus  together,  accompanied  by  the  flute.  When  the  chorus  moved, 
it  was  in  the  orchestra  (oQ/^TQu)  ;  when  still,  they  occupied  the  thymele  (-frvutZtj),  a  sort 
of  altar  placed  in  the  orchestra,  whence  as  spectators  they  could  look  upon  all  that  transpired 
on  the  stage.  In  singing  the  part  termed  the  strophe,  the  chorus  moved  in  a  sort  of  dance 
across  the  orchestra  from  right  to  left ;  and  back  from  left  to  right,  while  uttering  the  antistru- 
phe;  in  the  epode,  they  stood  in  front  of  the  audience.  Tragedy  had  its  appropriate  kind  of 
dance,  termed  iftftiXtta  ',  that  of  comedy  was  called  xuqSu$  ;  and  that  of  satyre,  aixivrtq. 
The  chorus  was  instructed  in  performing  its  part  frequently  by  the  poet  himself.  (P.  I.  §  66.) 
The  expense  of  preparing  and  furnishing  a  chorus  for  an  exhibition  was  often  very  great ;  it 
was  defrayed  by  individuals  (/oq  >,y 6 1)  designated  by  the  civil  authorities.  (Potter's  Arch. 
Gnec.  bk.  i.  ch.  xv.) 

Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  livr.  iii.  ch.  xi.— On  the  import  of  the  chorus,  SchlegeVs  Dramat.  Lit. 
lect.  iii. — Heeren,  Diss,  de  chori  trag.  Graec.  natura.  Gcett.  1785.  A.—llgen,  Chorus  Grsec.  qua- 
lis  fuerit,  &c.  Erf.  1797.  Q.—  Vatry,  On  the  tragic  chorus  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vm.  199. — 
Franklin,  Diss,  on  the  Tragedy  of  the  ancients.  Lond.  1762.— On  the  music  of  the  chorus  j 
J.  JV.  Forkel,  Allg.  Gesch.  der  Musik. 

§  38.  Thespis,  of  Icarus  (a  ward  of  Attica),  contemporary  with  Solon  and 
Pisistratus,  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  tragedy.  Much  obscurity  rests  on 
the  changes,  which  were  introduced  by  this  poet,  as  the  work  of  the  peripa- 
tetic Chamreleon  of  Heraclea,  which  treated  of  the  subject,  is  lo^t.  His 
first  innovation  appears  to  have  been  in  relation  to  the  chorus.  Before  Thes- 
pis, its  actors  were  masked  as  Satyrs  and  indulged  in  the  most  licentious  free- 
dom in  amusing  their  auditors  ;  he  assigned  them  a  more  decent  part.  He 
also  introduced  an  actor  whose  recitals  allowed  intervals  of  rest  to  the  chorus. 
Other  events  besides  the  exploits  of  Bacchus  were  likewise  made  the  subject 
of  representation.  But  Solon  prohibited  the  exhibition  of  his  tragedies  as 
being  useless  fabrications.  The  performances  of  Thespis  were  no  doubt  rude. 
The  stage  is  said  to  have  been  a  cart,  the  chorus  a  troop  of  itinerant  singers, 
the  actor  a  sort  of  mimic,  and  the  poem  itself  a  motly  combination  of  the  se- 
rious and  trifling,  the  ludicrous  and  the  pathetic.  —  After  twenty-five  years, 
the  prohibition  was  removed  by  Pisistratus,  and  Thespis  reappeared  with  new 
glory.  It  was  now,  537  B.  C.  according  to  the  Parian  marble,  that  he  gained 
the  prize  in  a  tragic  contest. 

Suidas  gives  the  titles  of  four  tragedies  of  this  poet.  There  remain  two  fragments  of  doubt- 
ful authority,  cited  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  (Strom,  v.)  and  Plutarch  (De  audiendis  poetis), 
and  a  third  found  in  Pollux  (lib.  vn.  13.) 

Phrynicus,  of  Athens,  is  the  next  name  in  the  history  of  tragedy.  He  was 
a  disciple  of  Thespis,  and  introduced  some  changes,  particularly  the  use  of 

15 


170  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE, 

the  female  mask.  He  employed  however  but  one  actor  besides  the  chorus ', 
yet  this  actor  represented  different  persons,  by  changing  the  dress  and  masks. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  tragedy,  which  Themistocles  caused  to  be  exhibited 
with  great  magnificence,  and  which  bore  away  the  prize.  The  memory  of  its 
success  was  perpetuated  by  an  inscription.  —  The  first  author,  whose  trage^ 
dies  are  cited  as  having  been  committed  to  writing,  was  Chcerilus  of  Athens, 
about  500  B.  C.  It  was  from  regard  to  him  that  the  Athenians  constructed 
their  first  theatre.  The  ancients  attribute  to  him  150  pieces,  all  lost.  He  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  Chcerilus  of  Samos  (§  20),  and  from  Chcerilus  of  Ia- 
sus,  the  contemporary  of  Alexander. 

§  39.  The  real  father  of  tragedy  was  JEschylus  of  Eleusis,  who  flourished 
in  the  time  of  the  Persian  war,  and  fought  in  the  battles  of  Marathon,  Sala- 
mis,  and  Plateea.  Before  him,  the  fable  formed  but  a  secondary  part,  the  epi- 
sode of  tragedy  ;  he  made  it  the  principal  part,  by  adding  a  second  actor  and 
speaker,  and  thus  introducing  a  dialogue  in  which  the  chorus  did  not  always 
take  a  share.  Sophocles  of  Athens,  a  contemporary  of  iEschylus  but  27  or 
28  years  younger,  added  a  third  speaker  and  sometimes  even  a  fourth.  Thus 
the  importance  of  the  chorus  was  diminished,  and  the  dialogue  engrossed  the 
chief  interest  of  the  play.  Under  Sophocles,  Greek  tragedy  received  its  final 
and  perfect  form.  A  third  distinguished  tragic  writer,  contemporary  with  the 
two  just  named,  was  Euripides,  born  16  or  17  years  later  than  Sophocles. 
Euripides  added  nothing  to  tragedy  in  respect  to  the  external  structure  ;  but 
in  tragic  interest  he  excelled  both  his  precursors.  The  productions  of  these 
three  authors  were  regarded  by  the  Athenians  as  monuments  of  national  glo- 
ry. The  orator  Lycurgus  procured  the  enactment  of  a  law,  directing  that  an 
accurate  and  authentic  copy  of  the  tragedies  of  iEschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides  should  be  deposited  in  the  archives  of  the  state,  under  the  care  of 
the  magistrate  called  youiu/«T£i'e  t>]$  nv/.so>c.  This  copy,  it  is  said,  was  ob- 
tained by  Ptolemy  III.,  son  and  successor  of  Philadelphus  king  of  Egypt,  on 
a  pledge  of  15  talents,  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  by  it  the  copies  in  use  at 
Alexandria ;  he  chose  to  forfeit  the  money  and  retain  the  original  manuscript, 
sending  back  to  Athens  a  copy  in  its  stead. 

Some  have  expressed  doubts  whether  we  possess  the  exact  productions  of  the  poets  above 
mentioned,  as  they  came  from  their  fertile  imaginations.  Corrections  and  additions  may  have 
been  made  by  persons  called  diarfy.svuaTai.  Those  of  iEschylus  are  said  to  have  been  re- 
touched by  Bion,  Euphorion,  and  Philocles  ;  those  of  Sophocles,  by  his  sons  Iophon  and  Aris- 
ton  ;  and  those  of  Euripides,  by  Cephisophorus.— — See  Aug.  Bcrckh,Grdic.  Tragoedire  principum 
iEschyli,  Sophoclis,  Euripidis,  num  ea  qute  supersunt  et  genuina  omnia  sint  et  forma  primiti- 
va  servata,  &c.    Heidelb.  1603.  8. 

The  history  of  tragedy  in  Greece,  so  far  as  it  is  chiefly  important,  is  com- 
paratively brief.  iEschylus,  as  has  been  stated,  was  its  real  author,  and  its 
history  included  but  two  other  names  of  any  distinction  ;  Sophocles  and  Eu- 
ripides complete  the  list.  These  were  nearly  contemporary.  iEschylus,  at 
the  age  of  45  fought  at  the  battle  of  Salamis  ;  Euripides  was  born  at  that 
place  on  the  very  day  of  the  battle ;  and  Sophocles,  the  same  or  the  next  year, 
being  16  or  17  years  old,  led  the  choir  of  singers  and  dancers  around  the 
trophy  erected  to  commemorate  the  same  battle.  Of  their  writings  only  about 
30  plays  remain  to  us.  But  their  reputation  rests  on  a  basis  more  solid  than 
the  quantity  of  what  they  produced  or  time  has  spared. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  plays  now  extant  are  valued  the  more  because  they  are  so  few,  being 
considered,  as  it  were,  the  savings  of  a  vast  wreck.  There  was  a  rich  abundance  of  dramatic 
works  amona  the  Greeks.  Pieces  once  exhibited  were  seldom  again  brought  forward,  and  this 
circumstance  may  nave  increased  their  number.  Authors  cite  at  least  two  hundred  tragedies 
of  the  first  order,  and  five  hundred  of  the  second  ;  and  the  number  of  inferior  merit  is  still 
greater.  —  See  tVulf  &.  Buttmann,  Museum  der  Alterthumskunde,  vol.  i. 

§  40.  Besides  the  three  eminent  tragic  poets,  the  grammarians  of  Alexan- 
dria placed  in  their  canon  three  others,  viz.  Ion  of  Chios,  Achaeus  of  Eretria, 
and  Agatho  of  Athens,  nearly  contemporary  with  the  three  whose  names  are 
eo  illustrious.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  their  works  remain ;  they  may  be 
found  in  the  collection  of  Grotius  (cf.  §  43).  The  names  of  above  twenty 
others  are  recorded  as  writers  of  tragedies  before  the  time  of  Alexander  ;  but 
none  of  them  are  eminent,  and  nothing  remains  of  their  works  but  discon- 
nected fragments.  Among  them  are  Euphorion  and  Bion,  sons  of  iEschylus, 
and  Iophon,  son  of  Sophocles.  We  find  also  in  the  catalogue,  Critias  and 
Theognis,  two  of  the  famous  thirty  tyrants. 


COMEDY.  171 

In  the  period  between  Alexander  and  the  capture  of  Corinth,  there  were  a 
Few  tragic  writers,  whom  the  critics  of  Alexandria  ranked  in  their  second 
canon,  the  first  including  the  masters  who  wrote  before  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der. Their  second  canon,  called  the  tragic  Pleiades,  included  seven  poets, 
who  lived  in  the  times  of  the  first  Ptolemies.  They  were  Alexander  of  JEto- 
lia,  Philiscus  of  Corcyra,  Sositheus,  Homer  the  younger,  iEantides,  Sosipha- 
nes,  and  Lycophron.  The  first  of  these  has  been  named  among  the  elegiac, 
and  the  last  among  the  lyric  poets.  The  trifling  fragments  of  these  writers, 
now  extant,  are  found  in  the  collections  of  Frobenius  (cf.  §  31)  and  Grotius. 
Another  poet,  Timon,  who  for  a  while  taught  philosophy  at  Chalcedon,  is  said 
to  have  composed  sixty  tragedies.  —  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  in  order  to  en- 
courage the  dramatic  art,  established  theatrical  contests  like  those  at  Athens. 
But  the  productions  of  the  poets  at  Alexandria  fell  far  short  of  those  of  Ath- 
ens in  the  preceding  period.  The  tragedies  were  rather  works  for  the  cabinet 
than  for  the  theatre,  adapted  for  the  amusement  of  princes  and  courtiers,  or 
the  inspection  of  cold  critics,  rather  than  for  popular  exhibition.  They  were 
productions  of  subtlety  and  artifice,  but  comparatively  uninteresting  and  life- 
less. —  After  what  is  termed  the  Alexandrine  age,  nothing  was  produced  in 
Greek  tragedy. 

On  the  origin  of  Tragedy  5  Schneider,  De  origin,  trag.  Gr.  Vratisl.  1817.  8. —  Vatry,  Recher- 
ches  sur  I'orig.  et  le  prog,  de  la  Tragedie,  in  Mem.  de  VAcad.  tome  xxm.  xxx.  xv.  p.  255  ;  xix. 
p.  219,  of  Paris  ed. — Dr.  Blair's  Lect.  xlv. — Marmontel,  Poet,  tome  it. — Brumoy,  Disc,  sur  I'o- 
rig. de  la  Trag.  pref.  to  Theatre  des  Orecs.—Rich.  Bentley,  Resp.  ad  C.  Boyle  (Opusc.  Philol.). 

On  the  history  and  character  of  Gr.  Tragedy  ;  Jos.  Barnes,  Tract,  de  Trag.  Vet.  Grac.  &c, 
in  his  ed.  of  Euripides. — Le  Beau,  Des  Tragiques  Gr.,  in  Mem.  de  VAcad.  xxxv. — J.  J.  H.  Nast, 
Ohs.  in  rem  trag.  Grrec.  Stuttg.  1778. — Barthelemy,  Anacharsis,  eh.  lxix-lxxi.— A.  Augen,  De 
la  Trag.  Gr.  &c,  Par.  1792.— Brumoy,  Theatre  des  Grecs,  ed.  Raoul  Rochette.  Par.  1820.— Schle- 
o-eVs  Lectures  on  Dramat.  Lit.  (tr.  bv  Black.)  Lond.  1815.  Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xn.  121  ss. 
—Theatre  of  the  Greeks.  Cambr.  1830.  S.—Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  livre  iii.  ch.  xi.— Cf.  Bibl. 
Repository,  No.  xvin.  p.  475. — Talfourd's  Ion  has  been  pronounced  a  successful  imitation  of 
the  Greek  tragedy.     Cf.  North  Amer.  Rev.  April,  1837. 

§  41.  (2)  Comedy.  Epicharmus  of  Cos,  who  was  a  professor  of  the  Pytha- 
gorean philosophy  at  the  court  of  Hiero,  in  Sicily,  about  470  B.  C,  is  usually 
considered  as  the  first  writer  of  comedy.  The  species  cultivated  by  him  is 
called  Sicilian  comedy,  which  the  ancient  writers  distinguished  from  the  Attic 
comedy.  —  Fifty  comedies  are  ascribed  to  him,  but  the  fragments  preserved 
(found  in  the  collection  of  Hertcl,  cf.  §  43,)  scarcely  enable  us  to  judge  of 
their  character.  Phormis,  of  Syracuse,  was  another  writer  in  the  same  spe- 
cies. The  pieces  of  Epicharmus  are  said  to  have  been  known  and  admired 
especially  by  the  Athenians,  and  to  have  given  a  great  impulse  to  the  culti- 
vation of  comedy  among  that  people.     (Barthelemy' s  Anacharsis,  ch.  lxix.) 

Schbll  gives  the  following  account  of  the  origin  of  Attic  comedy.  "Between 
Tragedy  and  Comedy  in  modern  literature  there  is  such  an  analogy  that  they 
are  justly  regarded  as  two  species  of  the  same  genus.  From  this  it  has  been 
imagined,  that  both  had  the  same  origin  among  the  ancients.  But  it  is  not 
so.  Tragedy  grew  out  of  the  songs  with  which  the  cities  of  Greece  celebrat- 
ed the  festivals  of  Bacchus.  Comedy,  on  the  other  hand,  took  its  origin  in 
the  country.  The  wards  or  boroughs  (d'/i/oi)  of  Attica  were  accustomed  to 
unite  in  singing  the  phallic  songs  ((pulZixa),  in  which  the  most  unrestrained 
licentiousness  was  allowed.  The  performers,  drawn  in  cars,  proceeded  from 
borough  to  borough  ;  their  numbers  increased  at  every  station  ;  and  they 
strolled  about  the  country  until  their  excesses  forced  them  to  seek  repose. 
Hence  comedy  derived  its  name  from  xwttt],  a  village.  The  two  species  of 
drama  followed  in  their  progress  a  different  course.  They  were  for  a  long 
time  strangers  to  each  other,  and  it  was  not  till  a  late  period  that  comedy 
adopted  the  improvements  embraced  by  her  sister.  At  length,  however,  the 
chorus,  which  had  played  the  principal  part,  as  in  tragedy,  lost  its  primitive 
importance,  and  it  finally  happened  that  comedy  appeared  on  the  stage  with- 
out this  accompaniment." 

Susarion  of  Megara,  about  570  B.  C,  is  described  as  traversing  the  territo- 
ry of  Attica  with  an  exhibition  of  these  burlesque  pieces,  which  constituted 
the  beginnings  of  comedy.  Crates,  about  500  B.  C,  is  said  to  have  given  to 
them  a  more  complete  and  perfect  form.  From  this  time  tragedy  was  not  the 
enly  representation  attending  the  festivals  of  Bacchus;  comedy  was  associ- 
ated with  it  as  a  novel  spectacle. 


172  HISTORY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

Mythology  furnished  but  few  of  the  subjects  of  comedy  in  the  character, 
which  it  first  assumed  after  its  introduction  from  the  country  to  the  city.  It 
was  a  complete  contrast  to  tragedy.  Passing  events,  the  politics  of  the  day. 
the  characters  and  deeds  of  leading  chiefs,  the  civil  and  military  officers,  and 
in  short  every  thing  pertaining  to  public  or  private  affairs,  entered  into  the 
materials,  with  which  it  amused  the  hearers.  It  was  therefore  obviously  lia- 
ble to  great  abuse.  No  citizen  could  be  secure  from  attacks,  which  were  not 
made  by  mere  allusion,  but  more  frequently  by  naming  the  person  and  por- 
traying his  features  upon  the  mask  of  the  actor.  It  is  this  use  of  personal 
satire,  which  essentially  characterizes  what  is  called  the  old  comedy. 

The  grammarians  of  Alexander  have  ranked,  as  belonging  to  the  old  come- 
dy, six  poets  ;  viz.  Epicharmus,  Cratinus,  Eupolis,  Aristophanes,  Pherecrates, 
and  Plato,  called  the  comic,  to  distinguish  him  from  the  philosopher.  The 
first  has  already  been  spoken  of.  Aristophanes  is  the  only  one  of  the  rest  of 
whom  we  have  any  whole  pieces  extant.  The  fragments  of  the  others  may 
be  found  in  the  collection  of  Grotius.  The  plays  of  Aristophanes  justify  and 
illustrate  the  character  above  ascribed  to  the  old  comedy.  Besides  these  six 
poets,  more  than  twenty  others  are  recorded  as  authors  in  this  kind  of  come- 
dy, of  several  of  whom  trifling  fragments  are  preserved. 

See  P.  F.  Kanngiesser,  Die  alte  Komische  Buehne  in  Athen.  Breslau,  1817.  Q.—  Vatry,  La 
vieille  cornedie,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxi.  245. 

§  42.  The  old  comedy  continued  until  the  time  of  the  Thirty,  when,  B.  C. 
404,  a  law  was  enacted  which  prohibited  the  use  of  living  characters  and  real 
names,  and  also  of  the  7z<.toucurr<c  of  the  chorus.  This  gave  rise  to  what  is 
called  the  middle  comedy.  All  that  we  know  historically  of  this,  is  from  the 
remarks  of  an  ancient  grammarian  by  the  name  of  Platonius.  (See  HerteVs 
Collection.)  But  there  is  one  piece  of  Aristophanes,  the  U/.uCto:,  which  is  a 
specimen  of  the  kind  ;  it  was  not  represented  until  after  the  law  abolishing 
the  old  form.  The  chief  peculiarity  is  the  exclusion  of  personal  satire.  It 
seems  also  to  have  consisted  in  a  considerable  degree  of  parodies.  —  The 
grammarians  of  Alexandria  regarded  two  authors  in  the  middle  comedy  as 
classic  ;  viz.  Antiphanes  of  Rhodes  and  Alexis  of  Thurii.  No  more  than  in- 
significant scraps  are  left  of  the  360  pieces  ascribed  to  the  former,  or  the  145 
of  the  latter.  There  were  between  thirty  and  forty  other  writers  whose  names 
are  preserved,  with  the  titles  of  some  of  their  comedies. 

The  comic  chorus  consisted  of  twenty-four  members,  even  after  the  tragic  was  limited  to 
fifteen.  There  were  other  points  of  difference.  "  It  frequently  happens  that  there  are  sever- 
al choruses  in  the  same  comedy,  who  at  one  time  all  sing  together,  and  in  opposite  positions, 
and  at  other  times  change  with,  and  succeed  each  other  without  any  general  reference.  The 
most  remarkable  peculiarity,  however,  of  the  comic  chorus  is  the  parabasis,  an  address  to  the 
spectators  by  the  chorus,  in  the  name  and  under  the  authority  of  the  poet,  which  has  no  con- 
cern with  the  subject  of  the  piece.  Sometimes  he  enlarges  on  his  own  merits,  and  ridicules 
the  pretentions  of  his  rivals  ;  at  other  times  he  avails  himself  of  his  rights  as  an  Athenian 
citizen  to  deliver  proposals  of  a  serious  or  ludicrous  nature  for  the  public  goood.  The  parab- 
asis may  be  considered  as  repugnant  to  the  essence  of  dramatic  representation.  All  tragical 
impressions  are  by  such  intermixtures  infallibly  destroyed  ;  but  these  intentional  interrup- 
tions, though  even  more  serious  than  the  subject  of  the  representation,  are  hailed  with  wel- 
come in  the  comic  tone." — Schlegel,  on  Dram.  Lit.,  lect.  vi. — See  also  Sclwll,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  livre 
iii.  ch.  xiii.  on  the  parts  of  the  comic  chorus,  naQu§uaig,  inivotjuu,  imilioQitfia,  <fcc. — 
Le  Beau,  sur  le  Plutus  d'Aristoph.  et  sur  les  caracteres  assignes  a  la  comedie  moyenne,  in  the 
Mem.  dc  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  et  Belles  Lettres,  tome  xxx. 

§  43.  The  new  comedy  belongs  wholly  to  the  Alexandrian  period  of  Greek 
literature.  In  this  the  chorus  wholly  disappeared,  having  been  deprived  of 
its  most  important  functions  by  the  change  from  the  old  to  the  middle.  The 
new  comedy  instead  of  indulging  in  personal  satire  with  the  use  of  real  names 
like  the  old,  or  turning  into  ludicrous  parodies  the  verses  and  themes  of  other 
poets  like  the  middle,  aimed  more  to  paint  manners.  "The  new  comedy," 
says  Schlegel,  "  is  a  mixture  of  seriousness  and  mirth.  The  poet  no  longer 
himself  turns  poetry  and  the  world  into  ridicule;  he  no  longer  gives  himself 
up  to  a  sportive  and  frolicsome  inspiration,  but  endeavors  to  discover  what  is 
ridiculous  in  the  objects  themselves ;  in  human  characters  and  situations  he 
paints  that  which  occasions  mirth." 

The  most  celebrated  writer  in  the  new  comedy  was  Menander,  whose  pieces 
are  spoken  of  by  the  ancients  with  great  admiration,  and  their  loss  is  much 
regretted.     He  began  to  write  at  the  age  of  twenty,  and  is  said  to  have  com' 


SATYRE.  173 

posed  a  hundred  plays.  Besides  Menander,  the  Alexandrian  critics  recognise 
four  others  as  possessing  classical  merit,  Philippides,  Diphilus,  Philemon  and 
Apollodorus.  Several  other  names  are  also  recorded,  which  it  is  of  no  im- 
portance to  repeat. 

Although  the  plays  belonging  to  the  new  comedy  were  very  numerous, 
amounting  it  is  said  to  some  thousands,  not  a  single  original  specimen  is  pre- 
served. We  have  however  several  imitations  or  translations  in  the  Roman 
authors  Plautus  and  Terence. 

On  Comedy  generally  ;  P.  lc  Bran,  Disc,  sur  la  Comedie  &c.  Par.  1731.— Eschmburg's 
Entwurf.— Hurd's  Comment,  on  Ep.  Hor.  Lond.  1753,1766.— M.  de  Cailhava,  De  l'Art  de  la  com- 
edie, Par.  1772.  4  vol.  8.  B.  Buhcin,  Essay  on  Comedy.  Lond.  1782.  8. On  the  Gr.  Com- 
edy ;  Schlegel,  Lect.  on  Dramat.  l,\t.—Brumoy,  Disc,  sur  la  com.  Gr.  in  his  Theatre  des  Grecs. 
— Theatre  of  the  Greeks  cited  $  40. —  Vatni,  Recherch.  sur  l'or.  et  les  prog,  de  la  Com.  Gr.  in 
Mem.  de  PAcad.  T.  xxv.  vol.  xvi.  p.  389.  of  Par.  e&.—Flv  gel's  Gesch.  d.  kom.  Literatur.— For 
the  fragments  of  the  comic  poets,  Jac.  Hertel,  Vetustis.  sapientiss.  comicor.  (luinquaginta  Sen- 
tentire.~Bas.  1560.  Brix.  1613.— Hem:  Stephanus,  Comicor.  Graec.  Sent.  Frankf.  1579.  8.  H.  Oro~ 
thu,  Excerp.  ex  Trag.  et  Com.  Gr.  Par.  1626.  A.— J.  Clericus  (Le  Clerc),  Meuandri  et  Philemonis 
Fragm.  Ams.  1709.  8. 

§  44.  (3)  Satyr e.  The  following  account  of  the  satyric  drama  is  given  by 
Barthelemy.  "  After  having  traced  the  progress  of  tragedy  and  comedy,  it 
remains  to  speak  of  a  species  of  drama,  which  unites  the  pleasantry  of  the  lat- 
ter, to  the  gravity  of  the  former.  This,  in  like  manner,  derives  its  origin 
from  the  festivals  of  Bacchus,  in  which  choruses  of  Sileni  and  Satyrs  inter- 
mingled jests  and  raillery  with  the  hymns  they  sang  in  honor  of  that  god. 
The  success  they  met  with  gave  the  first  idea  of  the  satyric  drama,  a  kind  of 
poem  in  which  the  most  serious  subjects  are  treated  in  a  manner  at  once  af- 
fecting and  comic.  It  is  distinguished  from  tragedy  by  the  kind  of  person- 
ages it  admits  ;  by  the  catastrophe,  which  is  never  calamitous  ;  and  by  the 
strokes  of  pleasantry,  bon-mots  and  buffooneries,  which  constitute  its  princi- 
pal merit.  It  differs  from  comedy  by  the  nature  of  the  subject,  by  the  air  of 
dignity  which  reigns  in  some  of  the  scenes,  and  the  attention  with  which  it 
avoids  all  personalities.  It  is  distinct  from  both  the  tragic  and  comic  dramas 
by  rhythms  which  are  peculiar  to  it,  by  the  simplicity  of  its  fable,  and  by  the 
limits  prescribed  to  the  duration  of  its  action  ;  for  the  satyre  is  a  kind  of  en» 
tertainment,  which  is  performed  after  the  tragedies  as  a  relaxation  to  the  spec- 
tators. The  scene  presents  to  view  groves,  mountains,  grottoes,  and  land- 
scapes of  every  kind.  The  personages  of  the  chorus,  disguised  undar  the 
grotesque  forms  attributed  to  the  satyrs,  sometimes  execute  lively  dances  with 
frequent  leaps,  and  sometimes  discourse  in  dialogue,  or  sing,  with  the  gods  or 
heroes,  and  from  the  diversity  of  thoughts,  sentiments  and  expressions,  re- 
sults a  striking  and  singular  contrast." 

"  The  satyrical  drama,"  says  Schlegel,  "  never  possessed  an  independent 
existence  ;  and  it  was  given  as  an  appendage  to  several  tragedies,  and  from 
all  we  can  conjecture  was  always  considerably  shorter.  In  external  form  it 
resembled  tragedy  and  the  materials  were  in  like  manner  mythological.  The 
distinctive  mark  was  a  chorus  consisting  of  satyrs,  who  accompanied  the  ad- 
ventures of  the  fable  with  lively  songs,  gestures  and  movements.  The  im- 
mediate cause  of  this  species  of  drama  was  derived  from  the  festivals  of  Bac- 
chus, where  satyr-masks  were  a  common  disguise.  As  the  chorus  was  thus 
composed  of  satyrs,  and  they  performed  the  peculiar  dances  alluded  to  {Zixiv- 
91}  or  oiy.nvic),  it  was  not  a  matter  of  indifference  where  the  poet  should  place 
the  scene  of  his  fable  ;  the  scene  must  be  where  such  a  choir  might  naturally, 
according  to  Grecian  fancy,  display  itself;  not  in  cities  or  palaces,  but  in  a 
forest,  a  mountain,  a  retired  valley,  or  on  the  sea-shore." 

The  great  tragic  authors,  iEschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  each  distin- 
guished themselves  by  pieces  of  this  kind.  Several  other  writers  in  the  same 
age  are  mentioned,  as  Pratinus,  Aristias,  Xenocles,  and  Philoxenes.  But  the 
most  distinguished  of  all,  in  the  satyric  drama,  were  Achaeus  of  Eretia,  and 
Hegemon  of  Thasus. 

"The  latter  added  a  new  charm  to  the  satyric  drama,"  says  Barthelemv,  "  bv  parodying 
several  well  known  tragedies.  The  artifice  and  neatness  with  which  be  executed  these  paro- 
dies, rendered  his  pieces  greatly  applauded,  and  frequently  procured  them  the  crown.  During 
•the  rf  presentation  of  his  GigavUmachia,  and  while  the  whole  audience  were  in  a  violent  fit  of 
laughter,  news  arrived  of  the  defeat  of  the  army  in  Sicilv.  Hegemon  proposed  to  break  offthe 
piece  abruptly;  but  the  Athenians,  without  removing  from  their  places,  covered  themselves 

15* 


174  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

with  their  cloaks,  and  after  having  paid  the  tribute  of  a  few  tears  to  their  relatives  who  had 
fallen  in  the  battle,  listened  with  the  same  attention  as  before  to  the  remainder  of  the  entertain- 
ment." 

The  Cyclops  of  Euripides  is  the  only  drama  of  this  species  that  lias  come  down  to  us.  Its 
subject  La  drawn  from  Homer's  Odyssey  ;  it  is  Ulysses  depriving  Polyphemus  of  his  eye,  after 
having  made  him  drunk  with  wine.  In  order  to  connect  with  this  a  chorus  of  satyrs,  the  poet 
represents  Silenus  and  his  sons  the  satyrs  as  seeking  over  every  sea  for  Bacchus  carried  away 
by  pirates.  In  the  search,  they  are  wrecked  upon  the  shores  of  Sicily,  enslaved  by  Cyclops, 
and  forced  to  tend  his  sheep.  When  Ulysses  is  cast  upon  the  same  shore,  they  league  with  him 
against  their  master ;  but  their  cowardice  renders  them  very  poor  assistants  to  him,  while  they 
take  advantage  of  his  victory  and  escape  from  the  island,  by  embarking  with  him.  The  piece 
derives  its  chief  value  from  its  rarity,  and  being  the  only  specimen  from  which  we  can  form  an 
estimate  of  the  species  of  composition  to  which  it  belongs. 

Casaubon,  de  satyrica  Grrecorum  poesi.  Hals,  1779.  3. — H.  C.  A.  Eichst'ddt,  de  Dram.  Graec. 
Comico-Satvrico.  Lips.  1793.  8.  —  Brumoy,  Disc,  sur  le  Cyclope  d'Euripide  &c.  in  Theatre  des 
Grecs.  —  J.  H.  Buhle,  de  Fabula  Satyr.  Graec.   Gcett.  1787.  A.—  Salter's  Allg.  Theorie,  Satire. 

§  45.  It  is  important  not  to  confound  these  satyrical  compositions  of  the 
Greeks,  which  have  now  been  described,  with  the  satire  of  the  Romans,  which 
was  totallj7  different  in  its  nature. 

It  may  be  remarked  however  here,  that  the  Greeks  had  satire  in  various 
forms  both  in  poetry  and  prose.  The  Margites  of  Homer  may  be  considered 
as  a  sort  of  epic  satire.  Of  lyric  satire  (or  iambic  as  it  may  be  called,  from  the 
verse  generally  used),  a  few  fragments  remain  from  different  authors.  Archi- 
Iochus  is  one  of  them.  Another  was  Simonides  of  Nimoa  in  the  island  of 
Amorgos,  author  of  a  satire  upon  women.  We  may  add  the  name  of  Hipponax 
{Hor.  Ep.  vi.  12.),  who  employed,  perhaps  invented,  the  Choliambic  verse 
(/ou-.tLwio;,  lauSu;  ay.U'loiv),  as  best  adapted  to  satirical  purposes. 

Here  also  may  be  mentioned  the  poems  called  SiXlot ;  for  they  were  a  kind 
of  satire.  They  have  been  called  by  some  didactic  satire,  as  they  seem  to  have 
ridiculed  especially  the  pretensions  of  ignorance.  They  were  a  sort  of  parody, 
in  which  the  verses  of  distinguished  poets,  Homer  particularly,  were  applied 
in  a  ludicrous  manner  to  the  object  of  the  satire.  Xenophanes  of  Colophon  is 
regarded  as  the  first  author  of  this  species.  Yet  the  only  writer,  of  whom  it  is 
certain  that  he  composed  SUipt,  is  Timon  of  Phlius,  the  sceptic  philosopher 
already  named  (§  40)  as  a  dramatist.  His  satires  formed  three  books,  and  were 
very  caustic.  A  few  fragments  are  extant.  He  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  with 
the  ancients,  and  Athenaeus  states  that  commentaries  were  written  upon  his 
StXXot.  This  is  not  the  place  to  speak  of  the  prose  satire  of  the  Greeks,  but 
it  may  be  remarked  that  the  principal  writers  were  Lucian  and  the  emperor 
Julian. 

Le  Beau  on  Homer's  Margites,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  laser,  torn,  xxix,  xxx.  4to  edit.  — 
R.  L.  D.  Hacks,  Versuch  iiber  die  Verdienste  des  Archilochus  um  die  Satire.   Zerbst.  1767.  8.  — 

The  fragments  of  Hipponax  were  published  by  Tkeoph.Fr.  Welcker.  Gcett.  1817.  4. Is.  Heinr. 

Lano-heinrich,  de  Timone  sillographo.   Lips.  1720,  21.  4.  —  Suiter's  Allg.  Theor.  art.  Satire 

Scholl,  Hist.  Gr.  Lit.  livre  iv.  ch.  34.  —  Fr.  Walke,  De  Grajcorum  Sillis.  Varsavke.  1820.  8.  — 
Fred.  Paul,  de  Sillis  Graecorum.  Berol.  1821.  8.  —  The  fragments  may  be  found  in  Brunch's 
Analecta.  —  Sallicr,  Orig.  et  caract.  de  la  Parodie,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  laser,  vii.  398. 

§  46.  Besides  the  three  regular  varieties  of  the  drama  already  described,  the 
Greeks  had  a  great  number  of  performances  which  were  of  the  nature  of  farces. 
At  festal  entertainments  buffoons  were  often  introduced,  whose  pantomime 
was  mingled  with  extemporary  dialogue  (avroxufiSuXai).  In  the  theatre,  ludi- 
crous and  indelicate  representations  were  made  by  actors  called  iuuoi.  Pieces 
of  this  sort  were  termed  ?.voicor)oi  or  uayojdui.  No  specimen  of  them  is  pre- 
served. 

The  name  of  mimes  (jiiftoi)  was  at  length  given  to  little  poems  designed  to 
bring  before  the  spectator  or  reader  an  incident  or  story,  which  was  not,  like 
that  of  tragedy,  drawn  from  mythology  or  heroic  adventures,  nor  like  that  of 
comedy,  taken  from  civil  or  political  life,  but  furnished  by  domestic  occur- 
rences. A  piece  of  this  sort  contained  a  painting  of  manners  and  characters, 
without  a  complete  fable.  Sophron  of  Syracuse,  B.  C.  420,  is  mentioned  as  a 
writer  of  mimes.  His  pieces  were  written  in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  not  in 
proper  verse,  but  in  a  kind  of  measured  prose  (y.aTuZoyuStjv).  Plato  very  much 
admired  them,  and  encouraged  at  Athens  a  taste  for  such  performances.  The 
few  fragments  of  Sophron's  mimes  which  remain  are  not  sufficient  to  enable 
us  to  judge  fully  respecting  their  character.  The  fifteenth  idyl  of  Theocritus 
is  an  imitation  of  one  of  them.     A  commentary  on  the  mimes  of  Sophron  was 


PRINCIPAL    POETS.  175 

-written  by  Apollodorus  of  Athens.    Another  author  of  mimes  was  Philistion  of 
Nicea,  who  flourished  in  the  last  days  of  Socrates. 

For  the  fragments  of  Sophron,  see  Classical  Journal,  vol.  i  v.  Museum  Criticum  (Camb.  Engl.), 
No.  vii.  Nov.  1821.  The  sentences  of  Philistion  and  Menander  were  published  by  J\Tic.  Ri<rou~ 
let.  Par.  1613.  8. 

§  47.  In  concluding  this  sketch  of  the  Grecian  drama,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  the  Athenians  had  not,  like  the  moderns,  a  regular  theatre,  daily  open  for 
public  amusement.  Dramatic  representations  were  appropriated  to  religious 
festivals.  Performances  designed  for  public  exhibition  were  submitted  to  the 
first  Archon.  When  this  magistrate  judged  them  worthy  of  appearing,  he  as- 
signed the  poet  a  choir  or  chorus,  an  ornament  or  appendage  so  essential  that 
no  piece  could  be  performed  without  it.  Great  pomp  attended  the  choral  ser- 
vice, that  it  might  seem  worthy  of  the  auspices  of  a  divinity.  The  expenses 
were  defrayed  by  the  rich  citizens  to  whom  the  tribes  decreed  the  honor,  or 
assigned  the  tax.  The  citizens  vied  with  each  other  in  the  splendor  and  mag- 
nificence with  which  they  furnished  these  theatrical  displays,  which  might 
serve  to  promote  their  private  political  interests  under  the  name  of  generosity 
and  patronage. 

The  labor  of  the  poet  was  not  ended,  as  in  modern  times,  with  furnishing 
the  composition  for  the  use  of  the  declaimers  or  actors.  He  was  obliged  to 
form  his  band  of  speakers,  distribute  the  parts,  and  make  them  learn  and  re- 
hearse. He  was  also  obliged  to  instruct  the  chorus  how  to  conform  their 
movements  to  the  voice  of  the  coryphaeus.  Often  the  poet  became  himself  an 
actor,  and  assumed  one  of  the  more  difficult  parts.  The  laborious  task  was 
expressed  by  the  phrase  diduay.eiv  do'cua.  In  this  view  the  poets  were  termed 
Siduoy.u?.oi,  and  the  instruction  given  by  them  to  the  performers  was  called 
technically  didaoyaXiu.  This  last  term  was,  however,  afterwards  used  in  an- 
other sense  in  reference  to  the  drama;  viz.  to  signify  something  like  what  we 
should  call  a  literary  notice,  g\  ving  an  account  of  the  title  and  subject  of  a  play, 
the  time  of  its  exhibition,  its  success,  its  author,  and  the  actors,  &c.  Aristotle 
and  the  critics  of  Alexandria  composed  such  notices  (dtSuayM/.iui),  which  were 
no  doubt  accompanied  with  critical  remarks,  and  the  loss  of  which  is  a  matter 
of  great  regret.  Scholl,  vol.  H.  p.  9. 

§  47*.  Having  glanced  in  a  general  manner  at  the  history  of  Greek 
poetry  in  each  of  its  departments,  the  plan  already  pointed  out  (§  8) 
leads  us  now  to  notice  more  particularly  the  principal  poets. 

In  doing  this,  it  will  be  recollected,  we  are  to  arrange  the  names  in  chrono- 
logical order.  To  a  brief  notice  of  the  poet  and  his  works,  a  view  of  the 
more  important  editions,  translations,  and  other  illustrative  works,  will  be  ad- 
ded. Before  commencing  with  individuals,  however,  we  will  subjoin  here 
some  references  to  works  which  relate  to  the  Greek  poets,  or  classes  of  them, 
collectively. 

1.  History  and  character.  —  Lil.  Greg.  Oiraldi  Historic  Poetar.  tarn  Grac.  quam  Latin.  Dia- 
logi  X.  Eas.  1548.  8.  —  G.J.  Vossius,  de  veterum  poetarum  Grsecorum  et  Latinorum  temporibus. 
Amst.  1654.  4.  —  Hartmann,  Versuch  einer  allg.  Geschichte  der  Poesie  der  Griechen  und  Rbmen. 
Berl.  1788.  8.  —  Le  Fevre,  Vies  des  Poetes  Grecs.  —  Lor.  Crasso,  Istoria  d'Poeti  Greci.  Nap.  1678. 
f0l.  —  B.  Kennet,  Lives  and  Characters  of  the  ancient  Grecian  Poets.  Lond.  1697.  8.  —  Charac- 
tere  der  rornehmsten  Dichter  aller  JYationen  &c.  von  einer  Gcsellschaft  von  Gelchrten.  Lpz.  1792 
ss.  8.  —  C.  A.  Elton,  Specimens  of  the  Classic  Poets  from  Homer  to  Tryphiodorus.  Lond.1814. 
3  vols.  12.  Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  Mil.  151.  —  G.  H.  Bode,  Geschichte  des  Helleuischen  Dicht- 
kunst.   Lpz.  1838.  2  vols.  8.  to  be  continued. 

2.  Collections.  —  R.  F.  Ph.  Brunch,  Hbiy.ij  7ioiij(Sig,  sive  Gnomici poetae  Grseci.  Arg.  1784. 
8.— Same,  with  additions,  by  G.  Schdfer.  Leips.1817.  8.— Claude  Chapclet,  Poetas  grreci  christiani. 
Par.1669.  8. — JEm.  Porti  Novem  Lyrici  Grrecorum.  (pr.Commeline)  Heidtlb.1598.  8.  Repr.  Anjou. 
1611.  4.  —  Stephanus, r  Oi  Tt~g  i^ouy.i^g  noiilatwg  jcQwrivorrsg  not^rat  xai  u/J.oi  Tirig. 
PoeUe  graciprinc.  heroic,  carm.  Par.  1566.  fol.  —  By  same,  Ho'i^oig  (pi?.6(ro(pog.  Poesis phi- 
losophica,  &c.  Par.  1573.  8.  —  J.  Leclius,  Poetae  gra;ci  veteres,  carmini  heroici  Scriptores,  &c. 
Aurel.  Allobrog.  1606.  fol.  —  Same,  Poetas  graeci  veteres  tragici,  comici,  &c.  Colon.  Allobrog- 
1614.  2  vols.  fol.  —  Mich.  MaUaire,  Miscellanea  Graecorum  aliquot  scriptorum  carmina.  Lond. 
1722.  4.—  Morel,  E  comicis  graecis  xlii  deperditis  sentential  collect®  (gr.  et  lat.)  Par.  1553.  8 — 
A.  Schneider,  Movootv  ctrQtj,  sive  poetriarum  Gracarum  carminum  fragmenta.  Giessa?.  1702. 
8.  ;  containing  the  fragments  of  Sappho,  Erinne,  Myro,  Corinna,  &c.  —  R.  Wtntcrton's  Poetaj 
minores  grreci.  gr.  et  lat.  Cantab.  1635,  et  al.  Lond.  1739.  8.  —  Thorn.  Gaisford,  Poetaa  minores 
Graeci.  Oxf.  1814—20.  4  vols.  8.  containing  Hesiod,  Theognis,  Archilocus,  Solon,  Simonides, 
Mimnermus,  Callinus,  Tvrtreus,  Phocylides,  Naumachius,  Linus,  Panyasis,  Rhianus,  Evenus, 
Pythagoras,  Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus,  with  the  scholia  to  Hesiod  and  Theocritus An  im- 


176  HISTORY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

proved  ed.  of  Gaisford's  Coll.  was  published,  Lpz  1823.  5  vols.  8.  containing  Sappho,  Alcaeus, 
and  Stesichorus,  in  addition.  —  J.  F.  Boissonade,  Poetarum  Graecorum  Sylloge.  Par.  1823 — 32. 
in  24  vols.  32.  ;  containing,  vol.  i.  Anacreon,  with  fragments  of  others  ;  vol.  n.  Theocritus, 
Bion,  Moschus  ;  in.  Theognis,  Tyrtaeus,  Phocylides,  Callinus,  Mimnermus,  Solon,  Simonides, 
Naumachus,  Pythagoras,  Linus,  Panyasis,  Rhianus,  Evenus,  Eratosthenes,  and  small  fragments; 
iv-vn.  Homer  ;  viu.  Callimachus,  Cleanthes,  Proclus  ;  ix.x.  Sophocles;  xi.  Hesiod  ;  xn. 
xiii.  ^Eschylus :  xiv,  Pindar  (after  Bcckh) ;  x  v.  Lyrici,  Synesius,  Gregorius  ;  xvi-xx.  Euripi- 
des (text  of  Matthias) ;  xxi.-xxiv.  Aristophanes.  —  WiegeVs  Bibliotheca  Classica.  Lpz.  1 3 
12.  —  Teubner's  Auctores  Classici.  Lpz.  1824  ss.  12.  with  "  correct  text,  and  beautiful  type." 
—  Tauchnitz,  Corpus  Poet.  Graec.   Lpz.  1832.  —  F.  J\Ielhorn,  Anthologia  Lyrica.   Lpz.  1827.  12. 

W.  E.  Weber,  Die  elegische  Dichter.  Graec.  &;  Germ.  Frankf.  1825. 8. L  F.  Boissonade,  Anec- 

dota  Graeca,  e  codicibus  Regiis.  Par.  (begun)  1829.  8.  1st  vol.  a  Gnomic  coll. — Dichter Oriechische 
in  neu.  metrisch.  Uebersetzungen  ;  herausgegeben  \onTafel,Osiander  und  Schwab.  Lpz. 1830-7. 
11  vols.  12.  of  various  merit:  chiefly  very  good. 

3.  In  noticing  editions  of  the  Greek  authors,  the  translator  encounters  a  peculiar  difficulty. 
To  many  persons  every  thing  except  merely  naming  a  good  edition  of  each  author  will  appear 
superfluous.  Others  will  scarcely  be  satisfied  without  such  specification  and  description  as 
properly  belong  to  works  expressly  bibliographical.  The  following  plan  is  adopted  under  the 
impression  that  it  will  be,  on  the  whole,  the  most  useful.  The  editions  which  are  judged  to  be 
best,  on  account  of  a  generally  good  text  and  a  good  critical  apparatus  of  readings,  comments,  &c. 
will  be  first  mentioned,  after  the  letter  B.  —  Next  after  the  letter  F,  will  be  named  in  chrono- 
logical order  such  other  editions  as  have  been  celebrated,  from  the  Princeps,  or  earliest,  to  the 
year  1800.  —  Last  will  be  given,  after  the  letter  R,  the  editions  since  1800,  which  are  known  to 
be  worthy  of  notice,  and  are  not  named  in  the  first  list,  or  among  the  translations.  In  this  third 
class,  the  mark  $  is  employed  to  designate  good  school  editions.  Other  marks  are  also  employed, 
with  a  uniform  signification  wherever  applied  ;  viz.  the  t  to  designate  an  edition  distinguished 
for  a  pure  or  improved  text  ;  the  sign  |  to  designate  one  having  notes,  excursuses,  or  other  ac- 
companiments of  special  value.  The  star  *  is  used  to  discriminate  an  edition,  a  translation,  or 
any  other  work  named,  which  is  considered  superior  to  others  of  the  same  class. 

§  48.  Orpheus,  a  Thracian,  pupil  of  Linus,  and  companion  of  the 
Argonauts,  lived  about  B.  C.  1250.  The  tradition,  that  by  his  lyre 
he  tamed  wild  beasts  and  moved  inanimate  things  to  action,  is  mere 
allegory,  and  refers  only  to  the  moral  improvement  effected  perhaps 
by  means  of  his  song. 

1  u.  The  works  ascribed  to  him  are  Hymns,  Tfltru'i,  twenty-eight  in  num- 
ber ;  a  historical  poem  on  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  5 Aoyovavrixlx  ;  a 
metrical  treatise  on  the  secret  -powers  of  Stones,  Tltoi  Ai&wr  ;  a  piece  on  earth- 
quakes, JIsoL  Ztioiuiv;  and  other  fragments.  These  poems  are  now  consid- 
ered as  the  production  of  later  times,  composed  at  different  periods. 

2.  Editions. — B. —  O.  Hermann,  Orphica  cum  notis  H.  Stephani,  A.  C.  Eschenbachii,  J.  M. 
Gessneri,  Th.  Tyrwbitti,  &c.  Lips.  1805.  2  vols.  8.  A  stereotype  ed.  of  this  text.  Lpz. 
1823.  12mo. — Of  the  Orphic  Fragments,  the  most  perfect  collection  is  in  Ch.  A.  Lobcck,  Agla- 

opharaus,  cited  P.  III.  §  12.  2  (a). F. — Princeps,  Orphei  Argonaut.  Hymni.  et  Procli  Lycii 

Hym.     Graec.  Florent.  1500.  4.  (imp.  Junta).— Jlldina.    Ven.  1517.  8 Stephani,  in  Poet.  Gr. 

princ.  her.  carm.  cited  $47. IGessncri,  (ed.  Hamberger).  Lips.  1764.  8. —  Th.Tyrurhitt,  Trea- 
tise on  Stones.     Lond.  1781.  8. R.— J.  G.  Schneider,  Argonautics.    Jena.  1803.    8. — 

G.  II.  Schafer,  Orphica.     Lpz.  1818.  8.— K.  P.  Dietsch,  Hymni.  (Gr.  &  Germ.)  Erl.  1822.  4: 

3.  Translations. — English. —  Th.  Taylor,  Hymns;  with  preliminary  dissert.  Lond.  1787; 
3824.  8. — Dodd,  Hymns  ;  in  his  Callimachus.  Lond.  1755. German. — /.  H.  Voss,  Argo- 
nautics.     Heidelb,  1806.    4. —  Dietsch,  as  above  cited. Italian.  —  Ant.  Jerogades,    Innidi 

Orfeo,  esposti  in  versi  volgari.     Neap.  1788.  8. Latin,  by  J.  Scaliger.    Ludg.  Bal.  1516.  12. 

4.  Illustrative. — Huet,  in  his  Demonst.  Exsang.  Prop.  iv.  c.  8.—Ruhnken,  in  Epist.  Crit.  1782. — 
Fried  Snedorf,  de  Hymn.  Vet.  Graec.  Lips.  1786.— Car.  G.  Lenz,  de  Orphic.  Frag.  Gott. 
1789.—  Gerlach,  de  Hymn.  Orph.  Comment.  Gott.  1797.— Hermann,  Diss,  in  his  ed.  of  Orphe- 
us.— De  Orphei  Argonauticis.  Rostoc,  1806.  4.— De  argument,  pro  Antiq.  Orpb.  Arson.  Lips. 
1811.  4.— *Bode,  Orpheus  Poet.  Graec.  Antiquiss.  Gott.  1824.  4 — Schbll,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  vol.  i. 
p.  38. — North  Amer.  Rev.  vol.  xxi. — On  the  fables  respecting  the  music  of  Orpheus,  cf.  Fra- 
guier,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  v.  p.  117. 

§  49.  Musceus,  according  to  tradition  a  contemporary  of  Orpheus, 
born  at  Athens,  a  poet  and  philosopher.  The  poem  of  Hero  and 
Leander,  Tie  xa&'  r//ow  xal  JiarSnov,  which  has  been  ascribed  to  him, 
was  certainly  the  work  of  a  later  age,  probably  the  fifth  century  af- 
ter Christ.  It  contains  many  passages  of  epic  beauty,  but  far  too 
little  of  the  simplicity  belonging  to  its  pretended  age. 

1.  There  was  a  Musaeus  who  flourished  not  far  from  A.  D.  500.  A  letter 
from  Procopius  to  him  implies  that  he  Vas  a  grammarian,  which  title  is  given 
to  the  author  of  the  poem,  in  all  the  Manuscripts.  Hence  it  is  conjectured, 
that  the  real  author  was  this  person. 

We  have  the  titles  of  many  works  ascribed  to  the  ancient  Musaeus ;  the 
following,  besides  others  }    Xyijaiibt,  oracles  ;   TtXtTai,  initiations,  a  species  of 


POETS.       ORPHEUS.       MUSjEUS.       HOMER.  177 

poem  referring  to  religious  rites  of  an  initiatory  and  expiatory  kind,  called 
also  Kv&uQuot,  -purifications,  and  Tiuouli'cseig,  absolutions;  ^Jlxiauc  ruawv; 
rXno6if»ui%  precepts ;  IltQi  QtanQartiTtv,  describing  the  remarkable  things  of 
Thesprotia;  ^(puuja,  an  astronomical  poem,  &c  —  The  few  fragments  of  the 
ancient  Musaeus  remaining  are  gathered  in  the  collection  of  philosophic  poetry 
by  Stephanus.     (See  §  47.) 

2.  Editions B.— J.  Schroder.     Leuward.    1742,  1793.   8.—* G.  H.  Schdfer,  Gr.  &  Lat.     Lpz. 

1825.   8.— C.  A.  Mbbius,  Halle,  1814.  12. F.—Princeps,  Aldina,  Gr.  et  Lat.     1494  ;  supposed 

the  first  work  from  the  Aldine  press  ;  extremely  rare.— Juntina  (Phil.  Giunta),  Grsec.  et  Latin. 
Florent.  1519.  8. — With  other  works,  Gr.  et  Lat.  ap.  J.  Frobenuim.  Bas.  1518.  8.—H.  Stephani 
(in  Poet.  Grac.  princ.  <fcc.  cited  §  47.)—  jJ.  H.  Kronmayer.  Halle,  1721.  8.—  K.  F.  Heinrkhs. 
Han.  1793.  8.—  f  M.  Rmver.  Leyd.  1737.  8.  With  the  Scholia,  and  from  collation  of  7  Mss.  and 
17  editions  (ed.  being  17  vears  of  age).— Da  Theil,  Gr.  and  Fr.    Par.  1834.  12. 

3.  Translations.  —  English.  —  G.  Chapman.  Lond.  1606.  A.—R.  Stapylton.  Oxford,  1645.  4. 
— Stirling.     Lond.  1728.  12.— *  Fr.  Fawkes,  with  Anacreon,  Sappho,  and  others.     Lond.  1760. 

12. — f.  Grame,  in  Anderson's  British  Poets.     Lond.  1795-1807.   8.   11th  vol. French.  — C. 

L.  Mollerault,  (aiet.)    Par.  1805.— Da  Thcil,  as  above  cited. — T.  B.  Gail,  (Gr.  Lat.  &  Fr.)   Par. 

1796.  4. German.  — Fr.  Passoto.    (Gr.  &  Ger.)     Lpz.  1810.   8.—F.  C.  Falda.  (met.)    Lpz. 

1795.    8 Italian.  —  Fr.  Mai.  Furao.    Neap.  1787.  8.—  G.  Pompei.    Parm.  1793.  4. Of. 

Sulzcr's  Theorie,  vol.  li.  p.  508. 

4.  Illustrative. — Prefaces  of  Schroder,  Heinrkh,  and  Passow  — Diss,  in  Kronmayer. — C.  F. 
Hindcnburg,  Specimen  Animadv.  in  Museum.  Lips.  1763.  4. — J.  Ogilvie,  in  his  Essay  on  the 
Lyric  Poetry  of  the  Ancients,  &c.  Lond.  1762.  4.— De  la  Name,  Rem.  sur  l'Hist.  d'Hero,  &x. 
and  JVic.  Mahudel,  Refl.  Grit.  &.c.  in  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  laser,  it.  As  rn.  p.  240. — Cf.  Class. 
Jour.  xvi.  126  j  xi.  88. 

§  50.  Homer  lived  about  1000  B.  C,  or  perhaps  later.  The  place 
of  his  birth  is  uncertain  ;  seven  Grecian  cities  claimed  the  honor;  it 
probably  belonged  to  Chios  (Scio)  or  Smyrna.  Most  of  the  circum- 
stance related  of  his  life  are  derived  from  two  biographies,  which 
have  been  ascribed,  on  insufficient  grounds,  to  Herodotus  and  Plu- 
tarch. The  story  of  his  blindness  seems  to  have  been  a  mere  tra- 
dition. 

1.  There  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  the  period  in  which  Homer 
lived.  While  some  place  him  as  above,  B.  C.  1000,  others  place  him  only 
about  B.  C.  600.  The  Arundelian  Marble  places  him  B.  C.  907.  The  date 
ascribed  by  Wood  (a)  and  adopted  by  Mitford  (b)  is  B.  C.  850.  A  writer  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  (vol.  xlviii.)  brings  Homer  down  to  the  sixth 

century  before  Christ,  by  astronomical  calculations,  not  to  be  relied  on. 

Different  traditions  are  related  respecting  his  parentage  and  birth,  to  explain 
the  terms  Maeonides,  son  of  Maon,  and  Melesigenes,  born  by  the  river  Meles. 
Conflicting  etymologies  of  his  name,  'Oityjuc,  have  been  devised,  some  of 
them  sufficiently  absurd. — Respecting  the  manner  of  his  life,  all  the  accounts, 
whether  genuine  or  spurious,  generally  agree  in  representing  him  as  a  Rhap- 
sodist  wandering  on  the  Asiatic  coast  and  through  the  islands  of  Greece,  and 
earning  fame  and  a  maintenance  by  the  recitation  of  his  verses.  —  His  death 
is  variously  told.  One  story  brings  him  to  his  end  by  falling  over  a  stone. 
Another  allows  him  a  gentler  death.  Another  tells  that  he  broke  h*s  heart 
out  of  pure  vexation,  (c)  because  he  could  not  solve  a  riddle  proposed  to  him 
by  some  waggish  young  fishermen. 

(a)  R.  Wood,  Essay  on  the  original  genius  of  Homer.  Lond.  1770.  8.  —  (b)  History  of  Greece, 
ch.  iii.    Append.  —  (c)  Coleridge,  p.  45,  60,  63,  as  cited  §  21. 

Numerous  treatises  have  been  written  on  the  life  of  this  poet.  Besides  the  two  above  men- 
tioned, ascribed  to  Herodotus  and  Plutarch,  there  are  three  short  lives  in  Greek,  one  of  them 
written  by  Proclus  ;  in  Allatius,  De  Patria  Homeri.  Lug.  Bat.  1640.— Wood,  in  his  Essay  just 
cited,  defends  the  authenticity  of  the  piece  ascribed  to  Herodotus.  That  ascribed  to  Plutarch  is 
by  some  judged  to  be  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  supposed  author.  —  Of  modern  biographies, 
those  of  Pope  and  Madame  Dacier  are  verv  convenient.  See  also  Thomas  Blackicall,  Enquiry 
into  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Homer.  2d  ed.  Lond.  1736.  8.  Tr.  Germ,  by  Voss.  Leipz.  1776.  8. 
—Kceppen,  in  the  Erklar.  Anmerkungen,  below  cited  (7).—JVitzsch,  cited  below  (4).— K.  E.  Schu- 
barth,  Ideen  zur  Homer  und  seiner  Zeitalter.  Bresl.1821.8.  The  author  maintains  that  Homer 
was  a  Trojan  ;  a  bold,  speculative  work,  which  attracted  attention  without  producing  convic- 
tion  The  pretended  tomb  of  Homer,  drawn  by  D.  Fiorillo,  with  notes  by  C.G.  Heyne.  Lond. 

1795.  4. 

2m.  His  two  epic  poems,  the  Iliad  ("JXtu?)  and  Odyssey  ("Odvncrtia),  origin- 
ally consisted  of  various  Rhapsodies,  which  were  first  reduced  to  their  pres- 
ent form  under  the  direction  of  Pisistratus  and  his  son  Hipparchus.  On  be- 
ing committed  to  writing,  which  could  hardly  have  been  done  by  Homer  him-* 


178  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

self,  it  is  not  improbable,  that  they  received  some  additions  and  interpolations 
Both  of  them  are  a  series  of  songs,  probably  from  several  authors,  Homer  and 
the  Homeridae,  composed  at  different  times  and  successively  enlarged.  The 
subject  of  the  Iliad  is  the  "  wrath  of  Achilles,"  his  separation  from  the  Gre- 
cian army  in  consequence  of  it,  and  the  events  of  the  Trojan  war  during  his 
absence  and  immediately  after  his  return.  The  theme  of  the  Odyssey  is  the 
wandering  of  Ulysses,  the  dangers  and  sufferings  of  his  return  from  Troy  to 
Ithaca,  and  the  events  following  his  arrival. — Besides  these  two  heroic  poems, 
the  most  celebrated  of  epic  productions,  there  is  ascribed  to  Homer  a  comic 
piece,  the  BuTQa/ouvofia/ia  (Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice),  a  mock-heroic 
poem,  belonging  unquestionably  to  a  later  period.  There  are  also  ascribed  to 
him  thirty-three  Hymns,  besides  various  small  pieces  and  epigrams.  Some 
of  the  Hymns  were  probably  composed  by  the  Homeridse  or  Homeric  Rhap- 
sodists  (cf.  §  21). 

3.  Besides  the  works  above  named,  many  others  were  formerly  ascribed  to 
Homer,  of  which  the  titles  only  are  preserved.  The  Maoy'tnic  has  already 
been  mentioned  (§  45),  "  a  satyre  upon  some  strenuous  blockhead,"  often  al- 
luded to  by  the  ancient  writers.  At  least  tiocnty  other  titles  (a)  are  recorded; 
among  which  are  the  following  :  ^Juatov'ux,  * ^qarouu/iu,  rioavoita/ia,  'Erci- 

yorot,  KlxQvmtc,  Noaroi,  TTu'tyria,  &c. The  BuTQu/ouvoita^ia  (b)  has  been 

ascribed  to  Pigres,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion  ;  but  some 
allusions  and  names  in  it  are  supposed  to  indicate  an  Alexandrine  age  and 
source.  This  mock  heroic  has  been  repeatedly  imitated.  Theodore  Prodro- 
mus,  in  the  12th  century,  wrote  an  imitation  in  Iambic  trimeters,  called  the 
G oleoma chia.     There  are  also  Latin  imitations;    one  by  Addison  in  the  Musce. 

Etonenses. The  greater  part  of  the  Homeric    Hymns  belong  to  the  class 

of  addresses  and  invocations  (c)  to  the  gods  (Uoooliua),  which  the  Rhapsodists 
were  accustomed  to  make  in  commencing  their  recitals.  But  several  of  the 
larger  ones,  especially,  may  with  propriety  be  termed  epic. 

(a)  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Gr.  i.  374.  —  R.   P.  Knight,    Prolegomena  in    Homerum.     Cf.    Class. 

Journ.   vii.  321 (b)  Fuhrman  kleineres  Handbuch.  p.  44.— J.  F.  D.  Ooes,  Diss,  de  Batracho- 

myomachia  etc.  Erlang.  1798.  8.  —  C.  D.  llgen,  Hymn.  Homerici  etc.  (containing  a  modern 
Greek  version  of  the  Batrachom.  by  Demetr.  Zenus,  and  the  Galeomachia  of  Prodromus).  Hal. 
1796.  8.  —  Coleridge,  p.  182.  —  (c)  Hermann's  Epistle,  prefixed  to  his  edition  cited  below  (5). — 
Coleridge,  p.  190. 

4.  The  controversy  among  the  learned  respecting  the  origin  of  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey,  has  awakened  much  interest,  and  deserves  some  notice  here. 

The  first  doubts  whether  Homer  was  the  sole  author,  seem  to  have  been  expressed  by  Pcr- 
rault  in  his  Parallele  des  Anciens  et  des  Moderns  (Par.  1688),  in  which  it  is  suggested,  that  they 
are  but  a  collection  of  many  little  poems,  of  different  authors.  This  suggestion  was  noticed  by 
Boileau,  in  his  Reflexions  Critiques  sur  Longin  (Par.1694),  and  by  Kennct,  in  his  Lives  of  the  Grc~ 
cian  Poets  (Lond.  1697),  and  opposed  by  them.  The  notion,  however,  was  enforced  by  F.  He- 
delin,  who  went  so  far  as  to  deny  the  personal  existence  of  Homer,  in  a  treatise  bearing  the  title 
Conjectures  acadt miotics,  on  Dissertation  sur  V Iliad,  1715.  Dr.  Bentley  (in  reply  to  Cottins's  dis- 
course of  free-thinking  ;  Letter  to  N.  JY.  by  Phileutherus  Lipsicnsis  §  7.)  expressed  an  opinion, 
that  tbese  poems  originally  consisted  of  several  distinct  songs  and  rhapsodies  composed  by  Ho- 
mer, but  not  united  in  an  epic  form  until  500  years  afterwards.  The  same  idea  was  more  fully 
developed  by  an  Italian  author,  O.  B.  Vico,  in  a  work  called  Principi  di  sciema  nnova  tPixtorno 
alia  rtnnmunr,  natura  delle  naziani.  Naples,  1744.  8th  edit.  A  bolder  position  was  taken  by  Rob- 
ert Wood,  in  his  Essay  above  cited  ;  he  affirmed,  that  Homer  could  not  have  committed  his  po- 
ems to  writing,  because  the  art  of  writing  was  of  subsequent  invention  ;  which  he  argued, 
(1)  from  tbe  absence  of  all  allusion  to  the  art  in  the  Iliad  (cf.  P.  I.  v\  59.)  and  Odyssey  ;  (2)~from 
the  fact  asserted  by  him  that  prose  composition,  always  coeval  with  the  art,  did  not  then  exist ; 
and  (3)  from  the  loss  of  other  literary  productions  of  the  age.  The  performance  of  Wood  was 
translated  into  German,  and  attracted  much  attention,  and  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  study  of 
Homer.  In  1795,  Wolf  published  his  Prolegomena  ad  Homerum,  in  which  he  maintained  that 
"the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  are  not  the  production  of  Homer,  or  of  any  other  single  author,  but  a 
collection  of  rhapsodies,  composed  at  different  times  and  by  different  persons,  and  subsequently 
and  gradually  wrought  up  into  the  form  in  which  they  now  exist."  This  doctrine  was  not  ea- 
gerly embraced  by  the  public.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1795,  Hemic,  who  then  had  the  reputation 
of  the  first  Hellenist  in  Germany  while  Wolf  was  acquiring  that  of  a  rival  to  him,  published  in 
the  Gottingen  Journal  a  review  of  WolPs  Prolegomena.  In  this  review,  Heyne  stated  or  in- 
sinuated, that  he  had  himself  always  taught  the  same  general  doctrine  respecting  the  Homeric 
poems.  This  was  resented  by  Wolf,  and  occasioned  a  controversy  between  these  champions  ; 
not,  as  has  often  been  supposed,  concerning  the  genuineness  of  these  poems,  but  concerning  the 
merit  of  priority  in  starting  the  new  theory  of  their  gradual  formation.  This  contest  for  the 
honor  of  originating  the  doctrine,  had  great  influence  in  deciding  general  opinion  in  favor  of  it 
in  Germany.  It  was  defended  with  ingenuity  by  llgen.,  in  the  introduction  to  his  edition  of  the 
Homeric  hymns  cited  above  (3).  One  of  the  principal  attempts  to  controvert  it  was  made  by  JIu<r, 
in  his  work  on  the  Invention  of  Alphabetic  Writing  (cited  P.  I.  §  32.),  published  in  1801.  In 
1802,  Heyne  fully  avowed  and  supported  the  theory  in  the  excursuses  in  his  edition  of  the  Iliad. 


POETS.       HOMER.  i  179 

The  theory  was  attacked  in  France  by  St.  Croix,  in  a  pamphlet  styled  Refutation  dhin  paradox 
lilieraire.  Par.  1798.  In  England  also  a  powerful  opposerof  it  has  appeared  in  Granville  Penn, 
whose  arguments  are  given  in  the  work  styled  An  Examination  of  the  primary  Argument  of  the 
Iliad,  &c.  published  in  1821.  This  work  was  severely  reviewed  in  the  London  Quarterly  (vol. 
xxvii.),  and  to  the  review  Penn  replied  in  the  Classical  Journal  (vol.  xxvi.).  Schbll  gives  a 
glance  at  the  history  of  this  question,  and  plainly  intimates  that  he  does  not  embrace  the  Wol- 
nan  doctrines.  "  Posterity,"  says  he,  "  will  judge  of  their  solidity  ;  and  we  will  only  add, 
that  while  in  Germany  the  views  of  Wolf  are  generally  received,  they  are  almost  as  generally 
rejected  in  England,  Holland,  France  and  Italy.  It  is  known  that  they  were  firmly  resisted  by 
Ruhnken,  one  of  the  greatest  critics  of  the  last  century,  and  by  the  celebrated  Villoison."  Cole- 
ridge remarks  (in  his  Introduction,  cited  $  21),  "however  startling  this  theory  may  appear  at  first 
sight,  there  are  some  arguments  in  its  favor,  that  with  all  calm  and  serious  inquirers  will  ever 

save  it  from  indifference  and  contempt." The  work  of  Nitzsch^  below  cited,  controverts  the 

doctrine  of  Wolf  with  much  ability  and  success,  and  is  said  to  be  producing  at  least  a  partial 
revolution  of  opinion  in  Germany.  But  W.  Midler,  in  his  work  cited  below,  strongly  defends 
the  Wolnan  theory.  —  For  the  special  arguments  employed  in  this  controversy,  we  must  refer 
the  reader  to  the  works  of  the  different  writers  ;  observing,  however,  that  the  grand  argument 
of  Wolf  and  Heyne  is  an  assumption  of  thai  as  a  fact,  which  has  never  been  proved ;  namelv, 
that  writing,  or  at  least  any  common  writing  material,  was  unknown  in  Greece,  in  the  Home- 
ric age  ;  while  the  apparent  familiarity  of  Homer  with  Sidonian  artists,  the  close  alliance  be- 
tween the  Sidonians  and  the  Jews,  and  the  indisputable  use  of  the  art  of  writing  among  the 
Jews  long  before  the  Trojan  war,  render  the  opposite  highly  probable. 

Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  livre  ii.  ch.  4.  —  Coleridge,  p.  37  ss.  a-  Also  besides  the  Works  cited  in 
the  preceding  remarks,  H.  C.  Koes,  Commentatio  de  discrepantiis  in  Odvss.  occurrentibus. 

Havnias.  180b' Besseldt,  Erklarende  Einleitung  zu  Odyss.   Konigsbi  1816.  —  W.  Muller,  Ho- 

merische  Vorschule.  Lpz.  1824.  8.  —  Bern.  Thiersch,  Urgestalt  der  Odyssee,  &C;  Konigsb. 
1821.  8.  —  C.  F.  Franceson,  Essai  sur  la  Question,  si  Homere  a  connu  l'usage  de  l'ecriture  &e. 

Berl.  1818.  12.  —  Other  references  in  Harles,  Supplem.  I.  p.  95. Particularly  as  opposing  the 

Wolnan  theory:  Knight,  in  his  Prolegomena,  as  cited  above  (3). — Delisle  de  Sales,  Histoire 
d'Homere. — T.  Kreuser,  Vorfrage  liber  Homeros,  &c.  Frankf.  1828.  8.  —  G.  W.  JVitzsch,  De  «e- 
tate  Homeri  &c.  meletemata.  Hannov.  1830 — 37.  2  vols.  4.  —  G.  Lange,  Versuch  die  poet. 
Einheit  der  Iliad  zu  bestimmen.  Darmst.1826.  said  to  contain  "  pithy  arguments  from  a  fine 
scholar."  —  E.  L.  Bulwer,  Athens  bk.  i.  ch.  8.  as  cited  P.  IV.  $  9.  —  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xu  v, 
—  Edinb.  Rev.  lxii.  —  JV.  Am.  Rev.  xxxvu. — dm.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  II.  p.  367. 

Whether  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  were  the  productions  of  the  same  author  and  age,  is  a  differ- 
ent question*  A  doubt  was  expressed  even  in  ancient  times,  (cf.  Seneca,  De  Brevit.  vit.  c.  13.) 
A  modern  writer  (Constant,  De  la  Religion,  vol.  3d.  bk.  8.  as  cited  P.  III.  $  12.  2.  a.)  has  urged 
the  diversity  of  style,  manners,  and  mythology  in  the  two  works,  as  evidence  of  diversity  of 
authorship.  —  Cf.  Knight,  Thiersch,  Bulwer,  Coleridge,  and  the  Reviews  &c.  as  just  cited.  — 
Another  modern  has  attempted  to  show  that  Ulysses  was  the  author  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odys- 
sey ;  Koliades  (Prof,  dans  l'universite  Ionienne),  Ulysse-Homere,  ou  du  veritable  auteur  de 
l'lliade  et  de  l'Odyssee.  Par.  1829.  fol. 

5.  Editions. — B.— Iliad.  C.  G.  Heyne,  Gr.  and  Lat.  Leipz.  &  Lond.  1802.  8  vols.  8. ;  it.  Lond. 
1819.  a  9th  vol.  appeared  Lpz.  1822.  —  Odyssey.  Baumgarten-Cruzius.  Lpz.  1822—27.  3  vols.  8. 

Whole  Works.  F.  A.  Wolf,  Gr.  and  Lat.   Halle,  1794.  5  vols.  8.   Lpz.  1804.  8 l.A.  Ernesti, 

Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1759.  1824.  Glasg.  1814.  5  vols.  8.  —  Samuel  Clarke,  Gr.  and  Lat.  Lond.  1729, 
1740.  4  vols.  4.  16th  ed.  Lond.  1815.  —  *  G.  Dindorf,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1823.  2d  ed.  Lpz.  1824. 
5  vols.  8.  Wolf's  Clarke's  recension  ;  readings  and  notes  of  Ernesti.  —  Hymns  (and  Batracho- 
myomachia).  Matthixc.  Lpz.  1805.  8.  —  En  grams  (and  Hymns  <$*  Batr.)  *  G.  Hermann.  Lpz.  1806;  8* 

F.  —  Princeps  (Demetrius  Chalcondylas  &.  Demetrius  Crctensis).   Flor.  1488.  fol.   2  vols;  — » 

Aldus.  Venet.  1504.  also  1517.  1524.  2  vols.  8 Tunta.  Flor.  1519.  2  vols.  8.  —  Hervagius.  Ba- 
sil, 1535.  fol.  Cunu  Schol.  —  Franmni.  Ven.  1537.  2  vols.  8.— With  the  Commentaries  of  Eustathius. 
Rom. 1542— 50.  4  vols,  fol.— H.  Stephanus.  Par.1566.  (in  Poet.  Gr.  Princ.  cited  $  47.)  1588. 2  vols.  8. 
Gr.  &  Lat.  —  J  Barnes.  Camb.1711.  2  vols.  4.—Foulis,  Glasg.  1756.  8.  4  vols.  fol.  very  splendid. 

Flaxman's  illustrations  were  executed  for  ih  —  J  Villoison,  Iliad.   Ven.  1788.  fol. R.— The 

Grenville  Homer.  Oxf.  1800.  4  vols.  4.  —  Bodoni,  Iliad.  Parm.  1808.  3  vols.  fol.  —  R.  P.  Knight, 
Lond.  1820.  fol.  (see  Class.  Journ.  vol.  vn.  and  vm.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xxvn.)— J.  A.  Chil- 
ler, Iliad,  with  extracts  from  Eustathius,  &c.  Meissen,  1813. 2  vols.  8.  —  G.  H.  Schdffer,  Iliad 
and  Odyssey.  Lpz.  1810 — 11.  5  vols.  12.  ;  prepared  for  the  collection  of  Tauchnitz,  and  con- 
sidered by  Schbll  as  preferable  to  the  stereotype  impression  of  Tauchnitz,  in  4  vols.  —  $  C.  G» 
Felton,  Iliad,  from  the  text  of  Wolf,  with  English  notes  and  Flaxman's  illustrations.  Bost.  1833. 
a  beautiful  edition.  —  Clarke's  Iliad,  2d  Am.  ed.  N.  Yk.  1826.  8.  Cura  G.  Ironside.  —  G.  Her- 
mann. Lpz.  1825.  2  vols.  8.  —  T.  H.  Bothe.  Han.  1834.  5  vols;  8.  —  $  Spitzner,  Iliad,  in  Rost's 
Bibliotheca,  cited  $  7.  1.  —  The  Odyssey,  with  the  Scholia  of  Didymus,  the  Hymns,  &.c.  Oxf. 
1827.  2  vols.  8.  —  G.  C.  Crusius,  Odyssey  (with  notes  in  German).   Han.  1838.  8. 

6.  Translations;  —  English.  —  G.  Chapman.  Lond.  1616.  fol.  —  /.  Ogilby.  Lond.  1669. 
2  vols.  fol.  with  engravings.  —  A.  Pope.  Lond.  1715 — 20.  fol.  very  often  reprinted.—  W.Cowper. 
Lond.  1791.  4.  1802.  4  vols.  8.  —  Sotheby,  Iliad.  Lond.  1831.  2  vols;  8.  cf.  Blackwood's  Magazine, 
vol.  xxix.  —  By  a  member  of  the  University,  Iliad,  (pr.)  Oxf.  1821.  2  vols.  8;  Odyssey,  (pr.)  Lond. 
1823;  2  vols.  8.  —  Of  the  Hymns,  Blackwood's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxi— xxxn.  — r-  French.  —  Mad. 

Dacier.   Par.  1711—16.   1741.  8  vols.  12 Le  Brun.   Par.  1809—19.  4  vols.  12.  German. 

J.  H.  Voss.  Alton.  1793.  4  vols.  8.  imitating  the  ancient  hexameter.  5th  ed.  1821,  improved. 
—  Schwenck,  Hyrhns.   Frankf.  1825.  8.  Italian.  —  M.  Cesarottu  Ven.  1786— 90.  10  vols.  8. 

7.  IHustrative.-It  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  it  would  be  an  endless  task  merely  to  name 
all  the  authors  who  have  written  about  Homer.  We  select  a  few  of  the  best  works  illustrative  of 
this  poet.-G.  Ch.  Crusius,  Wbrterbuch  uber  die  Gedichte  des  Homeros,  &c.  Han.  1836.  Qt-Teraa- 
son's  Crit.  Dissertations  on  the  Iliad,  transl.  into  English,  by  Brerewood.  Lond.  1745. 2  vols.  8.— 
L.  Coulon,  Lexicon  Homericum.  Par.  1653.  Q.—Duport,  Homeri  Gnomologia,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Cant. 
1660.  4.— E.  Friths  Antiquitates  Homeric®.  Amst.  1726;  Argent.  1743;  8.-Riccii  Disputations* 


180  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Homeric®.  Lips.  1784.  8.—IL  I.  Kappen,  Erkl'irende  Anmerkungen  zur  Homer.  1st  ed.  Han, 
1737  ss.  3d  ed.  bv  Ruhkopf&c  Spitiner.  Han.  1820.  6  Vols.  8.— P.  Buttman,  Lexilogus,  &c.  haupt- 
sichlich  fur  Homer  ur.d  Hesiod.  Berlin,  1828.  2  vols.  8.  Trans.  English,  by  T.  R.  Fishlake. 
Lond.  183G.  S.—Clavis  Homerica,  or  Lexicon  of  all  the  words  in  the  Iliad.  Transl.  by  J.  Walk- 
er.   Lond.  1829.  8. On  the  Geography  and  Topography  of  Homer's  poems,  we  mention  the 

following.— J.  Bryant,  Dissertation  concerning  Troy,  &.c.  as  cited  P.  III.  §  133.— J.  B.  S.  Mor- 
rit,  in  Reply  to  Bryant.— JP.  Francklin,  Remarks  on  the  Plain  of  Troy,  <fec.  Lond.  1800.  8.— 
R.  Chandler,  History  of  Troy  and  adjacent  country,  &.c.  Lond.  1802.  8. — Le  Chevalier,  Voyage 

<le  la  Troade.    Par.  1802.  3  vols.    Transl.  English,  by  Dahel W.  Gell,  Topography  of  Troy. 

Lond.  1804.  4,  with  plates. — K.  H.  Volcker,  Ueber  Homerische  Geographie  und  Weltkunde. 

Han.  1830.  8. There  are  illustrative  Drawings. — Flaxman's  Compositions.     London,  1805. 

2  vols.  fol. — Tischbein's  Illustrations,  in  drawings  from  the  antique,  with  descriptions  (Germ.) 
by  Heyne.     Gbtt.  1801.  fol. — C.  F.  Inghirami,  Galleria  Omerica  (or  antique  monuments  to  aid 

the  study  of  Homer).     Firenze,  1830.  2  vols.  8. For  others   on  various  points,    cf.  Moss, 

Manual,  vol.  i.  as  cited  §  7.  10. — Suiter's  Allg.  Theorie,  Homer. — An  extensive  survey  of  re- 
cent works  pertaining  to  Homer  is  given  by  Baumgartcn-Crasius,  in  Jahn's  Jahrbiicher,  vols, 
i.  and  ii.  for  1827. 

§51.  Hesiod  lived  probably  B.  C.  950,  according  to  some  before 
Homer.  He  was  born,  at  Cuma  in  ^Eolia,  and  was  called  the  Ascrae- 
an  because  educated  at  Ascra  in  Bceotia.  As  a  poet,  Hesiod  is  infe- 
rior to  Homer.  But  his  poems  are  highly  valuable,  as  they  make 
known  to  us  so  much  respecting  the  conceptions  and  modes  of  think- 
ing which  prevailed  in  a  high  antiquity,  upon  domestic,  mythologi- 
cal, and  physical  subjects. 

1.  We  may  collect  from  the  poems  of  Hesiod,  that  his  father  was  a  native 
of  Cuma,  and  removed  to  Ascra  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Helicon,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  pastoral  and  agricultural  life.  Of  the  estate,  which  his  father  left 
at  death,  the  greater  part  was  obtained  by  Perses,  his  elder  brother,  who  had 
bribed  the  judges  to  make  an  unequal  division.  Yet  Hesiod  by  the  prudent 
management  of  his  portion  acquired  a  competence,  while  Perses  was  reduced 
by  improvidence  to  want 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some,  that  he  tended  his  own  flocks  on  Mount  Helicon,  while  oth- 
ers maintain  that  he  was  the  priest  to  a  temple  of  the  Muses  on  that  mount.  —  He  mentions  a 
poetical  contest  at  Chalcis,  which  formed  a  part  of  the  games  at  the  funeral  of  Amphidamas, 
king  of  Eubcea,  and  in  which  he  gained  the  prize  of  a  tripod,  afterwards  by  him  consecrated 
to  the  Muses  of  Helicon.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  65.  1.)  This  incident  was  the  foundation  of  the  fable 
of  his  victory  over  Homer,  which  Plutarch,  in  his  Banquet  of  the  seven  wi^e  men,  puts  into  the 
mouth  of  Periander  ;  and  which  forms  the  subject  of  a  work  styled  c Qfi'lQov  xaL  ' HoiuSov 
ctywv,  written  after  the  time  of  the  emperor  Adrian.  —  Plutarch  likewise  introduces  in  the 
Banquet,  from  the  lips  of  Solon,  a  marvelous  story  respecting  the  death  of  Hesiod,  which  also 

is  probably  a  fabrication. On  the  life  and  age  of  Hesiod  ;  see  the  Lives  by  Vossius,  Kennett, 

&c.  cited  §  47. — Also  Prelim.  Diss,  in  Robinson's  Hesiod,  and  Discourse  prefixed  to  Cooke's 
Hesiod,  both  cited  below  (5). 

2u.  We  have  from  him  a  didactic  poem,  on  rural  economy,  "Eoya  xal  cHui~ 
qctt,  Works  and  Days ;  and  another  of  a  mythological  character,  fttoyovla,  a 
theogony,  on  the  lineage  of  the  gods  and  origin  of  the  world.  The  piece 
styled  'J(j.i(?  rH()ay.?.iovg,  Shield  of  Hercules,  is  probably  a  fragment  from  a 
later  author. 

3.  The  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod  consists  of  828  hexameter  verses.  The 
poem  is  of  unequal  merit,  some  parts  of  it  bordering  on  the  puerile,  others 
discovering  great  elevation  of  thought  and  feeling  It  is  an  object  of  the 
poet  in  the  Works  and  Days  to  rebuke  his  brother  and  judges  for  their  injus- 
tice, and  teach  the  duties  of  industry,  frugality,  and  prudence.  —  Pausanias 
says,  that  this  was  the  only  work  allowed  by  the  Boeotians  to  be  the  genuine 
production  of  Hesiod.  He  states  that  he  saw,  near  the  fount  of  Helicon,  a 
copy  of  this  poem  in  lead,  almost  destroyed  by  age. The  Theogony  con- 
tains about  1000  lines.  There  are  passages  in  it  of  great  force  and  sublimity. 
The  contest  of  the  Giants  and  Titans  and  of  Jupiter  with  Typhoeus  are  often 
specified  as  such. 

The  Shield  of  Hercules,  in  480  lines,  is  supposed  by  some  modern  critics  to 
have  belonged  to  a  lost  work  of  Hesiod,  entitled  ' 'Hywoyoria,  the  Heroogony, 
a  genealogy  of  the  demigods,  including,  as  they  think,  two  pieces  cited  by 
the  ancients;  viz.  Kectitloyog  yvvatxiZv,  catalogue  of  xcomen,  a  history  of  such 
as  were  mothers  of  demigods;  and  Hutat  itfyu?.at,  an  account  of  heroines. 
The  Kciru?.oyu<;  is  sometimes  mentioned  as  consisting  of  five  cantos,  of  which 


POETS.       HESIOD.       ARCHILOCHUS.       TYRT^US.  181 

the  ^Hoiai  formed  the  fourth.  The  title  "Hoiai  was  supposed  by  Bentley  to 
have  arisen  from  the  phrase  ij  oitj  (qualis,  such  as),  with  which  the  transition 
was  made  from  one  heroine  to  another.  Of  this  last  piece  the  Shield  is  com- 
monly thought  to  have  been  a  part ;  it  begins  with  the  phrase  just  mentioned, 
in  a  description  of  the  person  and  adventures  of  Alcmene,  which  occupies 
the  first  56  lines.  Others  consider  the  part  of  it  relating  to  Alcmene  as  all 
that  belonged  to  the  piece  styled  iRoiat  or  Ecea,  and  view  the  rest,  describing 
the  armor  of  Hercules,  &c.  as  a  separate  poem.  This  portion  of  the  5  Aonlq, 
or  Scutum,  is  an  amplification  of  Homer's  description  of  the  shield  of  Achil- 
les.  Thirteen  or  fourteen  other  works,  not  extant,  were  ascribed  to  Hesiod. 

Cooke,  Discourse  pref.  to  his  Transl.— Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  xv.  p.  101. — Manso,  on  Hesiod,  in  the 
Cliaractere  der  vornchmstcn  Dichtcr,  vol.  III.  p.  49,  as  cited  §47.  1. 

4.  The  same  theory  which  some  have  so  strenuously  maintained  in  relation  to  the  Homeric 
poems,  has  also  been  applied  to  the  poems  of  Hesiod.  They  have  been  said  to  be  pieces  com- 
piled by  Jiaay.ivaarai  in  the  ages  of  Solon  and  Pisistratus,  from  the  recitations  of  the  Rhap- 
sodists,  or  at  least  from  imperfect  written  copies ;  it  being  supposed,  that  there  were  many 
poems  from  different  authors  imitating  the  manner  of  Hesiod,  and  in  after  times  ascribed  to 
him.  Thus  Hesiod  has  been  considered  as  the  head  of  an  ancient  Bceotian  school  of  poetry,  as 
Homer  of  an  Ionian.  —  See  HeinricK's  Prolegomena  and  Wolf's  Notes  in  the  editions  below 
cited  (5). — Aug.  Tweslen's  Commentatio  critica  de  Hesiodi  carmine,  quod  inscribitur,  Opera  et 
Dies,  Kiliae,  1805.  8. — G.  Hermann's  Letter  to  llgen,  in  Ilgen's  Hymn.  Homerici,  cited  §50.  3. 

5.  Editions. — B. — whole  works.  Chr.  Fr.  Losner,  Gr.  et  Lat.  Lips.  1778.  8. —  Thorn.  Robin- 
son, Gr.  et  Lat.   Oxon.  1737.  4;  Lond.  1756 *  C.  Gbtling.    Erfurt.  1831.  8.— works  and  days. 

L.  Wachler.  Lemgo.  1792.  8.— shield.  Car.  Frid.  Heinrirh.    Vratisl.  (Breslaw),  1802.  8.— the- 

ocoN-y.     Fr.  Aug.    Wolf.    Halle,  1783.   8. F.— The  Princeps  contains  only  the  Works  and 

Days.     Milan,  1493.  fol The  Princeps  (or  earliest)  edition  of  the  whole  works  of  Hesiod,  is 

that  of  Aldus,  Venet.  1495.  fol.,  connected  with  an  edition  of  Theocritus. — Junta.    Florent. 

1515.    8;    this  is  the  first  edition  of  Hesiod  separately Trincavelli.    Ven.  1537.  4;   the  first 

with  the  Scholia. — D.  Hcinshis.  Lug.  Bat.  1G03.  4.  Gr.  et  Lat. — f  Grcevius,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Amst. 
1667.  8 Clericus  (Le  Clerc).  Amst.  1701.  8.  The  two  last  are  the  foundation  of  Robin- 
son's.— B.  Zamagna  (called  also  edition  of  Bodoni).  Gr.  et  Lat.  Parmae,  1785.  4. R. — Lanzi, 

(Works  and  Days.)  Gr.  Lat.  et  Ital.  Florent.  1808.  4.—Spohn,  (Works  and  Days.)  Lips.  1819. 
8.  A  more  critical  edition  announced  by  same.— Gaisford,  in  hi3  Poetse  Minore3  Graeci,  cited 
\S  47 ;  said  bv  Dibdin  (in  1827)  to  give  the  purest  text  of  Hesiod. 

6.  Translations.— English.— G.  Chapman.    Lond.  1618.  4. — J.  Cooke,  (met.)    Lond.  1728.   4. 

—  Ch.  Abr.  Elton,  ( met. )     Lond.  1812.  8.     Cf.  Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  xv. French.— P.  C.  CI.  Gin. 

Par.  1795.  8. German.— J.  H.  Voss,  whole  works.  Heidelb.  1806.  8.— J.  D.  Hartmann,  Shield. 

Lemgo.  1794.  8. 

7.  Illustrative. — S.  F.  Thiersch,  iiber  die  Gedichte  des  Hesiodus,  ihren  Ursprung,  &c.  Mun- 
<  hen,  1813.  4. — Heyne,  Abhandlung  Uber  die  Theogonie,  in  the  Comment.  Soc.  Gbtt.  vol.  n. — 
F.  Schlichtegroll,  iiber  der  Schild  des  Hercules,  &c.  Gotha.  1788.  8. — Creuzcr  &.  Hermann, 
Briefe,  &c.  cited  P.  III.  §  12.  2.  (a).—C.  Lchmann,  De  Hesiodi  carminibus  perditis.  Berl. 
1828.  8. 

§  52*.  ArcJiilochus  flourished  about  B.  C.  680.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  the  island  of  Paros,  and  ranked  among  the  greatest  poels  of 
Greece,  and  generally  supposed  the  inventor  of  Iambic  verse.  He 
wrote  satires,  elegies  and  triumphal  hymns,  and  lyrical  pieces,  of 
which  only  trifling  fragments  remain. 

1.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  He  went,  while  young,  with  his  father  in  a 
Parian  colony  to  Thasos.  He  states  of  himself,  that  in  a  battle  between  the 
Thasians  and  Thracians,  he  threw  away  his  shield,  and  saved  himself  by 
flight.  On  account  of  this*  it  is  said,  when  he  afterwards  visited  Sparta,  he 
was  ordered  by  the  magistrates  to  quit  the  city. 

2.  The  fragments  of  Archilochus  are  found  in  Brunch's  Analecta,  and  Jacobs's  Anthologia 
cited  $35.— Also  in  Gaisford,  vol.  1.  and  Boissonade,  vol.  xv.  as  cited  §47.  2.     They  were 

published  separately,  with  comments,  by  Ign.  Licbel,  Lips.  1812.  8  ;    enlarged  1819.  8. Cf. 

Sevin,  La  vie  et  les  ouvrages  d'Archiloque" Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  x.  p.  36. 

§  53.  Tyrtams,  about  B.  C.  647,  of  Athens,  or  more  probably 
Miletus,  leader  of  the  Spartans  against  the  Messenians.  By  his  ele- 
gies, full  of  the  praises  of  military  glory  and  patriotism,  he  roused 
the  ardor  of  his  warriors,  and  rendered  them  victorious.  Of  his  writ- 
ings, only  three  elegies  and  eight  fragments  have  come  down  to  us. 

1.  The  common  account  is,  that  the  Lacedemonians,  atthe  biddingof  Delphian  Apollo,  sent 
to  the  Athenian.-,  for  a  general  to  conduct  their  wars  with  the  Messenians,  hitherto  unsuccess- 
ful;  and  that  Tyrtams',  lame  and  deformed,  was  selected  by  the  Athenians,  out  of  hatred. 
Scholl  remarks  that  the  whole  story  has  the  air  of  fable,  nnd  that  the  alleged  deformity  had  no 
foundation  in  truth,  being  a  satirical  allusion  to  his  use  of  pentameter  verse. 

16 


182  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

2.  The  effect  ascribed  to  his  poems  is  not  improbable.  The  Lacedaemonians* 
were  accustomed  to  enter  the  field  under  the  inspiration  of  martial  music  and 
songs,  as  illustrated  in  Plutarch's  life  of  Lycurgus.  The  song  thus  used  in 
rushing  to  battle  was  termed  fiilbf  ipfktrqQtov.  The  instruments  used  by  the 
Lacedaemonians  were  flutes.  Tyrtaeus  is  said  to  have  invented  and  introduced 

among  them  the  trumpet. The  elegies  composed  by  Tyrtaeus  amounted 

to  five  books.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  they  were  chiefly  war-songs  of 
the  kind  just  mentioned.  We  have  but  a  single  fragment  of  these  songs  of 
Tyrtaeus,  which  were  in  the  Doric  dialect ;  his  now  remaining  elegies,  being 
in  the  Ionic  dialect,  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  them, A  work  by  Tyr- 
taeus is  cited  by  Aristotle  and  Pausanias  under  the  title  of  'EwouLa  ("  bonne 
legislation''),  which  some  have  considered  as  a  distinct  poem,  while  others 
have  supposed  it  to  be  only  a  certain  class  of  his  elegies  collected  together  and 
so  named. 

LowWs  Hebrew  Poetry,  lect.  i. — Scltiill,  vol.  i.  p.  189. — Fuhrmann's  Kleineres  Handb.  p.  65. — 
J.  V.  Franke's  Callinus.  cited  §  29.  —  Matthim  de  Tyrtaei  Carminibus.  Altenb.  1820.  4.  —  Pol- 
whele,  below  cited. 

3.  Editions. — B.—Chr.Adolph.  Klotz.  1767.  8.  ;  with  a  German  version  by  Weiss,  and  disser- 
tation on  Tyrtaeus  and  on  warlike  songs. — Chr.  Dahl.  Upsal,  1790.  4.  Gr.  et  Lat. F. — Prin- 

ceps,  by  S.  Gelenius.  Bas.  1532.  4.  with  remains  of  poetesses.  Lond.  1761.  12.  with  English  me- 
trical version.  —  In  Brunch's  Gnom.  Poet,  and  Koppen's  Griech.  Bltimenlese. R. — L.  Lam- 

berti,  with  Lat.  and  Ital.  version.  Par.  1801.  8.  —  Nic.  Bach,  Callini  Ephesii,  Tyrtwi  Aphidneei, 
et  Asii  Samii  Carminum,  qua?  supersunt.  Lips.  1830.  8. 

4.  Translations.— English.  R.  Polwhele.  (mctr.)  Lond.  1786.  1810.  2  vols,  with  Theocritus,  &c. 
French.  Point,  de  Sivry.  Par.1788. German.  C.  Ch.  Stoch.  Lpz.1819.  8. 

§  54.  Sappho  nourished  probably  about  B.  C.  612.  She  was  a  na- 
tive of  Mitylene,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos.  Of  distinguished  celebrity 
as  a  poetess,  she  is  also  remembered  from  the  story  of  her  unhappy 
passion  for  Phaon,  and  her  tragical  leap  from  Leucate  into  the  sear 
in  a  fit  of  despair.  This  story,  however,  seems  to  belong  to  another 
Sappho,  of  a  later  age.  It  is  from  the  poetess  that  the  verse  termed 
Sapphic  takes  its  name.  Of  her  productions  there  now  remain  only 
two  odes,  full  of  warm  and  tender  feeling,  and  some  small  fragments. 

1.  There  is  disagreement  respecting  the  precise  date  (a)  which  should  be 
assigned  to  Sappho.  Some  make  her  a  contemporary  of  Anacreon,  consider- 
ably later  than  the  time  above  named.  Little  is  known  of  her  life,  and  her 
character  is  a  subject  of  controversy. 

The  imputations  cast  upon  her  are  of  doubtful  authority,  and  are  supposed  by  some  to  have 
had  their  origin  in  the  license  of  the  comic  poets.  They  may  have  arisen  from  confounding 
her  with  the  courtesan  Sappho,  of  Eresus,  in  the  same  island  Lesbos.  It  is  now  made  quite 
probable,  that  the  whole  story  of  the  passion  for  Phaon  and  its  fatal  issue  belongs  to  the  latter, 
who  was  a  person  of  some  celebrity,  as  seems  evident  from  the  fact  that  her  image  was  stamped 
upon  some  of  the  Lesbian  coins,  a  circumstance  which  Barthelemy  (b)  applies  to  the  poetess. 
A  coin,  brought  from  Greece  in  1822,  has  upon  it  a  female  head  with  the  name    2ATI<I>£Z 

and  the  letters  EPECt,  supposed  to  refer  toEresus. (a)  J.  Ch.  Cramer,Diatribe  de  avy/QoriOuo> 

Sapphus  et  Anacreontis.    Jen.  1755.  4.  —  H.  F.  M.  Volger,  Diatribe  historico-crit.  de  Sapphus 

Poetriae  vita  et  scriptis.  Goth.  1809.  8. (b)  Barthclcmifs  Anacharsis,  ch.  iii Fr.O.  fVelcker, 

Sappho  von  einem  herschenden  Vorurtheil  befreyet.  GStt.1816.  8. — De  Hauteroche,  Notice  sur  la 
courtisane  Sappho  d'Eresus.  Par.  1822.  —  F.  W.  Richter,  Sappho  und  Erinna,  nach  ihren  Leben 
beschrieben.  Quedl.  1833.  8.—Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.  livre  ii.  ch.  5. 

2.  Sappho  is  said  to  have  composed  hymns,  elegies,  scolia,  and  epigrams,  as 
well  as  odes.  The  two  odes  now  extant  are  preserved,  the  one  in  Longinus 
and  the  other  in  Dionysius  Halicarnasseus  (de  Compositione  verborvm)  as  a 
specimen  of  soft  and  flowing  style.  Two  or  three  epigrams  are  among  the 
fragments  otherwise  preserved. 

3.  Editions.  —  B. — C.  F.  JYcuc,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Berl.  1827.  4.   Other  lyric  fragments  promised  by 

him.     Cf.  Jahn's  Jahrblicher,  for  1828.  vol.  l.  p.  389—433. F.—Princeps  by  H.  Stephanus, 

(with  Anacreon)  Lut.  Par.  1554.  4.  —  J  J.  C.  Wolf.  Hamb.  1733.  4.  as  1st  vol.  of  his  Fragments 

of  nine  Greek  poetesses. R. — 11.  F.  M.  Volger.  Lips.  1810.  8.  —  E.  A.  Mo?bius.   Hannov. 

1815.  8.  —  $  Same,  as  given  in  Bibliotlieca  of  Jacobs  Sf  Rost,  with  Anacreon,  as  below  cited,  the 
best  for  students.  —  Blomfeld,  in  the  Mux.  Grit,  or  Camb.  Class.  Researches,  vol.  i.  Lond.  1813.  ; 
this  text  highly  valued.  —  The  odes  are  found  in  most  editions  of  Anacreon.  The  epigrams  are 
Ju  the  Anthology  of  Jacobs. 

4.  Translations.  —  English.  J.  Addison,   in  the  Works  of  Anacreon.   Lond.  1735.  8. — Cf. 

Addison's  Spectator,  Nos.  223,  229. French.  Dc  Sivry,  as  cited  $  53. German.  Ramlcr, 

and  Ovcrbcck,  cited  §  59.  4. 


POETS.      SAPPHO.    SOLON.    THEOGNIS.    PHOCYLIDES.  1H3 

§  55.  Solon,  the  distinguished  lawgiver  of  Athens,  native  of  Sala- 
mis,  and  descendant  of  Codrus,  lived  B.  C.  594.  He  wrote  several 
poems.  By  one  of  them  he  aroused  the  Athenians  to  a  war  with  the 
Megareans,  in  which  he,  as  their  general,  subdued  Salamis.  After- 
wards he  was  appointed  Archon  at  Athens,  and  this  was  the  epoch  of 
his  legislation  so  much  celebrated.  We  have  a  series  of  moral  max- 
ims, in  elegiac  verse,  ascribed  to  Solon. 

1.  Solon  is  said  to  have  engaged  in  early  life  in  trade,  and  in  this  pursuit 
to  have  visited  Egypt  and  other  foreign  countries.  On  returning  to  Athens, 
he  devoted  himself  to  poetry  and  philosophy.  After  he  was  brought  into  pub- 
lic office,  as  above  mentioned,  and  had  established  his  laws,  he  again  left 
Athens  for  ten  years,  for  the  sake  of  rendering  them  permanent.  He  returned 
and  spent  the  remainder  of  life  in  literary  pursuits,  and  is  said  to  have  done 
much  in  collecting  and  publishing  the  poems  of  Homer.  Some  accounts  say 
that  he  died  at  Athens,  others  at  Cyprus,  at  the  age  of  80.  —  His  biography  is 
given  by  two  ancient  writers,  Plutarch  and  Diogenes  Laertius. 

2.  Besides  the  poetical  remains  of  Solon,  there  are  some  fragments  of  his 
laws  extant,  and  a  little  piece  on  the  pursuits  of  life.  Diogenes  Laertius  also 
has  recorded  certain  letters,  said  to  have  been  written  by  Solon. 

3.  Editions B.  —  Fortlage.   Lips.  1776.  8.  ;  the  2d  vol.  of  a  collection  of  Gnomic  Poets.  — 

*  JV.  Bachius  (Bach).   Bonnae,  1825.  8. F.  —  Princeps,  by  Gelenius,  as  cited  §  53.  3.  —  The 

chief  poetical  fragments  are  in  the  collections  of  Brunch,Winterton,  and  others,  cited  §  47.2. 

For  the  fragments  of  Solon's  laws,  Sam.  Petit,  Leges  Atticae.  Par.  1635.  fol.  improved  ed.  by 
P.  Wcsseling.   Lugd.  Bat.  1742.  fol. 

4.  Translations English.  —  Of  the  Letters,  in  Savage's  Collection,  as  cited  §  152.  1 

German.  —  Poet.  Fragments,  in  G.  C.  Braun,  Die  Weisen  von  Hellas  als  Sanger.  Mainz.  1822.  8. 

§  56.  Theognis,  born  at  Megara,  lived  in  banishment  at  Thebes, 
about  B.  C.  550.  There  remain  of  his  poetry  1238  verses,  belong- 
to  the  class  of  yvtiuai  (sententice)  or  maxims. 

1m.  They  are  simple  verses  or  couplets,  once  probably  forming  parts  of  con- 
nected poems  ;  two  poems,  particularly,  are  said  to  have  been  composed  by 
him.  The  portions  extant  are  valued  for  their  moral  rather  than  their  poetical 
character. 

2.  Theognis  is  said  to  have  died  B.C.  495.  His  verses  are  addressed,  under 
the  name  of  nanaivtosig,  exhortations ,  chiefly  to  a  young  man  to  whom  he  gives 
counsel  on  the  conduct  of  life.  He  has  been  reproached  for  the  licentious  na- 
ture of  some  of  his  sentiments  ;  yet  nothing  of  this  character  appears  in  the 
fragments  extant.     He  inculcates  religious  and  filial  duty,  and  recommends 

caution  in  the  choice  of  friends. It  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  verses 

ascribed  to  Theognis  are  of  later  origin,  although  most  of  them  are  thought  to 
be  evidently  of  high  antiquity.  In  1815,  or  near  that  time,  159  verses,  never 
printed,  were  discovered  by  Bekker,  in  a  Alodena  manuscript.  These  added 
make  the  whole  number  extant  about  1400. 

3.  Editions B Imm.  Bekker   (with  the  translation  by   Grotius).   Lpz.  1815.  8.  —  F.  T. 

Welcker.  Frankf.  18261  8.  for  the  critic,  rather  than  the  student.  He  gives  a  new  arrangement 
of  text,  which  is  opposed  by  G.  Gra-fcnham,  Theognis  Theognideus,  &c.  Mulhuste  (Muhlhau- 
sen).  1827.  4. F.  —  Princeps,  by  Aldus  (with  Hesiod),  as  cited  §  51.  5.  —  The  verses  (ex- 
cept the  159)  are  found  in  Brunch's  Gnomic  Poets,  Gaisford's  Minor  Poets  (cited  $  47.)  and  other 
collections. On  Theognis,  cons.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  xcv. 

§  57.  Phocylides,  of  Miletus,  lived  about  B.  C.  540.  He  belongs 
to  the  class  of  Gnomic  Poets.  Of  the  genuine,  verses  of  Phocylides, 
only  a  few  fragments  are  extant,  preserved  by  Stobaeus. 

1m.  An  ethical  poem,  called  the  Exhortation  or  Admonition  (noltjua  vov&yn- 
xov)  in  217  verses,  is  ascribed  to  him  (cf.  §  31).  It  is  allowed  by  the  critics  to 
be  the  work  of  a  later  author,  perhaps  a  Christian  of  the  second  or  third  cen- 
tury. 

2.  The  genuine  remains  of  Phocylides  are  in  Brunch's  Analecta  (cited  §  35)  and  other  collec- 
tions  The  Exhortation  was  first  printed  by  Aldus  (with  the  golden  verses  of  Pythagoras,  in 

C.  Lascar's  Greek  Grammar),  Ven.1495.  4.  It  is  found  in  the  collections  mentioned  (cf.  §  47). 
It  has  been  published  separately  several  times  ;  best  probably  by  J.  A.  Schier,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Leipz. 
1751.  8.— Cf.  Harles  Brev.  Not.  Lit.  Gr.  p.  64. 


184  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

§  58.  Pythagoras,  of  Samos,  probably  lived  between  550  and  500 
B.  C.  He  is  celebrated  as  the  founder  of  the  Italian  School  of  phi- 
losophy. The  fragments  called  XQvo&JSmi,  Golden  Verses,  which 
commonly  pass  under  his  name,  are  probably  from  some  disciple  be- 
longing to  a  later  period. 

1.  Certain  epistles,  and  a  number  of  symbolical  precepts  (£*Qa  anoif&iyuara) 
are  also  ascribed  to  him.  The  name  of  Pythagoras  most  properly  belongs  to 
the  department  of  philosophy.     Cf.  §  170. 

2.  Editions.— B.—JE.  G.  Glandorf,  Lips.  1776.  8.— J.  G.  Lindler,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Rudolst.  1810.  8. 

F. — Prhiceps,  by  Aldus,  in  C.  Lascaris  Erotemata  (the  same   cited  $57.2.) — P.  Needham, 

(with  the  coinm.  of  Hierocles  on  the  verses).  Cant.  1709.  8.— J.  A.  Schicr,  Lips.  1750.  8. The 

verses  are  found  in  the  collections  of  Gnomic  Poets  already  cited ;  and  in  OrellVs  Opuscula 
Grsecor.  vet.  sententiosa  et  moralia.    Lips.  1819. 8. 

3.  Translations.^French.— Fabre  de  Olivet,  (Gr.  &  Fr.)   Par.  1813.  8. German.—  G.   Ch. 

Link,  (in  hexameter)  Alt.  1780.  4. 

§  59.  Anacreon  lived  about  B.  C.  536,  a  native  of  Teos  in  Ionia. 
He  fled  with  his  parents  from  Persian  oppression,  to  Abdera  in 
Thrace.  Subsequently,  he  resided  at  Samos,  under  the  protection 
of  Polycrates  the  king,  and  afterwards  at  Athens,  under  Hippar- 
chus.  He  died  in  his  native  place,  or  at  Abdera,  in  the  85th  year 
of  his  age.  He  was  a  lyric  poet,  and  wrote  in  that  light  kind  of  ode, 
of  which  love,  social  pleasures,  and  wine,  form  the  subjects,  and 
which  from  him  has  received  the  name  Anacreontic.  The  collection 
of  odes  ascribed  to  him  contains  many  belonging  to  other  authors, 
some  of  whom  were  of  a  later  age.  The  pieces  are  of  unequal 
merit.  Many  of  them  are  unworthy  of  the  praise  which  the  ancients 
bestowed  on  Anacreon,  and  which,  beyond  question,  justly  belongs 
to  the  rest  on  account  of  their  vivacity,  grace,  and  lyric  beauty. 

1.  The  time  and  manner  of  Anacreon's  death  are  variously  stated.  Com- 
mon tradition  reported  that  he  died  by  suffocation,  from  swallowing  a  grape- 
stone,  while  in  the  act  of  drinking  wine.  This  tradition  is  supposed  by  some 
to  have  originated  from  the  bacchanalian  character  of  his  poetry. 

Herodotus  (iii.  121.)  and  Plato  (in  Hipparchus)  are  the  authorities  for  some  of  the  facts  stated 
above. — A  learned  life  of  Anacreon  is  given  by  Barnes,  in  his  edition  of  this  poet. 

2.  He  is  reputed  to  have  written  elegies  and  iambic  poems  in  the  Ionic  dia- 
lect, besides  scolia  and  epigrams.  The  odes  which  have  been  ascribed  to  him 
are  65  in  number. 

The  genuineness  of  most  of  them  was  denied  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  by  Francis 
Robortcllus,  one  of  the  acutest  critics  of  that  age.  Their  credit  having  revived," it  was  again 
attacked  at  the  commencement  of  the  last  century,  by  De  Pauw.  The  same  views  were  en- 
forced by  Fischer  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  since  which  time  the  opinion  above  stated  by 
Eschenburg  has  generally  prevailed.  The  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, none  of  the  existing  odes  are  known  to  be  cited  by  any  ancient  author. 

3.  Editions B.— Jo.   Frid.  Fischer,  Lips.  1753.  8.  repr.  1776,  and  1793,  with  additions.— R. 

Ph.  Gr.  Brunch,  Strasb.  1780.  12.  accurate.— J.  Fr.  Degen,  Lips.  2d  ed.  1821.  8.  with  a  German 
translation,  and  other  lyrical  pieces. — F.  Melhorn,  Glogav.  1825.  8.  learned  ;  with  bold  criti- 
cism ;   commended  by   translator  of  Scholl. F. — Princeps,   by  H.  Stephanus,  Lutet.  Paris. 

1554.  4.  Grrec— Morel  $  R.  Stephanus,  Paris.  1556.  8.— Fabri  ( Taiiaquil  Faber,)  Gr.  et  Lat.  Sal- 
mur.  1660,  1690 — Barnes,  Gr.  et  Lat.  Cantab.  1705,  1721.  8.—Mattaire,  Gr.  et  Lat.  Lond. 
1725,  1740.  4.  rare.— Pauw,  Gr.  et  Lat.  Tr.  Rhen.  1732.  4.—Spalletti,  Gr.  Rom.  1781-83. 
fol.  very  splendid.  "  Printed  from  ancient  Ms.  of  the  tenth  century  ;  the  type,  comprehending 
the  first  sixteen  pages,  a  facsimile  of  the  Vatican  Ms." — Bodoni,  Parma.  1784.  8.  handsome. 
Also,  Gr.  &  Ital.  1793.  A.— J.  B.  Gail,  Gr.  Lat.  &  Fr.  Par.  1799.   4.  with  dissertations,  musical 

adaptations,  and  engravings.  1801.  4  vols.  12 R. — Ed.  Foster,  Lond.  1802. 12.  not  professing 

to  be  critical ;  but  correct,  with  elegant  engravings F.  H.  Bothe,  Lpz.  1805.  12.  more  elegant 

than  valuable. — J.  H.  Van  Reenen,  Amst.  1808.  8.  as  1st  vol.  of  a  collection. — Scha-fer,  Lpz. 
1809.  8.  it  is  the  indifferent  ed.  of  Born  (1789)  improved.— $  E.  A.  Mtebius,  Hal.  1809.  8.  This 
as  given  in  the  Bibliotheca  of  Jacobs  is  the  best  for  common  use. — C.  CaseUius,  (with   Sappho) 

Flor.  1819.  fol—  C.  G.  Gumiclius,  Upsal.  1824.  8 — T.   Bergk,  Lips.  1835.   8. The  epigrams 

ascribed  to  Anacreon  are  found  in  the  Anthology  of  Jacobs  (cf.  $35). 

4.  Translations.— English.— T.  Stanley,  Lond.  1683.  8.  1815.  12  —J.  Addison,  Lond.  1735.  12. 
— Fawkes,  Lond.  1760.  12.— D.  H.  Urquhart,  Lond.  1787.  8.— T.  Moore,  1800.  4.  1818.  2  vols.  12. 

with  the  Greek  text.    Cf.  Ed.  Rev.  vol.  ii.— Edwards,  Gr.  &  Angl.  Lond.  1830.  12. French. 

—Dacier,  Amst.  1699.  8.— Gail,  above  cited.— Saint   Victor,  Par.  1810. German.—  Overbeck, 


POETS.       PYTHAGORAS.       ANACREON.       PINDAR.  185 

LUb.  1800.  8 Ramler,  Berl.  1801.  8 — F.  C.  Brosse,  Berl.  1806.  8.— A.  Drexel,  Landsh.  1816.  8. 

Italian.— Ch.  Rodolfi,  Venet.  1765.  8. 

5.  Illustrative. — P.  C.  Henrici,  de  .indole  carminis  Anacreontici.  Alton.  1752.  4 De- 
gen,  iiber  d.  Philos.  des  Anacreon.  Elang.  1776.  8. — J.  O.  Schneider's  Anmerkungen  Uber 
den  Anacreon.  Leipz.  1770.  8. — Manso's  Character  of  Anacreon  in  the  Charaktere  der  vornehm- 
sten  Dichter,  cited  §  47. — D.  H.  Urquhart.  Dissert,  on  the  Odes  of  Anacreon.  Lond.  1790.  8. — 
Ford.  Nolan,  On  the  Greek  Rose,  as  illustrating  the  imagery  of  the  odes  ascribed  to  Anacreon, 
&c,  in  Transactions  of  Royal  Soc.  of  Literature,  vol.  2d.  Lond.  1834.— jF'.  W.  Richter,  Anacreon 
nach  seinem  Leben  geschrieben.  Quedl.  1834.  8. 

§  60.  Pindar,  of  Thebes  in  Baeotia,  about  B.  C.  490,  a  lyric  poet 
of  the  greatest  celebrity.  He  wrote  in  the  higher  kind  of  lyric  verse, 
employed  to  celebrate  the  triumphs  of  heroes  and  victors.  He  sung 
chiefly  the  praises  of  victors  in  the  great  public  games  of  the  Greeks. 
There  now  remain  14  Olympic,  12  Pythian,  11  Nemean,  and  8  Isth- 
mian Odes.  Many  other  Hymns  and  Pasans,  Dithyrambics,  Threni 
(Qq^ioi),  and  the  like,  are  lost.  Quintilian  justly  ranks  Pindar  first 
among  the  nine  most  distinguished  lyric  poets  of  the  Greeks  (cf.  § 
26).  He  is  marked  by  his  lofty  sublimity,  his  bold  energy  of  thought, 
his  vivid  and  poetical  imagination,  and  the  flowing  fullness  of  his 
diction.  Horace  gives  a  lyric  description  of  his  character  (lib.  iv. 
ode  2). 

1.  Pindar  was  early  taught  the  arts  of  music  and  poetry.  Lasus  and  Si- 
monides  were  his  instructors.  The  Greeks  related  a  story  of  him,  that  once, 
while  he  was  a  youth,  as  he  threw  himself  upon  the  grass  fatigued  and  sleepy, 
a  swarm  of  bees  deposited  their  honey  on  his  lips,  which  prefigured  the  sweet- 
ness of  his  future  poetry.  In  several  instances  he  lost  the  prize  in  poetical 
contests  with  Corinna,  who  is,  however,  supposed  to  owe  something  to  the 
charms  of  her  person  as  influencing  the  feelings  of  the  judges.  He  is  said 
at  last  to  have  appealed  from  them  to  herself.  From  all  other  competitors  he 
invariably  bore  away  the  prize.  He  enjoyed  great  honors  while  living.  The 
conquerors  at  the  public  games  counted  it  a  great  part  of  their  glory  to  be 
celebrated  in  the  verse  of  Pindar,  for  which  they  courted  his  person,  and  be- 
stowed on  him  the  most  liberal  rewards.  A  statue  was  erected  to  him  in 
Thebes  and  was  standing  in  the  time  of  Pausanias,  six  centuries  afterwards. 
The  house  which  he  had  occupied  was  spared  by  the  Spartans,  and  at  a  later 
period  by  Alexander,  when  Thebes  was  laid  in  ruins.  —  The  age  which  he  at- 
tained is  variously  stated;   some  say  55,  others  66,  and  others  86  years. 

For  the  incidents  of  Pindar's  life  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  Pausanias  ;  some  circumstances 
are  drawn  from  vElian,  Plutarch,  and  others.  Of  the  accounts  by  moderns,  see  Lives  of  the  Po- 
eU,  cited  §  47.— Preface  in  Tourlefs  Translation  below  cited — J.  O.  Schneider,  Versuch  uber 
Pindars  Leben  und  Schriften.     Strasb.  1774.  8. 

2.  The  division  of  the  odes  into  four  classes  is  ascribed  to  Aristophanes  of 
Byzantium.  He  selected,  out  of  the  general  mass  of  Pindar's  effusions,  such 
as  had  reference,  more  or  less  directly,  to  victories  gained  at  the  great  games 
of  the  Greeks ;  yet  some  are  found  in  the  selection  which  do  not  refer  spe- 
cially to  any  particular  victory.  Scholl  remarks,  that  some  of  these  odes 
seem  to  have  been  prepared  to  be  rehearsed  at  the  general  triumph  of  the 
conquerors  on  the  evening  after  the  contest  in  the  games,  and  others  for  the 
more  private  festival  afterwards  given  to  the  individual  victor,  by  his  rela- 
tives and  friends.  —  One  of  the  Odes  (Olymp.  7)  is  said  by  a  scholiast  to  have 
been  preserved  in  a  temple  at  Athens,  in  letters  of  gold.  —  The  more  the  odes 
of  Pindar  are  studied,  the  more  the  reader  will  be  impressed  with  the  genius 
of  the  author.  The  abruptness  of  his  transitions  has  often  been  a  ground  of 
censure,  but  with  great  injustice.  In  many  cases,  where  a  new  topic  is  in- 
troduced with  apparent  violence,  or,  as  might  at  first  seem,  only  by  a  perfect- 
ly wild  imagination,  there  is  found,  on  a  closer  view,  a  very  philosophical  and 
logical  connection.  —  There  is  much  of  an  epic  character  in  the  use  of  histo- 
ry and  mythology,  which  he  so  happily  employs.  The  Doric  dialect  abounds 
in  his  language  ;  yet  he  does  not  confine  himself  to  it,  but  adopts  iEolic  and 
other  forms  where  strength,  variety,  or  the  peculiarity  of  his  metre  demands. 

C.  W.  Theop.  Camcnz,  Pindari  ingenium,  etc.  Misenas,  1804.  4.—  O.  Hermann,  deDial^cto 
Pindari  Observationes.    Lips.  1809.  4.— See  also  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  v.  &     xvm.— SchSU, 

16* 


186  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  vol.  i.  p.  277.— Preface  to  West,  cited  below  (5).— Fraguier  and  others,  cited  be- 
low (6). 

3.  Various  forms  of  poetical  composition,  besides  odes,  were  written  by  Pindar  j  as,  in  the 
words  of  Neander,  "  Paeanes,  Dithyrambi,  Scolia,  Epitaphia,  Encomia,  Tkreni,  Prosodim,  Par- 
thcnia,  Enthronismi,  Bacchica,  Daphnephorica,  Hyporchemata,  Dramata  tragica,  Epigrammata  epica, 
etc."  Very  little,  however,  of  all  this  remains.  We  have  nothing  entire  except  the  odes. — 
Mich.  Neander,  Aristologia  Pindarica  Gibe  co-Latin  a.    Basil,  1558. 

4.  Editions.— B.—Aug.  Bockh,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1811-22.  2  vols.  4.  Admirable.— C.  G.  Hcy- 
ne,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lips.  1817.  3  vols.  8.—*  L.  Dissen.  Gothae,  1830.  2  vols.  8.  After  Bockh's  re- 
cension. The  1st  vol.  has  the  text,  an  introduction,  and  Muller's  plans  of  Delphi  and  Olvm- 
pia.     pp.  282.     The  2d  vol.  consists  of  Latin  notes,  pp.  634.    It  is  included  in  Rost's  Biblibth- 

eca  ;  and  is  the  best  for  the  student. F  —Princeps,  the  Aldine.  Ven.  1513.  8.  With  the  hymns 

of  Callimachus. —  Calliergi.  Rome,  1515.  4.  Cum  Scholiis.  First  Greek  book  printed  at  Rome. 
— R.  Stephanus.  Par.  1560.  2  vols.  8.—Erasm.  Schmid,  Gr.  &  Lat.  cum  schol.  Wittenb.  1616. 
4 — \West8f  Welsted,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxon.  1697.  fol.—Foulis,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Glasg.  1744-54-70.  3  vols. 
12. R. — D.  Beck.  Lips.  1810.  2  vols.  8.  Not  completed Fr.  Thiersch,  with  a  German  trans- 
lation in  Pindaric  verse.  Lpz.  1820. 2  vols.  8.—  Tauchnitz.  Stereot.  Lpz.  1819.  12.—Huntingford, 
Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1814.  8.  With  an  abridgment  of  Damm's  Lex.  Pindaricum.— CA.  W.  Ahl- 
wardt.  Lips.  1820.  8.  He  contests  with  Bockh  the  priority  of  inventing  a  new  metrical  sys- 
tem for  Pindar's  verse. — i.  Mezzanotte,  Gr.  &  Ital.  (met.  &.  prose.)  Pisa,  1820.  4  vols.  8.— JYegris, 
Gr.  with  English  notes.     Lond.  1835.  12. 

5.  Translations. — English.—  G.  West.  Lond.  1753.  2  vols.  8.— H.  J.  Pye,  Six  Odes  (omitted 
by  West).    Lond.  1775.  8.— E.  B.  Greene.    Lond.  1778.  4.—  T.  Banister.    Lond.  1791.  8. — T.  £, 

Girdlestone.    Norw.  1810.  4.— A.  Moore,  with  notes.    Lond.  1822.  8. French.— T.  Maurin. 

Par.  1617.  8.—L.  C.  Gin.  Par.  1801.  8.—*  R.  Tourlet,  Gr.  &  Fr.  Par.  1818.  2  vols.  8. Ger- 
man.— F.  Gedike,  (pr.)  Olympic  and  Pythian  Odes.  Berl.  1777-79.  2  vols.  8.—  G.  Fdhse,(met.) 
Penig.  1806.  2  vols.   8.—F.  H.  Bothe,  (met.)  Olympic  Odes.     Berl.  1808.— Thiersch,  as  above 

cited  ;  highly  esteemed. Italian. — int.  Jerocades.    Nap.  1799.  8. Latin  verse,  J.  Costa. 

Patav.  1808.  8. 

6.  Illustrative. — .ZEm.  Porti,  Lexicon  Pindaricum.    Han.  1606. — Damm,  Lexicon  Pindaricum. 

Berl.  1765 J.  M.  Duncan,  Dammii  Nov.  Lex.  cui  substrata?  sunt  elucidationes  Homericaa  et 

Pindarica?.  Lond.  1827.  4. — Rost  published  an  improved  edition  of  Duncan's.  1835.  4.  Re- 
printed 1838. — Hermann,  on  the  Pindaric  Metres,  in  Heyne's  edition,  3d  vol. — Aug.  Bockh,  Ue- 
ber  die  Versmasse  des  Pind.  Heidelb.  1809.  8.— J.  C.  Fr.  Gbtschel,  Mythologies  Pindarica? 
Specimen.  Erlang.  1790.  A.—Blondel,  Comparaison  de  Pindare  et  d'Horace.  Par.  1673.  12. — 
Fraguier  &  Mass ieu,  Sur  Pindare,  &.C.  Mem.  de  V Acad,  des  Inscr.  n.  33  ;  iv.  502;  v.  95;  vi. 
283,  354. — Also  Sallier,  in  the  same  work,  Mem.  4"c.  iv.  486  ;  x.  352  ;  and  De  Chabanon,  in  the 
same,  xxxn.  451 ;  xxxv.  386;  xxxvn.  91. — L.  F.  Tafel,  Dilucidationes  Pindarica?.  Berl.  1827. 
2  vols.  8.  Good  in  explaining  words. —  Vam-illiers,  Essai  sur  Pindare.  Par.  1772.  12. —  W.  Con- 
greve,  Discourse  on  the  Pindaric  One,  in  3d  vol.  of  his  Works.  Lond.  1753.  3  vols.  8. — Dawes, 
Miscellanea  Critica.    Lpz.  1800.  8.  (Sect,  ii.) 

§61.  JEschylus,  a  native  of  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  flourished  about 
490  B.  C.  He  engaged  in  military  service,  and  acquired  glory  in 
the  battles  of  Marathon,  Salamis,  and  Platsea.  He  afterwards  re- 
tired to  Sicily  where  he  died.  His  merit  was  very  great  as  a  poet  in 
the  department  of  tragedy.  Indeed  he  was,  properly  speaking,  the 
author  of  tragedy,  as  he  gave  it  greater  unity  of  action,  introduced 
the  dialogue  (although  the  chorus  still  retained  an  important  place), 
employed  a  more  dignified  style,  and  imparted  a  more  noble  and  ele- 
vated character  to  the  external  representation.  Yet  we  notice  a  want 
of  completeness  and  finish  in  his  plays.  His  efforts  to  present  ter- 
rific or  shocking  scenes,  with  bold  and  uncommon  modes  of  thought 
and  expression,  sometimes  lead  him  into  what  is  exaggerated,  ob- 
scure, or  unnatural.  Nor  can  we  find  in  him  the  beauties  belonging 
to  a  full  and  regular  method. 

1.  The  birth  of  iEschylus  is  dated  B.  C.  525,  and  his  death,  456.  He  is 
said  to  have  made  his  first  public  attempt,  as  a  tragic  author,  at  the  age  of  25, 
B.  C.  499.  Six  years  after  the  battle  of  Marathon,  he  gained  his  first  tragic 
victory,  and  eight  years  after  the  battle  of  Plata>a,  he  gained  again  the  prize 
for  a  tetralogy  (cf.  P.  I.  §  G6).  —  Different  accounts  are  given  as  to  the  reason 
of  his  removing  to  Syracuse  in  Sicily.  Some  ascribe  it  to  his  disgust  at  be- 
ing charged  and  tried  before  the  Athenians  for  profanation  of  the  mysteries 
in  some  of  his  plays,  although  he  was  acquitted.  Others  assign  as  the  reason, 
his  defeat  in  a  poetical  contest  with  Simonides,  and  in  another  with  Soph- 
ocles. Schlegel  suggests  (Dram.  Lit.  lect.  iv.)  that  he  retired  from  appre- 
hensions of  the  hostility  of  the  populace  towards  him,  because  he  had  highly 
recommended  the  Areopagus  as  holding  a  check  upon  democratic  violence. 

See  F.  C.  Petersen,  De  /Eschyli  vita,  etc.  Havniaj,  1816.  8.— Life  of  JEsch.  in  Stanley's  edi- 
tion, cited  below  (4). 


POETS.       iESCHYLUS.       SOPHOCLES.  187 

2w.  Of  75  or  90  tragedies,  which  he  is  said  to  have  written,  only  seven  re- 
main. These  are  entitled  U^outj&svg  Seoudjnig,  Prometheus  vinctus ;  TUqocii, 
Versa;  ^Ercra  Inl  Qi'fiag,  Septem  contra  Thebas ;  *  Ay auiuvwv,  Agamemnon  ; 
XotjyoQoi,  Choephori ;  "Evpividtg,  Eumenides,  Furies;  'IxinSag,  Supplices. 

3.  The  plots  of  iEschylus  are  very  simple.  His  characters  are  sketched 
boldly.  A  lofty  and  grave  spirit  reigns  in  his  poetry.  Terror  is  the  predom- 
inant emotion.     His  Prometheus  bound  is  called  his  master-piece. 

A.  TV.  SchlegeVs  Lect.  on  Dramatic  Lit.  lect.  iv.— Edingb.  Rev.  vol.  xxvi. — Theatre  of  the 
Greeks,  cited  §  40. — Character e  der  vornehmsten  Dichter,  &c.  von  einer  Gesellschaft  von  Ge- 
lehrten-    Lips.  1792.  vol.  n.  p.  391.— Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  in.  389  ;  v.  203  ;  xxv. 

4.  Editions.  —  B.—C.  G.  Schiitz,  Gr.  &  Lat.  4th  ed.  Halle,  1809-12.  5  vols.  8.  Repr.  Lond. 
1823.  4  vols.  8.  with  Lat.  vers.  The  editions  of  Schiitz  have  been  highly  lauded  by  some  crit- 
ics ;  but  an  English  reviewer  has  spoken  in  a  different  tone.  See  Mus.  Criticum,  vol.  i.  p.  109. 
Cf.  Dibdin's  Introd.  cited  §  7  (9),  vol.  l.  p.  241.  —  S.  Butler,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Camb.  1809.  4  vols.  4.  ; 
8  vol3.  8.  Cf.  Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  xix.  —  A.  Wellauer.  Lips.  1826-31.  3  vols.  8.  the  3d  vol.  a  Lexicon 
JEschyleum,  called  good  by  Hermann.  Repr.  Camb.  1827.  2  vols.  8.  without  the  Lexicon.  — 
C.  J.  BlonificW  s  editions  of  the  separate  tragedies  are  ranked  very  high,  and  said  to  give  the 
purest  text.    The  glossaries  appended  to  each  are  highly  prized.     The  reprint  of  Bloomfield, 

Lpz.  1823  s.  contains  additions. F.  —  Princeps,  by  Aldus.    Ven.  1518.  8.  —  F.  Robortellus. 

Ven.  1552.  8.  —  Turnebus.  Par.  1552.  8.  —  Victorias  (printed  by  H.  Stephanus).  Par.  1557.  4.  — 
Th.  Stanley,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Lond.  1663.  fol.    It  was  very  celebrated ;  the  foundation  of  Butler's. 

Pauw,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Hag.  Com.  1745.  2  vols.  4.   "to  be  shunned."  (Dibdin.)  —  Foulis,  Gr.  & 

Lat.  1746.  4.  &.  12. — Porson.  Glasg.1795.  fol.  with  designs  by  Flaxman. — See  on  this,  Pursuits  of 
Literature,  pt.  ii.  p.  42.  —  Dibdin,  i.  p.  242.  — r  R.  —  F.  H.  Bothe,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1805.  8.  not 
highly  esteemed  (Dibdin).  new  ea.  1831.  2  Vols.  8.  "  too  bold  in  criticism."  —  I.  Scholefield. 
Camb.1808.  8.  —  $  Schdfer.  Lpz.1812.  8.  —  Pfiugk.  Gothae  (begun)  1835,  in  Rost's  Bibliotheca. 
— C.  Schwenk,  separate  tragedies.  Lpz.  1818  ss.  8.  —  Cf.  N.  Am.  Rev.  xxm.  p.  505. 

5.  Translations.  —  English.  R.  Potter  (blank  verse).  Norw.  1777.  4.  2d  ed.  imp.  Lond.  1779. 
2  vols.  8.  —  For  D.  A.  falboys.  (prose)  Oxf.  1822.  8 French.  F.  J.  G.  de  la  Porte  da  Theil, 

•  (with  original  &  notes)   Par.  1798.  2  vols.  8.  also  in  new  edition  of  Brumoy,s  Theat.  Gr.  (by 

Raoul-Rochette)   Par.  1820  ss.  —  Marquis  de  Pompignan.  Par.  1770.  8 German.  J.T.L.  Danz. 

Lips.  1805.  1808.  2  vols.  8.  "  too  much  modernised."  —Gottf.  Fdhse.  Lips.1809.  8.  "  defective." 
(Fuhrmann.)  —  C.  Ph.  Conz,  (met.)  Choephori,  Ziir.  1811.  8. ;  Persse,  and  the  rest,  Tub.  1815. 
1820.  "good."  (Fuhrmann.)  —  *  TV.  von  Humboldt,  Agamemnon.  Lpz.  1816.  4.  —  *  Droyen. 
Berl.  1832.  2  vols.  8. Italian.  M.  Mallius  (with  Sophocles  &  Euripides).  Rom.  1788.  8. 

6.  Illustrative.  —  J.  Meursius,  iEschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  sive  de  tragcediis  eorum  li- 
bri  n r.  Lug.  Bat.  1619.  ;  also  in  Gronovii  Thesaurus  Gr.  tome  x. — J.  A.  Starch,  de  ^Eschylo  et 
imprimis  ejus  tragcedia,  qua?  Prometheus  vinctus  inscripta  est,  libellus.  Gbtt.  1763.  4.  —  H. 
Blumner,  Ueber  die  Idee  des  Schicksals  in  d.  Tragoedien  iEschyl.  Lpz.  1814.  8.  —  Car.  Fr. 
TVunderlich,  Observat.  critical  in  ^Eschyli  tragoedias,  etc.  Gbtt.  1809.  8.—  G.  Hermann,  De  versi- 
bus  spuriis  ap.  iEschylum.  Lips.  1814.  4.  —  Burneifs  Tentamen  de  metris  (ab  yEschylo)  in 
chor.  cant,  adhibitis.  Lond.  1811.  8.  Cf.  Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  xvm.  —  C.  F.  Bamberger,  De  car- 
minibus  iEschyl.  a  partibus  chori  cantatis.  Bruns.  1832.  8.  —  Vauvillicrs,  on  Mss.  of  ^Eschylua 
in  the  JYotices  des  Manuscrits,  &c.  vol.  i.  as  cited  P.  I.  §  108.  2.—M.  G.  Fdhse,  Lexicon  Grsecum 

«in  Tragicos.  Lpz.1830.  4.  Commenced;  a  collection  of  scholia  &  glossa?  from  the  ancient  gram- 
marians and  of  modern  notes. Apparatus  Criticus  ad  JEschylum.  Halle,1830.  1st  vol.  the  com- 
mentary of  Stanley.  2d  vol.  Abreschii  Animadversiones.  3d  vol.  to  contain  notes  from  various 
authors.—/?.  TV.  Bcatson,  Index  Graecitatis  ^Eschylea;.  Cantab.  1830.  8.  —  R.  H.  Klauscn,  Theo- 
logumena  iEschyli.  Berl.  1829.  8. —  C.  G.  Haupt,  (iuaestiones  ^Eschyleae.  Specimina  i — iv. 
Lips.  1828-30. 

§  62.  Sophocles,  born  at  Colonus,  near  Athens,  was  the  greatest 
author  in  Greek  tragedy,  and  not  without  honor  as  a  warrior.  He 
flourished  about  450  B.  C.  He  improved  the  tragic  stage  by  intro- 
ducing a  third  speaker,  and  by  limiting  the  office  of  the  chorus, 
which,  with  him,  appears  rather  as  a  contemplative  spectator,  than  a 
real  participator  in  the  action  represented.  His  tragedies  have  the 
merit  of  a  regular  and  judicious  plan,  a  striking  truth  in  characters, 
and  a  masterly  and  energetic  expression  and  play  of  the  passions. 
They  are  full  of  feeling  and  full  of  nature. 

lw.*Of  a  great  multitude  of  plays  composed  by  him,  we  possess  only  seven  : 
viz.  "'Aiag  it aony ocpuoog,  Ajax  Flagellifer,  Ajax  bearing  the  lash  ;  cW.ty.TQct, 
Electra  ;  'Otdlnovg  Tvqarvog,  (Edipus  King  ;  'Arriyovi;,  Antigone  ;  'OidiTtog 
inl  Kos.unu),  (Edipus  at  Colonus;  Tqu/'lviui,  The  Trachinian  tcomen ;  <t>i?.ox- 
t»;t?/c,  Philoctetes.     The  third  of  these,  (Edipus  King,  is  esteemed  as  the  best. 

1.  Sophocles  was  about  30  years  younger  than  iEschylus,  and  about  16  older 
than  Euripides  (§  39).  In  early  youth,  it  is  said,  he  was  beautiful  in  person, 
and  made  rapid  attainments.  His  father,  Sophilus*  was  wealtliy,  and  fur- 
nished him  with  the  best  advantages  for  education.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
he  brought  forward  his  first  tragedy,  for  a  prize.     It  was  in  a  memorable  dra- 


188  HISTORY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

matic  contest,  in  which  JEschylus  was  a  candidate,  and  Cimon  and  his  nine 
colleague-generals,  after  their  victory  over  the  Persians  near  the  Eurymedon, 
were  the  judges.  Sophocles  received  the  prize  by  their  decision,  B.  C.  about 
468.  He  won  the  first  prize  in  such  contests  twenty  times,  while  ^Eschylus 
gained  this  distinction  but  thirteen  times,  and  Euripides  but  a  still  smaller 
number. 

The  unnatural  ingratitude  of  his  family,  in  attempting  to  deprive  him  of  his  property  on  the 
charge  of  dotage,  furnished  him  an  opportunity  to  acquire  new  glory ;  he  read  before  the  court 
his  CEdipus  at  Colonus,  which  he  had  just  composed.  In  admiration  of  the  piece,  the  judges 
not  only  rejected  the  suit  of  the  family,  but  escorted  the  poet  from  the  place  of  trial  to  his  own 
dwelling.     He  died  about  B.  C.  405,  not  long  before  the  defeat  of  the  Athenians  at  iEgos-potamos. 

Discordant  and  marvelous  tales  are  related  of  his  death. See  Oott.  Eph.  Lessing, Leben  des 

Sophokles  (ed.  Eschenburg).  1790.  8.  —  Charactere  der  vornehmster  Dichter  (cited  §  61.),  vol.  i  v. 
p.  86 F.  Schultz,  De  Vita  Soph,  commentatio.   Bed.  1836.  8. 

3.  Different  statements  are  made  respecting  the  number  of  tragedies  composed  by  Sophocles. 
Suidas  makes  it  123.  It  is  commonly  judged  that  the  true  number  is  about  70.  Many  of  the 
plays,  which  were  ascribed  to  him,  are  thought  to  have  belonged  to  his  son  Iophon  and  grand- 
son Sophocles.  —  He  was  called  by  the  ancients  the  Attic  Bee,  to  designate  the  sweetness  and 

grace  which  characterised  his  works. See  Besenbeck,  Diss,  de  ingenio  Sophocles.   Erlang, 

1789.  4.  —  SchlegePs  Dram.  Lit.  lect.  iv Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.  vol.  n.  p.  30. 

4.  Editions.-B.— R.F.Ph.Brunck,Gr.  &  Lat.  Argen.  1786-9.  3  vols.  8.  repr.often;best,Oxf.l820. 
3  vols.  8.  Lond.  1824.  4  vols.  8.  —  *  C.  G.  A.  Erfuhrdt.  Lips.  1802-11.  6  vols.  8.  each  volume 
one  play  ;  CEdipus  Coloneus  was  supplied  in  a  7th  vol.  by  Heller  fy  Dodcrlein,  with  a  Lexicon, 
in  1825.  —  G.  P.  W.  Schneider.  Weim.  1823-27.  8  vols.  8.  with  German  notes  ;  and  a   Sopho- 

klusches  Wortervcrieichniss.  1830.  2  vols.  8. F.  —  Princeps,  by  Aldus.  Ven.  1502.  8.  — Junta 

(Francinus  ed.),  cum  Schol.  Flor.  1522, 1547.  4. —  Turnebus  (with  the  Schol.  of  Dem.  Triclinius). 
Par.  1553.  4.  —  H.  Stephanus.   Par.  1568.  4.  —  Canterus.  Antw.  1589.  12.   Repr.  Lugd.  Bat.  1593. 

Johnson,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Cum  Schol.   Oxon.  1705.  2  vols.  8.   3d  vol.  Lond.  1746.     Reprinted, 

Lond.  1758.   &   Eton.  1775.   this  last  edit,  by  J.  Tweedic  is  most  correct.  (Dibdin,  n.  p.  412  )  — 

Capparonier  (finished  by  Fauvilliers),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1781.  2  vols.  4. R.—F.  H.  Bothe,  Gr.  • 

&  Lat.  Lpz.  1806.  2  vols.  8.  repr.  Gr.  1827.— G.  H.  Schdfer.  Lpz.  1810.  2  vols.  — 1|  G.  Hermann. 
Lpz.  1824.  7  vols.  12.  The  first  2  vols,  by  Erfurdt.  Repr.  Lond.  1826.  2  vols.  8.  —  E.  Wander, 
Gothse  (not  finished),  1835.  in  RosVs  Bibliotheca.  —  §  F.  JYeue.  Lpz.  1831.  8.  —  |j  P.  Elmsley. 
Lond.  1826.  2  vols.  8.   Repr.  with  additions,  Lpz.  1827. Of  the  editions  of  single  tragedies, 

a  few  only  can  be  noticed.  —  Ajax.  B.  Stolberg  (with  Scaliger's  metrical  version).  Wittenb. 
1668.  8.  —  J.  G.  Hoerius.  Wittenb.1746.  8.—*  Ch.  Aug.  Lobeck,  2d  ed.  Lips.  1835.  8.  —  Electra. 
(Gr.  Lat.  &  Ital.)  Rom.  1754.  4.—  G.  Ant.  Ch.  Scheffler.  Helmst.  1794.  8.  —  CEdipus  Tyrannus. 
J.  H.  C.  Barby.  Berl.  1807.  8.— P.  Elmsley.  Oxf.  1811.  8.  impr.  Lpz.  1821.  —  S  /.  Stuart,  with  Engl, 
notes.  Ando.  1836.  12.  —  Antigone.  J.  H.  C.  Barby.  Berl.  1806.  8.  —  j|  F.  C.  Wez.  Lpz.  1830. 
2  vols.  8. — CEdipus  Coloneus.  *  C.  Reisig.  Jente,  1820.  8.  and  2  vols,  of  Comment,  crit.  Jen. 
1822.  8.  —  J.  Brassc,  with  English  notes.  Lond.  1829.  12.  (in  same  manner,  other  pieces.)  —  P. 
Elmsley.  Oxf.  1823.  8.  —  Trachini^:.  J.  G.  Ch.Hbpfner.  Lips.  1791.  8.  —  L.  J.  Billerbeck.  Hil- 
desb.  1801.  8.  Philoctetes.  Buttmann.  Berl.  1822.  8.  —  *  J.  P.  Mattliasi.  Alt.  1828.  8.  —  G. 
Burgess,  with  Engl,  notes.   Lond.  1833.  8. 

5.  Translations.  —  English.— PA.  Francklin  (bl.  ver.)  Lond.  1759.  4.  impr.  ed.  1788.  —  P.  Pot-* 
ter.  Lond.1788.  4.  —  P.  Dale.  Lond.1824.  8.  —  For  D.  A.  Talboys,  (prose)  Oxf.1824.  2  vols.  8.  — 
P.  W.  C.  Edwards,  Gr.  &  Engl,  prose  (Antigone,  CEdipus  Rex,  Philoctetes).  Lond.  1824-27.  8. 

French.— Dupuy.  Par.1762.  4.—Guil.  de  Rochefort.  Par.1788.  2  vols.  8. German.— Count 

Stollbcrg.   Hamb.  1823.  2  vols.  8.  —  *  C.  W.  F.  Solger.   Berl.  1808.  8.  new  ed.  1824. 

6.  Illustrative.  —  *  F.  Ellendt,  Lexicon  Sophocleum.  Regiom.  (Kb'nigsb.)  1835.  2  vols.  8.  — 
J.  G.  V.  Frohlich,  Kritische  Versuche  iiber  Sophocles  Tragbdien.  Mun.  1824.  8. — B.  W.  Beatson, 
Index  Graecitatis  Sophocles.   Cant.  1830.  8. 

§  63.  Euripides  was  born  at  Sal  amis,  of  Athenian  parents,  B.  C.  480. 
He  was  instructed  in  rhetoric  by  Prodicus,  and  by  Anaxagoras  in  phi- 
losophy. Socrates  was  his  familiar  friend.  He  died  B.  C.  406,  at  the 
court  of  Archelaus,  king  of  Macedon.  His  talent  for  philosophy  and 
eloquence  appears  in  his  tragedies,  which  are  strikingly  marked  by 
sententious  passages  and  pathetic  scenes  ;  in  this  respect  he  some- 
times violates  tragic  dignity.  An  easy  and  regular  method  is  found 
in  all  his  pieces.  His  characters  are  designed  with  exactness,  and 
are  less  ideal  than  those  of  Sophocles.  With  much  fidelity  and  truth 
in  expression,  he  unites  great  richness  and  fullness.  Most  of  his  plays, 
of  which  he  composed  at  least  seventy-five,  are  lost;  seventeen  or 
eighteen  however  remain,  besides  some  fragments,  and  the  Cyclops, 
which  was  a  performance  of  Euripides  belonging  to  the  satyrical 
drama  (§  44). 

1.  Euripides  remained  at  Athens  until  within  a  few  years  of  his  death.  He 
went  to  Macedonia  on  the  invitation  of  the  kino-   Archelaus.     Several  causes 


POETS.       EURIPIDES.  189 

are  suggested  as  influencing  him  thus  to  retire  ;  domestic  trials,  the  abuse  and 
ridicule  received  from  Aristophanes,  and  public  prosecution  on  a  charge  of 
impiety.  His  death  is  said  to  have  been  occasioned  by  an  attack  of  some  fero- 
cious hounds,  in  which  he  was  so  mangled  that  he  expired  not  long  afterwards. 
He  was  seventy-five  years  bid. 

For  the  biography  of  Euripides,  see  (besides  the  works  referred  to  in  §  47.)  his  Life  by  Barnesy 
in  Pref.  to  his  edition  below  cited  (5.),  and  by  Moschopulus,  Thomas  Magister,  and  Au- 
lus  Oellius,  found  in  Musgrave's  edition  ;  and  the  anonymous  Life  in  Elmsley,s  edition  of  the 
Bacchm. 

2.  Euripides  is  said  by  some  to  have  composed  120  dramas.  A  catalogue  of 
those  lost  is  given  by  Fabric  ius  (a). Those  which  remain  bear  the  following  titles: 
rExu(it],  'OfJiOTTjs,  ifroiviooai,  M.t\8tia,  c Trcno7.vroc  OTeyavytpooog,  Hyppolytus 
Coronifer ,"  A7.y.i}OTis ,  AvSQouu/tj,  cIxindsg,  The  Female  Suppliants,  5 Iipiyivsia 
•f  iv  \4vAidt,  i Iiptyivsia  ->j  lv  Tui'qoig,  Towudeg,  The  Trojan  Women,  Bu%xai, 
The  Female  Bacchanals,  cHQax?.tt$ai,  cE?.ivt},^I<av,  cHQaxh*jg  uanousvog,  Her- 
cules furens,  'ffl.ixxqa,  and  Ffjaog,  Rhesus.  This  last,  however,  is  considered 
as  spurious,  by  some  of  the  best  critics.     The  principal  fragments,  are  of  two 

pieces  entitled  &ai&wv  and  Javujj. The  Medea  is  generally  considered  as 

one  of  the  best  pieces  of  Euripides.  It  is  said  that  Cicero  was  reading  this, 
when  arrested  by  the  ministers  of  the  proscription. 

(a)  In  his  Biblioth.  Ormc.  See  vol.  it.  p.  234  ss.  —  On  the  number  of  pieces  written  by  Eu- 
ripides, what  genuine,  what  lost,  &c.  Fukrmann's  Klein.  Handb.  p.  151.  —  Scholl,  Hist.  Litt. 
Gr.  n.  p.  52.  —  Valckenwr,  Diatribe  in  Eurip>  deperditor.  dram,  reliquias.  Lips.  1824.  8.  —  FY. 
Osann,  Epist.  ad  Matthieeum,  de  nonnullis  fabularum  Euripidis  deperd.  titulis.  in  Wolfs  lite- 
rar.  Analekten  (vol.  2d,  p.  527).   Berl.  1820.  —  In  same  work  (Analekten,  vol.  2d,  p.  392),  iiber 

den  Prologus  der  Danaae  (one  of  the  fragments  above  named.) 4.  Bdckh,  Gracce  tragcedia? 

principum,  iEschylr,  Sophoc.  Eurip.  num  ea  quss  supersunt  et  genuina  omnia  sint,  et  forma 
primitiva  servata,  etc.  Heidelb.  1808. 8.—Hardion,  sur  la  tragedie  de  Rhesus,  in  Mem.  de  VAcad. 
des  Inscr.  et  B.  Lett.  torn.  x.  —  Class.  Journ.  No.  xliii.  —  On  different  plavs.  Land.  Quart.  Rev. 
in.  167.    vii.  441.   lx.  348.    xv.  117. 

3.  Ancient  authors  refer  to  a  production  of  Euripides,  styled  ^Etcixi'^hov, 
a  funeral  song,  in  honor  of  Nicias  and  others,  who  perished  in  the  fatal  expe- 
dition of  the  Athenians  against  Syracuse.  There  exist  also  five  letters  ascribed 
to  Euripides. 

The  letters  may  be  found  in  the  editions  of  Barnes,  Beck,  and  others.  —  See  Scholl,  n.  p.  64. 
The  genuineness  of  these  letters  is  discussed  in  R.  Bentleifs  Dissert,  upon  the  epistles  of  Phala- 
ris,  &c.  Lond.  1816.  first  published  in  Wotton,s  Reflect,  on  Anc.  and  Mod.  Learning.  (Cf.  P.  I. 
$29.)  —  Comp.  remarks  of  Beck  in  the  Glasgow  edition  of  Euripides,  vol.  vii.  p.  720. 

4.  In  comparing  Euripides  and  the  other  two  masters  in  Grecian  tragedy,  it 
may  be  said,  that  he  ranks  first  in  tragic  representation  and  effect;  Sophocles 
first  in  dramatic  symmetry  and  ornament ;  and  ^Eschylus  first  in  poetic  vigor 
and  grandeur.  iEschylus  was  the  most  sublime  ;  Sophocles  the  most'beauti- 
ful;  Euripides  the  most  pathetic.  The  first  displays  the  lofty  intellect;  the 
second  exercises  the  cultivated  taste  ;  the  third  indulges  the  feeling  heart. 
Each,  as  it  were,  shows  you  a  fine  piece  of  sculpture.  In  JEschylus,  it  is  a 
naked  hero,  with  all  the  strength,  boldness,  and  dignity  of  olden  time.  In 
Sophocles  and  Euripides,  it  may  be  perhaps  the  same  hero  ;  but  with  the  for- 
mer, he  has  put  on  the  flowing  robes,  the  elegant  address,  and  the  soft  urban- 
ity of  a  polished  age  ;  with  the  latter,  he  is  yielding  to  some  melancholy  emo- 
tion, ever  heedless  of  his  posture  or  gait,  and  casting  his  unvalued  drapery 
negligently  about  him.  They  have  been  compared  by  an  illustration  from  an- 
other art  :  "  The  sublime  and  daring  iEschylus  resembles  some  strong  and 
impregnable  castle  situated  on  a  rock,  whose  martial  grandeur  awes  the  be- 
holder; its  battlements  defended  by  heroes,  and  its  gates  proudly  hung  with 
trophies.  Sophocles  appears  with  splendid  dignity,  like  some  imperial  palace 
of  richest  architecture,  the  symmetry  of  whose  parts  and  the  chaste  magnifi- 
cence of  the  whole,  delight  the  eye,  and  command  the  approbation  of  the  judg- 
ment. The  pathetic  and  moral  Euripides  hath  the  solemnity  of  a  Gothic  tem- 
ple, whose  storied  windows  admit  a  dim  religious  light,  enough  to  show  its 
high  embowed  roof,  and  the  monuments  of  the  dead,  which  rise  in  every  part, 
impressing  our  minds  with  pity  and  terror  at  the  uncertain  and  short  duration 
of  human  greatness,  and  with  an  awful  sense  of  our  own  mortality."  {Potter.) 

On  the  character  of  Euripides  and  his  writings,  comp.  Schlegel,  Dram.  Lit.  lect.  v.  —  Char, 
vomehmst.  Dicht.  (cited  §  61.2)  vol.  v.  p.  335.— Anacharsis,  ch.  lix.— Clodius,  Versuche  aus  der 

Literatur  und  Moral.  Th.  l.  p.  72 Fr.  Jacobs,  Animadvers.  in  Euripidem.   Goth.  1790.  8.  — 

Same,  Curae  Secundae  in  Eurip.  Lips.  1796.  8.  —  Levesque,  Sur  les  trois  Poetes  tragiques  de  la 


190  HISTORY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

Grece.  Mem.  de  Vlnstitut,  classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts.  vol.  i.  p.  305.  —  F.  A.  Schneither,  De  Etr- 

ripide  philosopho.  Gron.1828.  8. Euripides  is  defended  from  the  common  charge  of  misogyny 

in  the  work  styled  Hinterlassene  Papiere  einesphilos.  Landpredigers,  herausgegeben  von  K.  H. 
Heydenreich.   Lips.  1798.  8.      » 

5.  Editions.  —  B.—  Variorum,  Gr.  &  Lat.  (publisher,  Priestley.)  Glasg.  1621.  9  vols.  8.  very 
highly  commended  by  Dibdin  ;  the  text  of  each  play  drawn  from  the  most  eminent  editor  of 
that  play.  —  Beck,  Gr.  &.  Lat.   Lips.  1778-88.  3  vols.  4 \  Matthice,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Lips.  1813-29. 

9  vols.  8.   vol.i — m.  Text,   iv — v.  Scholia,   vi — vni.  Notes,   ix.  Fragments. F. — Princeps, 

by  Aldus.  Ven.  1503.  2  vols.  8.  (or  12.  Dibdin.)  — There  was  an  edition  of  four  plays,  perhaps 
earlier,  but  without  date,  printed  at  Florence.  —  Hervagius.  Basil,  1537,  44,  51.  (three  editions) 

2  vols.  8.  —  Oporinus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Basil,  1562.  fol.  —  Canterus.  Antw.  1571.  12.  —  Commelin, 
Gr.  &.  Lat.  Heidelb.  1597.  2  vols.  8.  —  P.  Stephanus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Genev.  1602.  A.  —  %  Barnes, 
Gr.  &.  Lat.   Oxon.  4  vols.  4.  differently  estimated  by  critics.  —  Foulis,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Glasg.  1797. 

10  vols.  12. R.— E.  Zimmermann,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Francof.  ad  M.  (Francfort)  1808-15.  4  vols.  8. 

—  F.  H.  Bothe.  Lips.  1825.  2  vols.  8.  —  R.  Porson.  (Hecuba,  Orestes,  Phcenissae,  &  Medea)  Lond. 
1822.  8.  —  Same,  with  notes  by  Hermann.  Lips.  1824.  8.  —  A.  J.  E.  Pfiugk,  in  Rost's  Bibliotheca. 

To  detail  editions  of  single  plays  would  take  too  much  space.    Among  the  most  celebrated 

editors  are,  O.Hermann,  B  ace  h  33.  Lpz.  1823.  Al  cestis  .  Lpz.  1824.  Hecuba.  Lips. 
1831.  .fee.  —  P.  Elmsley,  Bacchae.  Lips.  1822.  Medea.  Oxf.  1818.  —  L.  C.  Valckendr, 
P  h  ce  n  i  s  s  ae .  (rec.  ed.)  Lips.1824.  —  J.  H.  Monk,  Hipp  olytus.  Camb.1829.  (cf.  Lond.  Quart. 

Rev.  vol.  xv.)      Alcestis.    Camb.1818. The  following  should  be  noticed  :    J.  R.  Major. 

(Hecuba,  Orestes,  Phcenissae,  &.  Medea.)  Lond.  1833.  8.  with  Engl,  notes.  —  §  T.  D.  Woolsey, 
Alcestis  (with  the  Prometheus  of  iEschylus,  and  the  Antigone  &  Electra  of  Sophocles),  in 

his  Selection  of  Greek  Tragedies.   Bost.  1837.  2  vols.  12.  designed  for  Schools  and  Colleges. 

The  Cyclops  separately  ;  Hdpfner.  Lips.1798.  8. — Cum  notis  variorum.  Glasg.  1819.  8.  Gr.  & 
Lat. 

6.  Translations.  —  German.— F.  H.  Bothe.  (met.)  Berl.  1800.  5  vols.  8.  (new  edit.  1837.) 

French. — P.  Prevost.  Par.  1783.  3  vols.  8.  and  in  Brumoy's  Theatre  des  Grecs. English — 

R.  Potter.  Lond.  1783.  2  vols.  4.  and  later.  —  M.  Woodhull.  Lond.  1782.  4  vols.  8.  1802.  3  vols.  8. 
— T.  W.  C.  Edwards,  Gr.  &.  Eng.  prose.  (Medea,  Hecuba,  Phcenissa;,  Alcestis.)   Lond.  1821-24.  8. 

—  By  a  member  of  the  University,  (prose.)  Oxf.  1820-22.  2  vols.  8.  including  Hecuba,  Orestes, 
Phcenissae,  Medea,  Hippolytus,  &  Alcestis. 

7.  Illustrative.  —  C.  Fr.  Amnion,  Diss,  de  Eurip.  Hecuba.  Erl.  1788.  4.  —  Fr.  JV.  Morus, 
Prog,  de  Phoenissis  Eur.  Lips.  1771.  4.  —  H.  Blumner,  Ueber  die  Medea  von  Euripides.  Lpz. 
1790.  8.  —  Bouterwek,  de  philosophia  Euripidea,  &c.  in  the  Commentt.  class,  hist,  etphilos.  Soc. 
Reg.  Scientiar.  torn.  iv.  and  in  Miscell.  Qrac.  Dram.   Cambridge.  —  C.  A.  Bbttiger's  prolusi- 

ones  ii.  de  Medea  Eurip.  cum  priscaj  artis  operibus  comparata.   Weim.  1802.  4. 4.  W.   Schle- 

gel,  Compar.  entre  la  Phedre  de  Racine  et  celle  d'Euripide.  Par.  1807.  8.  —  L.  Racine  &.  Bat- 
teaux,  in  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  &c.  torn.  vni.  x.  xlii.  —  Henr.Aug.  Zeibisch,  Disp.  qua  mos 
Graecorum  infantes  exponendi  ex  variis  scriptor.  antiq.  maxime  Euripidis  lone  illustratur. 
Wittenb.1753.  4. — R.  P.  Joddrell,  Illustrations  on  the  Alcestis,  Ion,  and  Bacchae.  Lond.  1789, 90. 

3  vols.  8. 

§  64.  Empedocles,  of  Agrigentum  in  Sicily,  who  nourished  about 
B.  C.  440,  may  be  mentioned  here  as  a  didactic  poet.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  eminent  men  in  his  native  land,  and  distinguished  as  a  phi- 
losopher and  naturalist.  That  from  ostentatious  pride  he  threw  him- 
self into  the  crater  of  vEtna,  is  a  fable;  he  probably  died  while  jour- 
neying in  Peloponnesus. 

lu.  A  poem  in  three  books,  on  the  nature  of  things  (TZeoi  (pvoewg  rdv  orrtov) 
is  ascribed  to  him  by  ancient  authors.  It  was  imitated  by  Lucretius,  and  a 
fragment  of  it  still  remains.  Another  poem,  called  the  Sphere  (2cpaiQa,)  was 
ascribed  to  him,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  from  some  later  author.  — 

2.  Other  productions  were  ascribed  to  him,  particularly  a  number  of  verses 
under  the  name  of  Ka6aouoi,  and  a  poem  called  ' laruiy.bg  /.oyog.  Some  have 
considered  him  as  the  author  of  the  so  called  golden  verses  of  Pythagoras.  In 
philosophy  he  was  a  disciple  of  the  Italic  or  Pythagorean  school.  His  Life  is 
given  by  Diogenes  Laertius. 

For  his  philosophical  views,  see  Enfield's  Hist.  Phil.  bk.  n.  ch.  xii.  §  2.  (vol.  i.  p.  430.  Dub- 
lin, 1792.)  —  H.  Ritter,  in  Wolf's  Analekten,  vol.  n.  p.  411.  —  Cousin's  French  Trans,  of  Ten- 
nemann's  Hist.  Phil.  vol.  l.  $  108.  —  B.  H.  C.  Lommatisch,  Die  Weisheit  des  Empedocles,  &c. 
Berl.  1830.  8. 

2.  Editions.— B.—Fr.  W.  Stun,  Empedocles  Agrigentinus,  &c.  Lips.  1805.  2  vols.  8.  Con- 
taining his  poetical  fragments,  and  also  a  view  of  his  life,  character,  writings,  &.c. — 9.  Peyron, 

Empedoclis  et  Parmenidis  Fragmenta.  Lips.  1810.  8. The  poem  of  the  Sphere  was  published 

by  F.  Morel  (Par.  1584.  4),  as  the  work  of  Dem.  Triclinius,  probably  author  of  the  copy  that 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Morel.  Shortly  after  (1587.  4)  a  Latin  translation  by  Q.  Sept.  Florent. 
Christianv-s.— The  original  and  the  translation  by  B.  Hederich.  Dresd.  1711.  4.— Both  found 
also  in  Fabricius,  (Hailes  ed.)  vol.  i.  p.  816. 

§  65.  Aristophanes  lived  at  Athens  about  B.  C.  430.  His  native 
place  is  not  certainly  fyiown.  He  is  the  only  comic  poet  of  the 
Greeks,  from  whom  any  complete  plays  now  remain.     Aristophanes 


POETS.       EMPEDOCLES.       ARISTOPHANES.     MENANDER.         191 

possessed  a  very  fertile  genius,  a  lively  wit,  true  comic  power,  and 
Attic  elegance.  We  are  obliged,  however,  to  charge  him  with  bit- 
ter personal  satire,  and  ridicule  of  worthy  men,  especially  of  Socra- 
tes and  Euripides.  This,  it  is  true,  was  in  accordance  with  the  char- 
acter of  Grecian  comedy  at  that  time,  as  was  also  his  abundant  con- 
tempt for  the  common  religious  belief.  His  plays  furnish  a  valuable 
means  of  learning  the  state  of  manners  and  morals  among  the  Greeks 
in  his  age. 

1.  He  was  probably  a  native  of  Mg'ma,.     He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 

380  B.  C,  at  the  age  of  80. Nich.  Frischlin,  Life  of  Aristoph.  prefixed  to 

Kuster's  edition  (cited  below). — Fuhrmann's  Klein.  Handbuch.  p.  163. 

2  u.  Of  more  than  fifty  comedies  written  by  him,  only  eleven  are  extant. 
They  are  styled  'A/aqvsig,  the  Acharnians  ;  'Innilq,  Knights;  Nnfi?.air 
Clouds;  2(ptj%eg,  Wasps;  Eiqt\rri,  Peace  ;  *'Oovi&tg,  Birds ;  Avaiarqurtj,  Lysis- 
trata;  Qtouoyoqiutovoai,  Females  keeping  the  festival  QeouoyoQia  (in  honor 
of  Ceres);  Burqaxoi,  Frogs;  'ExyJ.tjOiuiovoai,  Females  in  Assembly ;  ffl.ov- 
rog,  Flutus,  god  of  riches. 

3.  In  the  ^AyctQrsig,  the  author  attacks  Euripides,  and  in  the  Otouoyonia- 
Lovoai  and  Burqa/oi  also  brings  him  particularly  into  view.  Tt  is  in  the  Nty- 
tflttl  that  Socrates  is  ridiculed  ;  many  have  supposed  that  the  poet  merely  in- 
tended to  ridicule,  under  the  name  of  Socrates,  the  sophists  in  general,  and 
that  this  play  had  little  or  no  influence  in  reference  to  the  trial  and  condem- 
nation of  that  philosopher. 

SchlegePs  Dram.  Lit.  lect.  vi.  vol.  i.  p.  203.— Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.  vol.  n.  p.  95.— Mitchell's 
Translation,  Introduction.  (Cf.  Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  xxxiv.  North  Amer.  Rev.  vol.  xiv.  London 
Quarterly,  vol.  xxm.) — Harles,  de  Consilio  Aristoph.  in  scribend.  comoed.  Nubes  inscripta. 
Erlang.  1767. — Remarks  on  Aristophanes,  and  that  part  of  his  life  which  relates  to  Socrates. 
Lond.  1786.  8.— For  a  view  of  the  character  of  Aristophanes  and  his  writings,  we  add  Char- 
■akt.  vornehmst.  Dicht.  (cited  $61.  2.)  vol.  vii.  p.  113. — Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  ix.  p.  141. — Boivin, 
in  the  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  jnscr.  iv.  549— Lebeau,  in  the  samewk.  xxx.  29,  and  Dutlieil,  xxxix. 
203. — Levesque,  in  Mem.  de  PInstitut,  C 1  as  s  e  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts,  vol.  i.  p.  344. 

4.  Editions. B.— *  Imm.  Bekker,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1829.  5  vols.  8.  With  Scholia,  vari- 
ous readings,  and  notes  of  different  critics.— Brunck,  Gr.&  Lat.  Strasb.  1783.  4  vols.  8.  Repr.  Oxf. 
1811.  4  vols.  8.  with  the  Lexicon  Aristophaneum  of  ./.  Sanxay,  as  5th  vol. — Inverniz,  Becky 
&  Dindorf.  Lips.  1795-1834.  13  vols.  8.    Vol.  l.  if.  Text;  m-ix.  Notes;  x-xn.  Scholia;  xm. 

Latin  version,  with  Mitchell's  Proleg. F. — Princeps,  by  Aldus,  (Marc.  Musurus  ed.)   Ven. 

1498.  fol.  cum  Schol.  (9  comedies.)— Junta.  Flor.  1515.  8 ;  1525.  4.  (ed.  Francinus.) — Cratan- 
drus  (ed.  S.  Orynceus.)  Basil,  1532.  4.  {First  containing  11  comedies.)— Zannetti.  Ven. 
1538.  8.—Froben.  Basil,  1547.  fol.— Mc.  Frischlin,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Francof.  ad  M.  1597.  8.— JEmil. 
Portus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Aurel.  Allobr.  1607.  fol.—Lud.  Kuster,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Amst.  1710.  fol.  Very 
highly  esteemed. — Bcrgler,  rather  P.  Burman  (with  notes  of  S.  Bcrgler  and  C.  Dukcr),  Gr.  &. 
Lat.  Luc.  Bat.  1760.  2  vols.  4. R.—C  O.  Schutz.  Lpz.  1821.  8.  Commenced  ;  never  fin- 
ished.— Schcefer.  Lpz.  1818.  2  vols.  8.—F.H.Bothe.  Lpz.  1830, '31.  4  vols.  8.—  T.  Mitchell, 
Acharnenses,  Aves,  &  Vespac,  with  English  notes.  Lond.  1835.  8.— Editions  of  separate  plays 
cannot  here  be  cited.  Melancthon,  Hemsterhuis,  Harles,  Kuinbl,  Hermann,  Hcepfner,  and 
Elmsley,  are  among  the  principal  names.    Beck,  Wolf,  and  Reisig  may  be  added. 

5.  Translations.  —  German.— J.  H.  Voss,  with  notes.  Braunschw.  1821.  3  vols.  8.  Com- 
mended by  Fuhrmann. French.—  L.  Poinsinet  de  Sivry.    Par.  1784.  4  vols.  8.— A.  C.  Bro- 

tier,  in  the  Theatre  des  Grecs. Italian.—  B.  Sf  P.  Rositini.     Ven.  1544.  8. English.—  Th. 

Mitchell.  Camb.  1817.  3  vols.  8.  With  valuable  notes  and  preliminary  dissertations.— Cwm- 
berland  (and  others),  Of  the  Clouds,  Plutus,  Frogs,  and  Birds.    Lond.  1812. 

6.  Illustrative.— .Reisio-,  Conjectaneorum  in  Aristoph.  Libb.  n.  Lips.  1816.  8.— P.  F.  Kann- 
giesser,  cited  $  41.— J.  6.  Willamow,  de  Ethopceia  comica  Aristoph.  Berl.  1766.  8.— J.  Floder, 
Diss,  explicans  Antiquites  Aristophaneas.  Ups.  1768.  4.— The  fragment  of  Plutarch  contain- 
ing a  comparison  of  Aristophanes  and  Menander.— Aug.  Seidlcr,  de  Aristoph.  fragmentis. 
Halle,  Sax.  1818.  4.— Class.  Jour.  No.  xxvin.— C.  A.  Bottiger,  Aristophanes  impunitus  Deo- 
rum  irrisor.  Lips.  1790.  8.— P.  Dobree,  Aristophanica  Porsoni.  Cant.  1820.  8.—  C.  Passowy 
Apparatus  crit.  ad  Aristoph.  Lips.  1828.  12.— J.  Caravella,  Index  Aristophanicus,  &c.  Oxf. 
1824.  8. — H.  J.  Rbtscher,  Aristophanes  und  sein  Zeitalter.     Berl.  1827.   8. 

§  66.  Menander,  born  at  Athens  about  B.  C.  342,  one  of  the  later 
comic  poets  of  the  Greeks.  He  wrote  numerous  comedies  (§  43), 
of  which  we  possess  only  slight  fragments.  The  loss  of  Menander 
is  the  more  regretted  on  account  of  the  praise  bestowed  on  him  by 
Quintilian  (x.  1).  Some  idea  of  his  manner  may  be  obtained,  how- 
ever, from  the  imitations  of  him  in  Terence.  Philemon  is  usually 
named  in  connection  with  Menander,  as  a  contemporary  and  rival. 


192  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

1.  Menander  died  at  the  age  of  about  50 ;  Philemon,  a  native  according  to 
some  of  Sicily,  but  according  to  others  of  Cilicia,  lived  to  the  great  age  of 
97  or  99.  The  former  was  rather  a  voluptuary ;  the  latter  was  particularly 
temperate. 

De  Rochefort,  on  Menander,  Mem.  Acad,  fnscr.  vol.  xlvi.  p.  183. — SchlegeVs  Dram.  Lit.  lect. 
vu.—Dnvlop,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  109.  2. 

2.  Editions.— B.—^.  C.  Meinecke.    Berl.  1823.  8.     Fragments  of  Menander  and  Philemon  ; 

with  Bentley's  emendations. They  are  found  in  the  collections  cited  $  43.    That  of  Le 

Clerc  occasioned  a  bitter  literary  war.  (Scholl,  in.  p.  82.  Harles,  Int.  i.  p.  489.  Brev.  Not.  p. 
226. >— J.  6.  Schneider.    Vratisl.  1812.  8.     With  ^Esop's  Fables. 

§  67.  Lycophron,  a  poet  and  grammarian,  born  at  Chalcis  in  Eu- 
boea,  flourished  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  B.  C.  about 
284.  His  performance  styled  Vi;.^u?<?o«,  Alexandra  or  Cassandra, 
was  improperly  ranked  in  the  class  of  tragedies;  it  is  a  monologue 
or  monodrama,  in  which  Cassandra  predicts  to  Priam  the  fate  of 
Troy.  This  topic  is  interwoven  with  many  others,  pertaining  to  the 
history  and  mythology  of  different  nations,  so  as  to  render  the  poem 
obscure  and  heavy. 

1.  Lycophron  was  a  writer  of  tragedies,  and  was  ranked  among  the  Pleia- 
des (§  40).  A  work  also  on  the  subject  of  comedy,  IJiol  y.ouicodtac,  was  writ- 
ten by  him.  The  loss  of  the  latter  is  more  regretted  than  the  loss  of  his 
dramatic  pieces.  The  grammarians  of  Alexandria  collected  a  mass  of  materi- 
als illustrating  his  Cassandra,  from  which  John  Tzetzes  compiled  a  large  com- 
mentary.   SchOll,  iii.  p.  96. 

2.  Editions.— R.—Ch.  O.  MMler.   Lips.  1811.  3  vols.  8.  With  the  Scholia  of  Tzetzes.     (Cf. 

Dibdin,  n.  p.  211.     Scholl,  inf.  p.  106.)— L.  Bachmann.  Lpz.  1830.  8 F.— Princeps,  by  Aldus. 

Ven.  1513.  8.  With  Pindar  and  Callimachus. — Peraxylus  or  P.  Lacisius.  Basil,  1546.  fol.  (Cf. 
Dibdin,  n.  p.  208.)—  W.  Canter.  Basil,  1566.  4.  With  brief  notes  and  two  Latin  translations, 
one  in  prose  by  Canter,  the  other  in  verse  by  Jos.  Scaliger.—\  J.  Potter,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Oxf.  1702. 

Much  celebrated.— |  B.  6.  Reichard,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Lips.  1788.  2  vols.  8. J  L.  Sebastian,  Gr.  & 

Lat.    Rom.  1803.  4.     Commended  by  Dibdin. 

An  English  version  of  Lycophron  by  Royston,  Class.  Jour.  xm.  xiv. 

§  68.  Theocritus,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  flourished  in  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  in  the  reign  of  the  second  Hiero,  B.  C. 
about  275.  We  have  under  his  name  thirty  Idyls,  >EiSvUta,  some  of 
which  are  probably  not  genuine,  and  also  twenty-two  smaller  pieces, 
chiefly  epigrams.  He  was  the  most  distinguished  of  ancient  authors 
in  the  department  of  pastoral  poetry.  Virgil  followed  him  as  a 
master  and  model,  but  was  his  inferior  in  simplicity  and  fidelity  to 
nature. 

1.  We  cannot  assert  what  induced  Theocritus  to  remove  from  Syracuse  to 
Alexandria,  where  he  certainly  spent  part  of  his  life.  Some  have  stated  that 
certain  satires  composed  by  him  against  Hiero  exposed  him  to  the  vengeance 
of  that  monarch.  Where  and  when  he  died  is  not  known,  although  it  has 
been  supposed,  that  he  retured  to  Sicily  and  suffered  a  violent  death  from  the 
vengeance  of  Hiero. —  Cf.  Life  of  Theocritus  in  Polwhcle  cited  below. 

2.  The  nature  of  the  Greek  Idyl  has  already  been  exhibited  (§  30).  The 
Idyls  of  Theocritus  are  not  confined  to  pastoral  subjects.  Of  the  thirty  as- 
cribed to  him,  only  fifteen  can  properly  be  considered  as  bucolic  or  pastoral ; 
viz.  the  first  9  and  the  11th,  considered  by  all  as  genuine  bucolics,  and  the 
10th,  20th,  21st,  23d,  and  27th,  which  maybe  put  in  the  same  class.  Five 
are  mythological,  viz.  the  13th,  22d,  24th,  25th,  and  26th.  Three  have  been 
termed  epistolary,  12th,  28th,  and  29th,  bearing  a  slight  resemblance  to  the 
epistles  of  Ovid,  but  having  less  of  the  elegiac  character.  They  are  called 
lyric  by  Scholl.  Tico  may  be  denominated  comic,  the  14th  and  15th.  The 
latter,  ^vfjaxovniut,  the  Syracvsan  Gossips,  has  no  more  of  the  pastoral  in  its 
tone  than  a  scene  from  Aristophanes.  (Cf.  §  46.)  Two  others  may  be  styled 
panegyrical,  the  16th  and  17th.  And  there  are  two  in  the  collection,  19th  and 
30th,  which  may  properly  enough  perhaps  be  called  Anacreontic,  being  mere 
sanitations  of  the  lighter  odes  of  Anacreon.     The  remaining  one,  18th,  is  a 


POETS.       THEOCRITUS.       BION.       MOSCHUS.  193 

genuine  epithalamium,  according  to  its  title,  cE?.ivtjg  iTciQakaiuog.  —  The  rep- 
utation of  Theocritus  is  built  on  his  Idyls.  The  epigrams  would  scarcely 
have  preserved  his  name  from  oblivion.  —  One  piece  of  a  peculiar  character 
remains,  termed  the  Stiqiytj  consisting  of  21  verses  so  arranged  as  to  form  a 
resemblance  to  the  pipe  of  the  god  Pan.  In  the  Alexandrine  age  there  was 
a  depraved  fondness  for  such  odd  and  fanciful  devices,  in  which  the  poet's 
lines  presented  the  form  of  eggs,  axes,  wings,  or  altars. 

E.  Hepner,  De  Theoc.  Idyll,  generibus.  Berl.  1836.  4.  pp.  19.— E.  Reinhold,  De  genuin.  Theo. 
carminibus.  Jen.  1819.  8. For  the  character  of  Theocritus,  see  Elton's  Specimens  of  Clas- 
sic Poets.— Charact.  der  vorn.  Dichter,  i.  p.  89. — C.  W.  Ahlwardt,  zur  Erklarung  der  Idyll.  The- 
okrits.  Rostach.  1792.  8. — Eichstasdt,  Adumb.  quaest.  de  carm.  Theocr.  indole  ac  virtutibus. 
Lips.  1794.  4. — Hardion,  De  Theocr.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  iv.  520. 

3.  The  epithalamium  of  Helen  has  been  thought  to  resemble  the  Song  of  Solomon,  and  some 
have  supposed  that  Theocritus  imitated  the  latter.  Scholl  opposes  this  idea,  although  there 
are  passages  in  the  Idyls  containing  imagery  which  might  have  been  drawn  from  the  Scrip- 
tures.   The  Septuagint  version  was  made  in  the  time  of  Theocritus. Comp.  Idyl.  xxiv.  84, 

with  Isaiah,  lxv.  25  and  xi.  6  ;  Id.  xviii.  26-28  with  Sol.  Song,  i.  9  and  vi.  10  ;  Id.  xx.  26  with 
Sol.  Song,  iv.  11 ;  Id.  xxiii.  23-26  with  Sol.  Song,  viii.  6,  7.— See  Scholl,  vol.  in.  p.  146.— Mat- 
ter, Essai  sur  l'Ecole  Alexandrie.— Ch.  Fr.  Staudlin,  Theokrits  Idyll,  und  das  hohe  Lied  ver- 
glichen,  in  Paulas,  Memorabilien,  vol.  it.  p.  162. 

4.  Editions.— B.—  Th.  Kiessling,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lips.  1819.  8.  "  Perhaps  the  very  best,  up  to 
the  time  of  its  publication."  Dibdin. — Jacobs.  Halae,  (commenced)  1824.  8.  Promising  to  be 
most  ample. — E.  F.  Wustemann.  Gothae,  1830.  8.  pp.  435,  with  notes  on  each  page  ;  prepared 
with  the  assistance  of  Fr.  Jacobs,  and  forming  a  volume  of  his  Bibliotli.  cited  §  7.  1.  "  Best 
for  Amer.  student." — J.  B.  Gail.  Par.  1795.  3  vols.  4.  With  French  version,  and  plates.  New 
ed.  1828.  2  vols.  8.  and  volume  of  plates,  4.— Of  previous  editions,  the  best  are,  Th.  Warton, 
Oxf.  1770.  2  vols.  4,  and  L.  C.  Valckenaer,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lug.  Bat.  1779.  8.  repr.  (ed.  Heindorf,). 

Berl.  1810.  2  vols.  8. F.—Princeps,  (18  Idyls,  with  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod.)     Milan, 

1493.  fol.  time  and  place  known  only  by  conjecture.  Dibdin. — Second,  by  Aldus,  (with  Hesiod.) 
Ven.  1495.  fol.— Junta.  Flor.  1515,  1540.  8.—Calliergus,  cum  schol.  Rome,  1516.  8.  Thought 
to  be  the  second  Greek  book  printed  at  Rome. — Morel.  Par.  1561.  4. — H.  Stephanas.  Par.  1566. 
In  Poet.  Princ.  cited  §  47  t.  and  1579.  12.  Gr.  &  Lat.   With  Bion  and  Moschus.— D.  Heinsius, 

Gr.  &  Lat.    Heid.  1604.  4.    Repr.  Oxf.  1676.   8.    Lond.   1729.  8.     1758.    8. Martinus,   Gr. 

&  Lat.  Lond.  1760.  8.—Reiske,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lips.  1765.  2  vols.  4.—F.  A.  Stroth.  Goths,  1780. 
8.  Particularly  valued  for  its  illustrations  of  terms  and  phrases  pertaining  to  botany  and  natural 
history.    Dibdin.    4th  ed.  by  Stroth  and  Jacobs,  (for  schools.)    Gothae,  1821.  8. — Bodoni  (ed.  B. 

Zamagna).    Parma:,   1791.  2  vols.    8.     With  Latin  version.     "  Edition  du  luxe."  ScJibll. 

B.—Dahl.  Lips.  1804.  8.—G.  G.  Schafcr.  Lips.  1810.  fol.  Splendid ;  on  basis  of  Valckenar's. 
— L.  F.  Heindorf.    Berl.  1810.  2  vols.  8.   Including  Bion  and  Moschus,  with  notes  of  Valcken'ar, 

Brunck,  and  Troup J.  Geel.    Amsterd.  1820.  8. —  Th.  Briggs,  Poetae  Bucol.  Graeci.    Cambr. 

1821. 2  vols.  8.    Theocr.  Bion,  &  Mosch.  with  Lat.  version. 

5.  Translations — German.— Finkcn stein,  Arethusa.  oder  die  bukol.  Dichter  des  Alterthums. 

Berl.  1806.  8.     Containing  a  Life  of  Theoc— J".  H.  Voss.    Tubing.  1808.  8. French.— Cha- 

banmi.    Par.  1777.  8.— Gin.    Par.  1788.  2  vols.   8. Italian.—^.  M.  Salvini.     Ven.  1718.   12. 

With  annot.  by  Desmarais,    Aret.  1754.  8. English. — E.  B.  Greene.   Lond.  1767.  8. — R.  Pol- 

whele,  (with  Bion  and  Mochus.)    Lond.  1792.  2  vols.  8. 

§  69.  Bion  of  Smyrna,  and  Moschus  of  Syracuse,  were  contem- 
porary with  Theocritus,  as  is  generally  supposed.  The  Idyls  of 
Moschus  belong  rather  to  descriptive  than  to  pastoral  poetry,  proper- 
ly speaking  ;  they  have  more  refinement,  with  less  of  natural  simplic- 
ity, than  the  pieces  of  Theocritus.  The  Seizure  of  Eur opa  is,  the 
most  beautiful.  The  Idyls  of  Bion  contain  elegant  passages ;"  but 
they  savor  too  much  of  art,  and  are  wanting  in  the  freedom  and  nai- 
vete of  Theocritus.  His  principal  piece  is  the  funeral  song  in  honor 
of  Adonis. 

1.  Some  have  placed  the  dates  of  these  poets  considerably  later  than  the 
time  of  Theocritus.  Their  era  is  perhaps  a  matter  of  real  doubt.  —  Manso, 
Abh.  von.  Bion's  Leben,in  his  ed.  cited  below.  3. 

2.  There  remain  of  Mosclyis  four  Idyls,  and  a  few  smaller  pieces  ;  of  Bion, 
besides  the  piece  above  named,  only  some  short  Idyls,  and  a  fragment  of  a 
longer  one.  These  pieces  have  usually  been  published  in  connection  with 
those  of  Theocritus  ;  and  anciently  they  were  in  fact  confounded  with  them. 

Schcll,  in.  p.  175.— C.  F.  Grafc,  EpistoUe  crit.  in  Bucolicos  Graecos.    Petropoli.  1815.  4. 

3.  Editions.— B.— Jacobs,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Gothae,  1795.  8.—J.  C.  F.  Manso.  Lpz.  new  ed.  1807. 
8.  Gr.  &.  Germ,  with  notes.  The  1st  ed.  1784.  inferior.— With  Theocritus.  Lond.  1826.  2  vols. 
8.    Gr.  &  Lat.  with  Greek  Scholia,  and  notes  from  Kiessling,  Heindorf,  Scc—Valckendr,  with 

Theocritus,  cited  $  68.  4. F.—Princeps,  in  Aldus,  with  Theocr.    Ven.  1495.   fol.— The  first 

ed.  of  B.  and  M.  separate  from  Theocr.  was  by  Mckerckus.  Brug.  Fl.  1565.  A.—  Vulcanius,  Gr. 
&  Lat.  with  Callimachus.  Antw.  1584.  U.—Hcskin,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Oxf.  1748 — Schier.  Lips.  1752. 
—  Wakefield.    Lond.  1795.    Without  accents. 

17 


194  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

4.   Translations. — German. — Manso,  as  just  cited. French. — J.  B.  Gail.    Par.  1794.  12. 

■ — -English.— Greene  and  Polwhele,  cited  $68.  5. 

§  70.  Cattimachus,  of  Cyrene  in  Lybia,  nourished  B.  C.  about 
260.  He  was  a  historian  and  grammarian,  at  Alexandria,  patron- 
ized by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  by  him  placed  in  the  Museum. 
(Cf.  P.  I.  §  74.)  Of  his  many  writings  we  have  only  six  hymns, 
some  smaller  poems,  and  a  considerable  number  of  fragments.  His 
hymns  exhibit  more  of  study  and  artificial  effort,  than  of  true  poeti- 
cal spirit.  Quintilian,  however,  ranks  him  as  the  first  elegiac  poet 
of  the  Greeks ;  and  he  certainly  was  imitated  by  the  Roman  Pro- 
pertius. 

1.  The  Hymns  of  Callimachus  are  in  elegiac  verse.  Five  are  in  the  Ionic, 
one  in  the  Doric  dialect.  That  addressed  to  Ceres  is  judged  the  best.  Be- 
sides these,  he  composed  Elegies,  which  were  regarded  as  the  chief  ground  of 
his  reputation ;  but  of  which  only  fragments  remain.  Another  class  of  his 
pieces  consisted  of  Epigrams,  of  which  nearly  80  remain.  Strabo  refers  to 
his  Iambics  and  Choliambics,  and  some  fragments  of  these  still  exist.  Among 
his  poetical  works  are  named  also  three  little  poems;  viz.  *A%xtai,  on  the 
causes  of  fable,  custom,  &c. ;  'ExuZtj,  on  the  hospitality  shown  by  an  old  fe- 
male to  Theseus,  on  his  way  against  the  bull  of  Marathon  ;  and^7/9t$,  a  poem 
directed  against  one  of  his  pupils  charged  with  ingratitude.  Many  prose 
works  were  written  by  this  grammarian  and  professed  teacher  ;  rY7iouvi'ltuura, 
Memoirs  or  Commentaries;  Kriotic  v t/fwv  y.ai  rcuZswv,  Settlements  of  islands 
and  cities;  Qavuuaia,  on  the  wonders  of  the  world;  Movotlov,  an  account  of 
the  Museum  at  Alexandria  ;  Tliva%  7nxvro8artorv  ovyyoaituuTixir,  a  sort  of  uni- 
versal Tableau  of  Letters,  in  120  books,  containing  an  account  of  authors  in 
every  department,  methodically  arranged,  the  first  example  probably  of  a  his- 
tory of  literature.  Some  of  those  performances,  which  were  styled  Ji$uay.a'/.lai 
(§  47),  are  also  ascribed  to  him.  All  these  works  are  lost.  —  Scholl,  in.  p.  109. 
— Porte  Dutheil,  in  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxix.  185. 

2.  Editions.— B.—Ernesti,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lug.  Bat.  1761.  2  vols.  8.—C.  J.  Blomfield,  Lond.  1815. 
8. — F>-.  M.  Volger,  Lpz.  1817.  8.  containing  the  Hymns  and  Epigrams  ;  a  good  school  edition. 
Volgcr  promised  a  grand  edition  of  all  the  remains   of  Callimachus. — C.  Gottlino-,  Goth.  1835. 

8.  in  Rost's  Bibliotheca. —  Valckendr's  fragments  of  the  Elegies,   by  Lutac,  Leyd\  1799.8. 

F. — Princeps,  of  J.  Lascar,  Flor.  1495.  4.  in  capitals  ;  called  by  Dibdin,  the  edition  of  Jllopa,  be- 
ing the  4th  of  the  5  extremely  rare  works  printed  in  capitals  by  L.  Fr.  de  Alopa. — Frobcn,  Ba- 
sil. 1532.  4.—Robortellus,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Ven.  1555.  8. — H.  Stephanus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Genev.  1577.  4. — 
Fabcr  (Anne  le  Fever  afterwards  Madame  Dacier),  Lutet.  Paris.  1674.  8.  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Her  first 
effort  in  editing.— %  Groevius,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Ultraj.  (Utrecht)  1697.  2  vols.  8.-7*.  Bcntleu,  Gr.  & 
Lat.  Lond.  1741.  8.  Cf.  Mas.  Crit.  ii.  p.  150.  Class.  Jour.  ix.  p.  35.— Faults,  Glasg.  1755.  fol. 
— Bandini,  Gr.  Lat.  &.  Ital.  Flor.  1763.  8.—Bodoni,  Parm.  1792.  fol.  in  capitals,  with  an  Italian 
version . 

3.  Translations.— German.— C.  Schwenk,  Bonn.  1821.  8. — ihlwardt,  (metrical)  Berl.  1794.  8. 

French.—  G.  la  Porte  du  Theil,  Par.  1775.  8.— P.  Rhadel,  with  Lat.  vers.  Par.  1808.  8. 

English.— JT.  Doid,  Lond.  1755.  4.— H.  W.  Tytler,  Gr.  &  Eng.  Lond.  1793.  4. 

4.  Illustrative. — C.  G.  Gbttliwr.  Animadv.  crit.  in  Callim.  Epigrammata.  Jen.  1811.  8 J.  G. 

Zierlnir,  Disp.  de  ingenio  Callim.  Hall.  1770.  4. — Nachtrage  zu  Suiter's  Theorie,  otherwise 
styled  Charaktere  der  vornehmsten  Dichtcr  (cited  $  61.  2.)  vol.  n.  p.  86. 

5.  Phdetas  of  Cos,  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  sometimes  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion and  comparison  with  Callimarhus  (<$  29). — The  fragments  of  his  Elegies  were  published 
separately  by  C.  Ph.Kayscr,  Coil.  1793.  8". 

§  71.  Aratus  of  Soli,  afterwards  called  Pompeiolis,  in  Cilicia, 
nourished  B.  C.  about  278.  At  the  request  of  Antigonus,  king  of 
Macedon,  he  wrote  an  astronomical  poem  under  the  title  of  frunousra 
y.ai  Jiocjiuetai.  It  was  not  strictly  an  origiftal,  as  the  request  of  the 
king  his  patron  was,  that  he  should  clothe  in  verse  two  treatises,  the 
""EronTQuv  and  the  tfiairvpsva,  of  Eudoxus.  This  poem  is  memorable 
on  account  of  Cicero's  metrical  translation  of  it.  Of  this  transla- 
tion, however,  only  slight  fragments  remain.  It  was  translated  into 
Latin  verse  also  by  Caesar  Germanicus,  and  by  Festus  Avienus. 
That    of  Avienus  and  a  part  of  the  other  are  still  extant. 

1.  The  poem  of  Aratus  was  much  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  Cf.  Ov.  Amor. 


POETS.       ARATUS.    CLEANTHES.    APOLLONIUS  RHODIUS.  195 

i.  15.  v.  16.  Quint  x.  1.  55.  Although  he  is  charged  with  knowing  but 
little  on  the  subject  of  astronomy,  many  of  the  mathematicians  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  his  work;  four  of  these  are  yet  in  existence.  Delambre  (Hist. 
Astr.  Anc.  i.  p.  74.)  remarks  that  Aratus  has  preserved  nearly  all  that  the 
Greeks  knew  of  the  science,  at  least  so  far  as  it  could  be  told  in  verse. 
Schall,  iii.  137. 

2.  There  are  three  anonymous  lives  of  Aratus,  besides  the  notice  of  Suidas. 
On  the  later  didactic  poets  of  the  Greeks,  Aratus,  Nicander,  and  Oppian,  we 
may  refer  to  the  Nacht.  zu  Sulzer  (cf.  §  70.  5.)  vol.  vi.  p.  350. 

3.  Editions. — B. — T.  O.  Buhle,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lpz.  1793-1801.  2  vols.  8.  containing  the  versions 
of  Germanicus  and  Avienus  ;  also  Leontius  de  Sphara. — F.  Ch.  MatthUe,  Frankf.  1817.  8.  with 

Eratosthenes,  Dionysius,  and  Avienus. F. — Princrps,  by   Aldus,  in  the  Astronomi  Vcteres. 

Ven.  1499.  2  vols.  fol.  Cf.  Scholl,  i.  p.  50.  Intr.— Micylli,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Basil.  1535.  fol.—  Valderus, 
Bas.  1536.  4.—  Colinceus,  Par.  1540.  8.—G.  Morell,  Par.  1559.  2  vols.  4.—  Orotius,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Leyd. 
1600.  4.  among  the  more  prominent  of  early  editions ;  the  editor  at  the  time,  but  sixteen  years 
of  age.— J.  Fell,  Oxf.  1672.  8.  with  the  KaTuOTsQtOiiol  of  Eratosthenes.  Repr.  Oxf.  1801.8. 
(Cf.  §  215.)— Bandini,  Gr  &  Lat.  Flor.  1765.  8.  with  Ital.  metr.  vers,  by  Salvini.  Not  highly  es- 
teemed.  R. — Th.  Foster,  Lond.  1813.  8.  value  not  known.— Abbe  Halma,  with  French  trans. 

Par.  1823.  4.  with  the  version  of  Germanicus,  and  Scholia  of  Theon  ;  also  the  Catasterisms  of 
Eratosthenes,  and  the  sphere  of  Leontius.— J.  H.  Voss,  Gr.  &.  Germ.  Heidelb.  1824.  8.—  Ch. 
Buttmann,  Berl.  1826.  8.—/.  Bckker,  Berl.  1828.  8. 

4.  Translations. — French. — Halma,  just  cited. German.—  Voss,  just  cited. — O.   S.  Falbe, 

in  the  Berlin  Monatschrift,  1806.  Feb.  &  Aug.  1807.  Feb.  <fc  March. On  a  curious  Ms.  of  Cic- 
ero's translation,  see  P.  I.  §  243. 

§  72.  Ckanthes  of  Assus  in  Troas,  having  been  for  many  years  a 
a  disciple  of  Zeno,  at  length  succeeded  him  as  teacher  in  the  Stoic 
school  at  Athens,  B.  C.  264.  Of  his  numerous  writings  nothing  re- 
mains but  an  admirable  Hymn  to  Jupiter. 

1.  Cleanthes  received  the  name  <I>ntuvT/.rlc  from  the  circumstance  that,  in 
order  to  enable  himself,  being  poor,  to  attend  the  schools  of  philosophy  by 
day,  he  spent  part  of  the  night  in  draicing  tcater,  as  a  laborer  in  the  gardens 
of  the  city.  He  is  said  to  have  died  at  the  age  of  80  or  90,  by  voluntary  star- 
vation. The  Hymn,  which  still  keeps  alive  his  memory,  is  in  hexameter  verse, 
and  contains  some  exalted  views  of  a  Supreme  Divinity. 

EnfieWs  Hist.  Philos.  cited  §  64. 2.  Vol.  i.  p.  '376.— Scholl,  Gr.  Litt.  iii.  335.— Diog.  Lacrl.  Lives 
of  Philosophers. 

2.  Editions.  —  B.—  G.  Ch.  Monike,  Cleanthes  der  Stoiker.   Greifsw,  1814.  8.  —  H.  H.  Cludius. 

Gott.  1786.  8.  Gr.  &.  Germ,  with  notes.  —  F.  W.  Sturz.   Lips.  1785.  4. The  Hymn  was  first 

published  by  Fulv.  Ursinus,  Carmina  novem  illust.  feminarum,  etc.  Antw.  1568.  8. — Again  in 
H.  Stepliamis,  Poesis  Philos.  cited  §  47t.  —  In  R.Cudworth,  Intellect.  Syst.  of  the  Univ.  Lond. 
1678.  fol.  p.  432.  with  a  Latin  metrical  version  by  Duport. — In  Brunck's  Analekta  (cf.  §  35)  and 

Gnom.  Poet.  (cf.  §  31)   and  in  other  collections. An  English  metrical  version  is  given  in 

West's  Pindar,  cited  §  60. See  J.  F.  H.  Schwabe,  Specimen  theologise  comparativffi,  exhibens 

K/.suv&ovg  iuvov  sic  Jia  cum  disciplina  Christiana  comparatum,  etc.  Jen.  1819.  4. 

§  73.  Apollonius  Rhodius,  B.  C.  about  125,  was  a  native  of  Nau- 
cratis,  or  perhaps  of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  The  name  Rhodius  was 
occasioned  by  his  residence  at  Rhodes,  where  he  for  a  time  taught 
rhetoric.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Callimachus,  and  became  the  librarian 
at  Alexandria. 

1.  A  bitter  enmity  existed  between  Apollonius  and  Callimachus  until  the 
death  of  the  latter.  Apollonius  is  said  to  have  retired  from  Alexandria  to 
Rhodes,  from  mortification  at  having  been  hissed  by  the  partisans  of  Callima- 
chus at  the  public  reading  of  his  Argonautics.  It  was  at  a  subsequent  period 
that  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Alexandrian  library,  being  successor  to 
Eratosthenes. 

There  are  four  ancient  biographies  of  Apollonius  in  Greek. 1.  Welchert,  Ueber  das  Leben 

und  Gedicht  des  Apollonius  von  Rhodus.   Meissen.  1821.  8. 

2u.  His  chief  work  was  an  epic  poem,  3  Anyoravxixu,  on  the  Expedition  of 
the  Argonauts.  He  imitated  Homer,  with  talents  much  inferior.  His  poem, 
however,  evinces  great  application,  and  has  some  beautiful  passages,  particu- 
larly the  episode  on  the  passion  of  Medea.  Yet  in  poetical  genius  and  style 
he  is  rather  surpassed  by  his  imitator  among  the  Romans,  Valerius  Flaccup. 

3.  The  poem  of  Apollonius  consists  of  four  books  or  cantos.  The  critics  do  not  agree  in  their 
estimate  of  its  worth,  nor  as  to  the  comparative  merits  of  the  Greek  original  and  the  Roman 
imitation  by  Valerius.  Schbll  pronounces  the  latter  superior  to  its  model,  in  agreement  with 
the  remark  of  Eschenburg  above.    But  in  the  edition  of  Eschenburg's  work  published  after  his 


196  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

death,  the  opposite  is  asserted. Scholl,  vol.m.  p.  117.— Groddeck,  in  the  BiblioUiek  der  Altcn 

Literatur  und  Kunst.  St.  2.  p.  61.  —  Charaktere  vornehmst.  Dicht.  vol.  vi  p.  199.  —  0.  Th.  Bloch, 
Diss,  de  carm.  epic.  Apoll.  Rhodii.  Havn.  1792.  8.—  Quintil.  x.  1. 54.  —  D.  Balfoordt,  De  Apollon. 
Rhodii  laude  poetica.  Traj.  1825.  8.— A.  Weichert,  Ueber  das  Leben  und  Gedicht  des  Apol.  von 
Rhodus.   Lips.  1828.  8. 

4.  Editions.  —  B.  —  Wellauer.   Lips.  1828.  2  vols.  8.  —  Schafer.  Lips.  1810-13.  2  vols.  8.  with 

Brunck's  notes  ;  and  scholia.  —  Beck,  Gr.  <fc  Lat.  Lips.  1797.  2  vols.  8. Princeps,  of  Fr.  de 

Alopa  (cur.  J.  Lascaris).  Flor.  1496.  4.  in  capitals.— Aldus.  Ven.  1521.  8.—Brubachius.  Francof. 
1546.  8.— Rotmarus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Bas.  1572.  8.  —  H.  Stephanus.  Genev.  1574.  A.— Elzevir  (ed.  Hwl- 
ilin),  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lug.  Bat.  1641.  8.— J.  Shaw.  Oxf.  1777  2  vols.  A.—FUingini,  Gr.  &  Ital.  Rom. 
1794.  2  vols.  4.  with  plates  ;  elegant.  —  Harstel,  school  ed.   Brunsw.  1806.  8. 

5.  Translations.  —  German. —  J.  J.  Bodmer.   Zurich,  1779.  8. French.— J.  J.  A.  Caussin, 

Par.  1797.  8.  highly  praised. English.  —Fr.  Fawkes.   Lond.  1780.  2  vols.  8. 

§  74.  Nicander,  born  at  Colophon  in  Ionia,  lived  about  B.  C.  146. 
He  was  a  physician,  grammarian,  and  poet. 

1m.  There  remain  from  him  two  poems  in  hexameter,  termed  Q^ntaxu  and 
3  AXe^Kpuouay.a ;  the  former  treating  of  venomous  animals,  and  remedies  for 
wounds  from  them  ;  the  latter,  of  antidotes  to  poisons  in  general.  His  riviQ- 
yiy.a,  Georgics,  and  Airw7.iy.u,  Things  pertaining  to  JEtolia,  are  lost.  The  two 
former  possess  no  great  merit  either  as  poems  or  as  treatises  of  natural  science, 
(cf.  §  32.)  The  scholia  of  Eutecnius  upon  them  are  ofmuch  value,  particularly 
as  illustrating  the  history  of  medicine. 

2.  Nicander  wrote  also,  as  has  been  before  noticed  (§  32),  a  work  styled  metamorphoses,  wholly 
lost. — Scholl,  iiL|141. — Charaktere  vornehmst.  Dicht.  vi.  p.  373. 

3.  Editions.  —  B.  —  Alexiphaf.maca.  T.  G.  Schneider,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Hal.  1792.  8.  with  para- 
phrase of  Eutecnius. —  Theiuaca.    J.  G.  Schneider,  Gr.  <fc  Lat.   Lips.  1816.  8.  with  paraph,  of 

Eutecnius. F.  —  Princeps,  Aldus.     Ven.  1499.  fol.  with  Dioscorides.  —  J.  Soter.   Cologne, 

1530.  4. —  Gorrceus  {Morel  print.),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1557.  3  vols.  4.  uniting  the  two  poems  as  ed- 
ited separately  by  him  in  1549  &  1556. — Bandini,  Gr.  Lat.  &  Ital.  Flor.  1764.  8.  with  the  scholia 
or  paraphrase  of  Eutecnius. 

§  75.  Oppian,  of  Corycus  in  Cilicia,  a  later  Greek  poet,  lived  as 
is  supposed  under  the  emperors  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus,  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  2d  century  after  Christ. 

\u.  Under  his  name  we  have  two  didactic  poems;  r 'A7.iBvriy.lt,  on  fishing,  in 
five  books  ;  and  KwnytTixa,  on  hunting,  in  four  books.  The  former  excels  the 
latter  both  in  thought  and  style.  This  circumstance  has  furnished  some  ground 
for  ascribing  them  to  different  authors  of  the  same  name.  The  latter  has  been 
ascribed  to  an  Oppian  of  Apamea  in  Syria,  who  lived  under  Caracalla,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  3d  century. 

2.  The  hypothesis  of  two  poets  by  the  name  of  Oppian,  father  and  son,  or 
uncle  and  nephew,  was  advanced  by  Schneider,  in  1776,  in  his  edition  of  the 
poems.  In  1786  it  was  attacked  by  Belin  de  Ballu,  in  an  edition  of  the  poem 
on  the  chase.  Schneider,  in  a  new  edition,  1813,  still  maintained  his  hypo- 
thesis. —  SchOll,  iv.  p.  70.  —  Charakt.  vorn.  Dicht.  vi.  p.  379. 

3.  The  poem  ' I^svny.lc,  on  fording,  generally  ascribed  to  Oppian,  is  lost ; 
but  there  is  extant  a  commentary  upon  it,  by  Eutecnius.  This  was  published 
by  E.  Winding,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Copenh.  1702.  8. 

4.  Editions.  —  B.—J.  G.  Schneider,  Gr.  &.  Lat,   Lips.  1813.  ed.  Schafer. F.— Princeps,  by 

B.  Junta.  Flor.  1515.  8.  only  the  Halieutica.— Aldus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Ven.  1517.  8.—Turnebus.  Par. 
1555.  4.  —  Rittershusii.  Lug.  Bat.  1597.  8.  Gr.  &.  Lat.  with  a  proem  on  the  life  and  writings  of 
Oppian. — B.  de  Ballu,  Gr.  &.  Lat.   Argent.  1786.  8,  Cynegetica  only. 

5.  Translations. — (a)  Of  the  Cynegetica. — German. — C.  Q.  Lieberkvhn.  Lpz.  1765.  8. 

French.— Belin  de  Ballu,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Argent.  1787.  8. Italian.— .#.  M.  Salvini.  Flor.  1728.  8. 

English.— M.  Sommerville.  Lond. 1788. 8.  —  {b)  Of  the  Halieutic  a.— English. — By  Dnap- 

per  4"  Jones.  Oxf.  1722. 1751.  8. See  Amcilhon,  sur  le  peche  des  Anciens,  as  cited  P.  IV.  $  58, 

§  76.  Nonnus,  of  Panopolis  in  Egypt,  flourished  probably  in  the 
beginning  of  the  5th  century;  originally  a  pagan,  afterwards  con- 
verted to  Christianity.     Little  or  nothing  is  known  of  his  history. 

1m.  Two  works  by  him  are  extant ;  one,  the  Aiowotuxu,  on  the  deeds  of  Bac- 
chus, in  forty-eight  books,  of  various  contents,  without  much  order  or  connec- 
tion, in  a  style  not  generally  easy  or  natural;  the  other,  a  poetical,  or  as  he  terms 
it,  epical  paraphrase  of  the  Gospel  of  John,  prolix  and  bombastic. 

2.  The  Dionysiaca  of  Nonnus  has  been  ranked  among  epic  poems,  but  per- 
haps not  with  strict  propriety,  (cf.  §  20.)  It  is  a  store-house  of  mythological 
traditions.     Some  learned  men,  as  Falckenburg  and  Julius  C.  Scaliger,  have 


POETS.       NONNUS.    COLUTHUS.    QU1NTUS.  197 

highly  praised,  while  others,  as  Nicholas  Heinsius  and  Joseph  Scaliger,  have 
as  strongly  condemned  it. 

ScJcbll,  vi.  79.— J.  A.  Weichert,  de  Nonno  Panopolitano.  Viteb.  1810.  4. — Nic.  Schow,  Comment, 
de  indole  carminis  Nonni,  etc.   Havn.  1807. —  Ouwaroff,  Nonnus  der  Dichter.   Petrop.  1817.  4. 

3.  Editions.  —  (a)  Of  the  D  i  o  n  y  s  i  a  c  a .— B. — Fr  Grtifc.  Lpz.  1819-26.  2  vols.  8.  containing 
the  text.  A  3d  vol.  is  expected,  with  a  version,  and  full  commentary.  A  part  of  the  15th  bk. 
was  published  by  F.  Grdfe,  with  the  title  of  Hymni  et  Nikeia  (Gr.  &  Germ.)      Petropol.  1813.  8. 

. F. — Princeps,  by  G.  Falckenburg,  from  a  manuscript  now  at  Vienna.  Antw.  1569.  4.  Repr. 

by  Wechel  (with  a  poor  trans,  by  Lubin).  Hanov.  1605.  8.  ;  to  this  edition  was  ;ifterwards  joined 
(with  a  new  title-page,  1610)  a  volume  published  by  Cunaus  including  a  dissertation  by  D.  Hein- 
sius,  and  conjectures  by  J.  Scaliger. — G.  H.  Moser  published  6  books  (8-13)  with  notes,  and  ar- 
guments of  all  the  books  of  the  poem.   Heidelb.1809.  8.   cf.  Class.  Journ.  vii.  345. (b)  Of  the 

Jfetaphrasis ,  or  Paraphrase  of  John. — The  first  edit,  by  Aldus.  Ven.  1501.  4.  —  F.  Nanshis. 
Leyd.  1589, 1599.  8.  —  F.  Sylburg.  Heidelb.  1596.  8. — D.  Heinsius,  in  his  Aristarchus  Sacer,  sive 
ad  Nonni  etc.     Lug.  Bat.  1627.  8. 

§  77.  Coluthus,  of  Lycopolis  in  Egypt,  was  a  poet  of  a  later  period, 
probably  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century.  His  poem,  called 
'EP.htjg  itQTcayij,  or  Rape  of  Helen,  has  many  defects,  and  but  little  real 
poetry.  The  whole  is  without  plan,  dignity,  or  taste,  with  many  traces 
of  too  close  imitation. 

1.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Anastasius,  who  ab- 
dicated A.  D.  518.  He  wrote  a  poem  in  six  cantos,  entitled  Calcdoniacs  ;  this, 
with  other  pieces  by  him,  is  lost.  The  Rape  of  Helen  consists  of  385  verses, 
in  imitation  of  Homer.  This  poem  was  found  by  cardinal  Bessarion,  along  with 
that  of  Quintus  (cf.  §  78) ;  and  Scholl  remarks  that  it  is  ascribed  to  Coluthus 
without  certain  evidence.  "  The  word  rape  (in  the  title)  must  not  be  taken 
in  the  common  acceptation  ;  for  Paris  was  more  courtly  than  to  offer,  and  Helen 
more  kind-hearted  than  to  surfer,  such  a  violence.  It  must  be  taken  rather  for 
a  transporting  of  her,  with  her  consent,  from  her  own  country  to  Troy." 

Scholl,  vi.  p.  106.  —  Harles,  Super  Coluthi  carm.  de  raptu  Helenas.  Erlang.  1775.  fol.  —  C.  J. 
Grdfe,  Conjectural  in  Coluthum,  Tryphiodorum,  &c.  Petrop.  1818.  4. 

2.  Editions.  —  B.— ./.  Dan.  de  Lennep.  Leovard,  1747.  8.  —  *  G.  H.  Schafer.  Lpz.  1825. 8.  with 
notes  of  de  Lennep,  and  additions.  —  Imm.  Bekker.  Berl.  1816.  8.  —  A.  Stan.  Julicn.  Par.  1823.  8. 
This  has  the  text  of  Bekker,  with  translations  in  Latin,  Italian,  French,  Spanish,  English  and 
German,  and  a  fac  simile  of  two  manuscripts  of  the  poem  (of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries),  rep- 
resenting not  only  the  letters,  but  the  color  of  the  ink  and  paper. F.  —  Princeps,  by  Aldus, 

along  with  Quintus  and  Tryphiodorus,  without  date,  but  supposed  1504.  (Schccll,  vi.  p.  103.)  — 
H.  Stcphanus,  in  the  Poet.princ.  heroic,  cited  §  47t,  also  in  his  Homer.  Par.  1604.  12. — M.  Neander, 
Opus  Aureum.  Bas.  1559.  4.  —  A.  Th.  Villa.  Milan,  1753.  12.  Gr.  &  Ital.  —  Scio  de  San.  Miguel. 
Madrid,  1770.  4.  Gr.  Lat.  &  Span.— Bodoni.   Parma,  1795.  4.  Gr.  Lat.  &  Ital. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.— K.  A.  Kvttner,  in  his  Callimachus.   Alt.  1784.  8. English. — 

W.  Beloe.  Lond.  1786.  4.  — Meen,  in  Cooke's  Hesiod,  cited  §  51.  6. 

§  78.  Quintus,  or  Cointus,  lived  probably  in  the  first  part  of  the 
6th  century.  He  was  called  Smyrnceus  from  his  native  place  Smyrna, 
and  received  the  surname  Calaber  from  the  circumstance  that  his 
poem  was  found  in  a  convent  in  Calabria. 

lu.  The  poem  ascribed  to  him,  termed  naqas.tiTcoutra  cOu(nco,  Things  omit- 
ted by  Homer,  is  drawn  from  the  Cyclic  poets  (§  21).  It  consists  of  14  books, 
giving  the  history  of  the  siege  of  Troy  from  the  death  of  Hector  to  the  depart- 
ure of  the  Greeks. 

2.  Cardinal  Bessarion  found,  in  a  convent  at  or  near  Otranto  in  Calabria,  a 
manuscript  copy  of  this  poem,  and  also  of  that  of  Coluthus.  And  there  is  in 
manuscript  another  poem  ascribed  to  Quintus,  on  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules, 

in  the  library  of  St.  Mark,  and  in  that  of  the  king  of  Bavaria  at  Munich. 

Studious  imitation  of  Homer  is  apparent  everywhere  in  the  Paralipomena. 
Some  have  considered  it  a  sort  of  amplification  of  the  Little  Iliad  of  Lcsches, 
one  of  the  early  cyclic  poets,  or  a  compilation  gathered  from  various  poets  of 
that  class. 

Scholl,  vi.  91.  where  is  a  pretty  full  analysis  of  the  poem.  —  Tourlet,  in  his  translation,  and 
Tychsen,  in  his  edition  cited  below  (3).  —  K.  L.  Struve,  in  his  Abh.  u.  Reden  meist.  philol.  In- 
halts.  Konigsb.  1822.  8. 

3.  Editions.  —  B.  —  Th.  Cr.  Tychsen.   Strassb.  1807.  2  vols.  8. F.  —  The  first  by  Aldus, 

with  Coluthus,  cited  §  77.  2.  —  Rhodomann,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Han.  1604.  8.  —  J.  C.  de  Pauw,  Gr.  &, 
Lat.   Leyd.  1734.  8. 

4.  Translations.  —  French.— R.  Tourlet.  Par.  1800.  2  vols.  8.  "not  faithful.'1  (Fuhrmann.) 

5.  In  connection  with  the  imitations  of  Homer  in  the  poems  ascribed  to  Coluthus  and  Q,uin- 

15* 


198  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

tus,  we  may  notice  another  imitation  of  a  singular  kind,  the  r Op tftoxtrTQu,  Homcrocentra. 
This  is  a  Life  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  2343  hexameter  lines,  formed  hy  verses  and  hemistichs  selected 
from  Homer.  It  is  ascribed  by  some  to  a  Pelagius,  who  lived  in  the  5th  century  ;  by  others  to 
Eudocia,  wife  of  the  emperor  Theodosius  2d.  It  was  probably  the  work  of  both,  having  been 
commenced  by  the  former  and  finished  by  the  latter.  —  The  latest  edition  is  that  by  L.  H.  Tea- 
cher. Lpz.  1793.  8.  Gr.  &  Lat. 

§  79.  Tryphiodorus,  a  native  of  Egypt,  of  whose  history  nothing 
is  known,  lived  in  the  6th  century,  and  was  the  author  of  a  poem, 
entitled  MH<w  atari?,  the  Destruction  of  Troy.  It  is  marked  by 
bombast  and  affectation  of  ornament. 

1.  He  is  said  to  have  written  other  poems,  as  the  Marathoniaca,  the  Hippo- 
dameia,  and  the  Odyssey  called  Lipogrammatic,  /.sircoynauiiaTixi^  because  some 
particular  letter  of  the  alphabet  was  excluded  from  each  of  its  24  books;  or, 
according  to  others,  because  the  letter  2  was  excluded  from  the  whole  poem. 
The  Destruction  of  Troy  consists  of  only  681  verses,  and  is  perhaps  merely  a 
sort  of  argument  of  a  more  full  work  contemplated  by  the  author. — Scholl, 
vi.  109. 

2.  Editions.  —  B. — F.  A.  Wernicke  (completed  by  Zumpf).   Lpz.  1819.  8.  —  Thorn.  JVortlimore, 

Camb.  1791.  and  Lond.  1804. 8.  Gr.  &  Lat.  with  excursuses. F. — Princeps,  bv  Aldus,  as  cited 

§  77.  2.  —  Fr.  Jamot,  Gr.  &  Lat.     Par.  1537.  8. T.  Merrick,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Oxf.'l741.  8.  with   a 

dissertation  on  the  life  and  writings  of  Tryph.  and  an  English  metrical  version  in  a  separate  vol- 
ume.— Bodoni,  1796.  fol.  —  G.  H.  Schafcr  (pr.  Tatichnitz).  Lips.  1808.  fol. 

§  80.  Theodorus  Prodromus  lived  at  Constantinople  in  the  first 
half  of  the  12th  century.  There  are  several  works  by  him  yet  re- 
maining in  manuscript,  from  which  it  appears  that  he  followed  the 
various  pursuits  of  theologian,  philosopher,  grammarian  and  rhetori- 
cian. He  is  mentioned  here  on  account  of  his  erotic  poem  in  9  books, 
styled  the  Loves  of  Rhodanthe  and  Dosicles.  (Cf.  §  33.) 

1.  He  enjoyed  high  reputation  among  his  contemporaries,  and  the  epithet 
Cyrus  (Kvqog  for  Kx';qio$)  often  joined  to  his'name,  is  said  to  have  been  given 
to  him  in  token  of  respect.  On  embracing  monastic  life,  he  assumed  the  name 
of  Hilarion.     His  poem  above  mentioned  is  but  an  indifferent  performance. 

There  is  only  one  edition  of  it ;  O.  Gaulmin,  Par.  1625.  8.  —  A  French  translation  is  found  in 
the  Bibl.d.  Romans  Grecs.  vol.xi.  as  cited  $  152.  2.  — Cf.  Schcell,  vi.  p.  121.  —  Huet,  Traite  de 
l'origine  des  romans.   Par.  1711. 12.  p.  118. 

2.  Various  other  poetical  pieces  were  composed  by  him  ;  as  the  Galcomynmachia,  or  Galeoma- 
chia,  mentioned  §  50.  3. ;  a  poem,"  styled  Poverty  gives  wisdom  ;  another  styled  Friendship  banished; 
and  some  epigrams  in  honor  of  eminent  Christian  Fathers,  Basil,  Chrysostom,  and  others. 

Other  pieces  remain  in  manuscript. The  Galeomachia,  by  F.  Morell,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par. 

1608.  8.— best,  by  K.  D.  llgen,  as  cited  §  50.  3. Poverty  8,-c.   by  G.  Morell  (pr.),  Gr.  &  Lat. 

Par.  1549.  4.   Cf.  Koraifs  Atakta.    Par.  1828.  8.  1st  vol. Epigrams  ,  by  J.  Erard.    Lpz. 

1598.  8. 

3.  Many  works  in  prose  were  also  written  by  him,  of  a  character  which  places  them  in  the 
class  of  grammatical  and  rhetorical  works.  —  Schall,  vi.  215,  265.  —  Harles,  Brev.  Not.  Lit.  Gr. 
p.  591. 

4.  Two  other  authors  were  mentioned  (§  33)  in  speaking  of  erotic  poetry,  JVicetas  Eugenianus 

and  Constantinc  Manasses. These  were  first  published  by  J.  F.  Boissonadc.  Par.  1819. 2  vols. 

12.  Gr.  &  Lat. 

§  81.  Tzctzes  or  Tzetza  (John)  was  a  grammarian  of  the  12th 
century,  at  Constantinople.  From  the  works  and  fragments  of  other 
poets,  and  without  taste,  he  compiled  what  were  called  his  Ante- 
homcrica  ^rhn^o'o^Qov^  Homerica  (*«  '  Ou^qov^  and  Posthomerica 
(rlx  iitd'  "Out'^ovy     To  these  he  also  furnished  scholia  or  comments. 

1.  The  three  pieces  form  a  whole  of  1665  hexameters,  and  are  together  called 
iI?.iaxa.  The  first  contains  events  from  the  birth  of  Paris  to  the  tenth  year  of 
the  Trojan  war.  with  which  Homer's  Iliad  opens;  the  second  consists  of  an 
abridgment  of  that  poem  ;  the  third,  like  the  poem  of  Quintus.  refers  to  what 
occurred  between  the  death  of  Hector  and  the  return  of  the  Greeks.  Tzetzes 
also  wrote  a  work  in  political  verse,  called  Bip.og  ioroQixt'h  treating  of  topics  of 
history,  mythology,  and  literature,  in  a  very  miscellaneous  and  disconnected 
manner  :  the  work  is  more  commonly  called  Chiliades,  from  a  division  of  the 
verses  into  several  suites  of  1000  lines  each.     He  also  composed  an  Iambic 


HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE.  199 

poem,  on  the  education  of  children.  Several  other  works  in  verse  by  him  are 
yet  in  manuscript.  The  most  considerable  is  the  'Yno&toig  rov  cOut'iqov,  ex- 
plaining the  fables  of  Homer. — SchOll,  vi.  p.  125. 

2.  The  first  edition  of  the  pieces  constituting  the  Iliaca;  G.  B.  Shirach.  Hal.  1770.  8.  very 
imperfect.— The  next,  and  improved,  Fr.  Jacobs.  Lpz.1793.  8.  —  Last,  and  best  text,  S.  Bekker. 
Berl.  1816.  8.  —  The  Chiliad es  ;  by  JV.  Oerbelius.  Bas.  1546.  fol.  —  J.  Lectins,  in  PoeUe  Gr. 
etc.  in  unum  redacti  corpus.   Colon.  Allobr.  1614.  2  vols.  fol. — Best,  t  T.  Kiesslmg.  Lips.1826.  8. 

3.  Tzetzes  holds  a  higher  rank  as  a  grammarian  and  scholiast.  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
Homer's  Iliad  and  on  Hesiod.  His  commentary  on  Lycophron,  by  some  ascribed  to  his  brother 
Isaac  Tzetzes,  has  been  mentioned  §  67. 1.  —  Schmll,  vi.  265,  269. 


77. — Oratory  and  Orators. 

§  82  m.  Prose  was  cultivated  later  than  verse,  and  oratory  later  than  other 
branches  of  prose  composition,  of  which  the  earliest  form  was  historical.  But 
although  oratory,  in  form  and  as  an  art,  did  not  exist  at  so  early  a  period,  yet 
even  in  the  heroic  ages  there  was  actual  eloquence.  There  was  practical  skill 
in  moving  the  feelings  of  assembled  numbers  in  civil  and  military  affairs.  We 
have  evidence  of  this  in  the  addresses  made  by  the  warriors  of  Homer,  which, 
although  doubtless  the  productions  of  the  poet,  are  yet  a  proof  of  the  existence 
and  the  success  of  a  sort  of  oratory. 

§  83  u.  The  example  of  those  historical  writers,  who  were  not  indifferent  to 
the  beauties  of  style,  seems  to  have  first  suggested  to  the  Greeks  the  advan- 
tage of  careful  attention  to  the  language  and  manner  of  their  spoken  addresses. 
From  the  time  of  Solon  (B.C.  594),  political  eloquence  was  much  practiced  at 
Athens,  and  by  the  emulation  of  great  speakers  was  ere  long  advanced  to  high 
perfection.  Rhetoric  and  oratory  soon  became  objects  of  systematic  study, 
and  were  indispensable  in  the  education  of  such  as  wished  to  gain  any  public 
office,  or  any  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the  state. 

§  84.  It  may  be  remarked,  then,  that  Grecian  oratory  was  not  of  early  or 
sudden  growth.  It  was  not  till  after  Greece  had  adopted  the  popular  forms  of 
government,  not  till  after  the  works  of  her  Homer  had  been  collected  and  be- 
gun to  be  studied,  and  after  her  general  prosperity  and  independence  allowed 
her  citizens  to  attend  to  speaking  as  an  art,  that  Greece  exhibited  any  very 
eminent  orators.  At  the  time  of  Solon,  beyond  which  the  history  of  Grecian 
eloquence  cannot  be  carried  back,  several  of  the  states  had  existed  much  longer 
than  Rome  had  at  the  time  of  Cicero.  While  eloquence  made  its  first  appear- 
ance thus  late,  and  gradually  rose  to  perfection  under  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  the  nation,  it  continued  in  power  and  splendor  only  for  a  short  pe- 
riod. Its  real  history  must  be  considered  as  terminating  with  the  usurpation 
of  Philip  and  the  supremacy  of  Macedon  over  southern  Greece  ;  so  that  the 
whole  space  of  time,  during  which  Grecian  oratory  particularly  flourished, 
includes  less  than  three  hundred  years.  This  space  coincides  with  the  third 
of  the  periods  into  which  we  have  divided  the  history  of  Greek  Literature, 
from  Solon  (about 600 B.C.)  to  Alexander  (B.C.  336).  It  is,  however,  the 
brightest  period  in  the  annals  of  Greece  ;  a  glorious  day,  at  the  close  of  which 
her  sun  went  down  in  clouds  and  never  again  rose  in  its  native  splendor. 

§  85.  It  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  that  whatever  glory  has  redounded  to  the 
Greeks  for  their  eloquence,  belongs  almost  exclusively  to  Athens.  In  the  other 
states  it  was  never  cultivated  with  success.  The  orators,  of  whose  genius  any 
monuments  are  still  preserved,  or  whose  names  have  been  recorded  as  distin- 
guished, were  Athenians.  So  that  Cicero  in  his  Brutus  inquires,  who  knows 
of  a  Corinthian  or  Theban  orator,  unless  you  except  Epaminondas  ?  Out  of 
Greece,  however,  the  study  flourished,  both  in  the  islands  and  in  the  settle- 
ments in  western  Asia.  The  Sicilians  were  the  first  who  attempted  to  form 
rules  for  the  art,  and  the  Rhodians  had  orators  that  might  be  compared  with 
the  Attic. 
On  Epaminondas,  see  Ocdoyn,  La  vie  d'Epaininondas,  Mem.  de  VJlcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.xi  v.  p.183. 

§  86.  To  one  who  traces  the  history  of  Grecian  oratory  through  the  period 
which  has  been  mentioned,  it  will  present  itself  under  three  different  aspects 


200  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

successively.  It  exhibits  one  characteristic  appearance  from  the  time  of  Pisis- 
tratus  to  the  close  of  the  Persian  war  ;  another  from  the  close  of  the  Persian  to 
the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  ;  and  a  third  from  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  to  the  supremacy  of  Macedon.  A  glance  at  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
eloquence  of  these  three  portions,  will  give  us  perhaps  the  best  general  view 
of  the  whole. 

See  Cicero's  Brutus.— HeererSs  Greece  by  Bancroft,  p.  257,  where  some  of  the  views  touched 
upon  in  the  following  sections  are  beautifully  developed. 

§  87.  Of  the  first  portion  no  monuments  or  fragments  of  the  oratory  remain. 
Its  character  must  be  drawn  altogether  from  the  testimony  of  later  periods  and 
from  circumstantial  indications.  It  was  in  this  age,  that  the  poems  of  Homer 
were  collected  and  published;  which  gave  a  new  impulse  to  Grecian  mind, 
and  unquestionably  exerted  an  influence  on  the  language  and  oratory  of  the 
times.  As  the  models  of  language  and  style  were  all  in  poetry  and  not  in  prose, 
the  speeches  and  the  composition  of  this  age  were  marked  by  a  poetical  struc- 
ture, by  something  of  the  rhythm  and  measure  of  verse.  Such  indeed  was  the 
preference  for  metrical  composition,  that  Parmenides  taught  his  philosophy  in 
verse,  and  Solon  published  his  laws  in  the  dress  of  poetry.  Solon  is  ranked 
among  the  distinguished  orators  of  the  period  ;  and  the  first  circumstance 
which  brought  him  into  notice,  was  a  poetical  harangue  to  the  populace  of 
Athens. 

§  88.  Oratory  as  an  art  was  now  scarcely  conceived.  The  orators  were  only 
the  favorite  leaders  of  the  people  ;  chiefly  such  as  had  been  brave  and  success- 
ful in  war,  who  gained  popular  influence  by  military  enterprize,  and  were  per- 
mitted to  be  powerful  statesmen  because  they  were  fortunate  generals.  Their 
speeches  were  brief,  simple,  bold;  adorned  with  few  ornaments  (cf.  Anacharsis 
ii.  257),  accompanied  with  little  action.  Such  was  Pisistratus,  whose  valor  in 
the  field  and  eloquence  in  the  assembly  raised  him  to  an  authority  utterly  in- 
consistent with  the  republican  principles  of  his  country.  Such  too  was  The- 
mistoclcs.  In  him  predominated  the  bravery  and  art  of  the  military  chieftain. 
It  was  his  policy  and  energy  that  saved  Greece  from  the  dominion  of  Persia. 
He  acquired  unlimited  sway  as  a  statesman  and  orator  ;  because,  in  proposing 
and  urging  the  plans  which  his  clear  and  comprehensive  mind  had  once  formed, 
he  could  not  but  be  eloquent ;  and  because  he  never  offered  a  plan,  which  he 
was  not  ready  and  able  to  execute  with  certain  success.  His  eloquence,  like 
his  policy,  was  vigorous,  decided,  bordering  on  the  severe,  but  dignified  and 
manly.  It  was  altogether  the  most  distinguished  of  the  age  ;  and  the  name  of 
Themistocies  is  therefore  selected  to  mark  this  era  in  the  history  of  Grecian 
eloquence. 

§  80.  Of  the  second  portion  of  the  period  in  view,  as  well  as  the  first,  we 
have  no  remains  which  are  acknowledged  to  be  genuine,  if  we  except  the 
harangues  of  Antiphon.  The  number  of  eminent  public  speakers  was,  how- 
ever, increased  ;  and  there  began  to  be  more  preparation,  by  previous  study 
and  effort,  for  the  business  of  addressing  the  popular  assemblies.  In  this  age, 
the  orators  were  men  who  had  devoted  their  early  years  to  the  study  of  phi- 
losophy, and  whose  attainments  and  political  talents  raised  them  to  the  place 
of  statesmen,  while  this  elevation  still  imposed  on  them  the  duties  of  the  sol- 
dier and  the  general. 

The  most  celebrated  among  them  were  Pericles,  who  flourished  first  in  order 
of  time,  and  after  him  successively  Cleon,  Alcibiades,  Critias,  and  Thcramenes. 
Pericles  and  Alcibiades  exerted  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  condition  and 
interests  of  the  Athenians.  The  latter,  ambitious  of  glory  and  fearless  of  dan- 
ger, ardent  and  quick  in  feeling,  and  exceedingly  versatile  in  character  and 
principle,  was  able,  in  spite  of  a  defective  pronunciation  (Anach.  i.  305)  and  a 
hesitating  delivery,  so  perfectly  to  control  a  popular  assembly  and  mold  their 
feelings  by  his  own  will,  that  he  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  orators. 

§  90.  But  to  Pericles  must  be  granted  the  honor  of  giving  a  name  to  this  era 
of  eloquence.  His  talents  were  of  the  highest  order,  and  he  qualified  himself 
for  public  influence  by  long  and  intense  study  in  private.  He  disclosed  his 
powers  in  the  assemblies  with  caution,  and  whenever  he  spoke,  impressed  the 
hearers  with  new  convictions  of  his  strength  and  greatness.  His  information 
was  various  and  extensive,  his  views  always  liberal  and  elevated,  his  feelings 


ORATORY  AND  ORATORS.  201 

and  purposes  in  general  highly  patriotic  and  generous.  Cicero  remarks  of  him, 
that  even  when  he  spoke  directly  against  the  will  of  the  populace  and  against 
their  favorites,  what  he  said  was  popular  ;  the  comic  satirists,  while  they  ridi- 
culed and  cursed  him,  acknowledged  his  excellence ;  and  so  much  did  he 
shine  in  learning,  wisdom,  and  eloquence,  that  he  ruled  Athens  for  forty  years 
almost  without  a  rival. 

Pericles  pronounced  a  funeral  eulogium  over  those  who  fell  in  the  first  bat- 
tles of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  This  oration  Thucydides  professes  to  give  us 
in  his  history  (ii.  35)  ;  but  most  probably  we  have  the  fabrication  of  the  histo- 
rian, and  not  the  actual  production  of  the  orator.  The  piece,  however,  may 
indicate  the  peculiarities  of  Pericles  and  the  other  speakers  of  the  age. 

§  91.  The  distinguishing  qualities  of  their  eloquence  were  simple  grandeur 
of  language,  rapidity  of  thought,  and  brevity  crowded  with  matter  to  such  an 
extent  even  as  to  create  occasional  obscurity.  They  had  very  little  of  artificial 
plan,  or  of  rhetorical  illustration  and  ornament.  Their  speeches  are  seldom 
marked  by  any  of  the  figures  and  contrivances  to  produce  effect,  which  the 
rules  of  sophists  brought  into  use  among  the  later  orators.  They  have  less  of 
the  air  of  martial  addresses  than  the  harangues  of  the  first  period  we  have  no- 
ticed, but  far  more  of  it  than  appears  in  the  third.  Their  character  is  such  as 
to  show,  that  while  the  orator  was  a  statesman  of  influence  in  the  civil  council, 
he  was  also  at  the  same  time  a  commander  in  war.  Such  was  the  eloquence 
of  the  era  which  is  designated  by  the  name  of  Pericles. 

§  92.  But  the  third  is  the  most  glorious  era,  and  is  marked  by  a  name  which 
has  been  allowed  to  stand  pre-eminent  in  the  history  of  human  eloquence,  that 
of  Demosthenes.  It  was  an  age  fruitful  in  orators,  of  whose  talents  there  still 
remain  rich  and  splendid  monuments.  The  orator  was  no  longer  necessarily 
united  with  the  general ;  but  was  able  to  control  the  deliberations  of  the  peo- 
ple, although  he  never  encountered  the  perils  of  the  camp. 

It  was  now  that  oratory  became  a  regular  study,  and  numbers  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  business  of  teaching  its  rules.  These  teachers,  known  by  the 
name  of  Sophists  and  Rhetoricians,  made  the  most  arrogant  and  ridiculous 
pretensions,  professing  to  communicate  the  art  of  speaking  copiously  and  flu- 
ently on  any  point  whatever.  But  we  must  not  affix  to  all,  who  went  under 
this  name,  the  idea  of  a  vain  and  pompous  declaimer.  There  were  some  hon- 
orable exceptions ;  e.  g.  Isocrates,  who  taught  the  art,  and  whose  influence 
upon  the  oratory  of  this  period  was  so  great,  that  Cicero  gives  him  the  honor 
of  forming  its  general  character.  His  school  was  the  resort  of  all  who  aimed 
at  the  glory  and  the  rewards  of  eloquence. 

Isocrates,  Lysias,  Isaeus,  JEschines,  and  Demosthenes,  are  the  bright  names 
in  the  constellation  which  marks  this  era.  Andocides,  Dinarchus,  Hyperides, 
and  Lycurgus,  are  also  recorded  as  eminent  speakers.  These,  with  Antiphon 
of  the  preceding  era,  form  the  illustrious  company  of  the  ten  Athenian  orators. 
They  could  have  been,  however,  only  a  small  part  of  the  number  in  the  pro- 
fession in  this  period,  as  we  might  judge,  even  had  no  names  been  recorded, 
from  the  fact  that  at  its  very  close  there  were  at  least  ten,  and  according  to 
some  thirty,  whom  the  Macedonian  conqueror  demanded  to  be  delivered  up  to 
him  as  hostile  to  his  supremacy. — Scholl,  ii.  p.  265. 

§  93.  In  the  age  before  us,  the  general  characteristics  are  to  be  found  in  the 
state  and  circumstances  of  the  profession,  rather  than  in  the  form  or  nature  of 
the  eloquence.  Each  of  the  more  eminent  orators  had  his  distinguishing  pecu- 
liarities, which  makes  it  difficult  to  mark  the  prominent  traits,  which  might  be 
stamped  upon  all.  It  is  easy,  notwithstanding,  to  notice  the  influence  of  the 
system  of  art,  to  which  the  speakers  of  this  age  thought  it  necessary  to  attend. 
There  is  in  their  orations  too  little  of  the  plain  and  direct  simplicity  of  former 
times,  and  much,  often  far  too  much,  of  the  ambush  and  artifice  of  logic,  the 
flourish  and  sound  of  mere  rhetoric.  You  discover  also,  frequently,  the  orator's 
consciousness  of  influence  arising  from  his  skill  in  speaking.  It  was  an  age, 
when  the  populace  flocked  to  the  assemblies  and  the  courts  of  justice  for  the 
sake  of  hearing  and  being  affected ;  when  even  the  unprincipled  demagogue 
could,  by  the  spell  of  his  tongue,  raise  himself  to  the  archonship  of  Athens. 

§  94.  This  period  furnished  a  greater  number  and  variety  of  occasions  for 
the  display  of  oratorical  talents.     Numerous  state  prosecutions,  similar  to  that 


202  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

in  which  Lysias  engaged  against  Eratosthenes,  grew  out  of  the  disturbances 
and  revolutions  connected  with  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  these  necessarily 
drew  forth  the  genius  of  opposing  advocates.  Public  discussions,  likewise, 
became  frequent  upon  different  subjects  relating  to  war,  politics,  and  govern- 
ment, which  opened  a  wide  field  not  merely  for  harangue,  but  for  studied  and 
labored  composition. 

At  the  close  of  the  period,  the  encroachment  of  Philip  on  the  Grecian  rights 
afforded  an  ample  theme  both  for  the  ambitious  demagogue  and  the  zealous 
patriot.  This  circumstance  was  perhaps  the  cause  of  the  peculiar  energy  and 
warmth  of  feeling,  which  distinguished  much  of  the  oratory  of  the  period.  Al- 
though the  writers  and  speakers  differed  in  opinion  as  to  the  true  policy  of  the 
Greeks,  their  orations  breathe  a  common  spirit  of  national  attachment  and  na- 
tional pride  and  confidence.  Indeed  the  patriotism  and  the  genius  of  Greece 
seem  to  have  exhausted  themselves  in  the  efforts  of  this  last  day  of  her  indepen- 
dence and  her  glory.  In  Demosthenes  she  heard  the  last  tones  of  her  favorite 
art,  as  she  did  the  last  remonstrance  against  her  submission  to  servitude. 

§  95.  Such  is  a  glance  at  the  rise  and  progress  of  eloquence  in  Greece. 
Late  in  its  origin,  confined  chiefly  to  Athens,  flourishing  only  for  a  compara- 
tively short  time,  marked  successively  by  the  eras  of  Themistocles,  Pericles, 
and  Demosthenes,  it  ended  its  career  when  the  country  lost  its  independence, 
but  with  a  glory  that  is  gone  out  into  all  lands,  and  will  survive  through  all 
ages.-It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  Cicero  and  other  writers  speak  of  the 
eloquence  of  the  period  immediately  subsequent  to  Philip  and  Alexander  ; 
and  here  is  the  place  for  a  few  words  respecting  it. 

§  96.  True  eloquence,  says  Scholl  (iii.  239.),  that  which  speaks  to  the  heart 
and  passions  of  men,  and  which  not  merely  convinces  but  carries  away  the 
hearer,  ceased  with  the  fall  of  liberty.  Under  the  successors  of  Alexander, 
not  finding  any  object  worthy  of  its  exertions,  it  fled  from  the  scenes  of  politics 
to  the  retreats  of  the  schools.  Athens,  degraded  from  her  eminence,  no  longer 
was  the  exclusive  residence  of  an  art,  which  had  once  thrown  such  lustre  over 
her  name  and  history.  From  this  time,  instead  of  the  orators  of  Attica,  we 
hear  only  of  the  orators  of  Asia.  In  reality,  however,  instead  of  orators  at  all, 
among  the  Greeks  anywhere,  we  find,  after  this  time,  only  rhetoricians. 

The  most  famous  of  the  schools  just  alluded  to,  was  that  of  Rhodes,  founded 
by  iEschines.  In  these  institutions  the  masters  gave  out  themes,  on  which  the 
young  pupils  exercised  their  talents.  These  were  frequently  historical  sub- 
jects. Often  the  questions,  which  had  exercised  the  great  orators  of  the  pre- 
vious age,  were  again  debated.  But  such  performances  had  not  for  their  ob- 
ject to  convince  judges,  or  force  an  assembly  to  action.  The  highest  aim  now 
was  to  awaken  admiration  in  hearers,  who  wished  not  to  be  moved,  but  to  be 
entertained.  The  noble  simplicity  of  the  old  orators  was  exchanged  for  a  style 
overcharged  with  rhetorical  ornaments. 

Hegesius  of  Magnesia  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  new  style  of  eloquence 
and  composition  which  now  appeared,  and  which,  as  has  been  already  men- 
tioned, was  termed  Asiatic.      His  discourses  are  lost. 

§  97.  But  the  principal  name  worthy  of  notice  after  the  time  of  Alexander 
is  Demetrius  Phalereus,  who  was  appointed  governor  of  Athens,  by  Cassander 
king  of  Macedonia.  He  was  the  last  of  the  great  orators  of  Greece.  Cicero 
speaks  of  Demetrius  with  considerable  commendation,  as  the  most  learned  and 
polished  of  all  after  the  ancient  masters.  But  he  describes  (Brutus,  9)  his  in- 
fluence as  substituting  softness  and  tenderness  instead  of  power ;  cultivating 
sweetness  rather  than  force  ;  a  sweetness  which  diffused  itself  through  the  soul 
without  stirring  the  passions;  forming  an  eloquence  which  impressed  on  the 
mind  nothing  but  its  own  symmetry,  and  which  never  left,  like  the  eloquence 
of  Pericles,  a  sting  along  with  the  delight. 

§  98.  We  pause  here  in  our  general  glance  at  Grecian  oratory,  because 
everything  pertaining  to  the  subject,  in  the  periods  after  the  capture  of  Corinth 
(B.  C.  146),  will  be  more  properly  introduced  in  speaking  of  the  Sophists  and 
Rhetoricians. 

But  it  is  important  to  allude  to  the  three  branches,  into  which  Grecian  oratory 
was  divided  by  the  teachers.  They  were  the  deliberative,  the  legal  or  judicial, 
and  the  demonstrative  or  panegyrical.      Demosthenes  is  the  unrivaled  master 


ORATORS.       ANTIPHON.     ANDOCIDES.  203 

in  the  first.  Lysias  and  Isseus  present  rich  specimens  of  the  second.  The  best 
performances  of  Isocrates  belong  to  the  third.  But  no  orator  was  confined  to 
either  branch  ;  according  to  preference,  he  might  thunder  in  the  assembly  of 
the  people,  argue  in  the  court  of  justice,  or  declaim  before  the  occasional  and 
promiscuous  concourse. 

On  the  legal  oratory  of  Greece,  see  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xxix  ;    the  panegyrical,  same,  vol.  xx  vu. 

§  99*.  We  now  proceed,  according  to  our  prescribed  plan  (§8),  to 
notice  invividually  the  principal  orators,  of  whom  there  are  existing 
remains. 

But  it  will  be  proper  to  give  first  some  references  to  sources  of  information 
respecting  them,  and  to  the  printed  collections  of  their  performances. 

1.  The  chief  original  sources  of  information  are  the  fragments  of  a  treatise  of  Dionysius  Hali- 
carnasseus,  in  which  Lysias,  Isocrates,  Isaeus,  and  Demosthenes  were  critically  examined,  and 
the  Lives  of  the  ten  orators,  ascribed  to  Plutarch. — Of  modern  works,  we  mention  the  following. 
*  Ant  JVestermann,  Geschichte  der  Griechischen  Beredsamkeit.  Lpz.1834.  8.  —  Ruhnken,  His- 
toria  critica  oratorum  Gnec.  in  his  edit,  of  Rutilius  Lupus.  Leyd.  1768.  8. — Hardion,  Sur  l'orig. 
et  les  progres  de  la  rhet.  chez.  les  Grecs,  in  the  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  ix.  200  ;  xm.  97  ; 
xv.  145 ;  xvi.  378  :  xix.  203 ;  xxi.  &c.  —  Manso,  uber  die  Bildung  der  Rhetorik  unter  den 
Griechen,  in  his  Vermischten  Abh.  u.  Aufs.  Bresl.1821.  8.  —  Schozli,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  ii.  197. 

2.  The  following  collections  may  be  named. — Aldus  Manutius.  Ven.1513.  3  vols.  fol.  very  rare. 
—  H.  Stephanus,  Gr.  <fc  Lat.  Par.1575.  fol.  Isocrates  and  Demosthenes  not  included. — J.  J.  Reiske, 
Oratorum  Graec.  qua?  supersunt  monumenta  ingenii,  etc.  Lips.  1770-75.  12  vols.  8.  comprising 
what  is  most  valuable  in  the  labors  of  the  preceding  editors  ;  the  contents  are  detailed  by  fchall, 
ii.  260. — /.  Bekker,  Oratores  Attici.  Lips.  1822.  7  vols.  8.  without  explanatory  notes.  Repr.  Berl. 
1824.  5  vols.  8.  Cf.  Dibdin,  I.  483.  —  W.  S.  Dobson,  Oratores  Attici  et  quos  sic  vocant  Sophists. 
Lond.1828. 16  vols.  8.  Gr.  &  Lat.  very  valuable,  although  not  perfect  in  critical  skill.— T.Mitchell, 

Oratores  Attici  (ex  recens.  Bekkeri).  Oxf.  1822-28.  10  vols.  8. A  useful  help  in  study  of  the 

Attic  orators,  is  the  Lexicon  of  Harpocratiun.   Cf.  §139. 

§100.  Antiphon,  of  Rhamnus  in  Attica,  was  born  about  B.  C.  480. 
In  the  year  411  or  4J0  B.  C.  he  was  condemned  and  put  to  death  as 
a  traitor.  He  was  celebrated  at  Athens  as  an  orator  and  a  teacher 
of  eloquence. 

1m.  The  ancients  ascribed  to  him  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  TV/v>;  rr>>jTon<z»,,  said 
to  have  been  the  first  written  on  the  subject.  He  also  prepared  orations  or 
speeches  to  be  used  by  others,  for  which  he  received  payment.  Of  the  fifteen 
which  are  still  extant,  three  belong  to  criminal  cases  actually  occurring  and 
brought  to  trial  ;  the  other  twelve  seem  rather  to  be  imaginary  speeches  adapted 
to  supposed  cases. 

2.  Antiphon  was  a  pupil  of  the  sophist  Gorgias,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  apply  the  art  of  rhetoric  to  judiciary  proceedings.  Thucydides  was  in- 
structed in  his  school.  During  the  Peloponnesian  war,  Antiphon  repeatedly 
had  the  command  of  Athenian  troops.  He  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  the 
400,  the  establishment  of  which  was,  in  a  great  degree,  owing  to  his  influence. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who,  for  money,  composed  orations  to  be  read 
or  spoken  by  others  :  this  became  afterwards  a  frequent  practice  and  a  source 
of  great  emolument. — Cf.  Cicero,  Brutus. 12. —  Thucydides,  viii.  68. 

3.  His  orations  are  given  in  Reiske,  cited  §  99,  vol.  vii.  p.  603.  —  Bekker,  vol.  i. See  P.  v. 

Spaan  (really  Ruhnken),  Diss,  de  Antiphonte.   Lugd.  Bat.  1765.  4.   also  in  Reiske,  vii.  795.   and 

in  Ruhnken's  Opusc.  orat.  phil.  et  crit.  Lug.  B.  1807.  8. French  translation  of  some  parts,  in 

Auger's  CEuvres  completes  d'Isocrate,  avec  &c.  Par.  1781.  3  vols.  8. 

§  101.  Andocides,  an  Athenian  of  illustrious  birth,  later  than  An- 
tiphon, about  B.  C  468.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  statesman  and 
orator,  but  too  restless  in  his  political  character.  He  suffered  many 
vexations,  and  finally  died  in  exile,  B.  C.  about  396.  We  have  four 
speeches  from  him,  which  commend  themselves  by  their  simplicity 
and  force  of  expression,  and  which  are  of  much  value  in  illustrating 
the  history  of  the  times. 

1.  One  of  the  discourses  of  Andocides  is  against  Alcibiades,  Kara* A).xi^Sik- 
$ov ;  another  respecting  the  peace  with  Sparta,  UtQi  Ei^Voj  ;  the  other  two 
were  in  self-defence  ;  r/eni  y.uQudov,  treating  of  his  second  return  to  Athens, 
after  having  fled  from  the  prison  into  which  he  was  thrown  by  the  400,  and 
Jleqi  t>  varietur,  relating  to  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis,  which  he  had  been  accused 
of  violating. 


204  HISTORY  OP  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

2.  His  discourses  are  in  Reiske,  vol.  iv.  —  Bekker,  vol.  i.  —  Dobson,  vol.  i. — Cf.  J.  0.  Sluitcrf 
Lectiones  Andocideae.   Lug.  B.  1804.  8.  —  Hauvtmann  de  Andocide,  in  Reiske,  vol.  viii.  p.  535. 

See  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xxix.  p.  326.  —  MitfordPs  Greece,  ch.  xxii.  §  2.  (vol.  4.  p.  96.  ed.  Bost. 

1823.) 

§  102.  Lysias,  a  native  of  Athens,  son  of  Cephalus  from  Syracuse, 
lived  between  458  and  379  B.C.  He  was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  Many 
years  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  spent  at  Thurium  in  Magna  Grae- 
cia.  Above  200  discourses  are  said  to  have  been  written  by  him,  all 
in  advanced  life;  only  34  of  them  are  extant.  These  justify  the  repu- 
tation he  enjoyed  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  his  style  and  his  power 
in  convincing  and  persuading.  Cicero  (Brut.  9)  gives  him  the  praise 
of  having  almost  attained  the  ideal  of  a  perfect  orator;  yet  he  is  infe- 
rior to  Demosthenes  in  simplicity  and  energy. 

1.  The  father  of  Lysias  removed  to  Athens  on  the  invitation  of  Pericles,  and  belonged  to  the 
class  of  inhabitants  termed  11  iroixot ,  metics,  or  foreign  residents.  At  the  age  of  15,  Lysias  went 
out  with  the  colony  established  by  the  Athenians  at  Thurium.  Here  he  remained  30  years 
studying  and  practicing  oratory.  He  then  returned  to  Athens,  and  in  partnership  with  his 
brother  Polemarchus  vested  some  of  his  property  in  a  manufactory  of  shields,  in  which  above 
a  hundred  slaves  were  employed.  The  wealth  of  the  brothers  became  so  great,  that  they  were 
included  among  the  300  richest  men  of  the  city,  on  whom  was  cast  the  burden  of  paying  all  the 
expenses  of  the  state.  Their  wealth  at  last  exposed  them  to  the  lawless  avarice  of  the  thirty 
tyrants.  Polemarchus  was  condemned  to  drink  hemlock.  Lysias  escaped  by  flight.  On  the 
overthrow  of  the  thirty,  he  returned  to  Athens  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  the  employment 
of  a  rhetorician.    He  lived  to  the  age  of  81. 

For  the  life  of  Lysias,  see  Taylor's  edit,  cited  below. — Mitford,  vol.  vi.  p.  46. — J.  Franz,  Dis- 
sertatio  de  Lysia.   Norirnb.  1828.  4. 

2.  His  orations  were  written  for  the  use  of  others,  and  he  is  said  to  have  spoken 
but  one  himself,  that  against  Erathosthenes.  The  ALyoc,  InirUyioq,  ox  funeral 
oration  over  the  Athenians  who  were  slain  under  the  command  of  Iphicrates, 
is  considered  his  chef-d'oeuvre. 

3.  Editions.  —  B.— J.  Taylor,  Gr.  and  Lat.   Lond.  1739.  4 The  Princeps,  by  Aldus,  cited 

§  99. Given  in  Reiske,  5th  and  6th  vols. — Bekker,  1st  vol.  —  Dobson,  3d. Separately,  Au- 
ger, Gr.  and  Lat.   Par.  1783.  2  vols.  8.— Alter.  Vien.  1785.  8. 

4.  Translations.  —  English.— J.  Gillies.  Lond.1778.  4. French.— Auger.   Par.  1783.  8. 

J.  Franz,  Monarch.  1831.  8.—C.  Fortzch.  Lpz.1829.  8. German.  —  Some  of  the  orations,  in 

Wieland?s  Att.  Mus.  Th.L— Cf.  Harles,  Brev.  Not.  p.  139. 

§  103.  Isocrates  was  born  at  Athens  about  B.  C.  436,  and  died 
B.  C.  338.  He  was  a  scholar  of  Gorgias  and  Prodicus.  From  his 
diffidence  and  the  weakness  of  his  voice  he  rarely  or  never  spake  in 
public.  But  he  acquired  great  honor  by  giving  instruction  in  elo- 
quence, and  contributed  thereby  to  the  perfection  of  the  art.  More 
than  other  rhetoricians,  he  encouraged  attention  to  the  harmony  of 
language.  In  this  lies  the  greatest  excellence  of  his  own  discourses, 
which  are  distinguished  rather  for  accuracy  and  polish,  than  native 
ardor  and  warmth.  Yet  his  school  marked  an  epoch  in  Grecian  elo- 
quence. He  wrote  partly  as  a  master  for  his  scholars,  and  partly  for 
the  use  of  others.     There  are  extant  21  orations  ascribed  to  him. 

1.  In  youth  he  was  a  companion  of  Plato,  and  like  him  was  a  great  admirer 
of  Socrates.  He  is  said  to  have  died,  by  voluntary  starvation,  in  grief  for  the 
fatal  battle  of  Chaeronea. 

There  is  an  anonymous  life  of  Isocrates,  found  in  the  2d  vol.  of  J.  C.  Orelli,  Opuscula  gra»c. 
vet.  sententiosa  ac  moralia.  Lips.  1819.  2  vols.  8. — G.  B.  Schirach,  2  Diss,  de  vita  et  genere  scri- 
bendi  Isocratis.  Hal.  1765.  4.  —  F.  G.  Freytag,  Orator,  et  rhetor,  gisc.  quibus  status  honoris 
causa  posiue  fuerunt,  decas.  Lips.  1752. 

2.  The  most  finished  of  his  pieces  is  that  styled  IlartjYVQiy.b?,  i.  e.  a  discourse 
before  all  the  assembled  people  ;  it  was  pronounced  at  the  Olympic  games ;  ad- 
dressed to  all  the  Greeks,  yet  exalting  the  Athenians  as  entitled  to  the  first 
rank  among  the  states.  This  oration,  with  jive  of  the  others,  may  be  placed 
in  the  class  of  deliberative,  av(iSovi.tvny.oi.  Four  may  be  termed  encomiastic^ 
iyxwuiaatixoi ;  among  these  is  the  Ilava&tjvaCxog,  a  eulogy  on  the  Athenians, 
one  of  the  best  pieces  of  Isocrates,  but  imperfectly  preserved.  Eight  belong  to 
judicial  cases,  loyoi  dixunxoi ;  one  of  these,  TTeoi  rijq  uvridooecoc,  De  permuta- 
tione,  or  on  the  exchanging  of  property,  relates  to  his  own  personal  affairs.  — 


ORATORS.      ISOCRATES.    IS.EUS.    LYCURGUS.  205 

The  remaining  three  are  parcenetic,  jtaoaivsTty.bi.  One  of  these,  TFoo?  Jru6- 
\iy.or,  is  by  some  critics  ascribed  to  another  Isocrates.  That  styled  iVixoxiiye, 
and  sometimes  Kvthjioc  loyog,  written  for  the  use  of  Nicocles  king  of  Salamis 
in  Cyprus,  is  said  to  have  procured  from  the  prince  in  return  a  present  of  20 
talents.  Besides  these  orations,  there  is  a  discourse  against  the  Sophists,  Kara 
tmv  ooiptoroiv.  An  art  of  rhetoric,  Ti/vrh  is  also  quoted  by  Quintilian.  Ten 
rpistles,  likewise  (cf.§156.2),  are  preserved  as  having  been  written  by  Isocrates. 
Scholl,  ii.  208.  —  Mitford,  vii.  212.  —  Abbe  Vatry,  Les  Ouvrages  d'Isocrate,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr. 
xiii.  162.  —  J.  G.  Strang,  Krit.  Bemerk.  zu  den  Reden  des  Isokrates.  Coin. 1831.  8.  —  P.  J.  A. 
Schmitz,  Animadv.  in  Isoc.  Panathenaicum.    Marb.  1835.  4. 

3.  Editions.—  B.—  W.  Lange.  Halle,  1804.  8.  —  Coray.  Par.  1807.  2  vols.  8.  entirely  in  Greek, 

with   a  preface   in   modern   Greek,   on  the  language  and  education  of  the  Greeks. F. — 

Princeps,  of  Dcmtr.  Chalcondylas.  Mediol.1493.  fol.  —  In  Aldus,  Rhet.  Grsec.  cited  §  99. —  Hieron. 
Wolf,  Gr.  &,  Lat.  Bas.  1570.  fol.  —  P.  Stephanus,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Genev.  1604.  8.  —  W.  Battle, 
Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1749.  2  vols.  8.— Auger,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1781.  3  vols.  8.  not  very  highly  esti- 
mated by  the  critics.— Given  also  in  Bekker,  2d  vol.  and  Dobson,  3d  vol. Separate  portions. 

—  Panegyricus;  Morus.  Lips.  1787.  8.  impr.  by  Spolm.  Lips.  1817.  8.  —  G.  Dlndorf.  Lips. 
,?826.  8.  —  De  Permutatione  (incomplete  until  the  discoveries  of  a  modern  scholar,  Mus- 
toxydes.  Cf.  Scholl,  ii.  263)  ;  ./.  C.  Orelli.  Zur.  1814.  8.  —  De  Pace;  P.J.  Leloup.  Mogunt. 
J826.  8.  —  Areopagiticus  &  Evagoras;  G.  E.  Benseler.  Lpz.  1832,  34.  8.  —  S  e  1  e  c  t 
orations.  $  J.  H.  Bremius,  in  Rost^s  Bibliotheca. 

4.  Translations.  —  English. — J,  Gillies,  in  the  work  cited  §  102.  4.— S.  Toulmin.  The  oration 
to  Demonicus,  in  Sermons  to  Youth.  Lond.  1770.  8. —  Young.  The  Orations  and  Epistles.  Lond. 
1752.  8. French.  —  Auger.  Par.  1781.  3  vols.  8. German. —  W.  Lange.  Berl.  1798.  com- 
menced.— A.  H.  Christian,  in  the  Coll.  of  New  Translations,  ed.  by  Osiandcr,  Schwab,  and  Tafel. 
(Prose)  Stuttg.  1837. 

§  104.  Iscbus,  a  native  of  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  but  resident  at  Athens, 
was  a  scholar  of  Lysias  and  Isocrates,  and  the  teacher  of  Demosthe- 
nes. Born  about  400  B.  C.  he  probably  died  in  the  former  part  of  the 
reign  of  Philip.  He  took  Lysias  for  his  model,  but  excelled  him 
particularly  in  dignity  and  elevation. 

1.  Of  50  orations  by  Isaeus  extant  in  the  time  of  Photius,  only  eleven  now 
remain.  They  all  relate  to  the  subject  of  inheritances  Q.oyoi  yJ.r^iy.ol) ,  and 
contain  much  information  respecting  the  laws  of  heirship  at  Athens,  the  cus- 
toms relative  to  the  adoption  of  children,  to  testaments  and  bequests,  and 
almost  everything  connected  with  the  transferring  of  property.  They  present, 
also,  a  melancholy  picture  of  the  fraud  and  cruelty  frequently  indulged  by 
guardians,  executors,  and  contending  heirs.  The  style  is  full  of  nerve.  De- 
mosthenes is  said  to  have  chosen  him  as  a  master  in  preference  to  Isocrates, 
on  account  of  this  trait. — Cf.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xxvi. 

2.  Editions,  —  G.  F.  ScliSmann,  Isasi  Orationes  XL  Gryphisw.  1831.  8. Ten  of  the  ora- 
tions are  in  Reiske,  vol.  vn. ;  one  of  them,  however,  the  inheritance  of  Cleonymus,  was  first  pub- 
lished in  full  by  A.  Mai.  Mil.  1815  ;  the  eleventh,  the  inheritance  of  Menccles,  was  published  by 
Tyrwhitt.   Lond.  1785,  8.  —  They  are  given  in  Bekker,  3d  vol.  —  Dobson,  4th  vol. 

3.  Translations.  — French.— Auger  (with  Andocides  and  Lycurgus)  Par.  1783.  8. Eng- 
lish.— Sir  Wm.  Jones.  Oxf.  1779.  and  in  his  Works,  4th  vol.  with  valuable  notes. 

§  105.  Lycurgus,  descended  from  an  ancient  Athenian  family,  died 
at  an  advanced  age,  B.  C.  about  330.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Isocrates 
and  Plato,  and  a  friend  of  Demosthenes.  He  was  warmly  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  the  commonwealth,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  honors 
of  the  state.  Of  his  orations,  15  remained  in  the  time  of  Plutarch; 
but  only  one  has  been  preserved  to  us,  that  against  Leocrates  for  his 
deserting  Athens  in  her  distress,  after  the  battle  of  Chaeronea.  His 
oratory  was  marked  by  strong  moral  feeling  and  patriotism,  without 
much  effort  to  be  eloquent. 

1.  He  fearlessly  resisted  all  the  claims  of  Philip  and  Alexander,  and  was 
one  of  the  orators  demanded  by  Alexander  after  the  capture  of  Thebes.  His 
children,  to  whom  he  left  no  property,  were  educated  by  the  state.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  one  of  the  inscriptions,  which  Fourmount  caused  to  be  copied  ^t 
Athens,  is  an  account  of  the  administration  of  Lycurgus,  in  which  he  received 
and  expended,  according  to  the  inscription,  13,900  talents. 

Cf.  P.  I.  $  90.  7  (c).— Scholl,  ii.  219.  —  Auger,  Sur  Lycurgue,  Mem.  Acad,  Inscr.  vol.  xlvi,  364. 

18 


206  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

2.  The  oration  is  in  Reiske,  4th  vol.— Bekker,  3d  vol.  —  Dobson,  4th  vol. — Separately,  Haupt' 

mann.  Lpz.  1753.  8. R.— A.  G.  Becker.  Magd.  1821.  8.  —  §  C.  F.  Heinrich.  Bonn,  1821.  8.  — < 

t  G.Pinzger,  Gr.  &  Germ.  Lpz.1824.8.  with  valuable  notes.— F.G.Kicssling-,  Lycurgi  Reliquite, 
Hal.  1834.  8.  —  E.  Mdtzner.  Berl.  1836.  8. 

§  106.  Demosthenes  was  born  B.  C.  385,  in  the  Attic  borough  Psea- 
nia,  and  died  B.  C>  322,  in  the  island  of  Calauria,  by  poison  self-ad- 
ministered, in  order  to  escape  the  vengeance  of  Antipater.  Isaeus  was 
his  master  in  rhetoric,  but  he  received  instruction  also  from  Isocrates 
and  Callistratus. 

1  u.  His  celebrity  was  much  greater  than  that  of  any  other  Grecian  orator, 
on  account  of  the  fire,  vehemence,  and  strength  of  his  eloquence,  which  he 
especially  exerted  in  rousing  the  Athenians  to  war  with  the  Macedonians,  and 
in  defeating  his  rivals  bribed  by  the  latter.  We  have  61  orations  of  Demos- 
thenes, and  65  introductions,  which  are  probably  not  all  genuine.  The  charac- 
teristics of  this  orator  Were  strength,  sublimity,  and  a  piercing  energy  and 
force,  aided  by  an  emphatic  and  vehement  elocution.  His  peculiarities,  how- 
ever, sometimes  degenerated  into  severity. 

2.  At  the  age  of  seven  he  lost  his  father.  His  guardians  wasted  his  property, 
and  at  the  age  of  17  he  appeared  before  the  courts  against  them,  and  urged  his 
own  cause  successfully.  Thereby  encouraged  to  speak  before  the  assembly  of 
the  people,  he  failed  entirely.  He  retired  and  studied  and  toiled  in  secret  for 
many  years.  At  the  age  of  25,  he  came  forward  again  and  commenced  his 
brilliant  career. 

At  the  age  of  63,  having  been  driven  from  Athens  by  the  hostility  of  the  Macedonian  Anti- 
pater, and  pursued  to  his  retreat  in  the  island  of  Calauria,  he  terminated  his  own  life  by  poison. 
It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  Demosthenes  and  Aristotle  were  born  and  died  in  the  same  years. 
«—  The  life  of  Demosthenes  is  given  by  Plutarch ;  and  also  in  the  Lives  of  the  ten  Attic  orators, 
ascribed  to  him.  There  are  also  two  other  Lives,  anciently  written,  and  a  eulogy  by  Libanins. 
(cf.\$128.) — For  a  eood  View  of  his  history,  see  Scholl,  ii.  p.224;  and  Heercn,  transl,  bv  Bancroft, 
p.  276.— Cf.  A.  G.~Becker,  Demosthenes  als  Staatsmann  und  Redner.  Hal.  1816.2  vols'.  8.  Quedl. 
1833.  —  P.  A.  Zimmcrmann,  De  Demosthene  reip.  Athen.  administratore.  Berl.  1828.  8.  —  A. 
Bovllee,  Vie  de  Demosthene,  &c.  Par.  1834.  8.  very  good.  —  But  Ranke,  in  the  Encyclopddie  of 
Ensch  &  Gruber,  Halle,  1818  ss.  said  to  be  better. 

3.  Seventeen  of  the  orations  belong  to  the  class  of  deliberative  ;  12  of  these 
relate  to  the  contests  between  Philip  and  the  Greeks,  3  styled  Olynthiacs,  and  4 
called  Philippics,  the  rest  of  the  12  bearing  different  titles  ;  the  whole  12  were 
spoken  between  B.  C.  351  and  340.  Fortytwo  are  judicial  speeches  ;  30  of 
these  relate  to  private  or  individual  interests,  where  the  case  was  termed  dixy  ; 
among  them  are  the  5  pronounced  against  his  own  faithless  guardians,  show- 
ing plainly  the  hand  of  Isaefts  in  their  style  :  the  other  12  relate  to  public  or 
state  affairs,  where  the  case  was  termed  xttTifyeftta  ;  among  these  was  the  ora- 
tion IIsqI  OTtjcfiLtvov,  in  which  Demosthenes  defends  Ctesiphon  against  the  ac- 
cusation of  iEschines,  and  in  making  the  defence  justifies  his  own  policy  in 
reference  to  Philip,  notwithstanding  the  disastrous  issue  of  the  battle  of  Chae- 
ronea;  it  is  considered  as  the  best  of  his  orations,  and  a  master-piece  of  elo- 
quence. Only  tico  of  the  extant  orations  of  Demosthenes  belong  to  the  kind 
called  demonstrative,  both  of  them  probably  spurious  ;  one  is  the  eulogy  (i.Ti- 
Tacpiog)  upon  those  who  fell  at  Chreronea.  —  We  have  also  six  letters  of  De- 
mosthenes, five  of  them  written  during  his  exile,  to  the  people  of  Athens. 

Scholl,  ii.  231.  —  Mitford,  vol.  vn.  p.107.  ed.  Bost,  1823.  —  Rochefort,  Oratory  of  Demosth.  in 
the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vols,  xliii.  1.  and  xlvi.  66. 

4.  Editions.  —  B.  —  G.  H.  Schufer,  Gr.  <fe  Lat.  Lond.  1822-27.  9  vols.  8.  vol.  i— n.  Text, 
Reiske's  ;  vol.  in.  Wolfs  Lat.  version  ;  vol.  iv^yiii.  Apparatus  criticus  et  exegeticus  &c.  ; 
this  is  highly  commended  by  the  best  judges,  and  forms  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  work  ; 
may  be  procured  separately,  vol.  ix.  Indices.  —  The  best  text  is  said  to  be  in  G.  Dindorf.  Lips*. 
1825.  3  vols.  12.  (Teubner's  Coll.)  —  W.  S.  Dobson,  Demosthenis  et  xEschinis,  que  extant  om- 
nia. Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond. 1828, 10  vols.  8.  with  the  scholia  of  Ulpian,  and  prefaces  of  various  editors, 

F.—  Princeps,  by  Aldus.  Ven.  1504.  fol.  —  Hcrvagius.  Basil,  1542.  with  the  Commentaries 

of  Ulpian.— H.  Wolf,  Gr<  &  Lat.  (containing  also  ^Eschines)  Basil,  1549.  fol.  ;  and  better,  Fran- 
cof.  1604.  fol.  —  Taylor,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Cam  b.  1748-57.  4.;  2d  and  3d  vols,  only;  1st  never 
appeared. — iuger,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1790.  1st  vol.  only  ;  usually  pnrchased  to  complete  Taylor's, 

There  have  been  many  editions  of  particular  orations  ;  of  de  Corona,  some  of  the  best  are, 

HcTles,  Greek  &  Lat.   Alt,  1769.  repr.  Lpz.  1814,  8.  —  Stock,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Dubl.  1769.  2  vols.  8.  — < 

Wolf,  Gr.  &  Lat.   1798.  d.—Bckkcr.  Hal.  1815.  8.  repr.  Lond.  1824.  8. Philippics:  ;  $  C.  A. 

Rudia-er.  Lips.  1829.  8.  —  \  J.  Vomel.  Frank.  1899.  2  vols.  8,  ^—  Selec  t  it ;  E.  H.  Barkery 
With^English  notes.   Lond.  1830,  8.  —  *  ,/.  H.  Brcmi.   Goth*,1834.  2  vols.  8. 

5.  Translations German.  —  Reiske.    Lemgo.  1764-69.  5  vols.  8.  —  F.  Jacobs.   Lips.  2d  ed. 

1833. 8.  including  13 orations  &  Philip's  Letter,  with  notes.— 'A.G.Bccker.  Hal.  *'2d  ed.  improved) 


ORATORS.      DEMOSTHENES.      jESCHINES.    D1NARCHUS.  207 

1826.  2  vols.  8.  the  Philippics. French.— A.  Auger.  Par.  1777. 1804.  6  vols.  8. English 

Ph.  Francis.  Lond.  1775.  2  vols.  A.—  Th.  Leland.  1802.  2  vols.  8. 

6.  Illustrative.  —  C.  G.  Gersdorf,  Synopsis  repetitor.  Dem.  locorum.  Alt.  1833.  8.  —  J.  Held, 
Prolegomena  ad  Dem.  &c.  Vratisl.  1831-33.— E.Schaumann,  Prolegom.  ad  Demosth.  &c.  Primisl. 
1829.  8.  —  *  F.  Winieiciski,  Comm.  in  Demosth.  or.  de  Corona.  Monast.  1829.  8. — G.  F.  Eysell, 
Demosthenes  a  suspicione  accepts:  ab  Harpalo  pecuniae  liberatus.  Marb.1836.  8. —  *  A.  Wester- 
mann,  De  fontibus  historic  Demosth.  Lips.  1837.  8.  —  Same,  Qusstiones  Demosthenicae.  Lips. 
1834.  8. 

§  107.  jEschines  lived  at  Athens  at  the  same  time  with  Demosthe- 
nes, and  was  a  pupil  of  Isocrates  and  Plato.  He  became  the  most  dis- 
tinguished rival  of  Demosthenes,  although  by  no  means  equal  to  him 
in  powerful  eloquence. 

1  u.  Demosthenes  obtained  a  complete  triumph  over  him  by  the  oration 
concerning  the  crown  in  the  trial  of  Ctesiphon  ;  and  JEschines  retired  to  Rhodes, 
where  he  gave  instruction  in  rhetoric.  He  died  in  the  island  Samos.  In  the 
judgment  of  Quintilian,  he  deserved  the  first  rank  among  Grecian  orators, 
next  to  Demosthenes.  His  great  merit  may  readily  be  seen  in  the  three  ora- 
tions preserved  to  our  time. 

2.  iEschines  was  12  or  13  years  older  than  Demosthenes,  being  born  B.  C. 
395,  and  lived  a  year  or  two  later,  dying  at  the  age  of  75.  In  early  life  he  does 
not  appear  to  have  enjoyed  much  success  or  reputation.  His  opposition  to 
Philip  first  brought  himinto  notice ;  yet  he  afterwards  became  a  partizan  for 
him  in  opposition  to  Demosthenes. — The  most  important  of  his  orations  is  that 
against  Ctesiphon,  y.lxra  KrtiOicpoirTog,  to  which  Demosthenes  replied  in  his  ora- 
tion upon  the  crown. 

Vatry,  Recherches  sur  la  vie  et  sur  les  oeuvrages  d'Eschine,  in  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr. 
torn.  xiv.  —  Scholl,  ii.  215.— Matthias,  de  ./Eschine  oratore,  in  Reiske,  vol.  iv.  —  F.  Passow,  Life 
of  iEsch.  (excellent)  in  Ensch  f  Gruber,  as  cited  §  106.  2. 

3.  The  remains  of  iEschines  are  given  in  Reiske,  vol.  3d  and  4th. — in  Bekker,  vol.  3d. — Dob- 
son,  vol.  12th.— Also  in  H.  Wolf,  cited  <$  106.  4. Separately.  Reiske's.   Lpz.  1808.  2  vols.  8. 

—  J.  H.  Bremi.  Ziir.  1824.  8.  —  The  oration  against  Ctesiphon,  often  published  with  Demosthe- 
nes on  the  crown  ;  Stock,  &c.  cited  §106.  A.—AlexMegris.  Bost.1829.  8.  with  a  preface  in  modern 
Greek,  and  English  notes. 

4.  Translations.  —  German. — Reiske,  with  Demosthenes,  cited  $106.  5.—F.  V.  Raumer  (^Esch. 

and  Dem.  in  the  case  of  Ctesiphon).  Berl.1811. 8. French.— Auger,  with  Dem.  cited  §  106.  5. 

English. — Andrew  Portal.  (iEsch.  and  Dem.  concern.  Ctes.)  Oxf.  1755.  8. 

5.  Hyperides,  a  native  of  Attica,  was  a  contemporary  of  Demosthenes  and 
^Eschines,  and  next  to  these  in  rank  as  an  orator.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Plato  in 
philosophy  and  of  Lycurgus  and  Isocrates  in  rhetoric.  He  was  proscribed  by 
Antipater,  and  put  to  death  B.  C.  322.  Of  52  orations  by  him,  not  one  remains 
which  is  indubitably  his ;  although  two  of  those  usually  ranked  among  the 
orations  of  Demosthenes  have,  by  some,  been  ascribed  to  Hyperides  ;#viz.  the 
one  entitled  Heoi  rcov  n^og  > ^d'/.iiavSqov  cvv&^y.wv,  'and  the  first  of  the  two 
against  Aristogeiton. 

6.  Dinarchus  was  a  native  of  Corinth,  but  passed  his  youth  at  Athens.  He 
studied  philosophy  under  Theophrastus,  and  became  celebrated  after  the  death 
of  Demosthenes  and  Hyperides.  He  acquired  wealth  by  composing  orations 
for  others.  Of  64  orations,  only  three  remain  ;  one  of  these  is  entitled  Kara 
jJtj/.iooSivovg. 

They  are  given  in  the  collections  cited  $  99. 2. Separately.  C.  E.  A.  Schmidt.  Lips.  1826.  8. 

Cf.  Ruhnken,  as  cited  §  99.  1.—  Sclioll,  n.  931.  —  C.  Warm,  Comm.  in  Dinarchi  orationes.  No- 
rimb.  1828.  8. 


III. — Sophists  and  Rhetoricians. 

§  103.  The  term  Sophist,  as  has  been  mentioned  (§  92),  was  originally  ap- 
plied in  Athens  to  those  who  taught  the  art  of  speaking.  One  of  the  earliest 
that  attained  eminence  in  this  profession,  was  Gorgias  of  Leontium  in  Sicily, 
about  430  B.  C.  Prodicus  of  Ceos,  and  Hippias  of  Elis,  flourished  in  the  same 
period.  '-All  these,"  observes  Mitford,  "  are  said  to  have  acquired  very  con- 
siderable riches  by  their  profession.  Their  success  therefore  invited  numbers 
to  follow  their  example ;  and  Greece,  but  especially  Athens,  shortly  abounded 


208  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

v.rith  those  who,  under  the  name  of  sophists,  professors  of  wisdom,  undertook 
to  teach  every  science.  The  scarcity  and  dearness  of  books  gave  high  value 
to  that  learning,  which  a  man  with  a  well  stored  and  a  ready  and  clear  elocu- 
tion could  communicate.  None  without  eloquence  could  undertake  to  be  in<- 
structors  ;  so  that  the  sophists  in  giving  lessons  of  eloquence  were  themselves 
the  example.  They  frequented  all  places  of  public  resort,  the  agora,  the  gym- 
nasia, and  the  porticoes,  where  they  recommended  themselves  to  notice  by  an 
ostentatious  display  of  their  abilities  in  disputation  with  one  another,  or  with 
any  who  would  converse  with  them.  In  the  competition  thus  arising,  men  of 
specious  rather  than  solid  abilities  would  often  gain  the  most  extensive  esti- 
mation. Many  of  them  would  take  either  side  of  any  question,  and  it  was  gen- 
erally their  glory  to  make  the  worse  appear  the  better  cause." 

§  109.  It  is  easy  from  this  account  to  see  how  the  name  of  sophist  should 
soon  become  a  term  of  reproach,  as  it  did,  more  particularly  after  the  time  of 
Socrates.  The  term  rhetorician  was  also  applied  to  the  same  class  of  teachers. 
But  a  distinction  has  been  made  between  the  two  words,  which  seems  to  have 
a  just  foundation.  The  term  rhetorician  is  applied  to  those  who  simply  gave 
precepts  in  the  arts  of  composition  and  oratory  ;  the  term  sophist  to  those  who 
actually  practiced  the  art  of  speaking.  In  this  sense  the  name  of  sophists  is 
given  to  all  the  speakers  we  read  of  after  the  decline  of  oratory  as  already  ex- 
plained (§  96).  After  the  supremacy  of  Rome  over  Greece,  and  especially 
under  the  emperors,  there  was  a  great  number  of  these.  Their  talents  were 
confined  to  a  limited  sphere,  to  the  exercises  in  the  schools,  or  discourses,  lec- 
tures, and  declamations  before  promiscuous  assemblies,  which  formed  a  part 
of  the  public  amusements.  Some  of  them  traveled  from  city  to  city,  like 
modern  lecturers,  and  received  a  liberal  pay  for  their  services.  The  various 
performances  in  which  they  engaged,  were  distinguished  by  different  names, 
applied  for  the  purpose  ;  e.  g.  iis/.iTtj,  a  declamation  carefully  written,  in  which 
the  writer  bears  an  assumed  character;  oraraatg,  a  little  discourse  or  address, 
in  which  the  writer  recommends  himself  to  another;  oyjdiacua,  an  extempo- 
raneous speech  ;  diu/.t^ig,  a  sort  of  dissertation,  &c. 

§  110.  Between  Augustus  and  Constantine  there  were  several  distinguished 
authors,  who  may  be  properly  classed  among  the  sophists,  as  Dio  Chrysosto- 
mus,  Lucian,  and  Athenreus.  Lesbonax  and  Herodes  Atticus  belong  to  the 
same  class.  The  emperor  Adrian  often  exercised  his  talents  in  such  perform- 
ances as  employed  the  sophists  of  the  age.  Polemo,  iElius  Aristides,  and 
Flavius  Philostratus,  may  also  be  mentioned ;  the  latter  is  spoken  of  as  an 
eloquent  speaker. 

In  thg  time  of  Constantine,  and  afterwards,  there  were  also  numerous  au- 
thors, whom  we  must  refer  to  this  class.  Among  them  Themistius,  Himerius, 
and  Libanius,  are  the  most  distinguished.  The  emperor  Julian  may  be  properly 
ranked  here.  Subsequent  to  these  are  found  many  names,  but  none  of  much 
celebrity,  except  such  as  are  known  by  writings  of  another  class,  as  Basilius 
Procopius,  Theophylactus,  and  Theodoras  Prodromus.  (§  80). — Scholl,  livre  vi. 
c.  77. 

§  111.  By  rhetoricians,  in  distinction  from  sophists,  are  meant,  as  has  been 
stated  (§109),  those  who  gave  precepts  on  eloquence  rather  than  attempted  to 
practice  it.  Rhetoric,  or  instruction  in  the  art  of  eloquence,  originated  in 
Greece  later  than  eloquence  itself,  as  Cicero  has  justly  remarked  :  eloqucn- 
tia  non  ex  artifcio,  sed  artificivm  ex  eloqucntia  natum.  Empedocles  is 
commonly  considered  as  the  first  Greek  rhetorician  who  taught  the  rules  of 
oratory  orally.  His  scholars  Corax  and  Tisias,  about  400  B.  C.  are  said  first  to 
have  committed  such  rules  to  writing.  Gorgias  the  Sicilian,  and  those  termed 
sophists  generally  in  the  flourishing  age  of  Greek  letters,  taught  the  art  oi 
oratory.  Isocrates  a  pupil  of  Gorgias,  and  generally  classed  among  the  orators, 
was  a  distinguished  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  had  the  honor  of  forming  in  his 
sehool  the  greatest  orators  of  Greece.  Antiphon,  also  ranked  among  the  ora- 
tors, was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  wrote  a  treatise  which  is  quoted  by  the 
ancients.     % 

Gamier,  Sur  1'art  oratoire  de  Corax,  Mem.  dcVInstitut  Royal,  Classe  d">Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc. 
vol.  n .  p.  44. 

§  112.  In  glancing  at  the  list  of  Greek  authors  on  the  subject  of  rhetoric, 
we  find  Aristotle,  the  philosopher,  and  the  teacher  of  Alexander,  one  of  the 


RHETORICIANS.     GORGIAS.    ARISTOTLE.    DEMETRIUS.  209 

earliest.  Demetrius  Phalereus  occurs  next.  (cf.  §  97.)  After  him  we  find  none 
important  to  notice  until  the  time  of  Augustus,  when  we  meet  the  names  of 
Gorgias,  who  taught  a  school  of  rhetoric  at  Athens  (but  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  Sicilian  above  mentioned),  and  Apollodorus  and  Theodorus, 
who  had  rival  schools,  the  former  at  Pergamus,  the  latter  at  Rhodes.  What- 
ever they  wrote  is  lost.  The  principal  author  was  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus, 
known  also  as  a  historian. 

After  Augustus  the  eminent  writers  were  Hermogenes  and  Longinus. 
Many  other  names  occur,  as  Aphthonius,  Theon,  Numenius,  Menander,  Minu- 
cianus,  and  Aspines,  who  all  wrote  on  some  of  the  topics  of  rhetoric;  only  in- 
considerable fragments,  however,  now  remain.  Of  the  vast  mass  of  composi- 
tions by  the  ancients  on  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing,  but  a  small  portion 
has  come  down  to  us. 

§  113.  Before  noticing  more  particularly  individuals  of  the  class 
now  before  us,  we  will  give  some  general  references. 

1.  On  the  Sophists.— Enfield,  Hist.  Philos.  bk.  ii.  c.  A.— Gillies,  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  13.— L.  Cre- 
sollii,  Theatruni  vet.  Rhet.  declam.  i.  e.  Sophistarum,  de  eorum  disciplina  ac  discendi  docen- 
dique  ratione.  Par.  1620.  8.  and  in  Gronovius,  Thes.  vol.  x.—  G.  JV.  Kriegk,  Diss,  de  Sophista- 
rum eloquentia.  Jen.  1702.  4.—  The  Protagoras  of  Plato.— Hardion,  as  cited  §99. — T.G.Walch, 
Diss,  de  Praemiis  vet.  Sophistar.  Rhetor.  efOratorum.   Jen.  1719.  4. 

2.  Collections  of  the  remains  of  the  rhetoricians. — Aldus,  Rhetorcs  Graci.  1508.  2  vols.  fol. — 
Leo  Allatius,  Excerpta  graec.  Sophistarum  et  rhetorum  declamationes.  Rom.  1641.  8.  —  H. 
Stephaiius,  Polemonis,  Himerii,  et  alior.  declamationes.  Par.  1567.  fol.  —  Th.  Gale, 
Rhetores  Selecti,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1676.  8.  repr.  (ed.  J.  F.  Fisher)  Lpz.1773.  8.—Ch.  Wah,  Rhe- 

tores  Graci.  Stutt.  1831-36.  9  vols.  8. The  most  important  precepts  of  rhetoric,  drawn  from 

Greek  and  Roman  authors,  in  F.  A.  JViedeburg,  Proecepta  rhetorica.  Brunsw.1786.  8.— Cf.  J.  Ch. 
Th.  Ernesti,  Lexicon  technologiae  Graecorum  rhetorics.  Lips.  1795.  8.  —  See  also  Sulzer's  Allg. 
Theorie,  vol.  iv.  p.  45. 

§  114^.  Gorgias,  of  Leontium  in  Sicily,  a  philosopher,  statesman, 
orator  and  rhetorician,  flourished  at  Athens  about  B.  C.  430,  as  a 
teacher  of  eloquence.  Cicero  celebrates  his  oratorical  talents,  but 
charges  him  with  too  great  attention  to  the  rounding  of  his  periods. 
We  have  two  declamations  (,«***r«u)  ascribed  to  him;  a  eulogy  on  Helen, 
and  an  apology  for  Falamccles. 

Gorgias  was  greatly  admired,  and  honored  with  a  golden  statue  at  Delphi. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  B.  C.  400,  aged  108.  Eschenburg,  in  the  original  of 
the  above,  represents  him  as  known  at  Athens  in  the  Persian  war ;  the  trans- 
lation is  conformed  to  the  more  common  statements. 

Cf.  Mitford,  ch.  xviii.  §  1.  —  Barthelemy,  Anacharsis,  ch.  vii.  —  H.  E.  Foss,  De  Gorgia  Leont. 

Hal.  1828.  8. The  declamations  are  given  in  Rciske,  cited  $  99.  vol.  vin.— Bekker,*vo\.  v. — 

— Dobson's  Oratores  Attici.  vol.  iv.  666. 

§  115.  Aristotle,  born  at  Stagira  in  Macedonia,  B.  C.  385,  went  to 
Athens  while  young,  and  became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  pupils 
of  Plato.  He  was  subsequently  the  instructor  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
after  which  returning  again  to  Athens  he  founded  the  Peripatetic 
sect  in  philosophy.     He  died  in  Chalcis,  B.  C.  32*2. 

lu.  His  name  belongs  especially  to  the  history  of  philosophy  (cf.§191),  but 
is  introduced  here  on  account  of  his  treatise  on  rhetoric.  This  consists  of  three 
books,  and  is  a  work  of  much  merit.  His  treatise  on  poetry,  also,  may  be 
properly  mentioned  here  ;  it  is  a  fragment  of  a  large  work. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  Rhetoric,  in  Mdus,  cited  above,  §  113.  2.  —  Rhetoric  &  Poetry,  in  the  edi- 
tions of  Aristotle's  whole  works  (cf.  $  191).— Also  /.  Bek'ker.  Berl.1832.  8.  good. R  h  e  t  or i  ca ; 

Goulston,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1619.  4.  —  Battie,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Camb.  1728.  8.  repr.  Oxf.  1809.  8.  — 
T.  Gaisford,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1820.  2  vols.  8.  —  De  ArtePoetica;  Harles,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lips. 
1780.  8.  —  Tynchitt,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Oxf.  1794  &  1827.  8.—  Grdfenhan.  Lpz.  1821.  8. 

3.  Translations.  —  French.— Mbe  Batteux,  Poetics,  in  Les  Quatrcs  Poctiques,  d'Aristote, 
d'Vida,  de  Despreaux,  avec  remarques.   Par.  1771.  8.  —  E.  Gros,  R  het  ori  c  ,.Gr.  &  Fr.   Par. 

1822.  8. English.  —  Poetics;  H.J.  Pyc.   Lond.  1788.  8.  —  Th.  Twining.   Lond.  1789.  4. 

1812.  2  vols.  8.  —  R  h  e  t  o  r  i  c  ;  Crimiain.  Loiid.  1816.  8. 

§116.  Demetrius  Phalereus,  of  Phalerum,  one  of  the  harbors  of 
Athens,  flourished  B.  C.  about  300.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Theophrastus, 
and  by  his  eloquence  rose  to  distinction.    Driven  by  Antigonus  from 

18* 


210  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

the  authority  at  Athens,  which  he  received  from  Cassander  (§  97) 
and  had  enjoyed  for  several  years,  he  retired  to  Alexandria,  where  he 
was  patronized  by  Ptolemy  Soter.  But  being  banished  by  the  next 
king,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  to  a  distant  province,  he  put  an  end  to 
his  life  by  the  bite  of  an  asp,  B.  C.  284.  Many  works  were  composed 
by  him,  which  are  lost. 

1.  Demetrius  is  said  to  have  suggested  to  Ptolemy  Soter  the  idea  of  founding  the  Library  and 
Museum  of  Alexandria.     The  displeasure  of  Philadelphus  was  incurred  by  his  having  favored 

the  claims  of  an  elder  brother  to  the  throne. Bait  amy,  sur  la  vie  Demetrius  de  Phalere,  in 

Mem.  de  PAcad.  dcs  Insc.  tom.vm.  p.157. 

2u.  There  is  extant  a  treatise  on  elocution,  Iltoi  t-nuiptiag,  which  has  been 
ascribed  to  him  ;  but  its  real  author  was  perhaps  a  later  Demetrius,  who  lived 
at  Alexandria  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Marcus  Antoninus.  It  contains 
many  ingenious  and  acute  remarks  on  the  beauties  of  composition,  particularly 
on  the  structure  of  periods. 

3.  Among  the  lost  works,  are  a  treatise  on  the  Ionians,  one  on  the  laws  of 
Athens,  and  another  on  Socrates.  A  little  piece  on  the  Apothegms  of  the  seven 
Sages,  is  preserved  in  Stobaius,  as  having  been  written  by  Demetrius.  Scholl, 
in.  241. 

4.  The  treatise  Hiql  fQurjvt'tag  is  given  in  Aldus,  Gale,  and  Fischer,  cited  §  113 Sepa- 
rately ;  J.  Q.  Schneider.  Altenb.  1779.  8.  with  a  commentary.  —  F.  Goller.  Lips.  1837.  8. 

§  117.  Dionysius  Halicamasseus,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  cele- 
brated as  a  historian,,  was  also  a  rhetorician.  He  wrote  several  trea- 
tises, which  may  be  properly  classed  in  this  department. 

lu.  Two  particularly  merit  notice  here  :  a  work  Iltoi  avr&iaBwg  orouurov, 
de  compositionc  verborum,  on  the  arrangement  of  words ;  and  anothar  styled 
Tiyvn  titjTOQixij,  art  of  rhetoric,  which  has  come  to  us  in  a  very  defective  state. 

2.  Two  other  rhetorical  pieces  of  Dionysius  were  7W  nal.uuov  Xaoaxri^Qic, 
Characters  of  the  ancients,  still  extant,  and  LJtQt  r6iv  *  Arrtxtiv  jitiT&Qtav  imoftvti- 
it annuo i,  Memoirs  of  the  Attic  Orators,  in  three  parts,  of  which  we  have  only 
the  first  and  a  fragment  of  the  second.  There  are  also  several  letters,  in  which 
he  criticises  the  style  and  writings  of  different  authors. 

Scholl,  iv.  316.  —  Ch.  Leuschner,  Pro  Dionysio  Halicarn.  ejusque  in  rhetoricam  promeritis. 
Hirschb.  1752.  4. 

3.  Editions. — For  those  of  his  Works,  see  §  247. The  pieces  on  the  arrangement  of  words,  and 

on  rhetoric,  were  first  published  by  Aldus,  as'cited  ft]  13.— De  Compositionc  verborum;  J.  Up- 
ton. Lond.  1702.  1748.  8.  ;  better,  G.  H.  Schafer.  Lpz.  1809.  8.  —  Fr.  Goller.  Jen.  1815.  8.  —  in 
French  translation,  with  remarks,  Abbe  Battcux.  Par.1788. 12.— Ars  Rhetorica;  fZ.  A.  Schott, 
Or.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1804.  8.  —  Characters  of  the  Ancients  ;  first  in  H.  Stephanus,  Dion.  Hal. 
scripta  qusedam  critica.  Par.  1554.  8.—Hohoell,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1778.  8.  with  a  dissertation  on 
the  use  of  the  middle  verb.— On  the  Attic  Orators;  E.  R.  Mores.  Oxf.  1781.  2  vols.  8.  —  The 
Letters,  in  Ch.  G.  Krilger,  Dion.  Hal.  historiographica.    Hal.  1823.  8. 

§  118.  Dion,  surnamed  on  account  of  his  eloquence  Chrysosto?nus 
(xqvooorouog}y  lived  in  the  1st  and  beginning  of  the  2d  century  after 
Christ.  His  birth-place  was  Prusa  in  Bithynia.  After  following  the 
pursuits  of  a  sophist,  he  became  at  length  a  stoic  philosopher.  He 
fled  from  the  cruelty  of  Dornitian  into  Thrace,  but  under  Nerva  and 
Trajan  lived  again  at  Rome,  enjoying  particularly  the  favor  of  the 
latter.  Of  his  writings,  we  have  80  dissertations  or  declamations  on 
various  topics,  displaying  much  rhetorical  ability.  He  is,  however, 
often  deficient  in  simplicity,  and  his  style  wanting  in  brevity  and 
clearness. 

1.  The  titles  of  Dion's  discourses  are  given  in  ScholVs  History  of  Greek 
Literature.  That  styled  cFoiiiay.l>g  is  pronounced  his  chef-d'oeuvre  ;  it  con- 
demns the  custom  practiced  by  the  Rhodians  of  using  ancient  statues  with 
new  inscriptions  in  honor  of  their  contemporaries. — Scholl,  iv.  210. 

2.  The  best  editions  are  C.  Morel  (printer),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1504,  1623.  fol.  With  a  Com- 
mentary of  I.  Casaubon,  and  notes  of  Fred.  Morel.  The  translation  is  that  of  Kirchmayer  or 
Naogeorgus,  also  published  Basil,  1555.  fol — J.  J.  Rciske.  Lpz.  1784,  1798.  2  vols.  4. A  Ger- 
man translationof  13  of  the  discourses  is  given  in  Rciskc's  Hellas.  Mitau.  1778.  8.  —  English, 
some  of  the  discourses,  G.  Wakefield,  Lond.  1800.  8. 


RHETORICIANS.       DION.      HERODES.      jELITJS.     LUCIAN.       211 

§  119.  Herodes  Atticus,  a  native  of  Marathon  in  Attica,  was  a 
distinguished  sophist  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines.  He  was  appoint- 
ed consul  at  Rome,  A.  D.  141.  We  have  from  him  only  a  single 
discourse  and  some  fragments. 

1.  The  full  name  was  Tiberius  Claudius  Mticus  Herodes.  After  obtaining 
his  education  and  traveling  abroad,  he  gave  public  lectures  at  Athens  on  elo- 
quence. Such  was  his  reputation,  that  he  was  invited  to  Rome  as  teacher  to 
Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus.  He  died  at  Marathon,  A.  D.  185,  at  an 
advanced  age.     His  life  is  given  by  Philostratus . — SchOll,  iv.  228. 

2.  The  remains  of  Herodes  are  given  in  Reiske,  vol.  viii.— In  Dobson,  vol.  iv.  p.  555.— Sep- 
arately, R.  Fiorillo,  Lpz.  1801.  8. — The  inscriptions  of  Herodes  have  been  already  mentioned 
(P.  I.  '§92.  4). 

§  120.  Mlius  Aristides,  of  Hadrianopolis  in  Bithynia,  lived  at 
Smyrna  in  the  second  century,  and  was  held  in  great  estimation  as 
a  speaker. 

1  u.  There  remain  from  him  54  declamations  (utXtral),  which  evince  a  suc- 
cessful imitation  of  the  ancient  masters  in  Greek  eloquence,  but  betray  also 
in  the  author  too  high  an  idea  of  his  own  excellence.  We  have  also  from 
him  some  letters,  and  a  treatise  in  two  books,  entitled  LJsol  no'Ainy.ov  teal  uys- 
/.ot;j  liyov,  "  Du  style  politique  et  du  style  simple." 

2.  His  contemporaries  considered  him  as  equal  to  Demosthenes,  and  he 
was  honored  with  many  statues.  Some  unedited  pieces  of  Aristides  were 
discovered  by  Mai  in  a  palimpsest  or  rescript  manuscript  of  the  Vatican. — 
SchOll,  iv.  234. 

3.  Editions.  — works  ;  S.  Jebb,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1720-30.  2  vols.  4.—*  Q.  Dindorf.  Lips. 
1829.  3  vols.  8.  With  notes  and  scholia. — The  Princeps  by  E.  Boninus  (print.  Ph.  Junta),  Flor. 
1517.  fol.  containing  52  of  the  ucAtrut,  with  the  anonymous  scholia  termed  vnu&iong. — 

Canter,  Gr.  &Lat.  Genev.  1604.  3  vols.  12. The  two  books  on  style,  in  Aldus,  Rhetores  Greec- 

cited  §  113. — Separately,  L.  Nomnann.     Upsal,  1688.  8. The  discourse  atrainst  Leptincs ;  first 

by  J.  Morell.    Ven.  1788.  8.—F.  A.  Wolf.   Halle,  1789.  8.—  6.  H.  Grauert.    Bon.  1827.  8.  with 
the  oration  of  Demosthenes  on  the  same  subject. 

§  121.  Lucian,  of  Samosata  in  Syria,  flourished  in  the  second  cen- 
tury. He  at  first  engaged  in  the  business  of  an  advocate  at  Antioch, 
but  renounced  it  for  the  more  congenial  employment  of  a  sophist, 
and  finally  professed  to  embrace  philosophy.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
procurator  of  Egypt  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  He  was  neither  a  pa- 
gan nor  a  Christian,  nor  did  he  espouse  any  sect  in  philosophy.  He 
was  distinguished  by  acumen,  lively  wit,  and  a  power  at  ridicule  and 
satire,  which  he  often  indulged  too  freely  and  wantonly,  against  men 
and  gods  alike. 

1  u.  Most  of  the  numerous  pieces  which  we  have  from  him  are  in  the  form 
of  dialogues.  His  Dialogues  of  the  Gods  and  Dialogues  of  the  Dead  are  the 
most  remarkable.  His  pure  Attic  and  tasteful  style  is  the  more  praiseworthy 
from  the  circumstance,  that  he  was  not  a  native  Greek. 

2.  Leaving  Antioch,  Lucian  traveled  in  Asia,  Greece,  Gaul,  and  Italy,  de- 
livering his  discourses  in  various  places,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Athens.  It 
was  in  advanced  life,  that  he  was  put  in  office  under  Aurelius.  "  One  of  the 
chief  characteristics  of  Lucian,"  says  Scholl,  "  is  that  species  of  originality 
which  the  English  term  humour." — It  has  been  supposed  by  some,  probably 
without  foundation,  that  Lucian  once  embraced  Christianity  and  afterwards 
apostatized.  In  the  pieces  styled  Iltq'i  ryjq  Ubob'/qIvov  Ts?.avri;g  and  <£>i/.6na- 
raig,  he  makes  unsparing  attacks  upon  Christians  ;  the  genuineness  of  the 
latter  piece  has  been  doubted. 

Scholl,  iv.  248,  where  is  a  brief  analysis  of  his  several  pieces  ;  given  also  in  Anthon's  Lem- 
priere. —  G.  Wetzlare,  De  state,  vita,  scriptisque  Luciani.  Macb.  1832.  8. — Cf.  J.  M.  Gessner, 
De  setat.  et  auctore  Dialogi,  qui  Philevatris  inscribitur.  Lips.  1730.  4.—  Wieland,  Geschichte 
des  Philosophen  Peregrinus.     Lpz.  1791.  8. 

3.  Editions.— B.— Hcmsterhvis  (with  J.  M.  Gessncr  8f  J.  Reiti),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Amst.  1743.  3 
vols.  4.  To  which  is  added  as  a  4th  vol.  the  Lexicon  Luciancum  (not  perfect)  of  C.  R.  Reitz. 
Ultraj.  1746.  4.    (The  edition  of  Schmid,  Mitau,  1776-80.  8  vols.  8.  is  a  reprint  of  Hemsterhuis, 


212  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE, 

with  a  brief  selection  of  notes  ;  the  Bipont  edition,  1789-93.  10  vols.  8.  a  reprint  of  the  same, 
without  the  Lexicon. — /.  G.  Lehmann,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1822-31.  9  vols.  8.  Another  vol.  con- 
taining a  Lexicon  has  been  expected. F. — Princeps,  (neither  printer  nor  editor  known.) 

Flor.  1496.  fob— Second,  Aldus.  Ven.  1503,  1522.  fob— Between  this  and  that  of  Hemsterhuis 
were  several.  Cf.  Scholl,  iv.  280 R.—Fr.  Schmieder.  Halle,  1810.  2  vols.  8.  A  good  edi- 
tion of  Greek  text ;  a  promised  commentary  has  never  appeared.— F.  V.  Frit-.sche.  Lpz.  1826. 
ss.  8.     The  Dialogues  of  the  Gods,  and  several  other  pieces  have  appeared.     This  promises  to 

be  an  excellent  edition. Of  editions  of  select  parts  we  can  name  but  few. — Seybold.     Go- 

tlia.  1785.  8.— F.  A.  Wolf.  Halle,  1791.  8.—  Gehrich.  Gotting.  1797.  8.— Dialogues  of  the  Dead, 
by  J.  Gail.  Par.  1806. — /.  G.  Lehmann.  Lpz.  1813,  1826.  8. — Dialogue  of  the  Gods,  bv  Lehmann. 
1815.  8.— E.  F.  Poppo.  Lpz.  1817.  6.— Lucius,  or  the  Ass,  by  Courier.  Par.  1818.  12.—  §F.  A.  Ch. 
Grauf,  Somnium.  Berne,  1836.  8. — K.  F.  Hermann,  Gluomodo  Historiam  scribere  oporteat. 
Fran'kf.  1828.  8.—K.  G.  Jacob,  Toxaris.  Halle,  1825.  8.  and  Alexander,  Cologn.  1828.  8.  with 
notes. 

4.  Translations.— German. — C.  M.  Wieland.    Lpz.  1788.   6  vols.    8. French.—  J.  JV.  Belin 

de  Ballu.    Par.  6  vols.  8. English.—  Th.  Franklin.    Lond.  1780.  2  vols.  4. — T.  Can:    Lond. 

1773-98.  5  vols.   8. 

5.  Illustrative.— -Jortin,  Remarks,  in  his  Tracts,  philological  &.c.  Lond.  1790.  8 — R.  Porson, 
in  his  Tracts  &c.  by  T.  Kidd.  Lond.  1815.  8.— J.  C.  Tiemann,  Versuch  uber  Lucians  Philos. 
und  Sprache.     Zerbst.  1804.  8. 

§  122.  Hermogenes,  of  Tarsus,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  2d 
century.  He  left  a  celebrated  work  on  rhetoric,  consisting  of  five 
parts,  which  was  written  when  he  was  about  17  years  old.  At  the 
age  of  25,  he  lost  memory,  language,  and  understanding. 

1.  Hermogenes  lived  to  advanced  age  in  this  state,  a  striking  and  melan- 
choly example  both  of  the  power  and  of  the  weakness  of  the  human  intellect. 
The  account  we  have  of  him  is  drawn  from  Philostratus,  Suidas,  and  Hesy- 
chius. — The  parts  of  his  Tkyvi]  nrtrooix}j  were  1.  Tfooyvuvuouara,  Preparatory 
Exercises ;  2.  Utoi  oruoewv,  On  the  states  of  the  question;  3.  LJtoi  svoioscov,  On 
invention,  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  work  ;  4.  JIsqI  idetor,  Be  Formis  ;  5. 
Jlsoi  ua&6Sov  dsivuTtjTo;,  De  ejfectu.  This  work  was  long  used  as  a  text-book 
in  the  schools  of  rhetoric,  and  several  commentaries  were  written  upon  it. 

2.  Under  the  title  which  the  first  part  of  Hermogenes  bears,  there  exist  two 
separate  rhetorical  works  of  two  later  authors  ;  viz.  the  Ilooyvuruauara  of 
Aphthonius,  based  upon  or  extracted  from  Hermogenes,  and  the  IlQoyvuvuo- 
uura  of  Theon,  explaining  the  principles  of  both  the  preceding.  —  Scholl,  iv. 
322,  ss. 

3.  The  1st  part  of  Hermogenes  was  published  first  by  Heercn  in  the  Bibl.  der  alten  Lit.  u. 
Kunst.   viii.  and  ix. — Afterwards  in  Class.  Journal  (v.-vm.),  1812. — Separately;    G.  Vesen- 

meer.  Nuremb.  1812.  8 Aug.  Krchl,  (with  works  of  Priscian.)     Lpz.  1819.  2  vols.  8. The 

other  4  parts  were  printed  first  by  Aldus,  as  cited  §  113.     The  best  editions  are  J.  Sturmius,  Gr. 

&  Lat.    Strasb.  1570,  '71.    4  vols.  8.— and  G.  Laurentius,  Gr.  <fc  Lat.    Genev.  1614.  8. The 

Progxjmnasmata  of  Aphthonius  and   Theon   were  published  together,  by  J.  Schaffer.     Upsal, 
1680.  8. 

§  123.  Athcnccus,  a  grammarian  and  rhetorician,  may  be  placed 
perhaps  as  well  here  as  in  any  department,  although  he  was  properly 
an  encyclopcedian  compiler.  He  was  a  native  of  Naucratis  in  Egypt 
and  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century. 

1  u.  His  Jtinroaoffiarai,  or  Banquet  of  the  Sophists  or  Learned,  in  15  books, 
is  a  treasure  of  various  and  useful  knowledge.  It  is  a  rich  source  of  inform- 
ation on  topics  of  philosophy,  history,  poetry,  and  antiquities,  and  preserves 
many  interesting  fragments  and  monuments,  which  the  stream  of  time  must 
otherwise  have  borne  away  from  us.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  that  the  work  has 
several  lacuna,  or  places  wanting  or  defective,  especially  in  the  last  book. 
The  first  two  books,  also,  and  the  beginning  of  the  third,  are  extant  only  in 
an  abridgment  or  epitome,  made  by  some  grammarian  at  Constantinople. 

2.  The  work  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue.  A  number  of  learned  men,  above  20,  lawyers, 
physicians,  poets,  grammarians,  sophists  and  musicians,  meet  at  a  banquet  given  by  a  rich  cit- 
izen of  Rome  named  L,aurentius,  and,  in  noticing  the  different  instruments,  materials,  and 
preparations  of  their  feast,  remark  upon  almost  everything  pertaining  to  the  knowledge  or 
customs  of  the  ancient  Greeks.— Scholl,  iv.  297 — Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  ill. 

3.  Editions.— R.—Schiocighceuser,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Argent.  (Strasb.)  1801-7.  14  vols.  8.  Vol. 
i-v.  Gr.  text,  better  than  in  any  previous  ed.  ;  vol.  vi-xm.  Commentary,  exceedingly  valua- 
ble ;  vol.  xiv.  Index.  An  Index  Graecitatis  promised.  Cf.  Scholl,  iv.  300.  Dibdin,  i.  335. 
Month.  Mag.  Jan.  1803.  Moss,  i.  194.— f  G.  Dindorf.  Lips.  1827.  3  vols.  8.  Containing  the  Gr. 
text.  Two  vols,  of  Comment.  &c.  promised. F. — There  have  been  but  few  editions.  Prin- 
ceps, by  Aldus  (Muslims  assisting  as  ed.)  Ven.  1514.  fol. — Bedrotus  (fy  Hcrlinus).  Bas.  1535. 
fob— Is.  Causaubon,  Gr.  &  Lat.    1597-1600.  2  vols.  fol.    Very  celebrated.    The  Latin  version 


RHETORICIANS.       LONGINUS.    THEMISTIUS.    HIMERIUS.       213 

by  Dalecampius  (Dalechamp),  first  printed  1583,  at  Lyons  ;  the  2d  vol.  printed  1600,  contains 
Causaubon's  Commentary.— Same,  repr.  Lyons,  1612-21,  and  1657-64. — O.  H.  Schdfcr.  Lips. 
1796.  8.  Only  1st  vol.  published.  The  plan  contemplated  three  parts,  each  consisting  of  3 
volumes ;  comprising  the  text,  the  commentary  of  Causaubon  with  notes,  and  the  French  ver- 
sion of  Villebrune,  which  was  first  printed  Par.  1789.  4  vols.  4. 

4.  Illustrative.— S.  Weston,  Conject.  in  Athenaeum.  Lond.  1784.  8.— Jacobs,  Addit.  Animad- 
vers.  in  Athenamm.  Jen.  1809.  8.—R.  Fiorillo,  Observ.  Crit.  in  Ath.  Gbtt.  1802.  8.— A.  Mei- 
necke,  Curae  crit.  in  Comicorum  fragm.  ab  Athen.  servata.    Berl.  1814.   8. 

§  124.  Longinus  (Dionysius  Cassius),  a  rhetorician  and  critic, 
who  embraced  the  Platonic  philosophy,  and  nourished  in  the  3d  cen- 
tury. His  birthplace  was  probably  Athens,  although  it  is  not  cer- 
tain. Little  is  known  of  the  circumstances  of  his  life,  excepting 
that  he  was  a  teacher  and  counsellor  to  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra, 
and  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  her  conqueror,  Aurelian. 

1  u.  Many  works,  now  lost,  were  written  by  him.  The  treatise  LTtQt  iy\povg, 
on  the  sublime,  which  has  come  down  to  us  only  in  a  defective  state,  is  a  cele- 
brated production.  It  does  great  honor  to  the  judgment  and  fine  critical 
powers  of  the  author,  and  well  illustrates,  by  principles  and  examples,  the  na- 
ture of  the  sublime  in  thought  and  composition. 

2.  Longinus  spent  a  considerable  part  of  his  life  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric 
and  criticism  at.  Athens,  before  he  became  preceptor  to  Zenobia.  He  was  born 
about  A.  D.  213,  and  died  A.  D.  273.  —  Of  the  various  works,  of  which  we 
have  merely  the  titles,  with  a  few  fragments,  the  most  important  was  that 
styled  (fUoloyoi,  or  <pi?.o?.6yot  6ut?.iat,  consisting  of  21  books,  containing  criti- 
cisms upon  authors  of  his  own  and  more  ancient  times. 

Ruhnken  (under  the  fictitious  name  Schardam),  Diss,  de  vita  et  scriptis  Longini.  Lug.  Bat. 
1776.  and  in  Weiske,  cited  below.    Cf.  ScJibll,  iv.  p.  329. 

3.  Editions.— B.—B.  Weinke,  Gr.  &.  Lat.    Lpz.  1709.  8.    Repr.  Lond.  1820 F.— Princess, 

of  Robortellus.  Basil,  1554.  A.— P.  Manutius.  Ven.  1555.  4.— JEm.  Partus.  Gen.  1569.  8.  Ba- 
sis of  all  subsequent  till  that  of  Pearce.—O.  de  Petra,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Gen.  1612.  8.—Tollius,  Gr. 
&  Lat.  Traj.  Rhen.  1694.  4.— Pearce,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1724.  4.  Much  valued  and  often 
reprinted;  best,  Amst.  1733,  with  a  commentary  of  F.  Portus. —  Tumermann  8(  Konig,  Gr. 
Lat.  Gall.  &  Ital.  Veron.  1733.  4.— F.  JV.  Moras,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lips.  1769.  8.  Valued  for  the 
superior  Latin  version  ;  containing  also  a  tract  entitled  Libellus  Animadc.  in  Long,  and  an  ele- 
gant essay  Denotione  Sublimitatis.—  Toup,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxon.  1778.  4.  and  8.  Celebrated.  Re- 
printed 1806. 

4.  Translations German. — J.  O.  Schlosser.  Lpz.  1781.  8. French. — Boilcau,  contain- 
ing the  Reflexions  Critiques.    Amst.  1701.  8.  and  in  Tumermann  cited  above. English. —  W. 

Smith.    Lond.  1739.  8.     Often  reprinted. 

§  125.  Themistius,  surnamed  Euphrades,  was  a  celebrated  orator 
and  sophist  of  the  4th  century,  a  native  of  Paphlagonia.  He  ac- 
quired great  reputation  at  Constantinople  by  his  philosophy  and  his 
instructions  in  rhetoric.  He  enjoyed  also  the  favor  of  several  em- 
perors, especially  Constantine.  Besides  several  commentaries,  or 
paraphases,  illustrating  Aristotle,  we  have  from  him  34  discourses, 
marked  by  clearness,  order,  and  richness  of  expression. 

1.  He  was  highly  regarded  by  Julian  and  his  successors,  down  to  Theodosius  the  Great,  who 
entrusted  him,  although  a  pagan,  with  the  education  of  his  son,  Arcadius.-  He  was  the  master 
of  St.  Augustin,  and  a  friend  of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  who  styled  him  BaGUsic  /.oyiav.  He 
resided  for  some  time  at  Rome.  He  must  not  be  confounded  with  Themistius,  a  deacon  at  Al- 
exandria in  the  6th  century,  and  founder  of  the  sect  of  Agnoeim. 

The  titles  and  arguments  of  his  discourses  are  stated  by= SchOll. — The  Paraphrases  are  four  in 
Greek,  and  two  extant  only  in  Latin  versions. — Schb'll,  vi.  141 ;  vn.  121. 

2.  Editions The  first,  the  Aldine,  under  the  title,  Omnia  Themistii  Opera  (cur.  V.  Trincavel- 

li).  Ven.  1534.  fol.  Containing  the  4  Greek  Paraphrases,  and  8  Discourses.— The  Latin  Para- 
phrases were  printed  Ven.  1558  and  1570. Of  the  Discourses,  subsequent  editions,  H.  Sle- 

phanus,  Par.  1652.  8.  (14  Disc.)— Dionys.  Petavius.  Par.  1618.  4.  (19  Disc.)—./.  Hardouin.  Par. 
1684.  fol.  (33  Disc.  Cf.  Scholl,  vi.  159;  Harles  Brev.  Not.  479.)— A  discourse  found  and  pub- 
lished by  Mai,  Milan,  1816.  4.—  0.  Diridorf,  Themistii  Orationes.  (Gr.)  Lips.  1832.  8 — A 
complete  edition  of  Themistius  is  wanting. Cf.  J.  I.  O.  Roulei,  Obs.  crit.  in  Themistii  Ora- 
tiones.   Lov.  1828.  8. 

§  126.  Himerius,  a  native  of  Prusa  in  Bithynia,  flourished  at  Ath- 
ens, as  a  sophist  and  speaker,  under  the  emperor  Julian  in  the  4th 
century.     He  was  an  imitator  of  JElius  Aristides. 

1.  Like  other  sophists  he  traveled  about,  pronouncing  discourses  and  harangues.  After* 
wards  he  was  established  at  the  head  of  a  school  in  Athens.    Basil,  Gregory,  and  Nazianzea 


214  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

were  among  the  his  pupils.  He  died  A.  D.  386  ;  leaving  above  70  discourses ;  of  which  we 
have  only  24  entire  and  10  imperfect.  One  of  the  most  interesting  is  that  in  honor  of  Julian 
and  the  city  Constantinople.     His  style  is  affected,  and  loaded  with  erudition. — Scholl,  vi.  182. 

2.  The  only  complete  edition  is  that  of  Gottl.  (Thcoph.)  Wemsdorf.  Gott.  1790.  8.—  Werns- 
dorf,  a  professor  at  Dantzig,  had  spent  many  years  in  preparing  this  work,  accompanied  with 
a  version  and  commentary,  but  died,  1774,  without  having  found  a  publisher.  In  1783,  Har- 
les  published  a  specimen  of  the  work,  which  induced  a  bookseller  to  publish  the  whole. 

§  1*27.  Julianas  (Flavius  Claudius),  more  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  Julian  the  Apostate,  became  emperor  of  Rome  on  the 
death  of  Constantius,  A.  D.  361.  He  possessed  undoubted  abilities, 
and  a  philosophical  turn  of  mind,  yet  was  by  no  means  free  from 
sophistry  and  bigotry.  He  wrote  discourses,  letters,  and  satires. 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  his  pieces  is  the  satire  called  the  Cce- 

sars,  Kaloaqsg,  or  SvutcoGiov. 

1.  The  epithet  Apostate  Q  AnoorUr^z)  was  given  to  Julian  on  account  of  his 
openly  renouncing  the  Christian  religion,  in  which  he  had  been  educated  by  his 
uncle,  Constantine  the  Great.  He  made  great  exertions  in  various  ways  to 
overthrow  Christianity.  He  intended  by  rebuilding  Jerusalem  to  disprove  the 
predictions  of  the  sacred  scriptures,  but  his  efforts  were  all  defeated  by  the 
most  signal  disasters.  He  died  in  consequence  of  a  wound  received  in  battle, 
in  an  expedition  against  Persia,  A.  D.  363,  at  the  age  of  32.  Gibbon  has  very 
speciously  and  artfully  drawn  his  character. 

Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xxiii,  xxiv. — Cf.  Warburton's  Discourse  entitled  Julian.    Lond.  1751. 

— For  the  life  of  Julian,  Ammianus  Marcellinus  is  considered  good  authority His  life  written 

in  French,  by  Ph.  C.  de  La  Bletterie.    Amst.  1735.  12 Same,  transl.  by  A.  V.  Desvaux.  Dubl. 

1746.   8 Also,  in  French,  by  Tourlet,  as  cited  below. — The  best  probably  ;  A.  Neander,  uber 

den  Kaiser  Julianus  und  sein  Zeitalter.  Lpz.  1812.  8.  See  also  his  Kirchengeschichte,  (1829) 
B.  ii.  Abth.  i.  p.  51. — And  Ullmann's  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  p.  72. — Cf.  Murdoch's  Mosheim, 
vol.  i.  265. 

2.  Among  the  most  singular  of  his  discourses  are  the  two  with  the  follow- 
ing titles  ;  Eig  rov  (iaailiar'H).iov,  to  the  monarch,  the  sun  ;  and  Etg  r^v  ur/Tf'oa 
df(ov,  to  the  mother  of  the  gods  (Cybele)  ;  they  exhibit  his  bigoted  or  hypocrit- 
ical attachment  to  the  grossest  pagan  absurdities. — Of  the  letters,  one  pecu- 
liarly interesting  is  addressed  to  a  pagan  priest,  instructing  him  how  to  sus- 
tain the  cause  of  paganism  against  the  Christians. — Scholl,  vi.  186.  Cf.  Ch. 
Sped.  vol.  v.  p.  539. 

3.  Julian  composed  a  work  expressly  against  the  faith  of  Christians.  It  is  lost,  and  most 
that  is  known  respecting  it,  is  learned  from  a  refutation  written  by  Cyrill  of  Alexandria.  —  In 
the  last  century  a  French  author,  the  Marquis  D'Argens,  undertook  to  restore  the  work  of  Ju- 
lian, and  published  bis  performance,  Berl.  1764.  8.  It  was  soon  refuted  by  G.  F.  Meir,  Beur- 
theilung  den  Betrachtungen  des  Marq.  v.  Argensiiber  den  Kaiser  Julian.  Hal.  1764.  8  ;  and  by 
TV.  Crichton,  Betrachtungen  uber  des  Kaiser  Julian  Abfall  von  der  Christlichen  Religion  &c 
Halle,  1765.  8. 

4.  Editions. — Of  his  works  there  have  been  three. — Martinius  fy  Cantoclarus.    Par.  1583.  8. 

—Dion.  Petavins  (Pctuu).     Par.  1630.  4. B.— Ez.  Spanheim.  Lpz.  1696.  fol.     With  the  work 

of  Cyrill  mentioned  above. — But  neither  of  these  contains  all  the  letters.  Several,  not  in  Span- 
heim, are  given  by  Muratori,  Anecdota  Graca.    Patav.  1709.  4.  and  some  others  in  Fabricius, 

Lux  salutaris  Evanjrelii.    Hamb.  1731.  4. Of  separate  pieces,  we  notice  the  following. —  The 

Catars.  Amst.  1728.  4.  With  plates  by  B.  Picart,  and  French  translation  by  -E.  Spanhcbn. — 
Best,  by  J.  M.  Heusinger,  Gr.  Lat.  &  Fr.  Gotha,  1741.  8. —  The  Ctesars  and  Misopogon,  by  H. 
I.  Latin,.  Greifsw.  1770.  8.— The  Eulogy  on  Constantius,  bv  G.  H.  Schafer.  Lpz.  1802.  8. 
With  D.  Wyttenbach's  notes.— Of  the  Letters,  by  H.  L.  Heyler,  Gr.  et  Lat.  Mayenne,  1828.  8. 
With  commentary.     Good. 

5.  Translations. — English.— Ccrsars  &;c.  in  J.  Buncombe,  Select  Works  of  the  Emp.  Julian. 
Lond.  1784.  2  vols.  8. French.—  Whole  works,  by  R.  Tourlet.    Par.  1821.  3  vols.  8. 

§  128.  Libanius,  of  Antioch,  lived  also  in  the  4th  century,  and 
mostly  at  Constantinople.  He  belonged  to  the  profession  of  sophists, 
and  was  distinguished  beyond  all  his  contemporaries  in  eloquence. 

lu.  His  writings  were  various.  Besides  a  treatise  styled  JlQoyvuvaauarmv 
naQadeiyiiuTu,  Examples  of  rhetorical  exercises  (or  prceexercitatio7ies) ,  and  nu- 
merous Letters,  we  have  also  many  of  those  pieces  which  were  called  il/f/.f- 
T«i,  Harangues  or  Declamations.  We  may  observe  in  the  style  of  these  dis- 
courses an  affectation  of  Attic  purity  and  elegance,  by  which  the  charms  of 
natural  ease  and  freedom  are  often  lost. 

2.  Libanius  suffered  from  the  envy  of  rivals,  by  whose  influence  he  was 
banished  from  Constantinople,  A.  D.  346.     He  retired  to  Nicsea  and  then  ta 


GRAMMARIANS.  215 

Nicortledia,  but  was  afterwards  recalled  to  Constantinople.  Subsequently, 
however,  he  withdrew,  and  passed  the  remnant  of  his  days  at  Antioch,  his 
native  city.  He  was  admired  and  patronized  by  Julian  the  Apostate,  and  in 
common  with  the  latter  cherished  the  hope  of  restoring  the  reign  of  paganism 
in  the  Roman  empire.  He  has  left  an  auto-biography,  styled  Juyog  7i£(>l  t^q 
xavrov  Tvxijg,  which  is  placed  among  his  discourses. 

Sckiill,  vi.  159. — See  also  Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xxiv. —  Tillcmont,  Hist,  des  Empereurs, 
tome  iv.  p.  571. — Lardner,  Heathen  Testimonies,  vol.  iv.  p.  576. 

3.  Scholl  gives  the  Greek  title?  of  above  60  of  the  Declamations.  In  the 
Rhetorical  Examples  are  13  sections,  each  devoted  to  examples  of  a  separate 
kind.  The  Letters  are  about  2000  ;  some  of  them  to  Christian  Fathers  ;  Basil 
and  Chrysostom  both  were  pupils  of  Libanius.  He  left  also  Arguments  to 
the  Orations  of  Demosthenes,  which  are  usually  given  in  the  editions  of  this 
orator. 

4.  There  is  no  edition  of  the  whole  icorks  of  Libanius.  The  most  complete  edition  of  the 
Declamations  is  that  of  J.  J.  Reiske,  AJtettb.  1791—97.  4  vols.  8.  published  after  his  death  by 
his  widow.  It  contains  the  Rhetorical  Exercises. — Two  additional  discourses  have  been  since 
published,  one  by  Ch.  Sicbenkees,  in  his  Anecdota  Grceca,  Norimb.  1798.  8 ;  the  other  by  A.  Mai, 

in  his  Fronto,  Milan,  1815.  8 ;  Rome,  1823.- The  most  complete  edition  of  the  Letters  is  that 

of  J.  Ch.  Wolf.  Amst.  1738.  fol. — In  the  libraries  of  Spain  are  discourses  and  probably  other 
Writings  of  Libanius  hitherto  unpublished. There  is  a  German  translation  of  5  of  the  Dis- 
courses, by  the  wife  of  Reiske,  in  the  Hellas,  Lpz.  1791. 


IV. — Gramm  avian  s . 


§  129.  Next  to  the  rhetoricians,  it  will  be  proper  to  notice  the  writers  called 
grammarians,  rQauuuTixoi.  This  class  included  not  only  such  as  treated 
of  the  subjects  now  comprehended  under  mere  grammar,  but  all  who  devoted 
themselves  to  any  of  the  various  branches  of  philology.  (P,  I.  §  71.)  This 
department  of  study  began  to  be  more  specially  cultivated  in  the  period  after 
Alexander,  and  particularly  at  Alexandria.  It  was  in  this  period  that  cata- 
logues were  first  formed  of  authors  regarded  as  classical ;  these  catalogues 
Were  called  canons. 

§  130.  The  works  of  these  grammarians  were  of  various  kinds.  Among 
them  were  the  following;  J loq&ojoeic,  revisions  of  the  text  of  classical  au- 
thors ;  'YTtoitv^uaTu  and  *E%rry*\o»i$,  commentaries ;  Syiita,  explanatory  notes; 
Ztrr^fiaxa,  Jioetc,  investigations  and  solutions  of  particular  difficulties  ;  D.^a- 
aai  and  J.iceic,  which  treated  of  dialectic  and  peculiar  forms  and  single  words  ; 
Svfiuixta,  collections  of  similar  phrases  and  passages  from  different  authors. 
Some  wrote  upon  the  subject  of  grammar  in  the  most  limited  sense  ;  some 
upon  different  specific  topics  included  in  it,  as  syntax,  metre,  dialects,  and 
the  like.  These  authors  undoubtedly  exerted  considerable  influence  upon  the 
language  and  literature  of  their  own  and  subsequent  times  ;  and  their  works 
are  of  value  to  us,  as  containing  much  information  respecting  earlier  periods 
and  authors. 

§  131.  The  most  distinguished  that  flourished  before  the  fall  of  Corinth, 
B.  C.  146,  were  Zenodotus,  founder  of  the  first  school  of  grammar  at  Alex- 
andria, Aristophanes  of  Byzantium  his  disciple,  and  Aristarchus  of  Samo- 
thrace,  a  disciple  of  Aristophanes.  The  latter  was  especially  celebrated,  (cf. 
Hor.  Art.  Poet.  450)  ;  so  that  his  name  became  a  common  designation  for  an 
eminent  critic.  Crates,  Philemon,  Artemidorus,  and  Sosibius  are  names 
which  occur  also  in  this  period.  That  of  Zoilus  has  been  preserved  as  a  com- 
mon name  for  a  severe  and  captious  critic  ;  he  made  himself  notorious,  in  an 
age  abounding  with  admirers  of  Homer,  by  his  criticisms  and  declamations 
against  that  poet,  and  thus  gained  the  epithet  Homeromastix.  Whatever  the 
grammarians  of  this  age  composed,  nothing  remains  to  us  but  trivial  and  scat- 
tered fragments. — Scholl,  livre  iv.  ch.  xxxv. 

In  the  next  period  of  Grecian  literature,  particularly  after  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, the  list  of  grammarians  is  altogether  larger.     Only  a  few  names  can 


$16  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

here  be  given.  Of  those  who  may  be  called  lexicographers,  Apollonius  sur- 
named  the  Sophist,  Erotianus,  Timaeus,  and  Julius  Pollux  are  the  principal. 
Tryphon,  son  of  Ammonius,  Phrynicus  the  Arabian,  and  iElius  Moeris  wrote 
on  dialects.  Among  the  scholiasts  and  commentators  may  be  mentioned  Pto- 
emy  VII.,  Didymus,  Apion,  and  Epaphrpditus.  Of  the  writers  on  different 
topics  of  grammar,  we  may  select  Dionysius  Thrax,  Tryphon  above  named; 
Apollonius  Dyscolus,  and  his  son  Herodianus,  Arcadius  of  Antioch,  author 
of  a  treatise  on  accents,  and  Hephasstion,  whose  Manual  on  Metres  comprises 
nearly  all  that  is  known  on  the  subject.  Some  of  the  above  mentioned  will 
be  noticed  separately. — Scholl,  livre  v.  ch.  lix. 

§  132.  After  the  time  of  Constantine  letters  continued  to  be  cultivated  by  the 
grammarians.  Constantinople  was  now  the  seat  of  erudition.  A  sort  of  Uni- 
versity was  founded  here,  in  which  all  the  branches  of  human  knowledge  were 
professedly  taught.  The  teachers  or  professors  were  styled  OlxovficvixoL  A 
valuable  library  was  also  established.  Philology  in  its  various  parts  was  among 
the  sciences  taught  by  the  (ecumenical  professors.  These  studies  were  not  re- 
nounced with  the  destruction  of  the  library  and  the  decline  of  the  royal  college, 
but  were  continued  with  more  or  less  attention  until  the  final  capture  of  the 
city  by  the  Turks.  The  writers  during  this  long  period  were  very  numerous  ; 
only  a  few  have  acquired  celebrity  ;  while  many  of  their  productions  yet  re- 
main in  manuscript.  The  names  and  works  of  the  most  important  authors  will 
be  given  below. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe  here,  that  the  Greek  literati,  who  fled  from 
Constantinople  on  its  capture  in  1453,  and  exerted  an  important  influence  on 
the  study  of  Greek  letters  in  Italy  and  western  Europe,  belonged  chiefly  to 
the  class  denominated  grammarians.  Their  labors,  in  their  new  asylums  in 
the  west,  were  chiefly  of  a  philological  character.     Cf.  §  7.  2. 

§133/.  We  shall  place  here  some  general  references,  and  then  pro- 
ceed to  notice  separately  a  few  of  the  Grammarians. 

Lexicographical  Collections. — Aldine,  Dictionarium  Gracum,  &c.  Ven.  1497.  fol.  — 
Dictionarium  Gracum,  &c.  Ven.  1524.  fol.— H.  Stephanus,  Glossaria  duo  e  sinu  vetustatis  <fcc. 
1572.  fol.— Vulcanius,  Thesaurus  utriusqve  lingua  &c.  Lug.  Bat.  1600.  fol. — Cf. C.F.Matthicc, 
Glossaria  graca  minora  &c.  Rig.  1774.  8.  —  J.  A.  Ernesti,  de  gloss,  grcec.  vera  indole  et  recto 
usu.  Lips.  1742.  8.  —  Fabrkius,  Bibl.  Gr.  vi.  141.  —  Sclwll,  Hist.  L.  G.  vi.  281  ss. Gram- 
matical.— Aldine,  C.  Lascaris  Erotemata  &c.  Ven.  1494.  4.  —  Tlieod.  Oazce.  Introd.  Gram. 
&c    Ven.  1495.  fol.  and  1525.  8.  —  Thesaurus  Cornucop.  et  Horti  Adonidis.    Ven.  1496.  fol.  — 

Erotemata  Chrysolerw,  &.c.   Ven.  1512  and  1517.  8. Respecting  the  Aldine  collections,  see 

Fabriciu-s,  Bibl.  Gneca.  lib.  v.  c.  7,  in  the  ed.  of  Harles,  lib.  iv.  c.  39.— Also  Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr. 
as  cited  $7.9.  Introduc.  p.  xliv.  xlviii. — and  Renouard,  Annales  de  1'Imprimerie  des  Aides,  &.c. 
Par.  1803.  2  vols.  8.  Supplem.1812.  —  H.  Stephanus,  in  the  Appendix  to  his  Thesaurus  (§7.  3). 
—  Phil.  Giunta  or  Junta,  Enchiridion  grammat.  Introd.  &,c.  Flor.  1514,  1517,  1540.  fol.  — 
Ber.  Junta,  Theod.  Gaza,  grammat.  &c.  Flor.  1526.  8.  —  M.  Vacosanus,  Thoinm  Magistri  et 
Moschopuli  Eclogm,  &c.  Lut.  1538.  —  Villoison,  Anecdota  Grreca  &c.  Ven.  1781.  2  vols.  4. — 
I.  Bekker,  Anecdota  Graca.  Berl.  1812-21.  3  vols.  8.— W.  Dindorf,  Grammatici  Gr&ci.  Lips. 
1823.  8.  —  See  C.  D.  Beck,  Commentarii  de  Uteris  et  auctoribus  Gra-c.  atque  Latinis.  Sect.  I. 
p.  47.  —  Cf.  J.  Harris,  in  his  Miscellanies.   Lond.  1781.  8.  4th  vol.  p.  247  ss.  —  Harles,  Introd.  in 

Histor.  Ling.  Gracre.  Proleg.  §10 Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  Introd.  p.  lxii.  —  On  the  value  of  the 

scholiasts ;  Jo.  Mart.  Chladcnius,  Opusc.  Academ.   Lips.  1741.  8. 

§  134.  Heph&stion,  of  Alexandria,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
'2d  century.  He  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  mythographical  wri- 
ter, who  had  the  same  name. 

1m.  His  Manual  on  Metres,  J Ey/i loiSi ov  tv^qI  itiroun.,  contains  almost  every 
thing  which  is  known  respecting  the  rules  and  principles  of  the  ancient  critics 
on  this  subject. 

2.  The  first  edition  was  in  B.  Junta,  cited  §133.— A.  Tournebouf,  Par.  1533.  4.  with  scholia.— 
Best  edition,  Gaisford.  Oxf.  1810.  8.  &,  Lips.  1832. 

§135.  Apollonius  Dyscolus  was  also  of  Alexandria,  and  flourished 
in  the  2d  century  under  Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius. 

1m.  He  has  left  us  four  grammatical  treatises,  viz.  TIsqI  awrutecog,  Of  Syntax; 
Jleqi  urTwvvu'iac,  Of  the  pronoun  ;  UiqI  ovvdiouwv,  Of  conjunctions ;  and  Jltol 
'ETttfyitfttxTwv,  Of  adverbs.  We  have  also  a  compilation  styled  c  IoroQiat&av- 
tiuoiui,  or  Wonderful  Histories. 

2.  The  treatise  on  Syntax  was  published  by  Aldus,  in  Thesaurus  Cornuc.  cited  §133.— Sylburg. 
Francf.  1590.  4.  —  J.  Bekker.  Berl.  1817.  8.  —  That  on  the  Pronoun,  by  J.  Bekker,  in  the  Museum 


GRAMMARIANS.     POLLUX.    HARPOCRATION.    HESYCHIUS.       217 

JbUiquitatis  Studiorum.  Berl.  1808.  vol.  i.  p.  225.  —  The  other  two,  by  the  same,  in  his  Anecdota, 
cited  §  133.  —  The  historical  compilation,  by  Teuchen.  Lpz.  1792.  8. 

3.  We  have  a  work  on  Grammar  from  an  earlier  author,  the  Tijp>tj  roauuciTixi)  0f  Dio- 
nysius  Thrax,  who  lived  at  Alexandria,  B.  C.  about  60.— published  in  Fabricius,  Bibl.Gr.  (Har- 
tes  ed.  vol.  vi.) — in  Villoison,  and  Bekker,  as  cited  §  133. 

§  136.  yiElius  Hcrodianus  was  a  son  of  the  Apollonius  just  men- 
tioned. He  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  An- 
toninus, There  was  another  person  of  the  same  name,  who  was  a 
historian,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  grammarian. 

1m.  Of  many  works  written  by  the  latter,  the  treatise  Ilsal  uoviloovg  ?JUi»? 
appears  to  be  the  only  one  that  has  been  preserved  entire. 

2.  This  treatise  is  found  in  Dindorf,  as  cited  $133.  —  The  titles  of  several  other  treatises  are 
given  by  Schbll,  v.  28.  Fragments  of  some  of  which  are  given  in  Bekker,  and  Villoison,  as  cited 
§  133.  and  in  O.  Hermann,  De  emendanda  ratione  gram.  Gr.  Lips.  1801.  8.  —  The  piece  styled 
*E7CiueQiOuoi  was  published  by  Edw.  H.  Becker.   Lond.  1819.  8. — Cf.  Schbll,  v.  p.  27. 

§  137.  Julius  Pollux  (for  Polydeuces,  no/.vdtvx^g^  of  Naucratis  in 
Egypt,  flourished  in  ihe  2d  century,  at  Athens.  He  was  in  profession 
a  sophist,  but  is  chiefly  known  by  his  Greek  Dictionary. 

\u.  It  is  entitled  "Ovouaanxhv.  This  work  is  divided  into  10  books,  accord- 
ing to  subjects.  It  is  very  useful,  not  only  in  illustrating  Greek  words  and 
phrases,  but  also  in  explaining  many  subjects  of  general  antiquities. 

2.  The  following  are  some  of  the  topics  of  the  books  respectively.  1.  Gods, 
Kings  ;  Commerce,  Mechanic  Arts  ;  Houses  ;  Things  relating  to  War  ;  Agri- 
culture. 2.  Age  of  Men  ;  Members  and  parts  of  the  Human  Body.  3.  Fam- 
ily Relations,  Friends ;  Travels  ;  Roads,  Rivers.  4.  Sciences.  5.  Animals  ; 
the  Chase.  6.  Repasts;  Crimes.  7.  Of  various  Trades.  8.  Things  relating 
to  the  administration  of  Justice.  9.  Cities,  Edifices,  Money,  Games.  10.  Fur- 
niture, Utensils,  &c. 

3.  Editions.  —  B.  —  W.  Dindorf.  Lpz.  1824.  2  vols.  8.  "  The  4th  &  5th  volumes  comprise  the 

entire  hody  of  notes  by  the  preceding  editors." F. — Princeps,  by  Aldus.    Ven.  1502.  fol.  — 

Junta-  Flor.  1520.  fol. — Seber.  Francf.  1608.  4.  with  the  Latin  version  first  published  bv  Walthcr. 
Bas.  1541.  8.—  T.  H.  Lcderlin  f  7'.  Hemsterhuis.  Amst.1706.  2  vols.  fol.  with  a  valuable  Preface 
by  the  latter,  on  the  use  of  the  Dictionary. 

4.  We  have  before  named  (§131)  as  lexicographers,  in  the  period  of  Greek 
literature  designated  by  the  epithet  Roman  (§9),  three  authors  besides  Pollux  : 
Apollonius  Sophistes,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  from  whom  we  have  a  (a)  Ho- 
meric Lexicon,  Jt^eig  r  OinjQixai ;  Erotian,  in  the  time  of  Nero,  from  whom  we 
have  a  (b)  Glossary  to  Hippocrates  ;  Timams,  who  lived  later,  in  the  end  of  the 
3d  century,  and  from  whom  we  have  a  (c)  Platonic  Lexicon,  Aizsig  n/.arwixui. 

(a)  Published  by  Villoison.  Par.  1773.  2  vols.  4.— by  H.  ToUius.  Leyd.1788.  8.  —  (b)  Published 
by  Franz.  Lpz.  1780.  8.  —  (c)  Published  by  Ruhnken'.  Leyd.  1754.  8.  impr.  repr.  by  W.  A.  Koch. 
Lpz.  1828. 

§  138.  JElius  Mozris,  surnamed  the  Atticist,  flourished  about  A.  D. 
190.      His  work,  styled  jiUts3 ArnxSv  «**' EUfrwv,  is  preserved. 

1.  Editions.— B — W.  A.  Koch.  Lips.  1830,  8.  with  useful  notes. F.— The  first,  by  J.  Hud- 
son. Oxf.  1712.  8.  —  next,  J.  Fischer.  Lpz.  1756.  8.  with  the  Lexicon  of  TiniEeus.  —  J.  Pierson. 
Leyd.  1759.  8. J.  Bekker  (with  Harpocration).  Berl. 1833.  8.  mere  text. 

2.  Tryphon  and  Phrynicus  the  Arabian  were  mentioned  (§131)  in  connec- 
tion with  Mceris,  as  having  also  written  on  dialects.  There  are  some  remains 
from  them  noticed  by  Scholl  (v.  11).  The  principal  is  the  JJooTraoaoxevt)  oo- 
ipiorixi),  'Apparatus  soph istique,'  of  Phrynicus,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury ;  published  by  Bekker,  as  cited  §  133.  vol.  I. 

§  139.  Harpocration,  of  Alexandria,  probably  flourished  as  a  con- 
temporary of  Libanius,  in  the  4th  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
Lexicon  entitled  MUh  r£v  dsxa  r*»;Toowi ,  useful  in  reference  to  the 
Greek  language  generally,  and  the  Attic  orators  in  particular. 

Published  by  Aldus  (with  Ulpian's  Comrrk)  Ven.  1503.  fol.  —  Blancard.  Leyd.  1683.  4.  —  Bet- 
ter, by  J.  Gronov.  Leyd.  1696.  4.  —  A  new  edition,  Lips.  1824.  2  vols.  8.  —  Later,  by  J.  Bekker. 
Berl.  1833.  8. 

§140.  Hesychius  lived  at  Alexandria,  as  is  generally  supposed,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  4th  century.     He  compiled  a  Greek  Lexicon  or 

19 


218  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Glossary,  from  the  more  ancient  grammarians,  and  illustrated  his  se- 
lections by  examples  from  the  best  Greek  authors.  Additions  were 
made  to  this  work  by  later  hands,  among  which  are  probably  the  nu- 
merous theological  glosses  (glosses  sacrce).  Perhaps,  in  its  present 
state,  it  is  the  work  as  enlarged  by  some  Christian  author. 

Editions.  —  B. — ./.  Alberti  (completed  by  Ruhnken).  Leyd.  1774-76.  2  vols?,  fol.  A  kind  of  Sup- 
plement is  the  work  of  Nic.  Schow.  Lips.1792.  8.  exhibiting  the  results  of  a  collation  of  '  Albert?  s 
edition  with  the  only  existing  manuscript,  that  in  the  library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice.  —  A  new 

edition  has  been  expected  from  Gawford. F.  — Princeps,  by  Aldus.   Ven.  1514.  fol.  (ed.  M. 

Muslims). — Junta.  Flor.  1520.  fol. — Schrevelius.  Leyd.  1688.  4. — The  glossm  sacra  were  collected 

by  J.  C.  G.  Ernesti.    Lpz.  1785.  8.  with  a  Supplement,  1786.  8. See  Schleusner,  Observ.  in 

Suid.  et  Hesychium.  Wittemb.  1810.  4.—Schbll,  vi.  282. 

2.  The  author  of  the  Lexicon  must  not  be  confounded  with  Hesychius  of  Miletus,  in  the  6th 
century,  under  Justinian,  from  whom  we  have  some  remains  not  very  important.  Published 
by  J.  Orelli.  Lpz.  1820.  S.— ScWll,  vi.  404.  vn.  75. 

§  141.  Ammonius,  of  Alexandria,  probably  lived  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  4th  century.  He  is  said  to  have  been  an  Egyptian  priest,  and 
to  have  fled  from  Constantinople  on  the  destruction  of  the  pagan  tem- 
ples. He  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  ntni  opohop  xai  faatptyw  z.^ewr. 
It  is  a  work  of  some  value  in  the  criticism  of  words. 

It  was  published  in  Aldus,  in  the  Dictionarium  etc.  cited  §  133. — H.  Stephanus,  in  Append,  to 
his  Thesaurus,  cited  $  7.  3.  —  Given  also  in  Scapula's  Lexicon,  cited  $  7.  3.  —  The  best  edition 
is    Valckendr.   Lug.  Bat.  1739.  4.    Repr.  (ed.  Scfidfer).   Lpz.  1822.  8.  —  A  good  abridgment  of 

Valckendr'' s,  by  C.  F.  Amman.  Erlang.1787.8. A  French  translation,  by  A.  Pillon.  Par.1824.  8. 

There  is  a  treatise  by  Ammonius,  Ut  a  I '  AxvQo/.oy  iaq  ,On  improper  use  of  words,  never  printed, 

§142.  Photius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  died  A.  D.  891.  He 
may  be  placed  in  the  class  of  writers  now  under  notice,  although  he 
was  a  man  of  letters  in  general,  rather  than  a  grammarian. 

1  u.  His  ]\lv<jib(iip?.ov,  Bibliotheca,  or  Library,  is  in  many  respects  valuable. 
It  contains  critical  notices  of  about  280  works  of  ancient  writers,  accompa- 
nied with  extracts.  Of  a  number  of  these  works  we  should  otherwise  have 
scarcely  known  the  titles.  His  Lexicon,  Alston-  away  u)yi'h  although  in  a  muti- 
lated state,  is  useful  in  the  study  of  the  historians  and  orators. 

2.  The  life  of  Photius  presents  a  series  of  interesting  incidents.  His  char- 
acter was  not  without  some  blemishes,  and  he  experienced  great  vicissitudes 
of  fortune.  From  a  layman  he  was  raised  to  the  office  of  patriarch.  He  was 
deposed  and  banished  ;  after  ten  or  eleven  years  recalled  and  reinstated  ;  but 
again  deposed,  and  confined  in  a  monastery,  where  he  died. —  Gibbon,  Roman 
Empire,  ch.  ix. — Milner,  Ch.  History. 

3.  Besides  the  works  above  named,  we  have  also  from  Photius  a  work  styled  Nomocanon,  a 

collection  of  canons  of  the  church,  and  a  number  of  letters,  homilies,  and  dissertations. For 

a  particular  account  of  the  Myriobiblon,  see  Scholl,  vi.  305.  —  Fabricius,  in  Bibl.  Gr.  X.  678, 
ed.  Harles.  —  Cf.  Ed'mb.  Rev.  JNo.xlii.  —Land.  Quart,  vi.  218.— J.  H.  Leichii  Diatribe  in  Photii 
Bibliothecam.   Lips.  1748.  4. 

4.  There  is  no  edition  of  the  whole  works  of  Photius.— Of  the  Library,  there  have  been,  unti} 
recently,  but  three  editions. — D.  Hoeschel.  Augsb.  1601.  fol. — P.  Stephanus.  Genev.  1611.  fol.  with 
the  version  of  A.  Schott,  first  publ.  Augsb.  1696. — Same,  repr.  by  Berthelin.  Rouen,  1553.  fol. — A 

new  edit,  was  commenced  by  Bckker.  Bed.  1824.  4. The  Lexicon  was  first  published  by  G. 

Hermann,  with  the  Lexicon,  of  Zonarus.  Lpz.  1808.  3  vols.  4.  (by  Tittmannfy  Hermann.)  Photius- 
the  3d  vol.— Better,  R.  Porson.  Lond.  1822.  8.  (ed.  by  Dobree.)— Cf.  J.  F.  Schleusner,  Animadv. 

ad  Photii  Lex.   Lips.  1810.  4. — Same,  Cune  noviss.  in  Phot.  Lex.   Lips.  1812.4. The  Nomo- 

canon  was  printed  Par.  1620.  fol.  with  Balsamon. The  Letters  (248),  by  Montacutius  {Mon- 
tague). Lond.  1651.  fol. 

§143.  Suidas  probably  lived  about  A.  D,  1000,  although  it  cannot 
be  made  certain.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Lexicon,  compiled  from 
various  authors,  grammarians,  commentators,  and  scholiasts.  It  is 
not  executed  with  much  judgment,  accuracy,  or  skill  in  arrangement. 
Yet  it  is  of  considerable  value  on  account  of  its  store  of  literary  and 
antiquarian  information ;  and  many  of  its  defects,  especially  in  the 
apparent  want  of  method,  may  be  owing  to  interpolations  and  addi- 
tions made  by  transcribers  and  others. 

Editions Princeps,  by  Bern.  Chalcondylas.    Mil.  1496.  fol.  —  Aldus.  Ven.  1514.  fol.  —  Frobc- 


GRAMMARIANS.     SUIDAS.    EUSTATHIUS.    GREGORIUS.  219 

nius.   Bas.  1544.  fol. TEm.  Portus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Gen.  1619.  2  vols,  fol.—  L.  Kuster,  Gr.  &  Lat. 

Camb.  1705.  3  vols.  fol.  This  is  altogether  superior  to  any  preceding  edition  ;  yet  not  without 
defects.  Some  severe  criticisms  of  J.  Gronovius,  called  forth  an  answer  from  Kuster  in  his  Di- 
atribe Jinti-Oronoviana.  Amst.  1712.  8.  —  T.  Gaisford.  Lond.  1833.  a  greatly  improved  ed.  —  G. 
Bernhardy,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Halle,  1836.  2  vols,  (post  Thorn.  Gaisfordum)  with  notes. The  fol- 
lowing works  further  illustrate  Suidas.  —  Toup.  Emend,  in  Suid.  Lond.  1760-75.  4  vols.  8.  ; 
also  in  his  Opusc.  crit.  Lpz.  1780.  2  vols.  8.  and  ed.  by  Burgess.  Lond.1790.  4  vols.  8. — Schweig- 
hduser,  Emend,  et  Obs.  in  Suidam.  Argent.  1789.  8.  —  Reinesii  Observ.  in  Suidam  (ed.  C.  G. 
Midler).  Lpz.  1819.  8. 

§144.  In  this  connection  we  ought  to  notice  the  work  of  an  un- 
known author,  who  lived  about  A.  D.  1000.  It  is  a  Greek  Glossary, 
styled  'Ervuoioyixov  uiya,  the  Etymologicum  magnum.  Besides  its 
value  as  a  grammatical  work,  it  is  still  more  useful  because  it  has  pre- 
served many  passages  of  ancient  authors,  and  furnished  solutions  of 
many  difficulties  in  history  and  mythology. 

1.  Editions  of  the  Etymologicum.  —  Princeps,  by  Z.  Collier gus  (ed.  M.  Muslims).  Ven.  1499. 
fol.— P.  Manutius  (ed.  Torrisani).  Ven.  1549.  M.—Commelin  (ed.  F.Sylburg).  Heidelb.1594.  fol. 

—  Panagiota  (of  Sinope).  Ven.  1710.  fol.  —  Schdfer.  Lpz.  1816.  4.  a  repr.  of  Sylburg's.  To  this 
last  edit,  the  following  works  may  be  viewed  as  the  2d  and  3d  vols. ;  F.  W.  Sturtz,  Etymologi- 
cum ling.  Gr.  Gudianum,  &c.   Lpz.  1818.  4.  —  By  same,  Orionis  Etymologicum.   Lpz.  1820.  4. 

—  Cf.  Scholl,  vi.  p.  277,  294.  —  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  xlvii.  p.  105.  Remarques  crit. 
sur  l'Etymolog.  Magnum. 

2.  In  the  libraries  of  Europe  are  several  Lexicons,  or  Glossaries,  still  remaining  in  manu- 
script, particularly  in  the  Royal  library  of  France. — We  may  also  mention  here  one  first  pub- 
lished by  Villoison  in  his  Anecdota,  cited  $  133  ;  the  *  lorviu  or  Violarium,  by  Eudocia,  wife  of 
the  Emperor  Constantine  Ducas,  and  his  successor  for  a  short  time,  but  soon  after  placed  in  a 
convent.  In  this  retreat  she  wrote  her  work,  a  sort  of  historico-mythologic  compilation,  sup- 
posed to  be  of  much  value  before  Villoison  published  it. — Scholl,  vi.  p.  296. 

§  145.  Eustathius,  of  Constantinople,  nourished  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury, and  became  finally  bishop  of  Thessalonica. 

1  u.  He  is  particularly  celebrated  for  his  copious  and  learned  Commentary 
on  Homer,  entitled,  IIaQ£x§o?.al  sic  %ltv  r  Oui^ov  *I?.iuda,  and  Ilaqtx^oXai  Big 
rijv  ^OSvootiav.  We  have  also  from  him  a  less  valuable  commentary  on  Dio- 
nysius  Periegetes. 

2.  The  Comm.  on  Homer  was  first  published,  Rome,  1542-1555.  3  vols.  fol.  containing  the  in- 
dex of  Devarius.  (Cf.  $  50.  5.)— This  repr.  Bas.  1560.  3  vols,  fol.— An  ed.  commenced  by  Po- 
liti,  Flor.  1730,  but  never  finished — Extracts  from  the  Comm.  often  published  with  Homer. — 
J.  Bckker,  Eust.  Comm.  ad  Hoin.  Odysseam.  Lips.  1825.  2  vols.  4 — Same,  Eust.  Comm.  ad 
Horn.  Iliadem.  Lips.  1829  ss.— Cf.  Bulletin  des  Sciences  Historiques,  vol.  iv.  p.  337. A  com- 
mentary by  Eustathius  on  Pindar  is  lost Sclioll,  vi.  269. 

3.  John  Tzetzes  may  be  named  in  connection  with  Eustathius  ;  he  was  a  grammarian  at 
Constantinople  in  the  same  century  (cf.  §  81). 

§  146.  Qregorius,  surnamed  Pardus,  and  afterwards  Corintliius 
from  being  the  Bishop  of  Corinth,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
12th  century.  Of  his  many  works  two  only  have  been  published ; 
one  is  a  treatise  on  the  Greek  dialects,  mql  JiaUy.ruv,  and  the  other 
a  Commentary  on  the  last  part  of  the  Rhetoric  of  Hermogenes 
(§131.  l)f 

The  treatise  on  dialects,  edited  by  G.  Kocn,  Leyd.  1766.  8.  better  than  any  ed.  previous.— By 
G.  H.  Schdfer,  Lpz.  1811.  8.  still  better. — The  Commentary  is  given  in  Reiske  (cited  $99),  vol. 

VIII. 

§  147.  Thomas  Magistcr  or  Theodulus  may  be  mentioned  here. 
He  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century  (about  1310).  After 
holding  the  place  of  the  Magister  qfficiorum  under  the  emperor  An- 
dronicus  Palseologus,  he  became  a  monk  with  the  name  of  Theodu- 
lus.    A  work  by  him  is  extant,  called  'Exloyai  dvo^unav  'Axxixmv. 

1.  First  published  by  Caltiergus,  Rome,  1517,  8.— Best  by  J.  S.  Bernard,  Leyd.  1757.  8.  and  /.. 
G.  S.  Schwabe,  Altenb.  1773.  8.— Cf.  G.  Hermann,^rog.  de  praeceptis  quibusdam  Atticistarum 
Lpz.  1810.  4. 

2.  Here  might  be  mentioned  Emmanuel  Moschopulus  Cretensis,  Manuel 
Moschopulus  Byzantinus,  Emmanuel  Chrysoloras,  Theodorus  Gaza,  and  other 
grammarians,  whose  labors  were  connected  with  the  revival  of  classical 
Earning  in  Europe.     See  §  7.  2.  and  P.  I.  §  85.  1. 


220  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE, 


V. —  Writers  of  Epistles  and  Romances. 

§  148  u.  We  shall  next  introduce  the  class  of  writings  called  Letters  or 
Epistles.  There  are  many  extant,  ascribed  to  distinguished  men  of  ancient 
times.  But  a  great  portion  of  them  are  spurious,  being  the  productions  of  the 
sophists  and  grammarians  of  later  periods.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  un- 
questionably genuine  J  as  e.  g.  those  of  Isocrates,  Demosthenes,  and  Aristotle. 
In  these  (the  genuine),  there  is  generally  a  noble  simplicity  of  manner,  en- 
tirely free  from  the  art  and  labor  which  are  betrayed  in  the  epistles  fabricated 
in  the  age  of  the  later  sophists.  The  latter  class  were  composed  with  de- 
signed reference  to  publication,  and  treat  of  various  subjects,  particularly 
subjects  of  a  historical  and  romantic  character.  We  shall  mention  below 
some  of  the  principal  authors  of  Greek  epistles,  either  real  or  supposed. 

§  149.  As  the  form  of  epistles  was  so  often  adopted  by  the  sophists  and 
others  in  composing  pieces  which  were,  properly  speaking,  works  of  fiction, 
we  shall  mention  the  names  of  the  principal  writers  of  romance  in  the  same 
connection.  The  species  of  composition  termed  romance  was  unknown  in  the 
most  flourishing  periods  of  Greek  literature.  A  modern  writer  has  pointed 
out  the  reason.  "  In  the  most  refined  ages,"  says  he,  "  the  whole  empire  of 
fiction  was  usurped  by  the  ingenious  polytheism  of  the  Greeks.  This  filled 
every  imagination  and  satisfied  the  love  of  the  marvelous  so  natural  to  man. 
Every  festival  renewed  the  tale  of  some  god's  singular  adventures.  The  the- 
atre owed  its  charms,  in  great  measure,  to  the  strange  union  of  the  heroic 
daring  of  mortals,  and  the  intervention  of  deities.  In  a  nation  so  happily 
adapted  for  the  elegant  arts,  fiction  naturally  assumed  the  garb  of  poetry,  and 
the  beautiful  fables  so  well  sung  by  the  poets  left  no  place  for  recitals  in 
prose,  composed  as  it  were  of  vulgar  dreams.  The  people,  it  must  also  be  re- 
membered, were  all  engrossed  in  public  and  active  life.  Retirement  and  sol- 
itude were  almost  unknown.  The  state,  so  to  speak,  made  it  a  business  to 
amuse  its  citizens  in  public.  While  such  was  the  publicity  of  the  master's 
life,  the  universal  prevalence  of  domestic  slavery,  and  the  degraded  and  im- 
mured condition  of  tne  female  sex,  rendered  private  life  a  uniform  and  mo- 
notonous scene.  Thus,  while  there  was  no  opportunity  to  imagine  any  won- 
derful adventure,  or  very  singular  character  and  destiny,  without  violating 
probabilities,  there  was  at  the  same  time  but  little  scope  for  the  passion  of 
love,  which  holds  so  important  a  place  in  modern  romance." — (Villemain, 
quoted  by  SckOll,  iv.  p.  304.) 

§  150.  It  was  not  until  the  fifth  period  of  our  outline  (§  9),  that  works  of 
this  description  made  their  appearance,  and  scarcely  any  thing  of  the  kind  is 
earlier  than  the  time  of  Augustus.  These  works  are  called  in  general  erotic 
tales.  But  we  may  include  in  the  same  class,  not  only  romances  properly  so 
called,  or  formal  love  stories,  but  also  amatory  letters,  Milesian  or  magical 
tales,  and  imaginary  voyages. 

Of  imaginary  voyages  one  of  the  first  authors  was  Antonius  Diogenes, 
whose  work,  To.  vniq  0ov2.i)v  uTciara,  The  incredible  things  beyond  Thule,  is 
quoted  by  Photius.  It  seems  to  have  contained  a  tissue  of  absurdities  in 
forty-four  books.  Lucian  also  wrote  an  imaginary  voyage,  entitled  \4Xrfii\c, 
f.oroQia,  in  two  books  ;  a  satire  upon  voyagers  who  relate  marvelous  stories; 
full  of  grotesque  representations,  with  malignant  allusions  to  the  miracles  of 
the  sacred  Scriptures. 

Milesian  tales  are  so  called  because  a  certain  Aristides  of  Miletus,  of  whom 
little  is  known,  wrote  a  series  of  stories,  the  scene  of  which  was  Miletus.  A 
specimen  of  this  sort  of  tale  is  found  in  the  piece  of  Lucian  styled  Joi'y.tog  ?} 
"Ovoq  (cf.  §  121.  2).  The  Latin  work  of  Apuleius,  styled  the  Golden  Ass  (cf, 
§  471.  2),  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  fictions. 

Of  amatory  letters  the  only  specimen,  before  the  time  of  Constantine,  is 
given  in  some  of  the  letters  of  Alciphron.  In  the  next  period,  not  long  after 
Constantine,  we  find  a  work  of  this  class,  entitled  iE7narolai  tQwrixal,  as- 
cribed to  Aristsenetus. 


EPISTOLIZERS    AND    ROMANCERS.  221 

§  151.  A  work  of  Parthenius  (§  226),  in  the  age  of  Augustus,  may  be  con 
sidered  as  a  precursor  of  the  formal  romance,  being  a  collection  of  amatory 
tales,  entitled  Ub^L  igwrtxS*  LTudrjiurvjv,  chiefly  of  a  melancholy  cast.  But 
the  most  ancient  writer  of  the  proper  romance  was  Jamblichus  of  Syria,  in 
the  reign  of  Trajan.  His  work  styled  c larooiai  JBa§v?.vovixal,  or  the  Loves  of 
Rhodane  and  Sinonis,  is  quoted  by  Photius.  The  next  author  in  order  of  time 
is  probably  Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  to  whom  is  ascribed  a  Greek  romance, 
called  'Eiptoiax'u. 

In  the  period  after  Constantine,  we  find  several  romancers.  Three,  whose 
works  were  in  verse,  have  already  been  named  (§  33).  Besides  these,  there 
were  at  least  four  prose  writers,  whose  romances  are  extant;  Heliodorus, 
Achilles  Tatius,  Longus,  and  Eumathius.  The  romance  ascribed  to  Chariton 
also  was  probably  written  in  the  same  period.  Xenophon,  already  named,  is 
by  some  likewise  placed  here.  Heliodorus  is  considered  by  many  as  the  best 
writer  of  the  whole  class,  and  his  work  is  said  to  have  been  the  model,  not 
only  of  the  Greek  romances,  but  also  for  the  early  French,  romances  of  the 
16th  century.  (Cf.  §  259.  2.)  Others  pronounce  Longus  to  be  decidedly  the 
first  among  the  Greek  romancers. 

§  152  t.  The  following  are  references  on  the  class  of  authors  and 
works  now  under  notice.  The  principal  names  will  be  given  in  the 
following  sections  ;  the  real  or  supposed  writers  of  epistles  first,  and 
the  romancers  after  them. 

1.  On  the  epistles  attributed  to  ancient  Greeks. — Schiill,  u.  273. — Sclionheyden,  in  the  JV*. 

Biblioth.  d.  sch.  fViss.  vol.  v.- Collections  of  Greek  Epistles. — ildus,  Epistolarum  graecarum 

collectio.  Ven.  1499.  2  vols.  4. — Reprinted,  Gen.  1506.  fol.  With  Latin  version  ascribed  to 
Cujacius.—  Camcrarius,  >Exlfh  &«</)u£«»'  t7liOTO?.MV  etc.     Tubing.  1540.  S.—Steph.  Prevo- 

teau,    Tiov  sllipiXmv   faiOToZ&v  .dvdo/.oyiu.   Par.  1583.  4 Eilh.  Lubinus,  Gr.   et  Lat. 

Heidelb.  1609.  3  vols.  8.  Rarely  found  complete. — L.  Allatius  (Allaii),  Socratis  et  aliorum 
Epistola;,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1637.  4.— .7.  C.  Orelli,  collectio  epist.  grac.  Gr.  &  Lat.  1815.  8.— 
Savage,  Letters  of  the  Ancients.     Lond.  1703.  8. 

2.  On  the  Greek  romanc e. —  Villemaln,  Essai  litteraire  sur  les  Romans  Grecs  (in  the  Collect, 
des  R.  Gr.  &c.  cited  below). — Chardon  la  Rochette,  Melanges  de  crit.  et  de  philol. — Meiner^s 
Gesch.  d.  Kunst.  u.  Wissensch.  in  Griech.  u.  Rom.  vol.  i.  p.  276. — Ramdohr's  Venus  Urania, 
Th.  3.  Abth.  1. — Munso's  Abhandl.  iiber  d.  griech.  Romane,  in  2d  Bd.  of  his  Vermisch.  SchrifU 
Lpz.  1801.  2  Bde.  8.—  Wartoii's  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  vol.  n.  p.  183.— Dunlop,  History  of  Fiction. 
Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xm.  384.— .For.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  lx.—Schbll,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  iv.  304,  lv.  228- 

On  the  origin  of  romance  ;    D.  Huct,  de  Origine  Fab.  Romanensium.    Hag.  Com.  1682.  8. 

Trans.  French.  Par.  1693  and  1711.  (Cf.  $80.)  12 — Warton's  Diss,  on  Orig.  Fiction  in  Eu- 
rope ;    pref.  to  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry. Collections  of  Greek  romances  ;    Ch.  G.  Mitscherlich, 

Scriptores  erotici  graeci.  Gr.  &  Lat.  Bip.  1792.  4  vols.  8.  Containing  A.  Tatius,  Heliodorus, 
Longus,  and  Xenophon — Biblioteca  de'  Romanzieri  greci,  tradotti  in  Italiano.  Flor.  1792. — 
Biblioth.  des  Romans  Grecs.  Traduits  en  Franc.  Par.  1797.  12  vols.  12. — Collect,  des  Romans 
Grecs,  trad,  en  Franc,  avec  des  notes  par  Courier,  Lurcher  4'c.  Par.  1822-28.  14  vols.  16. 

§  153.  Anacharsis,  a  native  of  Scythia,  resided  some  years  at 
Athens  in  the  time  of  Solon,  B.  C.  about  600,  and  was  celebrated 
for  his  wisdom.  There  are  nine  letters  ascribed  to  him,  but  they 
are  not  genuine. 

1.  These  Letters  are  given  in  most  of  the  collections  above  named Separately,  Par.  1581.  4. 

Gr.  &  Lat.— One  of  them  (5th)  is  translated  by  Cicero  (Q,uaest.  Tusc.  v.)  ;  another  (9th)  is  con- 
tained in  the  life  of  Anacharsis  by  Diogenes  Laertius.— Jle  is  said  to  have  written  a  work  on 
the  laws  of  the  Scythians,  and  a  poem  W  war,  which  are  lost. 

2.  The  name  of  Anacharsis  is  applied  to  a  fictitious  personage,  imagined  by  the  Abbe  Bar- 
thelemi,  as  the  basis  of  a  sort  of  plot  for  a  very  interesting  work  on  the  history,  literature,  and 
arts  of  Greece,  called  the  Travels  of  Anacharsis  the  Younger.  The  author  imagines  the  Scyth- 
ian to  arrive  in  Greece  some  years  before  the  birth  of  Alexander,  to  reside  in  Athens,  making 
occasional  excursions  and  journeys  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  until  after  the  conquests  of 
Philip,  then  to  return  to  Scythia  and  eive  an  account  of  his  observations. — One  of  the  best  edi- 
tions of  this  work  is  Travels  <yc.  translated  from  the  French,  Lond.  1806.  7  vols.  8.  with  a  vol. 
of  Plates,  4. 

§  154.  Phalaris,  tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  respecting  whose  age 
there  is  uncertainty,  probably  lived  B.  C.  about  560.  To  him  are 
ascribed  148  letters. 

1  u.  Were  they  really  his,  they  would  show  him  to  have  been,  not  only  far 

removed  from  the  cruelty  with  which  common  tradition  has  charged  him,  but 

a  man  of  the  noblest  feeling.     But  they  are  undoubtedly  the  work  of  some 

sophist  of  later  times.     On  litis  point  there  is  no  longer  any  dispute  ;  the  ve- 

19* 


22*2  HISTORY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

hement  and  ill-natured  controversy  between  Bentley  and  Boyle  respecting  it 
gave  the  inquiry  an  importance,  which  the  subject  in  itself  did  not  possess. 

2.  The  wits  and  scholars  at  the  time  of  the  famous  controversy  were  generally  against  Bent- 
ley,  who  wholly  denied  the  genuineness  of  the  letters  ;  but  his  arguments  have  been  consid- 
ered by  all  since  that  time  as  perfectly  conclusive. For  an  account  of  the  controversy,  see 

Monk's  Life  of  Bentlev,  Lond.  1830 — Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  xci.— North  Amer.  Rev.  Oct.  1836. 
— Cf.  Bentley' s  Diss,  on  Phalaris,  cited  §63.  3. 

3.  The  letters  were  first  published  in  Latin,  without  date ;  the  2d  ed.  1470.— In  the  original 
Greek  first,  1498.  4.  Ven. — In  Aldus,  1499.  as  cited  Q  152.  1.  also  in  the  other  collections  there 
named.— C.  Boyle,  Gr.  &Lat.  Lond.  1695.  8.  repr.  1718.  8. — T.  D.  V.  Leanep  $  L.  6.  Valckendr. 
Groning.  1777.  2  vols.  4.  The  2d  vol.  containing  a  Latin  translation  of  the  tracts  of  Bentley. 
— O.  H.  Schafer.  Lpz.  1823.  8.  A  re-impr.  of  the  1st  vol.  of  the  preceding ;  and  is  probably 
the  best  edition. — Scholl,  n.  977. 

§  155.  Themistocles,  the  Athenian  general  and  orator  (§  88), 
nourished  B.  C.  about  480.  There  are  21  letters  extant,  ascribed 
to  him.  They  purport  to  have  been  written  during  his  banishment, 
and  their  contents  are  chiefly  of  a  historical  nature.  Their  genu- 
ineness is  very  questionable ;  it  was  fully  examined  and  controverted 
by  Bentley. 

The  letters  of  Them,  published  first  by  J.  M.  Caryophilus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Rome,  1626.  4 — E. 
Ehinger.  Frankf.  1629.  8,—Cli.  Schbttgen.  Lpz.  1710.  8 — J.  C.  Bremer.  Lemg.  1776.  8.— 
Cf.  Bentley  on  Phalaris,  above  referred  to. 

§  156.  Socrates,  the  most  distinguished  sage  of  Greece,  was  born 
B.  C.  469,  and  drank  the  cup  of  hemlock  under  judicial  sentence, 
B.  C.  399.  He  committed  nothing  to  writing,  and  probably  had  not 
the  least  agency  in  the  composition  of  the  7  letters  which  are  as- 
cribed to  him.  Like  most  of  the  letters,  which  are  called  Socratic, 
professing  to  come  from  Antisthenes  and  other  followers  of  Socrates, 
they  are  the  production  of  some  of  the  sophists. 

1.  The  letters  termed  Socratic  are  41  in  number ;  among  them,  besides  the  7  ascribed  to  So- 
crates, are  7  of  Xenophon,  and  12  of  Plato.    Cicero  quotes  one  of  the  latter  (Quaest.  Tusc.  V). 

Letters  of  Antisthenes  and  iEschines  the  philosopher  are  also  included. They  are  found  in 

the  collections  of  Allatius  and  Orelli,  cited  §  152.  L— Cf.  Scholl,  n.  280,  361,  414. 

2.  The  letters  ascribed  to  Jsocrates  (103.  2)  and  Demosthenes  ($  106.  3)  are  genuine  ;  and  most, 
if  not  all,  of  the  12  attributed  to  JEschincs. — The  latter  were  published  separately,  J.  S.  Sam- 
met.  Lpz.  1771.  8. — Those  of  Isocrates,  C.  F.  Jllatthicr.  Mosc.  1776.  8. — Respecting  those  as- 
cribed to  Euripides,  see  §  6a  3. 

§  157.  Chioji,  of  Heraclea  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  a  contempora- 
ry and  scholar  of  Plato,  having  slain  Clearchus,  tyrant,  of  Heraclea, 
was  himself  put  to  death,  B.  C.  353.  He  was  probably  not  the  au- 
thor of  the  17  letters  which  bear  his  name.  They  treat  particularly 
of  the  benefits  of  philosophical  culture,  and  are  inspired  with  ardent 
political  enthusiasm,  but  not  without  merit  as  to  thought  and  style. 

Published  by  J.  Caselius.  Rost.1583.  4.— Fr.  Morel.  Par.1600.  4.— J.  Oottl.Cober.  Dresd.1765.  B. 
— A.  G.  Hoffmann,  joined  to  J.  C.  Orelli' s  fragments  of  Memnon.  Lpz.  1816. 8.— This  is  the  best 
edition. 

§158.  Aristcenetus,  of  Nicaea  in  Bithynia,  was  a  sophist  of  the  4th 
century,  who  perished  in  an  earthquake  at  Nicaea,  A.  D.  358.  His 
letters,  in  two  books,  are  of  the  erotic  class  (§150),  and  in  a  manner 
of  writing  rather  light  and  sportive.  They  have,  however,  only  the 
form  and  superscription  of  letters,  being  without  that  peculiar  vivacity 
and  interest,  which  is  imparted  to  personal  correspondence.  Possibly 
they  are  the  work  of  a  sophist  of  a  still  later  age. 

1.  All  the  editions  have  been  taken  from  a  single  manuscript,  still  existing  at  Vienna;  first 
published  by  J.  Sambucus,  (printer  Plantin)  Antw.  1566.  4.  —  Better  than  any  previous  edition, 
F.  L.  Abrcsch.  Zwol  1,1749.  8.  a  vol.  styled  Lectionum  Aristccnetearum  libri  duo  ;  and  another  enti- 
tled Vir.  crud.  ad  Arist.  Epist.  conjectura;.  Amst.  1752.  8. — The  most  recent  and  complete,  Bois- 
sonade.  Par.  1822.  8.  —  Scholl,  vi.'249. 

2.  German  translation,  /.  F.  Herd.  Altenb.  1770.  8.—Harles  (Brev.  Not.  p.  471)  cites  a  French 
transl.   Lond.  1739.  12.  —  Fuhrmann  (Kl.  Handb.  522)  cites  an  English,   Lond.  1771.  8. 

§159.  Alciphron  was  a  contemporary  of  Aristaenetus,  and  a  writer 


ROMANCERS.       HELIODORUS.    TATIUS.    LONGUS.  223 

of  the  same  class.  Many  of  the  letters  are  of  the  amatory  kind.  The 
style  is  agreeable,  but  too  much  ornamented,  and  showing  too  much 
of  sophistic  affectation.  They  reveal,  however,  many  little  peculiari- 
ties, otherwise  not  made  known,  in  the  private  life  of  the  Greeks. 

1.  Schdll  places  Alciphron  much  earlier,  in  the  same  age  with  Lucian  in  the 
2d  century ;  because,  in  the  letters  of  Aristsnetus,  Alciphron  and  Lucian  are 
represented  as  corresponding  with  each  other.  The  letters  are  116  in  number, 
and  styled  3 EizioroXai  aXitvxixal  xai  tTaiQixal. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  first  by  Aldus,  cited  $152.  l.—Bergler.  Lpz.  1715  8.  with  a  commentary, 
repr.  Utrecht.1790.  8.—/.  A.  Wagner.  Lpz.1798.  2  vols.  8.  —  There  are  materials  for  a  better  edi- 
tion.— Schcdl,  iv.  314. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —  /.  F.  Herd.   Altenb.  1767.  8. French.  —  Abbe  de  Richard. 

Par.  1785.  3  vols.  12. English.— PA.  Munro  and  W.  Beloe.  Lond.  1791.  8. 

§  160.  Heliodorus,  of  Emesa  in  Syria,  bishop  of  Tricca  in  Thes- 
saly,  lived  at  the  close  of  the  4th  century.  In  early  life  he  wrote  his 
yEthiopica,  AWiomxas  in  10  books,  respecting  the  love  of  Theagencs 
and  Chariclea.  It  is  very  meritorious  as  as  a  narrative,  and  still  more 
so  on  account  of  its  pure  morality.  Yet  its  diction  has  traces  of  the 
artificial  taste  and  false  eloquence  of  the  sophists. 

1.  Editions.  —  Prince.ps,l>y  V.  Obsopaus  (printer  Hervagius).  Bas.  1534. 4.  from  a  manuscript 
obtained  from  a  soldier  who  took  it  at  the  pillage  of  the  library  of  Matthias  Corvinus,  at  Buda, 
in  1526.  (Schdll,  vi.  229.)  —  J.  Comvielin.  Heidelb.  1596.  8.  with  the  Latin  version  of  a  Pole 
named  Warsiewicki,  first  printed  Bas.  1552.  fol.  —  J.  Bourdelot.  Par.  1619.  8.  erroneous.  Repr. 
without  correct.  Lpz.  1772.  8.  ed.  Schmid.  —  The  edition  of  Mitscherlich,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  in  2d  vol.  of 

the  Scriptores  Erotici,  cited  §  152.  2.  is  better The  best  is  said  to  be  by  D.  Coray.   Par.  1804. 

2  vols.  8.  with  notes,  &c.  all"  in  Greek.  Repr.  Lpz.  1805.  2  vols.  8. 

2.  Translations.  —  German.— Meinhard.  Lpz.  1767.  2  vols.  8.— K.  W.  GaMling.  Fran kf.  1822.  8. 

French.— Mercier,  in  the  Biblioth.  des  Romans,  cited  $152.  2. English.— (Anonymous). 

Lond.  1791.  2  vols..  12 — On  Heliodorus,  cons.  Schdll,  vi.  228.    For.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  ix. 

§  161.  Achilles  Tatius  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  but  of  an  un- 
certain age,  although  commonly  placed  in  the  3d  century,  before  He- 
liodorus.    His  history  is  almost  entirely  unknown. 

1  u.  He  composed  a  romance,  in  8  books,  entitled  Ta  xara  Asvx'ircTcriv  xai 
KZeiToyfirTa,  or  the  story  of  Leucippe  and  Clitophon.  It  is  not  without  inge- 
nuity and  invention,  and  the  style  is  agreeably  animated,  although  its  excel- 
lence is  marred  by  frequent  affectation  of  beauty  and  ornament. 

2.  Editions. — Princeps,  by  ./.  Commelin  (ed.  Bonnvitius).  Heidelb.  1601.  8.  with  Latin  version 
of  Croce  (Cruceus)  that  had  been  previously  published,  and  Longus. — Salmasius.  Leyd.1640. 12. 
— B.  Oottl.  L.  Boden.  Lpz.  1776.  8.— Mitscherlich,  as  cited  $152.  2.— Fr.  Jacobs,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz. 
1821.  2  vols.  8.  the  best  edition. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.— Ast  #  Gtildenapfel.  Lpz.1802.  8. French. — Mercier,  in  2d  vol. 

of  Biblioth.  des  Rom.  cited  $152.  2. — There  are  several  others. English. — (Anonymous)  Lond. 

1720. 12.  —  See  Scholl,  vi.  232.  —  For.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  ix.  —  VMcmain,  as  cited  $152.  2. 

§  162.  Longus  was  a  sophist  of  the  4th  or  5th  century.  He  is  the 
best  erotic  writer  of  the  Greeks  (§151).  His  romance  in  4  books, 
commonly  called  the  Pastorals  of  Daphnis  and  Chloe,  is  an  attrac- 
tive work,  written  with  care,  but  sometimes  too  exact,  and  having 
some  passages  which  are  exceptionable  on  account  of  their  freedom. 

1.  The  period  when  this  writer  lived  is  wholly  uncertain;  the  name  is  not 
mentioned  by  any  ancient  writer,  and  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  mistake.  The  celebrated  manuscript,  now  existing  at  Florence,  does  not 
name  the  author  of  the  work,  but  bears  the  title  Jtaftiaxcov  *oom*<5v  ?.6yoi  <T  ; 
and  it  is  possible  that,  by  some  copyist,  the  last  word  was  taken  for  the  name 
of  the  writer.— Schdll,  vi.  238.— Cf.  For.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  ix. 

2.  Editions.  —  Princeps,  by  Columbanus  (printer,  Junta).  Flor.1598.  4. — Three  editions  in  the 
17th  century. — Neahnus  (Neavlme  publisher).  Par.1754.  4.  with  Latin  version  and  plates. — Bo- 
den, Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lpz.1777.  8.  —  Villoison,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Par.1778.  2  vols.  4.  one  of  the  best  editions. 
Mitscherlich,  as  cited  §152.  2.  —  *  G.  H.  Schdfer.  Lpz. 1803.  8.  a  better  text.— A  splendid  ed.  with 
plates,  printed  by  Didot.   Par.  1802.  4. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.   C.  Krabinrrcr.    Landsh.  1809.  8.  —  Fr.  Passow,  with  the 

Greek  text.   Lpz.  1811.  12. French.— J.  Amyot.  Par.  1559.  8.  often  reprinted.  Par.1827.  12.  Gr- 

&  Lat.  &.  Gall English.—  G.  Thornley.  Lond.1617.  8. 


224  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

§163.  Xenophon  ofEphesus,  whose  period  of  flourishing  is  unknown, 
was  the  author  of  the  story  of  Anthia  and  Abrocomas,  in  5  books. 

1.  Some  have  placed  this  writer  as  late  as  the  5th  century  ;  others  suppose  he  must  have  lived 
before  the  time  of  Constantine  ;  Peerlkamp,  the  latest  editor  of  this  romance,  thinks  that  its  au- 
thor was  the  earliest  writer  of  the  class,  and  that  Xenophon  is  merely  an  assumed  name.  — 
Schall,  iv.  310.  —  Duidop.  Hist,  of  Fiction. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  first,  by  Ant.  Cocchi,  Gr.  &  Lat.  1726.  8.  —  Two  next  editions  faulty.  — 
(Foxirth)  Mitscherlich,  cited  $152.  2.— A.  E.  de  Locella,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Vindob.1796.  4.  good.  — Best, 
P.  H.  Peerlkamp,  Gr.  &  Lat.'  Harl.  1818.  4.  —  Schwll,  it.  311. 

3.  Translations.  —  German. — J.  O.  Krohinger.  Munch.  1820.  8. French.  —  Jourdan.  Par. 

1748.  12.  and  in  Biblioth.  cited  $152.  2 Italian.— Salvini.  Lond.1723. 12.  before  1st  edition  of 

the  original. 

§164.  Chariton,  of  Aphrodisia,  is  another  romance  writer  of  whom 
nothing  is  known.     The  work  bearing  his  name  is  entitled  T6v  tuqL 

XaiQtar  y.ai  KixUiynoijv  towr^wr  du/y»/u«Tcov  7.oyoi  ^  the  love-Story  of  CJlCB- 

reas  and  Callirrhoe,  in  8  books. 

1.  This  was  first  published  by  J.  Ph.  d'Orville  (Doruillius).  Amst.  1750.  3  vols.  4.  with  a  Lat. 
transl.  by  Reiske,  and  a  very  learned  commentary.— Repr.  of  same  ed.  C.  D.  Beck.  Lpz.1783.  8. 

2.  Translations.  —  German. — Heyne.  Lpz.1753.  8. — Schmieder.  Ebend.  1806.  8. French. — 

Lurcher.  Par.1763.  8. English.— Lond.1764.  2  vols.  12.  (Fuhnnann,  p.  528.)  —  Schall.  vi.  246. 

For.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  ix. 

§  165.  JEumathiiis,  or  Eustathius,  of  Egypt,  also  of  an  uncertain 
age,  was  a  writer  belonging  to  the  same  class.  This  person  must  not 
be  confounded  with  Eustathius  the  celebrated  commentator  upon  Ho- 
mer.    He  wrote  the  tale  of  Hysminc  and  Hysminias,  To  za&  'rouivtiv 

r.cti  'Youiviav  dQaua,  in  11  books. 

1.  This  romance,  of  little  value,  has  been  printed  but  seldom. — O.  Oaulmin,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par. 
1617.  8.  repr.  Vienn.  1791.— L.H.  Teucher.  Lpz.  1792.  8.  (Gaulmin's,  without  notes.) 

2.  Translations German. — Madam  Reiske,  in  the  Hellas  (Th.l.  p.101).  Lpz.1778. French  ; 

in  the  Biblioth.  and  Collect,  cited  $152.  2.—Schozll,  vi.247. 


VI. — Philosophers . 

§  166  u.  Grecian  philosophy  was  not,  properly  speaking,  of  native  origin  ; 
but  was  introduced,  by  various  colonists,  from  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Thrace. 
It  first  appeared  in  the  poets  who  treated,  in  their  verse,  of  the  nature  of  things, 
the  origin  of  the  world,  the  system  of  the  gods,  the  principles  of  morals,  &c. 
Linus,  Musaeus,  Orpheus,  and  Hesiod,  belong  to  this  class  ;  and  even  Homer 
may  be  included.  The  poets  of  Greece,  it  may  be  truly  said,  were  her  first 
philosophers.     Cf.  P.  I.  §  40—42. 

See  D.  Tiedmami,  Griechenland's  erste  Philosophen,  oder  Leben  und  Systeme  des  Orpheus, 
&c.  Lpz.  1780.  8. —  Tennemann,  Hist.  Phil.  (Fr.  vers,  of  Cousin,  or  Engl.  vers,  by  Johnson,  cited 
§  183.  2.  5  Sect.  75.)  —  Enfield,  Hist.  Phil.  bk.  ii.  ch.  l.—La  Bletterie,  L'etude  de  la  philosophic 
ancienne,  in  the  Mem.  Acad,  lnscr.  vol.  xxvn.  p.153.— Ritter,  Theil  i.  p.137— 174.  as  cited  $183.  2. 
"  This  author  maintains  that  the  earliest  Greek  philosophy  has  no  traces  of  an  oriental  origin." 

§167.  It  may  be  also  remarked  with  propriety,  that  the  next  philosophers  of 
Greece  were  her  priests  and  legislators.  Grecian  philosophy  had  a  religious 
aspect  in  its  very  beginnings,  in  the  fanciful  speculations  of  the  poets  respect- 
ing the  origin  of  things,  and  the  nature  and  offices  of  the  gods.  The  notion 
of  a  multitude  of  supernatural  spirits,  having  each  an  appropriate  department 
in  governing  the  world,  could  not  but  affect  the  philosophical  reasonings  of  all 
embracing  it.  It  was  perfectly  natural  to  inquire  how  these  superior  agents 
would  make  known  their  will,  and  predict  to  man  the  future,  or  warn  him  of 
danger.  Thus  was  furnished  a  fruitful  field  of  speculation  upon  the  various 
subjects  of  augury,  omens,  oracles,  and  the  whole  system. of  divination.  The 
ideas,  which  became  incorporated  into  the  popular  belief,  were  indeed  but  a 
mass  of  absurdities  not  deserving  the  name  of  philosophy  ;  yet  it  was  about 
such  ideas  that  the  early  Greeks  expended  much  thought,  or  rather  indulged 
in  much  imagination.  Upon  this  foundation  arose  a  curious  fabric  :  divination, 
under  the  ingenuity  of  priests,  who  united  to  personal  shrewdness  and  fore- 


PHILOSOPHY.  225 

sight  some  knowledge  of  physical  nature,  grew  into  a  sort  of  regular  science. 
The  institutions  termed  mysteries  had,  in  their  nature  and  design,  some  inti- 
mate connection  with  this  early  religious  philosophy.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  41.  P.  IV. 
§  70—75.) 

When  the  progress  of  society  demanded  the  care  of  the  lawgiver,  and  began 
at  the  same  time  to  furnish  the  talents  and  knowledge  requisite  to  frame  suc- 
cessful codes,  then  philosophy  assumed  a  new  aspect.  The  moral  and  social 
nature  of  man  began  to  be  studied  more.  Reflecting  minds  examined  into  the 
motives  by  which  men  may  be  actuated,  and  contemplated  the  nature,  proper 
punishments,  and  preventives  of  crime,  the  theory  of  government  and  of  edu- 
cation. In  learning  the  character  of  this  political  philosophy,  we  must  con- 
sider particularly  the  civil  institutions  of  Lycurgus  and  Solon,  and  the  char- 
acter and  doctrines  of  those  who  are  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  wise  men 

of  Greece. A  glance  at  the  former  shows  us,  that  very  particular  reference 

was  had  to  the  training  of  youth  for  their  future  circumstances.  The  two  legis- 
lators differed  widely  in  their  systems.  The  Spartan  aimed  to  form  a  com- 
munity of  high-minded  warriors ;  the  other  sought  rather  a  community  of 
cultivated  scholars.  The  plans  of  education  varied  accordingly.  Lycurgus 
enjoined  abstinence  and  hardships  ;  Solon  furnished  books  and  teachers.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  Spartan  system  was  two  hundred 

years  earlier  than  the  Athenian. The  seven  sages  belong  the  age  of  Solon, 

who  was  indeed  himself  one  of  them.  They  were  all  actually  employed  as 
magistrates  and  statesmen  ;  but  they  were  also  the  philosophers  of  the  age. 
They  were  not  merely  speculative,  like  the  disciples  of  the  different  sects  af- 
terwards; nor  did  they,  like  the  preceding  poets,  indulge  in  fanciful  dreams  : 
they  were  rather  men  of  shrewd  practical  observation.  Hence  the  character 
of  their  philosophical  fragments,  which  are  wholly  proverbial  maxims,  adapted 
for  the  conduct  of  life  in  manners  and  morals.  Their  precepts  were  not  always 
given  in  formal  statements,  but  sometimes  clothed  in  symbolic  expressions, 
which  were  understood  only  by  those  to  whom  they  were  explained.  Fabu- 
lous tales  were  also  sometimes  employed  for  the  same  purpose  ;  such  were 
those  of  iEsop,  in  which  moral  and  political  maxims  are  drawn  out  into  alle- 
gory. 

On  the  political  philosophy  of  the  Greeks.  Enfield,  Hist.  Fhil.  bk.  ii.  ch.  2.—  Hitter,  Theil.  i. 
p,137.  as  cited  §183.  S.—  Warburton,  Div.  Legation  of  Moses,  bk.  ii.  sect.  1 — 3.  —  Chevalier  Ram- 
say, Travels  of  Cyrus,  bk.  iv.  &.  v.  —  De  la  Barre,  Histoire  de  Lycurge,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr. 
vii.  262.  —  La  Nauze,  Etat  des  Sciences  chez  les  Lacedaemoniens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Tnscr. 
xix.  p.  166. — C.O.Heync,  De  Zaleuci  et  Charonde  legibus  atque  institutis,  in  his  Opu.sc.  Academ. 
torn.  ir.  —  Is.  de  Larrey,  Histoire  des  sept  sages  (with  rem.  by  Bcaumarchais)  Lahaye,  1734. 
2  vols.  8. 

§168.  The  next  aspect  in  which  we  find  Grecian  philosophy,  presents  it  as 
exhibited  in  the  different  schools,  and  sects.  This  aspect  was  not  distinctly  as- 
sumed until  a  little  after  the  age  of  Solon,  during  our  third  period  of  Greek 
Literature  (§  9).  The  first  origin  of  different  schools  is  commonly  ascribed 
to  the  clashing  interpretations,  which  were  put  upon  Homer  by  the  Rhapso- 
dists  (§  21),  who  after  rehearsing  passages  from  the  great  poet  and  master, 
added  their  own  explanations  and  comments.  These  interpreters  disagreed 
in  expounding  the  Homeric  philosophy,  and  soon  had  followers  or  advocates 

among  those  not  belonging  to  their  particular  profession. At  length  two 

very  eminent  men  arose  and  became  each  the  head  of  a  school  in  philosophy, 
about  the  same  period  :  viz.  Thal.es  and  Pythagoras,  who  died,  the  former  about 
540,  the  latter  about  500  B.  C. — Thales  founded  what  is  called  the  Ionic  school, 
and  Pythagoras  the  Italic  school.  From  these  two  original  schools,  all  the  sects 
may  be  derived.  We  will  first  slightly  notice  these  two,  and  then  briefly 
speak  of  the  sects  that  subsequently  grew  out  of  each. 

§  169.  The  Ionic  was  the  earliest  of  the  two  schools.  Thales,  its  founder, 
was  a  native  of  Miletus,  possessed  of  wealth,  and  great  talents.  He  traveled 
in  Crete  and  Egypt.  Ranked  among  the  seven  sages,  he  devoted  much  thought 
to  political  philosophy.  But  he  also  took  up  all  the  inquiries  about  the  physi- 
cal and  material  world,  which  were  agitated  by  the  Rhapsodists.  The  precept 
yvro&i  osavTuv  is  attributed  to  him. 

Philosophy  as  studied  in  this  school  included  in  reality  every  branch  of  sci- 
ence, not  only  morals  and  politics,  but  rhetoric,  mathematics,  astronomy,  and 


I    w 


HIV BUSH 


I 


226  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

all  that  is  now  comprehended  under  natural  philosophy  and  natural  history. 
—  It  was  a  grand  point  of  inquiry  among  the  disciples  to  ascertain  what  was 
the  first  principle  of  all  things  in  the  universe.  Some  found  it  in  one  or  oth- 
er of 'the  material  elements  ;  others  recognized  a  divine  mind,  as  prior  to  all 
other  causes.  The  principal  philosophers  were  Anaximander,  Anaximenes, 
Anaxagoras,  and  Archelaus  of  Miletus. 

Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  ix.—Cudworth's  Intellectual  System,  ch.  i.  §22,  and  ch.  iv.§20.— /f.  Hitter, 
Histoire  de  la  Philosophic  Ionienne,  Berl.  1821.  8.— Same,  Geschichte  &c.  Theil  I.  as  cited 
§  183.  2.— Abbe  de  Canaye,  sur  le  philosophe  Thales,  in  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  tome  x. — 
Johnson's  Tennemann,  sect.  85-87. 

§  170.  The  Italic  school  was  still  more  celebrated.  Its  founder,  Pythago- 
ras, was  a  native  of  Samos.  After  traveling,  especially  in  Egypt,  he  taught 
morals  and  politics  at  Samos.  For  some  cause  he  afterwards  went  to  Italy, 
and  established  his  school  at  Crotona  in  Magna  Graecia.  The  pupils,  whose 
numbers  soon  amounted  to  600,  dwelt  in  one  public  building,  and  held  their 
property  in  common.  Their  business  for  each  day  was  very  regularly  planned. 
They  were  divided  into  two  classes,  probationers  and  initiated  ;  the  latter  on- 
ly were  admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  order,  and  made  acquainted  with 
its  highest  knowledge.  This  establishment  was  at  length  broken  up  by  pop- 
ular violence. 

Under  philosophy  the  Italic  school,  like  the  Ionic,  included  every  object  of 
human  knowledge.  But  Pythagoras  considered  music  and  astronomy  of  spe- 
cial value.  He  is  supposed  to  have  had  some  very  correct  views  of  astrono- 
my, agreeing  with  the  true  Coperican  system. ,  The  beautiful  fancy  of  the 
music  of  the  spheres  is  attributed  to  him.  The  planets  striking  on  the  ether, 
through  which  they  pass,  must  produce  a  sound ;  this  must  vary  according  to* 
their  different  magnitudes,  velocities,  and  relative  distances;  these  differ- 
ences were  all  adjusted  with  perfect  regularity  and  exact  proportions,  so  that 
the  movements  of  the  bodies  produced  the  richest  tones  of  harmony ;    not 

heard,  however,  by  mortal  ears. One  of  his  distinguishing  peculiarities  was 

the  doctrine  of  emanations ;  God  is  the  soul  of  the  universe,  pervading  all 
things,  incorporeal ;  from  him  emanated  four  different  degrees  of  intelli- 
gences, inferior  gods,  daemons,  heroes,  and  men.  Another  was  the  doctrine 
of  fitTtuipi'xwoig,  or  transmigration  of  the  soul.  General  abstinence  and  self- 
government  were  strongly  urged. — Some  of  his  apophthegms  and  symbolic 

precepts  are   preserved.     (Cf.    §58.1.) Some  of  the  principal  disciples 

were  Empedocles  (§64),  Ocellus,  Archytas,  and  Philolaus.  The  latter  is 
said  to  have  sold  to  Plato  the  records  and  books  of  the  Pythagorean  school. 

Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  xii. — H.  Ritter,  Geschichte  der  Philos.  Theil  I. — Ramsay,  Trav.  of  Cyrus, 
bk.  vi. — Heeren,  by  Bancroft,  ch.  xiv.  p.  297.— J.  Scheffer,  de  natura  et  constitutione  philosophise 
Italics.  Vitemb.  1701.  8. — Dacier,  La  vie  de  Pythagore,  ses  symbols,  &c.  Par.  1706.  2  vols., 
12. —  Th.  Kiesslina,  Jamblichi  de  Vita  Pyth.  liber.  Lips.  1815.  8. — Cousin's  Tennemann, 
$  88-95.— Good,  Book  of  Nature,  vol.  i.  lect.  2. 

§  171.  The  first  school,  that  drew  its  descent  from  the  Ionic,  was  the  Socrat- 
ic.  This  is  so  named  from  its  founder,  Socrates,  who  was  a  pupil  of  the  last 
public  teacher  of  the  Ionic  school.  Socrates  is  entitled  to  the  praise  of  being 
the  best  man  of  pagan  antiquity  ;  the  charges  brought  by  some  against  his 
purity  being  without  evidence. — He  was  first  trained  to  the  manual  employ- 
ment of  his  father,  a  common  statuary  ;  but  was  afterwards  patronized  by  a 
wealthy  Athenian,  named  Crito,  and  enjoyed  the  instruction  of  eminent 
teachers.  He  was  several  ♦imes  engaged  in  war  as  a  soldier  ;  in  one  engage- 
ment he  saved  Alcibiades  when  wounded  ;  in  another,  Xenophon.  After  he 
began  to  teach,  most  of  his  time  was  spent  in  public,  and  he  was  always 
ready  and  free  to  discourse.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  called  to 
civil  offices.     His  domestic  vexations  from  his  wife  are  proverbial,  but  very 

possibly  exaggerated. The  trial,  condemnation,  and  death  of  Socrates,  are 

themes  of  intense  interest  both  to  the  scholar  and  the  philanthropist ;  and 
have  fixed  an  indelible  blot  on  the  character  of  the  Athenians.  At  trial  he 
had  no  advocate,  but  made  his  own  plea.  Lysias  had  prepared  an  oration  for 
his  use,  but  he  declined  the  favor ;  Plato  would  have  spoken,  but  the  court 
forbade  it. 

The  Socratic  mode  of  instruction  has  been  mentioned  before  (P.  I.  §  73). 
One  of  the  grand  peculiarities  of  Socrates  was,  that  he  confined  the  attention 
of  his  pupils  chiefly  to  moral  science.     He  considered  the  other  subjects  in* 


PHILOSOPHY.  227 

'eluded  in  the  studies  of  the  old  Ionic  school  as  comparatively  useless.  He 
seems  to  have  believed,  but  with  some  doubtings,  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
He  left  nothing  in  writing  ;  but  we  have  an  authentic  source  of  knowledge 
respecting  his  views  in  his  Memoirs,  ' ArtouvrjuovsiuaTa,  by  Xenophon.  The 
Writings  of  Plato  cannot  be  so  much  depended  on  for  this  object,  because  he 
Was  himself  the  founder  of  a  new  sect.  Those  disciples  of  Socrates  who  ad- 
hered] to  their  master  simply,  without  advancing  notions  of  their  own,  are 
sometimes  denominated  pure  Socratic.  iEschines,  Cebes,  and  Xenophon  are 
the  principal. 

Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  iv — Rollin,  bk»  ix.  ch.  iv.—  Gillies,  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  xxiv. — Mitford,  ch, 
xxii.  §3. — J.  G.  Cooper,  Life  of  Socrates,  <fcc.  Lond.  1771.  8,-^G.  Wiggexs,  Socrate  comme 
homm'e,  citoyen  et  philosophe.  Rost.  1807. — Fraguier,  Demon  de  Socrates,  Mem.  de  I' Acad,  dcs 
Inscr.  iv.  360. — Freret,  Sur  ie  condemnation  de  Socrate,  in  the  same  Mem.  &c.  xlvii.  p,  209. 
— R.  JVares,  Essay  on  the  Demon  of  Socrates.  Lond.  1712.  8. — Cudworth,  Intell.  System,  ch.  iv. 
\S  23. — Cousin's  or  Johnson's  Tennemann,  §  113-118. — Cousin's  NouVeaux  Fragmens  Philosoph- 
iques.  Par.  1828.  8.  p.  151. —  Schweigkduser,  Theology  and  Morals  of  Socrates,  in  his  Opusc, 
Academ. — and  transh  by  F.  M.  Hubbard,  in  Bibl.  Repos.  July,  1838,  and  Jan.  1839. 

§  172.  The  Socratic  school  was  soon  divided  into  numerous  branches.  No 
less  than  Jive  sects  appeared,  headed  by  philosophers  who  had  listened  to  So- 
crates, and  two  of  these  ere  long  gave  birth  each  to  a  new  sect,  thus  raising 
the  number  to  seven.  These  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  and  perhaps 
well  designated  as  Minor  Socratic  and  Major  Socratic  sects,  the  original  and 
proper  school  of  Socrates  being  called  Pure  Socratic. 

The  Minor  Socratic  were  three  ;  the  Cyrenaic,  Megaric,  and  Eliac. 

The  Cyrenaic  had  its  name  fro^i  Cyrene,  in  Libya,  the  native  place  of  its 
founder,  Aristippus.  The  peculiarities  of  this  sect  favored  indulgence  in 
pleasure.     Its  author  was  fond  of  luxury  and  ornament.     The  sect  was  of 

short  duration.     They  were  sometimes  styled    rHdovtxoL The  Megaric 

took  its  name  from  the  native  city  of  its  founder,  Euclid,  who  was  born  at 
Megara.  It  was  also  called  Eristic,  from  its  disputatious  character,  and  Dia- 
lectic, from  the  form  of  discourse  practiced  by  its  disciples.  This  sect  wag 
famous  for  its  subtleties  in  the  art  of  reasoning.  Some  of  their  futile  soph- 
isms are  recorded  ;  e.  g.  the  Horned  ;  what  you  have  never  lost,  you  have  / 
horns  you  have  never  lost,  therefore  you  have  horns.  These  philosophers  also 
agitated  the  controversy  about  universals  and  particulars  ;  the  same  substan- 
tially as  that  which  was  so  acrimonious  in  the  middle  ages,  between  the  wora- 

inalists  and  the  realists. The  Eliac  was  so  called  from  Elis,  the  place 

where  its  founder,  Phsedo,  Was  born  and  delivered  his  lectures.  It  is  some- 
times called  Eretriac,  from  the  circumstance  that  Menedemus,  a  disciple  of 
Phaedo,  transferred  the  school  to  Eretria,  the  place  of  his  own  nativity.  It 
opposed  the  fooleries  of  the  Megaric  philosophy,  and  the  licentiousness  of 
the  Cyrenaic,  but  never  acquired  much  importance. 

On  the  Cyrenaic  sect ;   Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  v. — Fr.  Menti,  Aristippus  philosophus  Socraticus, 

Halle,  1719.  4.— Cousin's  Tennemann,  §  121. On  the  Megaric  ;  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  vi.— J.  G. 

Hager,  Dissert,  de  modo  disputandi  Euclidis.  Lips.  1730.  4.— Cousin's  Tennemann,  $  125, 
On  the  Eliac  ;  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  vii. 

§  173.  The  Major  Socratic  sects  were  four,  viz.  the  Cynic  and  Stoic,  Aca* 
demic  and  Peripatetic  ;  each  of  which  was  founded  at  Athens,  and  will  de- 
serve a  short  notice. 

The  Cynic  originated  with  Antisthenes,  a  pupil  of  Socrates.  He  maintained 
that  all  the  philosophers  were  departing  from  the  principles  of  that  master. 
He  assumed  the  character  of  a  reformer  ;  severe  in  manners  ;  carefully  neg- 
ligent of  dress,  so  much  so  as  to  provoke  the  ridicule  of  Socrates. The 

Cynics  were  rather  a  class  of  reformers  in  manners,  than  a  sect  of  philoso- 
phers. Their  name  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  occasioned  by  their  severity 
and  sourness,  which  were  such  as  to  bring  upon  them  the  appellation  of  Dogs. 
They  had  two  grand  peculiarities ;  one  was  that  they  discarded  all  specula- 
tion and  science  whatever ;  the  other,  that  they  insisted  on  the  most  rigid 
self-denial. One  of  the  most  famous  of  this  sect  was  Diogenes.  He  car- 
ried the  notions  of  Antisthenes  to  extravagance.  Made  up  of  eccentricities, 
he  was  always  a  censor,  and  his  opposition  to  refinement  often  degenerated 
into  rudeness.  He  satirized  the  instructions  of  other  philosophers  ;  having 
heard  Plato  define  a  man  to  be  a  ttoo  legged  animal  icithout  icings,  he  stripped 
a  cock  of  its  feathers,  and  taking  it  into  the  Academy,  exclaimed,  "  See  Plato's 


228  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Man" There  are  no  writings  of  this  sect  except  some   fragments  of 

Antisthenes. 

On  the  Cynics ;    Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  x. — BartJielemy,  Trav.  of  Anach.  ch.  vii Scholl,  Hisl. 

LiU.  Gr.  ii.  360. — The  remains  of  Antisthenes  are  two  discourses,  given  in  Rciske  (cited  §  99), 
8th  vol.  ;  and  some  sentences,  given  in  J.  OrcUi,  Opuscula  &c.  cited  §  103.  1.  The  letters  as- 
cribed to  him  are  in  J.  Orelli,  Collectio  &c.  cited  §  152.  1. 

§  174.  The  Stoic  sect  may  be  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  Cynic.  Its 
founder  was  Zeno,  a  native  of  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Brought  to  Athens  by 
the  mercantile  pursuits  of  his  father,  he  was  accidentally  introduced  to  the 
school  of  the  Cynics,  and  from  them  he  borrowed  many  of  the  notions  of  the 
sect  he  established.  Zeno,  however,  visited  the  other  schools  which  then  ex- 
isted and  borrowed  from  all.  The  name  Stoic  was  drawn  from  the  Portico 
(P.  1.   §  74)  where  he  gave  his  lectures. 

The  Stoics  differed  from  the  Cynics,  in  as  much  as  the  former  devoted 
themselves  much  to  speculative  studies,  which  the  latter  wholly  discarded ; 
but  they  resembled  the  Cynics  in  some  degree  in  their  general  austerity  of 
manners  and  character.  Indifference  to  pleasure  or  pain,  adversity  or  pros- 
perity, they  inculcated  as  the  state  of  mind  essential  to  happiness.  The  doc- 
trine of  fate  was  one  of  their  grand  peculiarities  ;  they  considered  all  things 
as  controlled  by  an  eternal  necessity,  to  which  even  the  Deity  submitted  ; 
and  this  was  supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  evil. — Their  system  of  morals  was 
in  general  strict  and  outwardly  correct,  but  one  which  was  based  upon  and 
which  greatly  fostered  a  cold,  self-relying  pride.  It  approved  of  suicide, 
which  was  perpetuated  by  Zeno  himself.  Yet  it  stimulated  to  heroic  deeds. 
—  In  logic  they  imitated  the  quibbles  and  sophisms  of  the  Megaric  sect.  The 
story  of  the  sophist  Protagoras  and  his  pupil  well  illustrates  the  absurd  triflng 
of  their  dialectics.  Their  system  of  logic  and  metaphysics,  however,  pre- 
sents a  classification  which  bears,  in  some  respects,  a  striking  resemblance  to 
that  of  Locke.     Things  are  divided  into  four  kinds;    substances,  qualities, 

modes,  and  relations. The  later   Stoics   are  supposed  to  have  borrowed 

some  views  from  Christianity.  They  speak  of  the  world  as  destined  to  be 
destroyed  in  a  vast  conflagration,  and  succeeded  by  another  new  and  pure. 
One  of  them,  addressing  a  mother  on  the  loss  of  her  son,  says,  "  The  sacred 
assembly  of  the  Scipios  and  Catos  shall  welcome  the  youth  to  the  region  of 
happy  souls.  Your  father  himself  (for  there  all  are  known  to  all)  shall  em- 
brace his  grandson,  and  shall  direct  his  eyes,  now  furnished  with  new  light, 
along  the  course  of  the  stars,  with  delight  explaining  to  him  the  mysteries  of 
nature,  not  from  conjecture,  but  from  certain  knowledge." 

Among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  early  disciples  of  this  school  were 
Cleant/ies,  immediate  successor  to  Zeno  (§  72),  and  Chrysippus,  who  also  be- 
came the  public  teacher  in  the  school  at  Athens.  The  latter  was  celebrated 
as  a  disputant;  "  Give  me  doctrines,"  said  he,  u  I  will  find  arguments  to  sup- 
port them."  His  industry,  it  is  said,  produced  many  hundred  treatises;  of 
which  nothing  remains  except  a  few  scattered  citations.  —  Nor  have  we  any 
written  productions  from  Zeno,  or  any  of  the  early  stoics.  The  principal  au- 
thors whose  works  remain  are  Epictetus  and  Antoninus,  who  lived  after  the 
Christian  era. 

On  the  Stoics;  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  xi.—Cudworth,  Int.  System,  ch.  iv.  $25.— Adam  Smith,  Th. 
of  Moral  Sentiments,  pt.  vii.  sect.  2.  ch.  i.  (p.  115,  ed.  Bost.  1817.)— Th.  Brown,  On  the  Philos. 

of  the  Human  Mind,  lect.  xcix.  (p.  547.  3d  vol.  ed.  And.  1822.) On  Epictetus  and  Antoninus; 

cf.  §  193,  196.— J.  C.  F.  Meyer,  Commentatio  in  qua  Stoic,  doctr.  eth.  cum  Christ,  comparatur. 
Gott.  1823.  4. 

§175.  The  Academic  sect  originated  with  Plato,  a  native  of  Athens,  descend- 
ed on  his  father's  side  from  Codrus,  and  on  his  mother's  from  Solon.  In  youth 
devoted  to  poetry  and  painting,  he  wrote  apoem,  but,  after  comparing  it  with 
Homer,  committed  it  to  the  flames.  Captivated  by  the  lectures  of  Socrates, 
he  left  poetry  for  philosophy.  After  much  travel  through  the  East  and  also 
in  Magna  Graecia,  he  opened  his  school  in  a  public  grove,  from  which  the  sect 
derived  the  name  of  the  Academy.  (P.  I.  §  74.)  Over  his  door  was  the  in- 
scription OiiSac  uytwutTQijTog  ho'itu ;  so  much  did  he  value  mathematical  sci- 
ence as  a  foundation  for  higher  studies. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Platonic  philosophy  respected  the  relations 
of  matter  to  mind.  The  system  recognized  a  supreme  intelligence,  but  main- 
tained the  eternity  of  matter ;  matter  receives  all  its  shapes  from  the  will  of 


PHILOSOPHY.  229 

the  intelligence,  yet  contains  a  blind  refractory  force  which  is  the  cause  of  all 
evil.  The  human  soul  consists  of  parts  derived  from  both  these,  the  intelli- 
gence and  the  matter ;  and  all  its  impurity  results  from  the  inherent  nature 
of  the  latter  constituent.  —  A  very  striking  peculiarity  was  the  doctrine  re- 
specting ideas.  It  was  briefly  this  ;  that  there  exist  eternal  patterns,  or  types, 
or  exemplars  of  all  things ;  these  exemplars  are  the  only  proper  objects  of 
science  ;  to  understand  them  is  to  know  truth  ;  on  the  other  hand,  all  sensi- 
ble forms,  the  appearances  made  to  the  several  senses,  are  only  shadows ;  the 
forms  and  shadows  are  addressed  to  the  senses,  the  exemplars  or  types  to  the 
intellect.  These  exemplars  were  called  ideas.  —  The  doctrines  respecting 
matter  and  ideas  essentially  controlled  the  system  of  study  in  this  sect,  and 
their  practical  morality.  To  gain  true  science,  one  must  turn  away  from  the 
things  around  him  and  apply  his  mind  in  the  most  perfect  abstraction  to  con- 
template and  find  out  the  eternal  original  patterns  of  things.  And  to  gain 
moral  purity,  he  must  mortify  and  deny  the  parts  of  the  soul  derived  from 
matter,  and  avoid  all  familiarity  with  the  shadows.  Hence  probably  the  read- 
iness to  embrace  the  Platonic  system  manifested  among  the  Christians  of  the 
middle  ages,  when  the  mystic  notion  of  cleansing  the  soul  by  solitude  and 
penance  became  so  common. 

The  Academic  sect  was  very  popular,  and  eminent  philosophers  succes- 
sively taught  its  doctrines  in  the  grove.  Some  adhered  closely  to  the  views 
of  Plato,  and  were  called  disciples  of  the  Old  Academy,  while  others  depart- 
ed from  them  and  formed  successively  the  Middle  and  the  JYeio  Academy. 
The  Old  was  begun  by  Plato  B.  C.  about  400 ;  the  Middle,  by  Arcesilaus, 
B.  C.  about  300 ;  the  New,  by  Carneades,  B.  C.  about  180.  —  The  distinguish- 
ing point  of  difference  between  the  three  branches  was  their  opinion  respect- 
ing the  certainty  of  human  knowledge.  The  Old  Academy  maintained  that 
certain  knowledge  can  be  obtained,  not  of  the  sensible  forms,  but  only  of  the 
eternal  exemplars ;  the  Middle,  that  there  is  a  certainty  in  things,  yet  it  is  be- 
yond the  attainment  of  the  human  mind,  so  that  positive  assertion  is  improper ; 
the  New,  that  man  has  the  means  of  knoioledge,  not  infallible,  but  sufficiently 
certain  for  all  his  wants. 

On  the  Academic  sect;  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  i. — Middleton's  Life  of  Cicero,  sect.  12. — Gillies 
Hist.  Greece,  ch.  xxxii.— J.  F.  Herbart,  De  Platonici  Systematis  fundamento.  Gott.  1805.  8.— 
Ph.  G.  Fan  Heusde,  Initia  Philosophic  Platonicne.  Lpz.  1827-31. — Johnson's  or  Cousin's  Ten- 
nemann,  §  128-138.— Edinb.  Rev.  July,  1837.    Plato's  Philos.  and  Bacon's  compared. 

§  176.  The  Peripatetic  sect  grew  out  of  the  Academy,  Aristotle  its  founder 
having  been  long  a  pupil  to  Plato.  Having  closed  his  labors  as  the  teacher 
of  Alexander,  he  returned  to  Athens,  and  his  master,  Plato,  being  dead,  he 
commenced  his  Lectures  in  the  Lyceum.  (P.  I.  §  74.)  He  taught  for  12 
years.  Accused  of  impiety  by  enemies  and  rivals,  he  retired  to  Chalcis, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death. 

The  Peripatetics,  according  to  the  established  practice  of  the  philosophers, 
had  their  public  and  their  secret  doctrine,  or  the  exoteric  and  esoteric. 
(P.  I.  §  72.)  In  his  morning  walk,  Aristotle  imparted  the  latter  to  his  par- 
ticular disciples ;  in  his  evening  walk,  he  proclaimed  the  former,  his  public 
doctrine,  to  a  mixed  crowd  of  hearers.  Very  contradictory  accounts  have 
been  given  of  the  essential  principles  of  Aristotle  and  his  sect.  But  nothing 
perhaps  was  more  distinctive  than  the  system  of  syllogistic  reasoning,  which 
was  introduced  by  the  founder,  and  became  so  celebrated  in  subsequent  ages, 
and  for  so  long  a  period  held  the  highest  place  in  the  plans  of  education. — Of 
the  early  disciples  of  this  sect,  Theophrastus  and  Strato  were  among  the  most 
eminent.  They  succeeded  Aristotle  as  teachers  in  the  Lyceum.  Dicaearchus, 
the  geographer,  and  Demetrius  Phalereus,  the  rhetorician  (§  116),  were  also 
distinguished  Peripatetics. 

On  the  Peripatetics  ;  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  ix. — Gillies,  ch.  xl. — Cudworth,  ch.  iv.  24. — Smith, 
Theory  Mor.  Sentiment,  pt.  vii.  sect.  2.  ch.  i. — Mitford,  ch.  xci.  §  1. — Edinb.  Encycl.  Aristotle. 
— Cousin's  or  Johnson's  Tennemann,  $  139—150. On  the  Logic  of  Aristotle  ;  Reid's  Analy- 
sis of  A.'s  Logic— StewaH,  Elements  of  Phil.  Human  Mind,  vol.  n.  ch.  iii.— J.  Gillies,  Analy- 
sis &c.  in  his  Translation  of  A.'s  Ethics  and/ Politics.  Lond.  1797.  2  vols.  A.—  Th.  Taylor, 
Diss,  on  the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle.    Lond.  1813.  4. 

§  177.  We  will  next  notice  the  sects  which  were  derived  from  the   Italic 

20 


230  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

school  (§168).  They  were  four,  the  Eleatic,  the  Heraclitean,  the  Epicureanf 
and  the  Sceptic. 

The  Eleatic  was  founded  by  Xenophanes  of  Colophon,  who  early  left  his 
native  country  for  Sicily,  and  thence  passed  over  into  Magna  Grecia.  Here 
he  became  a  celebrated  disciple  in  the  Pythagorean  school,  but  advanced  new 
and  different  views  in  his  own  lectures.  The  sect  derived  its  name  from  the 
place  where  some  of  his  most  distinguished  followers  belonged,  Elea  in  Magna 
Graecia.  —  The  doctrines  of  the  Eleatic  sect  were  atheistical.  Matter  is  made 
up  of  infinitely  small  atoms,  which  have  no  property  but  a  tendency  to  move. 
By  the  eternally  varying  motions  of  these  atoms,  every  existence  and  every 
effect  in  the  universe  is  caused.  Yet  there  is  no  real  change  except  in  our 
senses.  The  soul  of  man  is  material  —  The  most  distinguished  supporters  of 
this  sect  were  Parmenides,  Zenoof  Elea,  Leucippus,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
the  chief  author  of  the  atomic  theory,  and  Democritus  of  Abdera,  commonly 
called  the  laughing  philosopher.  Another  eminent  follower  of  this  sect  was 
Protagoras  of  Abdera,  who  acquired  great  power  and  wealth  at  Athens  in  the 
profession  of  sophist,  but  was  finally  banished,  his  writings  having  been  pub- 
licly burned,  on  account  of  his  impiety. 

The  Heraclitean  sect  was  instituted  at  Ephesus  by  Heraclitus,from  whom  it 
took  its  name.  It  is  but  little  noticed  as  a  separate  sect.  The  doctrines  were 
atheistic,  and  many  of  them  more  absurd  than  those  of  the  Eleatic  philosophers. 
One  of  the  notions  was,  that  all  nature  is  full  of  souls  or  daemons.  Fire  is  the 
principle  from  which  all  things  are  produced,  and  those  souls  are  the  best 
which  have  the  least  moisture,  and  approach  nearest  to  the  primary  fire. — The 
most  celebrated  name  among  the  Heraclitists  was  Hippocrates,  who  in  some 
points  agreed  with  this  sect,  but  was  not  properly  speaking  a  disciple. 

On  the  Eleatic  sect,  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  13.  —  Cud7Corth,  ch.  i.  §  8.  ch.  iv.  §  20.  —  J.  G.  Buhle, 
Comment,  deortu  et  progressu  pantheismi  inde  a  Xenophane  primo  ejus  auctore  usque  ad  Spi- 
nozam.  Gcett.1790.  4. — Cousin's  Tennemann,  $  97-102, 104, 105.  —  Fragments  of  their  writings 
in  H.  Stephanus,  Poesis  Phiiosophica,  cited  $  47t. — and  in  A.  Peyron,  as  cited  §  64.  2.  —  Schall, 
ii.  317. — Respecting  Xenophanes  and  Zeno  "of  Elea,  Cousin  Nouv.  Fragm.  (p.  9-95)  cited  $171. 

On  the  Heraclitean  sect;  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  14.—  Cudworth,  ch.  i.  $16.  iii.  8.  iv.  13.  —  Ch.Gottl. 
Heyne,  Progr.  de  animabus  siccis  ex  Heracliteo  placito  optime  ad  sapient,  ac  virt.  instructis. 
Gott.  1781.  fol.  and  in  his  Opusc  Acad.  vol.  3d.  —  Cousin's  or  Johnson's  Tennemann,  $103.  — 
Fragments  of  writings,  Stephanus  as  just  cited. — Letters  ascribed  to  Heraclitus,  in  the  collections 
cited  $  152.  1. 

§178.  The  Epicurean  sect  had  its  name  and  origin  from  Epicurus,  born  near 
Athens.  He  first  gave  lectures  at  Mitylene,  but  afterwards  opened  his  school 
at  Athens  in  a  garden,  in  which  he  lived,  and  often  supported  large  numbers 
of  young  men,  who  flocked  to  hear  him. 

The  doctrines  of  this  sect  were  derived  from  the  atomic  theory  of  the  Eleatics, 
and  were  on  the  whole  atheistic,  although  not  so  fully  and  formally.  All  happi- 
ness was  founded  in  pleasure.  This  principle  opened  the  way  for  the  great  li- 
centiousness of  the  later  disciples  of  this  school.  Epicurus  explained  and  limited 
his  language  so  as  to  recommend  the  practice  of  virtue.  "  It  might  have  been 
his  pleasure  to  be  chaste  and  temperate.  We  are  told  it  was  so  ;  but  others  find 
their  pleasure  in  intemperance  and  luxury;  and  such  was  the  taste  of  his  princi- 
pal followers."  —  The  sect  became  popular,  and  existed  to  a  very  late  period. 
Of  the  writings  of  the  sect,  only  trifling  fragments  remain.  Yet  Epicurus  alone 
is  said  to  have  written  several  hundred  treatises.  Hermachus,  or  properly  Her- 
marchus,  was  successor  to  Epicurus,  and  inherited  his  books  and  garden. 

On  the  Epicureans;  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  15.—  Gillies,  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  xl.— Smith,  Theor.  Mor. 
Sent.  P.  vii.  sect.  2.  ch.2.  —  Brown,  Intell.  Phil.  lect.  99.  —  Cousin's  or  Johnson's  Tennemann, 
$  151-157.  —  Fragments  of  Epicures.  .7.  G.  Schneider,  Epicuri  physica  et  meteorologia  duabus 
epistolis  ejusdam  comprehensa.  Lps.  1813.  8.  —  .7.  C.  Orelli,  Epicuri  franmeuta  librorum  ii  et 
xi  de  natura,  &c.   Lpz.  1618.  8.— Cf.  Schall,  in.  321. 

§  179.  The  Sceptic  sect  was  so  named  from  its  doctrines  ;  it  was  also  called 
Pyrrhonic  from  its  founder  Pyrrho.  He  was  educated  in  the  Eleatic  sect,  and 
particularly  admired  the  notions  of  Democritus,  from  whom  he  drew  the  ele- 
tments  of  his  system.  He  was  also  instructed  in  the  dialectic  sophistries  of 
phe  Megaric  sect,  and  seems  to  have  been  disgusted  with  their  frivolous  dis- 
puutes. 

The  doctrines  of  this  sect  were  very  similar  to  those  of  the  middle  Academy 
(§  175),  and  many  real  sceptics  concealed  themselves  under  the  name  of  the 
Academy,  as  their  own  sect  was  rather  unpopular.    Their  essential  peculiarity 


PHILOSOPHY.  231 

was,  that  nothing  is  certain,  and  no  assertion  can  be  made.  Happiness  they 
placed  in  tranquillity  of  mind,  and  this  could  be  obtained  only  by  absolute  in- 
difference to  all  dogmas.  They  ridiculed  the  disputes  and  contradictions  of  the 
other  sects,  especially  the  boasted  confidence  of  the  Stoic,  and  the  proud 
sophistries  of  the  Megaric.  But  Seneca  well  remarked  in  comparing  the 
Megaric  and  the  Sceptic  sects,  "  I  prefer  a  man  who  teaches  me  trifles  to  him 
who  teaches  me  nothing  ;    if  the  dialectic  philosopher  leaves  me  in  the  dark, 

the  Sceptic  puts  out  my  eyes." One  of  the  eminent  disciples  of  this  sect 

was  Timon,  already  mentioned  as  a  poet  (§  45).  The  sect  had  its  professors 
and  teachers,  down  to  the  time  of  Sextus  Empiricus,  whose  writings  are  a 
principal  source  of  information  respecting  the  views  of  the  Sceptics. 

On  the  Sceptics ;  Enfield,  bk.  ii.  ch.  16.— Oillies,  ch.  xl. — R.  Bodcrsen,  de  philosophia  Pyrrho- 
nia.  KiJ.  1819.  4. — Cousin's  Tennemann,  §  124. — Langheinrich,  cited  §  45. — Schmll,  in.  342. 

§  180.  We  have  given  a  view  of  the  sects  as  they  grew  one  out  of  another. 
It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  four  of  them  arose  after  the  commencement  of 
the  4th  period  in  our  division  of  the  history  of  Greek  literature  (§  9),  viz.  the 
Peripatetic  and  Stoic,  descendants  of  the  Ionic  school,  and  the  Epicurean  and 
Sceptic,  offspring  of  the  Italic  ;  all  the  others  existed  before  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander. It  was  in  the  4th  period  also,  that  the  middle  and  the  new  Academy 
appeared. In  the  5th  period,  i.  e.  after  the  Roman  supremacy,  Grecian  phi- 
losophy lost  much  of  the  dignity  and  importance  it  had  enjoyed.  Its  professors 
were  viewed  more  in  the  light  of  mercenary  teachers.  The  spirit  of  honest 
inquiry  gave  place  to  the  prevalence  of  scepticism.  Visionaries  and  impostors 
assumed  the  garb  of  philosophers,  and  new  sects  were  formed  under  the  old 
names,  the  outward  forms  and  technical  expressions  being  retained,  with  al- 
most nothing  else.  —  Such  especially  were  the  New- Pythagoreans.  As  emi- 
nent among  these  may  be  mentioned  particularly,  Sextius,  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, Sotion  of  Alexandria,  under  Tiberius,  and  Apollonius  Tyanensis,  the 
famous  impostor. 

On  the  New-Pythagoreans  ;  Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  2.  sect.  2.  —  Cousin's  Tennemann,  $184.  — 
Schccll,  livre  v.  ch.  60.  —  Souchay,  Des  Sectes  philosophiques,  in  tiie  J\Iem.  Acad.  laser',  xiv.  1. 

§181.  The  Neic-Platonists  also  appeared  under  the  Roman  emperors.  These 
professed  to  disentangle  the  pure  doctrines  of  Plato  from  the  additions  and  cor- 
ruptions of  the  later  Academicians  ;  but  they  themselves  mingled  much  that 
was  foreign  to  his  system,  and  soon  prepared  the  way  for  the  Synchretistic,  or 
Eclectic  schools. 

The  principle  of  the  Eclectics  was,  to  select  whatever  was  true  in  the  various 
conflicting  doctrines  of  all  the  sects,  and  thus  form  a  harmonious  union.  The 
first  projector  of  this  plan  is  said  to  have  been  Potamo,  a  Platonist  of  Alexan- 
dria. But  Ammonius,  of  the  same  city,  surnamed  Saccas,  is  considered  as  the 
actual  founder  of  the  Eclectic  school.  Having  been  educated  among  Chris- 
tians, he  endeavored  to  incorporate  in  his  system  some  of  the  principles  of 
Christianity.  And  this  sect  numbered  among  its  disciples  both  Christians  and 
pagans.  The  more  eminent  ofthe  pagans,  before  the  time  of  Constantine,  were 
Plotinus,  Porphyry,  Proclus,  and  Jamblichus. 

On  the  New-Platonists  and  Eclectics ;  Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  2.  sect.  3,  4.  —  Cousin's  or  Johnson's 
Tennemann,  $185,  200-219.— Schcell,  livre  v.  ch.  61,  62. 

§182.  There  were  also  during  the  same  period,  under  the  Roman  emperors, 
followers  and  advocates  of  the  principal  ancient  sects,  as  (besides  the  Academ- 
ic) the  Peripatetic,  the  Cynic,  the  Stoic,  the  Sceptic,  and  especially  the  Epicu- 
rean. It  is  not  important,  in  this  glance,  to  notice  them  separately  ;  indeed 
the  Eclectic  principles  held  a  great  sway  with  the  age,  and  under  the  preva- 
lence of  these,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  a  Christian  philosophy  on  the  other,  the 
adherents  to  the  old  names  had  but  a  limited  influence.  After  the  time  of 
Constantine,  who  died  A.  D.  337,  the  Nczc-Platonists,  who  were  generally 
great  enemies  of  Christianity,  established  their  school  at  Athens.  The  most 
distinguished  philosopher  was  Proclus.     This  school  was  at  length  suppressed 

by  Justinian  (P.  I.  §  82). Of  the  other  systems  the  Peripatetic  was  the 

most  in  vogue  among  the  Greeks,  especially  at  Constantinople.  Indeed  it 
was  not  long  after  Constantine  when  all,  who  did  not  embrace  Platonism, 
were  included  under  the  general  name  of  Peripatetics.  Many  writers  employed 
themselves  in  attempting  to  explain  and  enforce  the  system. In  the  8th 


232  HISTORY    OF    GREEK    LITERATURE. 

and  9th  centuries  the  Peripatetic  philosophy  was  introduced  among  the  Ara- 
bians, and  the  works  of  Aristotle  were  translated  into  the  Arabic  language. 
By  them  it  was  propagated  in  the  west  of  Europe  in  the  11th  and  12th  centu- 
ries. Here  it  gave  rise  to  that  scholastic  philosophy,  which  exhibited  such  a 
singular  union  of  acuteness  and  folly,  and  which  reigned  in  Europe  until  the 
revival  of  letters. 

On  the  several  sects  above  named,  under  the  emperors  before  Constantine  ;  Enfield,  bk.  iii. 

ch.  2.  sect.  5-9. — Schwll,  livre  v.  ch.  63-67. On  the  Christian  philosophy,  of  the  same  period  ; 

Schall,  livre  v.  ch.  38.  —  Enfield,  bk.  vi.  ch.  2.  Cf.  $  288. On  the  JsTeic-Platonists  after  Con- 
stantine ;  Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  2.  sect.  A.—Schccll,  livre  vi.  ch.  93.— On  the  Peripatetics  after  Con- 
stantine :  Schall,  livre  vi.  ch.  94.  —  Cf.  Hallam,  View  of  Europe  in  Middle  Ages,  ch.  ix.  pt.  2. 
(p.  352.  2d  vol.   ed.  Phil.  1824.) 

§183£.  We  shall  now  mention  some  of  the  principal  sources  of  in- 
formation respecting  the  Greek  philosophy,  and  then  proceed  to  no- 
tice the  more  distinguished  Greek  philosophers,  of  whose  written  pro- 
ductions we  still  have  remains. 

1.  Original  sources. — The  first  and  most  direct  are  the  extant  works  of  the  philosophers  Hiemselves; 
these  works  are  to  be  noticed  in  the  subsequent  sections.  But  we  may  properly  put  here  also 
some  ancient  authorities  which  are  indirect.  —  1.  Authors  who  composed  memoirs  of  philoso- 
phers ;  Diogenes  Laertius,  cf.  $  255a.  ;  Philo stratus,  cf.  $  255b.  ;  Eunapius,  cf.  $  255c. — 2.  Au- 
thors who  wrote  compendiums  or  sketches  of  philosophy  ;  Galen  (cf.  $  273),  to  whom  is  ascribed 
a  book  on  the  History  of  Philosophy,  which  is  given  in  the  ed.  of  Chartier ;  Plutarch  (cf.  $  248), 
to  whom  is  ascribed  (falsely,  however)  a  work  Deplacitis  philosophorum,  published  by  CD.  Beck. 
(Cf.  §  195.  3.) — 3.  Authors  who  in  their  works  have  introduced,  more  or  less  fully,  the  doctrines 
and  precepts  of  the  philosophers  ;  e.  g.  Athenaus,  cf.  §123  ;  Cicero  (cf.  $  408),  a  valuable  source, 
especially  in  his  De  Finibus,  and  his  Quastiones  Academics  ;  the  information  is  collected  in  F. 
Gedikc,  Ciceronis  Historia  Philosophic  antique.  Berl.  1782.  3d.  ed.  1815.  8.  —  4.  Christian  au- 
thors, who  wrote  in  controversy  with  the  pagans  ;  Origen,  Eusebius,  and  others  ;  cf.  $287,288. 

2.  Modern  works  on  the  History  of  philosophy. — Th.  Stanley, History  of  Philosophy.  Lond.1655. 
fol.— 3d  ed.  1701.  4.  —  J.  Brucker,  Historia  Critica  Philosophife,  &c.  Lpz.  1742-67.  6  vols.  4.  — 
By  same,  Institutiones  hist.  Philos.  Lpz.  1756.  8.  and  (ed.  Born.)  1790.  8.  —  W.  Enfield,  History 
of  Philosophy,  &c.  (a  translation  and  abridsment  of  Brucker)  Lond.  1791.  2  vols.  4.  Dubl.  1792. 
3  vols.  8.  —  H.  Bitter,  Geschichte  der  Philosophic  Hamb.  (I— V  Th.)  1829-36.  8.  —  Bitter's 
History  of  Anc.  Philos.  Translated  from  German.  Oxf.  1838.  4  vols.  8.  Now  considered  as  high 
authority. —  W.  G.  Tennemann,  Geschichte  der  Philosophic  Lpz.  1798-1819.  11  vols.  8.  one  of 
the  best  works  in  this  department.  —  By  same,  Grundriss  der  Gesch.  d.  Phil.  (3d  ed.  by  Wendt) 
Lpz.  1820.  8.  Transl.  into  French  by  Cousin.  Par.  1819.  8.  Transl.  into  English  by  A.  Johnson. 
Oxf.  1832.  8.  This  is  valuable  for  its  full  references  on  the  subjects  noticed.— J.  G'.Buhle,  Lehr- 
buch  der  Gesch.  d.  Philos.  und  Hirer  Literatur.  Gott.  1796-1804.  4  vols.  8. — Degcrando,  Histoire 
Comparee  ds  systemes  de  la  Philosophie.  2d  ed.  Par.  1822.  4  vols.  8. —  W.  T.  Krug,  Geschichte 
der  philosopheie  alter  Zeit,  vornehmlich  unter  Griechen  und  RSmern.  Lpz.  1815.  8.  The  fol- 
lowing abridements  may  be  added  :  F.  Ast,  Grundriss  einer  Geschichte  der  Phil.  Landsh. 
1607.  8.—  /.  ~G.  Gurlitt,  Abriss  der  Gesch.  d.  Phil.  Lpz.  1786.  8.  —  G.  Socher,  History  of  the 
systems  of  Philosophy  from  the  time  of  the  Greeks  down  to  Kant.  Mun.  1802.  8.  (in  German.) 
—  W.  Anderson,  Philosophy  of  Ancient  Greece.  Lond.  1791.  4. — Fenelon,  Abridged  Lives  of  the 
Philosophers.  Par.  1795.  8.  Transl.  into  English  by  Cormack.  A  new  ed.  of  the  French.  Par. 
1820. 

3.  We  add  here  some  references  on  the  Philosophy  of  other  nations.  —  E  g  y  t  i  a  n  . — Enfield, 
Bitter,  &c.  as  above  cited.  —  Heeren's  Ideen  &c.  cited  P.  I.'$  171.  —  C.  P.  Moritz,  Symbolical 
Wisdom  of  Egyptians,  &c.   Berl.  1793.  8.  (in  Germ.)  —  Prichard's  Analysis,  &c.   cited  P.  IV. 

$12.  2.  (/.) -"Persian  &  Chaldean.  —  T.  Hyde,  Hist,  relig.  vet.  Persarum  Oxon.  1700.  4.— 

Aug.  Duperron,  Zend-Avesta,  Ouvrage  de  Zoroaster  &c.  Par.  1711.  4. — The  Dessatir,  or  sacred 
writings  of  the  ancient  Persians.  Bomb.  1818.  8.  —  J.  G.  Bhode,  System  of  the  Religion  of  the 
Medes^  Persians,  &c.  (in  Germ.)   Frankf.  1820.  8.  —  Fr.  Munter,  Religion  of  the  Babylonians. 

Copenh.  1827.  4. H  i  n  d  o  o  .  —  W.  Ward,  History,  Literature,  and  Religion  of  the  Hindoos. 

Lond.  1820.  4  vols.  8.  —  F.  Schlegel,  Language  &c.  "of  the  Hindoos  (in  Germ.)  Heidelb.  1808.  8. 
— JV.  Mutter,  Opinions,  Science,  &c.  of  ancient  Hindoos.  Mentz.  1822.  8.  —  J.  G.  Bhode,  as 
cited  P.  IV.  $12.  2.  (/.) Cf.  Tennemann's  Manual.  $  66-73. 

184.  jEsop,  a  Phrygian,  generally  supposed  to  have  lived  B.  C.  at 
least  600,  does  not  strictly  belong  to  the  class  of  Greek  philosophers; 
yet  he  may  properly  be  named  here,  on  account  of  the  principles  of 
moral  and  political  philosophy  embodied  in  his  Fables. 

In.  He  was  born  a  slave,  and  served  different  masters  ;  the  last  of  whom,  Iadmon  of  Samos, 
a  philosopher,  gave  him  his  freedom.  The  other  circumstances  of  his  life  are  but  imperfectly 
known,  although  they  are  detailed  with  considerable  fullness  in  the  biography  of  him  ascribed 
to  Mazimus  Planudes,  a  monk  of  Constantinople  in  the  4th  century  ;  upon  which,  however, 
little  reliance  can  be  placed. — The  same  Planudes  also  collected  and  enlarged  the  fables  of  ^Esop, 
never,  probably,  committed  to  writing  by  himself.  They  had  been  put  into  Choliambic  verse 
by  Babrius  (improperly  called  Babrias,  and  Gabrias),  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus  ($31). 
From  this  metre  they  "were  gradually  reduced  again  to  prose,  and  received  their  present  form 
from  Planudes. — Cf.  Suher's  Allg.  Theorie,  JEsop.  —  Char,  vornehmst  Dicht.  vol.  r.  p.  269.  — 
Th.  Tirrwhitt,  Diss,  de  Babrio.  Lond.  1776.  8. 

2.  The  editions  of  ^Esop  have  been  drawn  from  several  different  mauscript  collections,  con- 
taining different  numbers  of  Fables,  an  account  of  which  is  given  by  SchVll,  vol.  i.  p.  255  ss. 


PHILOSOPHERS.     ^ESOP.       XENOPHON.  233 

— .B,— J.M. Housing er,Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz. 1741,1799.  8.—F.D.Furia,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Flor.1809. 2  vols.  8. 
from  an  ancient  Ms.°at  Florence  in  the  library  of  the  Cassini  monks,  and  supposed  to  present  the 
Fables  as  they  were  before  the  changes  made  by  Planudes.  Repr.  Lpz.  1810.  with  additions; 

Dibdin  says,  "  this  appears  to  be,  upon  the  whole,  the  very  best." R.  —  Coray.  Par.  1810.  8. 

with  scholia,  and  plates  ;  good.  —  J.  6.  Schneider.  Bresl.  1812.  8.  after  the  Augsburg  Ms.  and 
containing  231  Fables  of  JEmp,  with  50  of  Babrius.  —  G.  H.  Schdfer.   Lpz.  1821.  8. 

3.  Translations.  —  The  most  ancient  was  probably  that  of  Hildebert,  of  Tours,  12th  century, 

in  Latin  verse ;  published  Rome,  1743.  4. German.— J.  C.  Bremen.  Quedl.  1788.  8.  —  I.  F. 

W.  Motz.  Lpz.  1794.  8. French — A.  le  Grand.  Par.  1801.  8. English.— S.  Croxall.  Lond. 

1722.  8.  1788.  12. Sanscrit.  —  Published  at  Calcutta,  1803.  8.  entitled  Polyglot  translation 

of  yEsop;  in  Persian,  Arabic,  Hindostanee,  Sanscrit,  <fec. 

4.  There  is  another  collection  of  Fables  in  Greek,  being  a  version  of  those  Oriental  tales  com- 
monly ascribed  to  an  ancient  brahmin  of  India,  named  Pilpay.  This  version  was  made  by  Simeon 
Sethus  of  Constantinople,  in  the  11th  century,  under  the  title  JZr£(paviT)ts  y.ut  * Ij^vtilaTtrg 
(le  Vainqueur  et  PInvestigatcur).  The  Greek  text  has  been  published  once,  Starkt.  Berl.  1697.  8. 
■ —  There  are  translations  of  these  Fables  in  the  modern  languages.  —  Schbll,  vn.  187. —  Sulzer, 
Allg.  Theorie,  Fabel. 

§  185.  Ocellus  Lucanus,  a  pupil  of  Pythagoras,  lived  B.  C.  about 
490.  To  him  is  ascribed  an  extant  treatise,  h*q>-  t'7?  rov  navrbg  qn'oawc, 
On  the  nature  of  things.  If  genuine,  it  must  have  been  written  in  the 
Doric  dialect,  and  been  changed  into  the  common  by  some  gramma- 
rian of  subsequent  times.  Notwithstanding  all  its  errors,  it  evinces 
much  acumen,  and  contains  some  very  valuable  precepts  upon  edu- 
cation.    Yet  it  is  quite  probably  the  work  of  a  later  author. 

1.  The  question  of  the  genuineness  of  this  work  has  been  much  agitated.  The  conflicting 
opinions  are  examined  by  Rudolphi,  in  a  Dissertation  in  his  edition  of  the  work.  He  ascribes  it 
to  Ocellus.— Scltoll,  vol.  u.  p.  311. 

2.  Editions.    Best  ;    Abbe  Battcux,  Gr.  &  Fr.     Par.  1768.  3  vols.  12.— ./S.  F.   TV.  Rudolphi. 

Lpz.  1801.  8.  Gr.  only. Early  j  Princeps.     Par.  1539.  8.—L.  Nogarola.     Vcn.  1559.  4.  with  . 

version  and  notes.  Repr.  by  Comrnelin,  Heid.  1596.  8. —  Th.   Gale,  in  his  Opuscula  Mythologica. 

Cambr.  1571.  8. Later ;  Marquis  d'Argens  (Dargensius).   Berl.  1762.   With  French  version 

and  Commentary. 

§  186.  Xenophon,  an  Athenian,  was  born  B.  C.  450,  and  died 
B.  C.  356.  Besides  his  great  merit  as  a  military  commander,  and 
as  a  historian,  he  is  worthy  of  special  notice  as  a  philosopher,  and 
one  of  the  most  excellent  among  the  pupils  of  Socrates.  The  dis- 
crimination, solidity,  precision,  and  mildness  of  manner  so  remark- 
able in  his  master,  he  acquired  himself,  and  transfused  into  his  writ- 
ings. From  the  writings  of  Xenophon  especially,  we  may  learn  the 
true  spirit  of  the  Socratic  philosophy  (§  171). 

1.  He  was  born  at  the  borough  Ercheia.  While  a  youth  his  personal  comeliness  attracted  the 
attention  of  Socrates,  who  one  day  accidentally  met  him  in  the  street,  and  invited  him  to  his 
lectures.  He  accompanied  Socrates  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  was  saved  by  his  master 
in  the  battle  of  Delium  (P.  I.  §90.  6).  At  the  age  of  43,  he  engaged  in  the  service  of  Cyrus 
the  younger,  and  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Cunaxa,  conducted  the  famous  retreat  of  the  Ten 
Thousand.  Four  or  five  years  after  his  return  to  Greece,  he  entered  into  the  service  of  Agesi- 
laus,  king  of  Sparta,  as  a  warrior.  Incurring  by  this  the  displeasure  of  the  Athenians,  he 
was  accused  for  his  former  connection  with  Cyrus,  and  banished.  He  was  received  into  pro- 
tection by  the  Spartans,  and  enjoyed  a  pleasant  retreat  at  Scillus,  where  he  composed  most  of 

his  works,  and  died  at  the  age  of  90. Mitford's  Greece,  ch.  xxiii.  xxviii.  sect.  9,  (p.  273, 

vol.  v.  ed.  Bost.  1823.) — T.  B.  Gail,  La  vie  de  Xenophon.  Par.  1795.  2  vols.  8.— C.  G.  Kriigtr, 
De  Xenophontis  vita  quajstiones  criticaj.  Halle,  1822.  8. — F.  Dclbr'uck,  Xenophon  ;  zur  Ret- 
tung  seiner  durch  B.  G.  Niebuhr  gefAhidten  Ehre.     Bonn,  1829.   8. 

2.  The  works  strictly  belonging  to  the  department  of  philosophy  are  5  ;  viz. 
3^47iouvrjiiovivuara  2iwy.Qurovg,  Memoirs  of  Socrates ;  2cm:QuTovg  5 \Jno?.oyiu 
nnbg  rovg  SixaoTug,  apology  of  Socrates,  not  so  much  a  defence  from  the 
charges  laid  against  him  as  a  justification  of  the  motives  which  induced  him 
to  choose  death  ;  >  Oiy.ovouoiy.bg  /.oyog,  Discourse  on  economy,  a  treatise  on  mor- 
als applied  to  rural  life ;  the  last  two  have  been  considered  by  some  to  have 
formed  originally  parts  of  the  Memoirs;  Svfinvaiov  (pi?.oo6qxx)v,  The  Banquet 
of  Philosophers,  of  peculiar  excellence  as  to  style,  and  designed  to  illustrate 
the  purity  of  Socrates;  e Iiqutv  ij    Tvnavrog,  liiero  or  The  Prince,  comparing 

public  and  private  life,  with  remarks  on  the  art  of  governing. There  are 

6  other  pieces,  which  may  be  mentioned  here,  although  less  strictly  of  a  phi- 
losophical character;  Tfsqi  rIfC7tixng.  c Imiaoyiy.og,  Kvvijyirixog,  JJoqot  t[ 
Tleqi  nooooSwv  (On  the  Revenues  of  Attica),  Juy.edaiitoviwv  tio/.iteivc,  and  yA6- 

20* 


234  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

rp'aivov  nolics'ia.  The  last  two,  however,  may  not  be  the  productions  of  Xen- 
ophon  ;  although  the  former  of  them  seems  to  be  a  grateful  return  for  the 
asylum  furnished  to  him  on  his  banishment  from  Athens.  His  intercourse 
with  the  king  of  Sparta  was  the  occasion  of  a  eulogy  styled,  J6yog  tig  Ayrr 
oUaov. 

3.  Editions. — whole  works.— B. — *  J.  G.  Schneider,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1815.  6  vols.  8.    Repr. 
Oxf.  1820-28.   6  vols.   8.— B.  Weiske.    Lpz.  1798-1804.   6  vols.   8.— Gail,   Gr.  Lai.  &  Fr.    Par.  x 
1814—16.  11  vols,  small  4.  to  which  must  be  added  a  12th  vol.  styled  Rccherchez  historiques &c. 

Par.  1821.  4.—$*  F.  A.  Bornemann.   Gott.  1828.  (commenced)  in  Rosfs  Bibliotheca. F.— The 

Princeps  was  Junta,  Flor.  1516.  fol. — Next,  Aldus,  Ven.  1525.  fol. — Then  Brubachius  (with 
pref.  by  Ph.  Melanchthon),  Hal.  Suev.  1540.  3  vols.  8.  the  first  which  actually  contained  all. 
—H.  Stcphanus,  Gr.  &  Lat.     Par.  1581.  fol.— Lcunclavius,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Par.  1635.  fol.—  Wells, 

Gr.  &  Lat.     Oxf.  1703.  5  vols.  8.—  Thieme,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Lpz.  1763.  4  vols.  8. memorabilia  ; 

Best,  Schneider,  (ed.  by  Benwell.)    Gr.  &  Lat.     Oxf.  1804.  2  vols.  8.—Schutz.    Halle,   1822.  8. 

— T.  Greenwood,  Gr.  &  Lat.     Lond.  1823.  8.— §A.  Herbst.    Halle,  1827.  8 apology,  Zeune, 

(Zeunius.)  Lpz.  1782.  8.  With  The  Banquet,  Hiero,  Economy,  and  Agesilaus. — §  T.  A.  Borne- 
mann, Gr.  &  Lat.     Lips.  1824.    With  the  Convivium  or  Banquet. banquet,  Dindorf.    Lpz. 

1823.  8. polity  of  the  Athenians  and  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  Zeune.    Lpz.  1778.  8.   With 

the  Revenues  and  the  treatises  on  horses  and  the  chase. — Of  the  Lacedaemonians,}./''.  Haase.  Berl. 
1833.  8.  with  figures  (rerum  tacticarmn  figurce). 

4.  Translations.— German.—  Whole  icorks,  by  A.  Ch.  <$-  K.  Borheck.  Lemg.  1788-1808.  6  Th. 

8. — Memorabilia,  by  7.  /.  Hottinger.    Zlir.  1819.  8. French. —  Whole  works,  by   Gail,  cited 

above. English. — Memorabilia,  by  S.  Fielding. — Banquet,  by  Wellwood. — Hiero,  by  R.  Greaves. 

Lond.  1793. 

^5.  Illustrative.— F.  W.  Stun,  Lexicon  Xenophonteum.  Lpz.  1801-4.  4  vols.  8.  "  Defec- 
tive." Hermann. — Rost,  Worterbuch  iiber  Xenophons  Memorabilien.  Gotha,  1819.  8. — L.  Dis- 
sen,  De  philosophia  morali  in  Xenophontis  de  Socrate  conimentariis  <fcc.  Gott.  1812.  8. — 
Schweiglueuser,  on  the  Theology  and  Morals  of  Socrates  Sec.  translated  by  F.  M.  Hubbard,  in 
the  Bibl.  Repos.  vol.  xn.  47,  and  vol.  i.  sec.  series,  p.  161. 

§  187.  JEscliines,  the  philosopher,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  orator  of  that  name  (§  107).  He  was  born  at  Athens,  and  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Socrates. 

1  u.  We  have  under  his  name  three  philosophical  dialogues,  which  are  prob- 
ably the  work  of  another.  They  are  characterized  by  their  clearness  of  style, 
ease  of  manner,  and  instructive  contents.  The  titles  are,  JJsqI  ^Aqst^, 
on  virtue;  'Eyv^iag  ?;'  tcsq'i  jt?.ovtov,  on  riches  ;  and  3 ' A'iioyog  ^  Ilsql  davuxov, 
on  death. 

2.  These  dialogues  are  found  in  many  of  the  editions  of  Plato.  They  were  published  sepa- 
rately first  by  J.  Leclerc.  Amst.  1711.  8. — The  best  edition  is  J.  F.  Fischer.  Lpz.  1796.  8. — - 
The  Eryxias  and  Axiochus  are  given  by  Aug.  Bbckh,  in  the  work  entitled,  Simonis  Socratici  di- 
ologi  iv.  &c.  Heidelb.  1810.  8.— Cf.  Ch.  Fr.  Mciners,  Judicium  de  quibusdam  Socraticorum  re- 
liquiis,  imprimis  de  ^Eschinis  dialogis,  in  Comment.  Soc.    Gott.  1782. 

§  188.  Cebes,  of  Thebes,  also  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  B.  C.  435,  was 
the  author  of  three  dialogues.  The  third  only  is  extant,  entitled 
Tlivai,  The  Table,  nor  is  it  certain  that  this  is  genuine.  It  treats  of 
the  state  of  souls  before  their  union  with  bodies,  of  the  character 
and  destiny  of  men  during  life,  and  of  their  exit  from  the  world. 
The  plan  is  ingenious,  and  it  is  executed  in  an  instructive  and  use- 
ful manner. 

Schbll,  ii.  346.— Scvin  $  C.  de  Caylus,  on  the  Table,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  m.  137 ;  xxix. 
149.— Also  Gamier,  in  the  Mem.  fyc.  xlviii.  455.— F.  G.  Klopfer,  De  Cebetis  Tabula,.  Zwick. 
1818.  4. 

1.  The  Picture  or  Table  is  commonly  published  along  with  Epictetus  (§  193). — The  more  im- 
portant editions  are,  Gronovius.  Amst.  1689.  12. — Johnson,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lond.  1720.  8. — Mes- 
serchmid.  Lpz.  1773.  8.— Especially,  Schweighuuser.  Argent.  (Strasb.)  1806.  12.  first  published 
in  his  Epictetus.— And  G.  F.  W.  Grosse.  Meiss.  1813.  8.— On  Mss.  of  Cebes,  cf.  Harris,  (as 
cited  $  133),  vol.  it.  p.  557. 

2.  Translations.— German.— M.  H.  Thiemc.  Berl.  1810.  8.  With  original  text. French — 

De  Villebrune.   Par.  2  vols.  12.    With  text  and  Epictetus. Cf.   Fuhrmann,  Klein.   Handb. 

p.  243. 

§  189.    Plato  lived  from  430  to  347  B.  C.     He  was  the  son  of 

Ariston  of  Athens,  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  and  founder  of  the  Acad- 
emy. He  threw  happily  into  a  written  form  the  oral  discourses  of 
that  great  master.  Plato  laid  the  first  foundation  for  a  scientific 
treatment  of  philosophy.  Antiquity  bestowed  on  him  the  epithet 
divine,  and  all  in  modern  times  have   acknowledged  his  merit  and 


I 

PHILOSOPHERS.       PLATO.     TIM^US.     ARISTOTLE.  235 

admired  his  writings.  His  works  consist  of  numerous  dialogues,  on 
different  subjects,  metaphysical,  political,  moral,  and  dialectic.  They 
are  exceedingly  valuable  for  both  style  and  matter,  rich  in  thought, 
and  adorned  with  beautiful  and  poetical  images.    Cf.  §  175. 

1.  We  have  35  dialogues  of  Plato,  besides  the  letters  ascribed  to  him  (§156). 
Several  of  the  dialogues  have  been  pronounced  spurious  by  some  critics, 
while  others  have  strongly  defended  their  genuineness.  On  this  subject,  and 
on  the  different  schemes  of  classifying  the  dialogues  and  also  for  an  analysis 
of  their  contents,  we  must  refer  to  Scholl  (vol.  n.  p.  375  ss). Many  com- 
mentaries on  Plato  have  perished  ;  yet  many  still  remain.  There  are  also  ex- 
cellent scholia  ;  there  were  collected  in  the  most  complete  form  by  D.  Ruhn- 
ken,  and  were  published  after  his  death,  under  the  title,  Schol.  in  Platon. 
Amst.  1800.  8. 

2.  There  are  six  ancient  biographies  of  Plato  ;  the  earliest  by  Apuleius  in  Latin  ;  the  other 
five  in  Greek,  including  that  of  Diogenes  Laertius,  one  by  Olympiodorus,  another  by  Hcsychius 
of  Miletus,  and  two  anonymous. 

3.  It  has  been  made  a  subject  of  inquiry,  whether  Plato  did  not  derive  some  of  his  notions 

from  the  Hebrews Cf.  Enfield,  Hist.  Phil.  bk.  ii.  ch.  8.— Ramsay,  Disc,  on  Theology  of  the 

Pagans.— Joint's  Bibl.  Archaeology,  §  313.— Prideaux,  bk.  vi.  P.  l.—Kidd,  on  the  Trinity,  p.  526. 
ss.— Chateaubriand,  beauties  of  Christianity,  bk.  i.  ch.  3.—Eusebius,  Preeparatio  Evangelica, 
bk.  1  . 

4.  Editions.— B.—L  Belcher,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Berl.  1816-18.  10  vols.  8.  Repr.  (Priestley)  Lond.  1827. 
with  notes  of  various  *editors.-VThe  Bipont  ed.  1781-87.  12  vols.  8.— Very  good  also  are  those 
of  F.  Ast,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1819-32.  11  vols.  8.  and  2  vols,  of  annotations,  8.— and  of  G.  Stall- 

baum,  Lpz.  1821-26. 12  vols.  8. F.—Princeps,  Aldus,  Ven.   1513.  2  vols,  fol.—  Gryna-us,   Bas. 

1534.  fo].— H.  Stcphanns,  (ed.  Serranus),  Par.  1578.  3  vols.  Gr.  &  Lat. R.— C.  E.  C.  Schneider, 

Lpz.  1830-33.  8.— §*  Stallbaum,  in  RosVs  Bibliotheca,  Gotha  1828-36.  6  vols.  8.— Many  of  the 
dialogues  have  often  been  printed  separately  ;  only  a  few  of  the  editions  can  be  named  ;  Sym- 
posium &•  Alcibiades,  by  Ast,  Landsh.  1809.  8.—Criio  fy  Phado,  by  Fischer,  1783.  8.  Several 
others  also  by  Fischer  at  different  times.— Plimdrus  with  3  other  dial,  by  Heindorff,  Berl.  1802.  8. 
others  also  by  Heindorff  since.—  Gorgias,  by  Routh,  Oxf.  1784. — Phcedoby  Wyttenbach,  Lud.  Bat. 
1810.  8.  Lpz.  1825.  8.— A  new  edition  of  Phaedo  is  promised  by  Prof.  Stuart  of  Andover. — PImdo 
(Crito  &  Apologia  Socratis),  by  C.  S.  Stanford,  with  English  notes,  Lond.  1835.  8. — Hippias,  Al- 
cibiades, (and  others)  by  G.  Burgess,  with  English  notes,  Lond.  1833.  8.— Cf.  Moss,  Man.  of 
Bibliography,  vol.  i.  a  supplement  &c. 

5.  Translations. — German.— Best.— Fr.  Schleicrmacher,  Berl.  1804-17.  2d  ed.  improved,  1835. 
Cf.  Bibl.  Repos.  vol.  v.  p.  266.— French.— By  And.  Dacier  (10  dial.)  Par.  1799.  2  vols.  12.— Jean 

le  Grou(7  dial.)  Amst.  1770.  2  vols.  8.— Most  recent,  by  Victor  Cousin,  finished,  Par.  1838. 

English.— Sydenham  4-  Taylor,  Lond.  1804.  5  vols.  4.  (50  dialogues  and  12  epistles,  with  copious 
notes.)     On' Taylor,  cf.  Ed.  Rev.  vol.  xiv. — H.  Spens,  Republic  of  Plato.    Glasg.  1763.  4. 

6.  Illustrative".— The  Platonic  Lexicon  of  Timceus,  already  mentioned  §  137.  4.  Cf.  Scholl, 
ii.  416.— F.  Ast,  Lexicon  Platonicum.  Lpz.  1835-38.  3  vols.  8.— T.  Mitchell,  Index  Greecitatia 
Platonicae,  Oxf.  1832.  2  vols.  8.— *G.  Stallbaum,  De  Platonis  Vita,  Ingenio,  et  Scriptis  ;  prefix- 
ed to  his  ed.  of  the  Apologia  Socratis;  in  the  Biblioth.  of  Jacobs  8c  Rost. —  W.  G.  Teiuumann's 
Life  of  Plato,  and  Baur  on  Platonism,  in  the  Selections  of  Edwards  $  Park,  cited  $  191.  5.—F. 
Ast,  Platon's  Leben  und  Schriften,  Lpz.  1816.  8.—/.  Socher,  iiber  Platon's  Schriftcn,  Munch. 
1820.  8.— On  the  Republic  of  P.  cf.  Southern  Rev.  No.  7.— Plato  and  Aristotle  compared,  JYorth. 
Am.  Rev.  vol.  18.— Cf.  Furhmann,  Kl.  Handb.  p.  246.— Philosophy  of  Plato,  Brit.  Critic  <$• 
Quart.  Tlieolog.  Rev.  Jul.  1838.  No.  47 '.—Massieu,  Parallele  d'Homere  et  de  Plato,  in  Hist.  Acad, 
des  Inscr.  vol."n.  p.  1.  Cf.  vol.  xm.  11. — Sydenham,  Synopsis  or  General  Views  of  the  works 
of  Plato.  Lond.  1759.  4.—  W.  Dobson,  Translation  of  Sehleiermacher's  Introductions  to  the 
Dialogues.  Lond.  1836.  8.—H.  G.  Richter,  De  Ideis  Platonis.  Lips.  1827.  8.—./?.  Arnold,  Plat. 
Werke,  einzeln  erkl'art  und  in  ihrem  Zusammenhange  dargestellt.  Hamb.  1835.— J.  Geddes, 
Essay  on  the  Manner  of  writing  of  the  Ancients,  particularly  Plato.    Glasg.  1748.8. 

§  190.  TimcBus  of  Locri,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  especially 
devoted  to  physical  inquiries,  was  one  of  the  instructors  of  Plato. 
From  him  Plato  derived  the  name  of  one  of  his  dialogues. 

1m.  The  treatise  IleQi  \Vvyaq  y.Lcnua  y.a'i  (pvoioc,  On  the  soul  of  the  world  and 
on  nature,  which  is  ascribed  to  him,  was  probably  from  a  later  author,  and 
seems  to  have  been  drawn  from  the  dialogue  of  Plato  just  alluded  to,  named 
Timaeus. 

2.  This  treatise  is  given  in  Bckker's  Plato  (vol.  viii)  and  in  other  editions.— Separately,  by 
Marquis  d?  Argens,  Gr.  &  Fr.  Berl.  1763.  8.— Also  in  Batteux,  cited  §  185.— Cf.  Meiner's  Gesch. 
der  Wiss.  in  Griechenland  und  Rom.  vol.  1. — Schtill,  ii.  313. 

§  191.  Aristotle  has  already  been  named  as  a  rhetorician  (§  115). 
His  father  Nicomachus,  was  a  physician  and  awakened  in  him  in 
early  life  a  fondness  for  the  study  of  nature.  But  his  intellectual 
powers  were  more  fully  developed  by  the  instructions  of  Plato,  whose 
lectures  he  attended  for  about  20  years. 


236  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

\u.  After  the  death  of  Plato,  he  opened  his  own  school  in  the  Lyceum  (P. 
I.  §  74).  It  was  the  great  merit  of  this  philosopher,  that  he  classified  the  ob- 
jects of  human  knowledge  in  a  methodical  manner,  and  gave  them  more  of 
that  scientific  form,  which  has  since  been  preserved  in  treating  upon  them. 
He  reduced  logic  to  a  system,  and  laid  the  first  foundation  of  metaphysics. 
His  works  contain  a  great  mass  of  clear  thought,  and  solid  matter,  although 
his  insatiable  love  of  inquiry  was  often  betrayed  into  abstruse  subtilties,  as 
idle  as  they  were  dark.  He  wrote  upon  a  vast  variety  of  subjects  ;  especially 
on  themes  of  logic,  physics,  metaphysics,  politics  and  morals. 

2.  The  works  of  Aristotle  may  be  classed  under  the  heads  of  Logic,  Phys- 
ics, Metaphysics,  Mathematics,  Ethics,  Politics,  Rhetoric,  and  Poetry.  In 
the  last  department  we  have  a  Pa^an  or  Hymn  to  virtue,  and  a  collection  of 
epitaphs  and  epigrams  under  the  title  of  Ilinloq.  Those  belonging  to  rhetor- 
ic, have  been  named  (§  llajfc- — The  works  on  logic  are  all  included  in  the 
collection  usually  called  the  "Ooyavov,  Organum  ;  they  are  particularly  the 
KarijyoQiat,  JJiqi  'Eftfujvelas,  5 Aralvrixa,  Tomxu,  and  LTsqL  ooyiOTiXfov  ^E7.iy- 
ywv.  It  was  in  reference  to  the  title  of  this  collection,  that  the  celebrated 
work  of  Lord  Bacon  was  nomed  Novum   Organum. 

For  an  account  of  the  metaphysical  and  other  writings  of  Aristotle,  see  Scholl,  iii.  p.  266. — 
J.  Gillies,  Hist,  of  Greece. — A.  Stahr,  as  cited  below  (5). — Buhle,  in  the  Encykl.  of  Ersch  $  Gru- 
ber.     Cf.  Q  274.  §  176. 

3.  Editions,  whole  works.— B.— */.  Bekker,  Berl.  1831-37.  5  vols.  4.  vol.  i-n.  Gk.  Text; 
vol.  in.  Lat.  version  ;  iv-v.  Commentary.— Duval,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Par.  1639.   4  vols.  fo\.— Buhle, 

Gr.  &a  Lat.  Bipont.  1791.  5  vols.  8.  but  not  completed. F — Princeps  by  Aldus,  Ven.  1495-98. 

6  vols.  fol.  containing  also  Theophrastus.  "  One  of  the  most  splendid  and  lasting  monuments 
of  the  Aldine  press.'' — Behellms,  Bas.  1531.  fol.— P.  Manulius,  Ven.  1551.  6  vols.  8,—  Sylburgius, 

Franckf.  1584-87.  5  vols.  4.-/5.  Casaubon,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Ludg.  1590.  2  vols.  fol. Best  editions 

of  separate  parts  ;  organoid,./.  Pachis,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Genev.  1605.  4. — metaphysics,  C.  A.  Bran- 
dts, Berl.  1823.  2  vols.  8.— ethics,  Wilkinson,  Gr.  Lat.  Oxf.  1716.  Repr.  1818.  8.—*C.  Zell,  Gr. 
&  Lat.  Heidelb.  1820.2  vols.  8.— politics,  J.  G.  Schneider,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Traj.  ad  Viad.  (Franckf. 
on  Od.)  1809.  2  vols.  8.—%A.  Stahr,  Lips,  (begun)  1836.  A.—De  Anima,  *F.  Trendelenburg,  Jen. 
1838.  8.  pp.  1-109.  text ;  110-550.  commentary  ;  "  very  learned  and  valuable  aid  for  understand- 
ing Aristotle's  metaphysical  writings." — Categori.sc,  E.  A.  Lewuld,  Gr.  &,  Lat.  Heidelb.  1824.  8. 

4.  There  were  numerous  Latin  Translations  of  different  treatises  of  Aristotle  fSchSll,  iii. 
299),  and  also  many  Commm'aries  {Dbdin,\.  3SS7,  Moss,  i.  150-173).  We  will  only  mention 
here  some  of  the  later  translations.— German.— Ethics  $  Potties  by  C.  Garve,  Brest.  1801,  1802. 
8.—  Organon,  tyc.  bv  K.   Zell,   Stuttg.  1836.  8.— Be  Anima,  C.  H.    Weisse,  Lpz.  1829.  8.   "with 

learned  Dotes,  but  Hegelian  in  spirit.*' French.— Politi  s,  by  C.  MUUm,  Par.  1803.  3  vols.  8. 

English.— Politics,  TV.  Elis,  Lond.  1776.  4.— Ethics  <$•  Politics,  by  J.  Gillies,  Loud.  1797.  4. 

—Metaphysics,  by  Th.  Tayl  r,  Lond.  1801.4.  with  copieus  notes.— Virtue  <$-  Vice,  by  TV.  Bridge- 
mann,  Lond.  1804.  8.— Ethics  iy  Rhetoric,  bv  Th.  Taylr.  Lond.  1817.  4.  2  vols.  8. 

5.  Illustrative.  —  *  A.  Stahr,  Aristotelia.  Halle,  1832.  2  vols.  8.  Vol.  1.  Life  of  Aristotle 
(transl.  into  Eng.  in  the  Selections  8fc.  by  B.  B.  Edwards  and  E.  Park.  Andv.  1839.  8.)  ;  vol.  11. 
writings  and  followers  of  Aristotle.— F.  JV.  Tin,  De  Aristotelis  Operum  serie  et  distinctione. 
Lips.  1826.  8.—F.  A.  Trendelenburg,  De  Arist.  Categoriis.  Berl.  1834.  8.— A  Lexicon  of  Aris- 
totle is  a  desideratum  ;  "  until  there  is  one,"  said  Hermann  in  1834,  "  there  can  be  properly 
speaking  no  Thesaurus  of  the  Greek  language."  A  Lexicon,  Aristotelicum  Graco-Anglicum  for 
the  Ethics  of  A.  was  announced  by  J.  TV.  Moss.  Lond.  1837.  8. 

§  192.  Theophrastus,  of  Eresus  in  the  island  Lesbos,  about  B.  C. 
321,  was  a  scholar  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  on  the  death  of  the 
latter  became  public  teacher  to  the  Peripatetic  school. 

1  u.  He  possessed  eminent  powers  both  in  eloquence  and  philosophy  ;  dis- 
tinguished for  watchful  observation,  he  placed  more  reliance  on  experience 
than  on  speculation.  We  have  treatises  from  him,  which  place  him  among 
the  writers  on  natural  history  (§  275).  His  ethical  pieces,  styled  'Hdr/.oi  yu- 
oaxxfjqtif  possess  great  worth,  being  written  with  brevity  and  eloquence,  and 
stamped  with  truth,  and  evincing  much  knowledge  of  human  nature.  They 
have  the  appearance,  however,  of  being  merely  extracts  from  the  moral  writ- 
ings of  Theophrastus,  made  subsequently  to  his  times. 

2.  His  original  name  was  Tyrtemus,  which  was  changed  into  Euphrastus, 
the  good  speaker,  and  Tlicoj)hrastus,  the  divine  speaker,  probably  by  his  disci- 
ples. He  was  attentive  to  the  graces  of  elocution,  and  always  appeared  in 
elegant  dress.  —  Besides  the  works  above  mentioned,  we  have  also  under  the 
name  of  Theophrastus,  a  Book  of  Metaphysics,  and  a  treatise  Ileal  aio&^otoic, 
On  perception.  Several  works  by  him  are  lost;  of  which  the  most  regretted 
are  three  treatises  on  Laics. —  SchOll,  hi.  303. 

3.  Editions.— whole  works.— B.—J.  G.  Schneider  and  II.  F.  Link,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lpz.  1818-21- 
5  vols.  8. F.— Princeps,  by  Aldus,  with  Aristotle  ($  191.  3.)—  Oporinus.    Basil,  1541.   fol.— 


PHILOSOPHERS.       EPICTETUS.    ARRIANUS.    PLUTARCH.        237 

D.  Heinsius,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Leyd.  1613.  2  vols.    fol. characters  ;    Best,   Fischer,  Gr.  &  Lat. 

Coburg.  1763.  8.— Schneider," Gr.  &.  Lat.  Jen.  1800.  8.  "Perhaps,  critically  speaking,  the  best." 
(Dibdin.) metaphysics  ;  C.  A.  Brandis,  (with  Ethics  of  Aristotle.)  Berl.  1823.  8. 

4.  Translations  of  the  Characters. — German. — I.  7.  Hottinger.  Munch.  1821.  8. French. — 

The  most  celebrated  is  Bruyere.   Par.  1696.  12.    Ed.  by  Schweighauser.    Par.  1816.  12. — Coray. 

Par.  1799.  8.  With  Gr.  text  and  notes. English.— E.  Buddell.  Lond.  1715 H.  Gaily.  Lond. 

1725.  8.— F.  Howell,  (Gr.  &  Eng.)    Lond.  1824.  8.    With  notes  and  plates. 

5.  Illustrative.— H.  E.  Foss,  De  Theophrasti  notationibus  morurn.  Halle,  1833.  4. — C.  ZeW, 
De  Theophrasteorum  Characterurn  indole.    Frib.  1825.  4. 

§  193.  Epictetus,  of  Hieropolis  in  Phrygia,  lived  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era.  He  was  originally  a  slave  of  Epaphrodi- 
tus,  the  freedman  and  chamberlain  of  Nero.  Having  obtained  his 
freedom,  he  resided  at  Rome  until  he  was  banished  with  the  other 
philosophers  by  Domitian,  and  then  he  retired  to  Nicopolis  in  Epirus. 

1m.  He  was  a  stoic  of  the  severest  principles  and  most  undisturbed  equa- 
nimity. His  views  are  exhibited  in  the  Manual,  ^Eyy^iqlSiov,  which  is  as- 
cribed to  him.  This  was  not  written  by  him,  but  collected  by  Arrian  from 
his  lectures  and  conversation  ;  it  is  distinguished  more  for  its  contents  than 
for  its  style  and  manner. 

2.  The  Manual  was  much  read  by  Christians  as  well  as  pagans.    There  are  two  paraphrases 

of  it,  which  were  designed  for  use  among  the  former. ScMll,  v.  184. — Gamier,  On  Epicte- 

tus,  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  xlviii.  p.  408.— C.  A.  Heumann,  De  Philosophia  Epicteti. 
Jen.  1703.  4. — J.  F.  Beyer,  Ueber  Epiktet,  und  sein  Handbuch.  Marb.  1795.8.— J.  A.  Brieglieb, 
Schule  der  Weisheit  nach  Epiktet.  Cob.  1805.  8. 

3.  Editions. — B. — J.  Schweighauser,  Gr.  &  Lat.  with  the  comment,  of  Simplicius,  and  the 

paraphrases,  under  the  title,  Epictetcce  philosophia  Monumenta.    Lpz.  1799.  5  vols.  8. F. — 

Princeps,  by  Ant.  de  Sabio,  Ven.  1528.  4  —Upton,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1739.  4.—Heyne,  Gr.  &  Lat. 

Lpz.  1776.  8. R.— A.  Coray.  Par.  1826.  8.  With  a  French  version.— (With  Latin  version  by 

J.  Simpson.)  Oxf.  1804.  8.  Containing  also  Theophrastus,  Cebes,  and  the  Hercules  of  Prodicus. 

4.  Translations.— German.— Tliicle.  Frankf.  1790.  8.— Best,  J.  A.  Brieglieb.  Lpz.  1803.  8. 

Italian.— In  ed.  of  Bodoni,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Parm.  1793.  8. French.— A.    G.    Camus.  Par.   1799.2 

vols.  18. English.— Elizab.  Carter.    Lond.  1759.  4  ;  1807.  2  vols.  8. 

§  194.  Flavins  Arrianus,  of  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia,  under  the 
emperor  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines,  in  the  2d  century,  was  a  Stoic, 
and  a  disciple  of  Epictetus.  On  account  of  his  merit,  he  was  pre- 
sented with  citizenship  both  at  Athens  and  at  Rome,  and  at  the  lat- 
ter place  advanced  even  to  Senatorial  and  Consular  honors.  The 
emperor  Hadrian  conferred  on  him  the  government  of  the  province 
of  Cappadocia. 

1  u.  Besides  the  Manual  above  mentioned  (§  193),  and  the  historical  toorks 
to  be  noticed  on  a  subsequent  page  (§  250),  he  wrote  a  philosophical  work, 
entitled  Jtarqi§al  ^Etuxti'iTov,  cited  by  Photius  as  consisting  of  8  books. 
The  4  books,  commonly  called  Dissertations  of  Epictetus,  are  supposed  to 
have  been  a  part  of  the  work. 

2.  In  these  books  he  professes  to  preserve,  as  far  as  possible,  the  very  lan- 
guage of  his  master.  Two  other  works  of  Arrian  pertaining  to  philosophy, 
have  wholly  perished,  viz.  rOut?.lai  yEnv/.xi\rov,  Familiar  discourses  of  Epic- 
tetus, and  IIsq'l  tou  (liov  rov  ^Eniv.r^rov  xai  rfjg  uvrov  zeZsvTijg,  Of  the  life  and 
death  of  Epictetus.  Two  astronomical  pieces  mentioned  by  Photius,  on  com- 
ets and  on  meteors,  were  probably  from  this  philosopher. — Scholl,  v.  185,  239. 

3.  The  best  edition  of  the  Dissertations  is  in  Schiceighauser,  cited  §  193.  3.— That  of  Upton, 
Lond.  1741.  2  vols.  4.  is  good.— Princeps,  that  of  V.  Trincavelli,  Ven.  1735.  8. 

4.  Translations.— German.— Best  bv  J.  M.  Schultz,  Alton.  1801-3.  2  vols.  8. English— 

Miss  Carter,  as  cited  §  193.  4. French A.  Coray,  Gr.  &  Gall.  Par.  1827.  2  vols.  8. 

§  195.  Plutarch,  of  Chseronea  in  Boeotia,  flourished  at  the  close 
of  the  1st  and  beginning  of  the  2d  century.  His  instructor  at  Ath- 
ens was  Ammonius.  Afterwards  he  himself  taught  philosophy  at 
Rome,  by  public  lectures,  yet  without  attaching  himself  to  any  sect 
exclusively. 

1.  Plutarch  returned  from  Rome  to  his  own  country  while  young,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  discharged  with  fidelity  different  offices  in  his  native  city.  He 
is  said  also  to  have  served  as  a  priest  of  Apollo.     As  a  philosopher  he  rather 


238  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

favored  the  disciples  of  Platonism,  and  may  be  ranked  among  the  New  Pla- 
tonists. — Scholl,  iv.  118;  v.  76.— Cf.  §  248. 

2u.  He  was  a  warm  opposer  of  the  Stoics  and  especially  the  Epicureans. 
In  his  numerous  philosophical  pieces  we  find  an  eloquent  diction,  and  a  rich 
fertility  of  thought,  together  with  various  knowledge  and  real  prudence. 
They  are  important  sources  for  learning  the  history  of  philosophy  and  of  the 
human  mind.  Yet  they  are  often  surcharged  with  erudition  and  mysticisms, 
unequal  in  point  of  style,  and  sometimes  even  obscure.  Although  upon  very 
various  topics,  they  are  usually  all  included  under  the  common  name  of  mor- 
al icritings  (moralia),  under  which  are  comprised  84  small  treatises.  Some 
of  the  more  distinguished  among  them  are  those  on  education  (LJifjl  7iaiS<av 
«youv»/<:),  on  reading  the  poets  (ZZmc  dttrov  viov  itottjfturwv  icxovsiv),  and  on  dis- 
tinguishing the  friend  from  the  flatterer,  and  the  Table  Questions  (Sv^inooiaxu 

3.  Editions.— whole  works.— B.—Reiske,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1774-79.  12  vols.  8.—Hutten,  Gr. 
only.  Tubing.  1791-1805.  14  vols.  8.    Best  text ;  with  valuable  selection  of  notes  by  various 

editors. F — Princeps,  by  H.  Stephanus,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Par.  1572.  13  vols.  8. —  Cruserius,  Gr.  & 

Lat.    Francof.  1599.  2  vols.  M.—Xylander,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Franc.  1620.   2  vols.  fol. moralia. 

Best,  D.  IVijttenbach,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1795-1800.  6  vol*.  4.  and  10  vols.  8.  followed  by  Animad- 
versiones  &c.  2  vols.  8.    Cf.  Edinb.  Rev.  April,  1803.    Dibdin,  n.  345.— A.  G.  Winckelmann,  PluU 

moralia  selecta.   Turici,  1836.  8.   (vol.  1st.)  Supplement  to  Wyttenbach. The  Princeps  or 

first,  by  Aldus,  (ed.  Demct.  Ducas,)   Plutarchi   Opuscula  lxxxii.    Ven.  1509.  fol. single 

pieces.  On  Education  ;  Schneider.  Strasb.  1765.  8. —  On  reading  poetry ;  Krebs.  Lpz.  1779.  8. 
— On  distinguishing  the  flatterer  and  friend:  Krigel.  Lpz.  1775.  8. — On  opinions  of  the  philosophers 
(Usol  ran-  5 AqtOy.uvrwv  rofc  ipt/.oOufpoig)  ;    C.  D.  Beck.  Lpz.  1787.  8. 

4.  Translations.— German.— Moralia,  by  Kaltieesser,  Frankf.  1783-1800.  9  vols.  8. — T.  Ch.  F. 

Bdhr,  in  the  Coll.  of  Tafel,    Osiander,  $c French.—  Whole  works,  by  J.  Amyot.    Par.  1787. 

22  vols.  8.  Augm.  par  C.  Clavier.  Par.  1806.  25  vols.  8. — Moralia,  by  Rlcard  (with  notes).  Par. 
1783-95.  17  vols.  12. English.— Moralia,  by  Th.  Creech,M.  Morgan,  and  others.  Loud.  1684. 

5  vols.  8.   5th  ed.  Lond.  1718. 

§  196.  Marcus  Aurclius  Antoninus,  surnamed  the  Philosopher, 
and  known  as  a  Roman  emperor  in  the  2d  century,  is  also  worthy 
of  remembrance  as  a  writer.  His  12  books  of  Meditations^  T75v  tic. 
iuvrov  pi%ha  i§',  consist  of  instructive  philosophical  maxims  and  ob- 
servations, relating  to  morals  and  the  conduct  of  life,  and  exhibiting 
the  practical  principles  of  the  Stoics. 

1.  He  was  generally  a  mild  and  excellent  prince,  but  throueh  a  blind  devotion  to  paganism 
he  allowed  the  persecution  of  Christians  during  his  reign.  He  died  of  a  pestilential  disease 
at  Yhi.lobona  (now  Vienna),  in  Pannonia,  while  engaged  in  war  with  the  revolting  tribes  in 
that  region,  A.  D.  180. —  A  remarkable  deliverance  of  Aurelius  and  his  army  in  a  previous 
war  is  recorded  by  Eusebius,  and  ascribed  to  the  prayers  of  Christian  soldiers  constituting  one 
of  his  legions  (12th),  to  which,  as  a  mark  of  distinction,  he  is  said  t;>  have  given  the  name  of 
the  "  Thundering  Legion."  Whiston,  in  the  last  century,  strenuously  defended  the  story ;  it 
was  aa  strongly  controverted  by  Moyle. — Scholl,  v.  193.  Cf.  Gibbon,  Hist.  Pv.  Einp.  i.  83;  n. 
42.  (ed.  N.  Y.*1822.)— Miracle  of  the  Thundering  Legion  ILc.  Letters  between  Mr.  Moyle  and 
Mr.  K.    Lond.  1728.   e.-^Thomas,  Eloge  de  Marc-Aurelius.    Par.  1773.  12. 

2.  The  Princeps  edition  was  by  Xijiander,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Tigur.  1558.  8.— One  of  the  best  is  Ga- 
taker'tr,  Gf .  &.  Lat.    Camb.  1G52.   4.— Stanhope's,  Gr.  &  Lat.     Lond.  1707.  8,  and    Wolfs,  Gr. 

6  Lat.  Lpz.  1729.  8.  are  eood.— Better,  Schulti,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Schle.-w.  1802.  8. 

3.  Translations.— German.— Best,   Schultz.    Schlesw.  1799.  8. French — T.  P.  de  Joly* 

Par.   1803.    13. English.— R.   Graves.    Bath,  1792.  8.    Lond.  1811.    12.— J.   Collier.    Lond. 

1702.  8. 

§197.  Sextus  Empiricus  {'E^ntiQixbg,  so  called  from  his  profession 
as  a  physician)  was  a  Sceptic  or  Pyrrhonic  philosopher,  under  Corn- 
modus,  about  A.  D.  199. 

1.  He  was  a  native  of  Mitylene,  as  Visconti  (in  his  Tconographia  cited  P.I.  $187)  has  inferred 

from  a  medal  of  that  city.    Very  little  is'known  of  his  life. Jo/»(6Wi'.sTenneinann,  sect.189. 

Scholl,  vol.  v.  p.  202.— Cf.  Stdud'lin,  Geschichte  und  Geist  des  Skepticisinus.   Lpz.  1794.  2  vols,  a 

2u.  lie  left  a  work  in  three  books,  comprising  the  theory  and  principles  of 
the  Sceptic  sect,  entitled  JIvqomvuui  c  Y.ioTVTiwotig,  ?•  oxiTtrtxa  c  Ynoun'jiaTa; 
and  another  in  eleven  books  against  the  Mathematicians,  Jlnbg  rovg  Mu&^uan- 
xuvg  arri(j(niriy.ol,  or  rather  against  those  teachers  who  professed  positive 
knowledge  ;  the  last  five  being  particularly  opposed  to  the  logicians  and  other 
philosophers.  These  works  are  very  valuable  in  illustrating  the  history  of 
philosophy,  especially  that  of  the  Sceptical  school. 

3.  The  first  ed.  was  printed  at  Paris,  1621.  fol.  —  Latin  versions  of  both  works  had  been  pre- 
viously published.  The  next  ed.  was  bv  Fabrkius.  Lpz. 1718.  fol.  Another  commenced  by  J<G* 
Mund'.  Hal.  1796.  4— Best,  Struve.  Regiomont.  1823.  2  vols.  8. 


PHILOSOPHERS.    PLOTINUS.    PORPHYRY.    JAMBLICHUS.        239 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  Buhle.    Lemgo.  1801.  8. French.  —  Of  the  Hypotyposes 

{anonymous).  Par.  1725.  12. 

§198.  Plotinus,  of  Lycopolis  in  Egypt,  in  the  3d  century,  was  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  among  the  New-Platonists,  and  taught  at  Rome 
in  he  latter  part  of  his  life. 

1.  He  was  very  enthusiastic  and  eccentric  ;  yet  was  much  admired  at  Rome,  and  patronized 
by  the  emperor  Gallienus.  The  latter  even  meditated  the  scheme  of  establishing  for  him,  in 
Campania,  a  colony  of  philosophers,  to  be  named  Platonopolis,  where  the  imaginary  republic  of 
Plato  should  be  realized.  Plotinus  died  in  Campania,  at  the  age  of  66.  We  have  his  life  written 
by  Porphyry.  —  Schbll,  v.  121.  —  J.  Steinhardt,  Qusestiones  Plotineas.  Lips.  1830.  4.— Johnson's 
Tennemann,  §  203. 

2  m.  His  writings  are  deficient  in  method,  solidity,  and  purity  of  style,  yet 
exhibit  many  signs  of  acumen  and  research.  They  consist  of  54  books.  These 
books  one  of  his  pupils,  Porphyry,  distributed  into  6  Enneads  or  divisions,  con- 
taining 9  books  each.  Porphyry  endeavored  also  to  improve  the  style,  and 
indulged  himself  in  interpolations  and  additions. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best,  F.  Crcuzer,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1835.  3  vols.  4.  with  prolegomena  and  notes. 
—The  only  edition  of  the  complete  works  is  that  printed  at  Basle  (Bade)  1580.  and  1615.  fol.  with 
the  Lat.  version  of  M.  Ficinus,  which  was  first  published  without  the  original.  Flor.  1492.  fol. 
—  The  treatise  on  Beauty,  separately  by  Creuzer,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Heidelb.  1814.  8.  —  The  Liber  ad 

Gnosticos,  by  G.  A.  Heigel.  Katisb.  1832.  12. A  German  translation  commenced  by  Engel- 

hardt.  Erlang.  1820.  8.  (i  vol.  containing  1st  Ennead.) 

§199.  Porphyry  was  born  A.  D.  233,  at  Batanea,  a  Syrian  village 
near  Tyre,  and  from  this  circumstance  he  was  often  called  the  Tyrian, 
His  Syrian  name  was  Malchus  (3Ielek). 

1  u.  At  Rome  he  became  a  scholar  of  Plotinus  and  an  advocate  of  his  phi- 
losophy. His  writings  were  very  various  and  numerous.  Besides  the  Life  of 
Plotinus  and  of  Pythagoras,  some  of  the  more  important  are  the  pieces  styled 
as  follows  :  On  abstinence  from  animal  food;  Introduction  to  the  Categories  of 
Aristotle;  and  Homeric  Investigations. 

2.  Porphyry  was  instructed  by  Origen  the  Christian  Father,  probably  at  Cesarea ;  afterwards 
by  Longinus  at  Athens.  He  was  a  violent  opposer  of  Christianity,  and  wrote  against  it  several 
treatises  which  are  lost.  His  wife  Marcclla  is  said  to  have  been  a  Christian.  A  letter  from  him 
to  her  was  found  and  published  by  Mai.  Milan,  1816.  S.—Scholl,  v.  129. 

3.  Many  of  the  pieces  of  Porphyry  are  as  yet  unpublished.  Fuhrmann,  Kl.  Handb.  p.  434.  — 
The  best  ed.  of  the  treatise  on  Abstinence  is'  that  of  /.  de  Rhoer.  Utrecht,  1767.  3.  repr.  Leyd. 
1792.  4.  containing  also  the  Cave  of  the  Nymphs,  ed.  by  Van  Ooen. — The  Life  of  Plotinus  is  found 
in  the  ed.  of  Plot,  cited  $198.  3.  —  The  Life  of  Pythagoras  by  T.  Kiessling,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lips.1816. 
2  vols.  8. 

§  200.  Iamblichus,  of  Chalcis  in  Coelo-Syria,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  4th  century,  was  a  New-Platonist,  a  scholar  of  Porphyry.  He 
had  the  reputation  of  working  miracles.  We  have  a  part  only  of 
his  many  writings.  Notwithstanding  the  extravagance,  mysti- 
cism and  fable  with  which  his  works  abound,  they  are  yet  a  valuable 
help  in  getting  an  idea  of  the  philosophy  of  the  later  Platonists. 

1.  While  Plotinus  and  Porphyry  must  both  be  called  enthusiasts,  Iamblichus  may  be  stigma- 
tized as  an  impostor.  He  was  a  warm  advocate  of  paganism. — Scholl,  v.  144. — Cousin's  Tenne- 
mann, §  217. 

2.  There  has  been  no  edition  of  his  entire  works.  Of  separate  parts,  we  notice  the  following  : 
Mysteries  of  the  Egwtiana,  bv  Gale.  Oxf.  1678.  fol.— Life  of  Pythagoras  (with  that  by  Porphyry), 
in  Kiessling,  cited  $169.  3.  —  The  Adhortatio  ad  Philosophiam,  by  T.  Kiessling,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lips. 
1813.  8.—  Theology  of  Arithmetic  (Tit  Ptus.oyoi'itfvu  rt^c  \4 Qi^ii^n  xi}  c)  ,Wechel.  Lpz.1817.8. 

77io,v.7"«?;/«r,~English  Translation  of  Jamblichus  on  Mysteries.   Riswick,1821.8.   Cf.  Class. 

Journ.  xvii.  213. 

3.  Of  the  same  school  (New-Platonists)  were  Proclus,  born  at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  412,  and 

Olvwpiodurus  of  Alexandria,  in  the  6th  century. F.  Creuzer,  Proclus  &  Olympiodorus,  Gr. 

&  Lat.   Francof.  1830-25.  5  vols.  8.— F.CmOm,  Prodi  opera,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Par.  1820-27.  6  vols.  8. 
with  notes.  —  See  SchJll,  vn.  p.  102,  106.  —  Cousin,  Nouv.  Frasrm.  Phil,  (cited  $171)  p.264ss. 

Burignn,  La  vie  du  pbijos.  Proclus,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  nil.  139. Thos.  Taylor,  Engl. 

transl.  of  Commentaries  of  Proclus  on  the  Tinmeus  of  Plato.   Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  4._ 

§201.  Stobams  (Johannes)  a  native  of  Stobi  in  Macedonia,  proba- 
bly flourished  about  A.  D.  500. 

1m.  He  collected  from  a  multitude  of  writers  in  prose  and  verse  a  mass  of 
philosophical  extracts,  which  he  arranged  according  to  their  subjects,  in  a 
work  entitled  ' jir6o?.6ytov  ix?.oyo>v,  cijrocp&tyiiuTwv,  vno6qx&vf  in  4  books.  They 
are  perhaps  more  correctly  considered  as  tico  works  :    one,  Eclogm  physica  et 


240  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

cthicce,  in  2  books  ;  the  other,  Sermones,  also  in  2  books.  The  whole  collection 
is  valuable,  both  on  account  of  the  contents  in  themselves  and  also  of  the  nu- 
merous passages  rescued  from  destruction  only  by  being  inserted  therein. 

2.  John  of  Stobi  cultivated  the  habit  of  reading  with  a  pen  in  his  hand.  The 
selections  which  we  have,  were  arranged,  it  is  said,  for  the  use  of  his  son. 
Each  chapter  of  the  Eclogce  and  of  the  Sermones,  has  its  title,  under  which  the 
extracts  are  placed,  the  sources  whence  they  are  drawn  being  noted  in  the 
margin.  More  than  five  hundred  authors  are  quoted,  whose  works  have  mostly 
perished. — SchOll,  vn.  133.  • 

3.  The  best  edition  of  the  Eclogce  is  Heeren's,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Gott.  1792-1801.  4  vols.  8.  with  dis- 
sertations and  notes. — Of  the  Discourses,  Gaisford's  J.  Stobaei  Florilegium.  Oxf.  1822.  4  vols.  8. 
2d  ed.  1823-25.  with  the  Lat.  vers,  of  H.  Grotius,  prolegomena  and  notes.— of  both,  Fr.  Fabrus 
(Favre, ,  books,  of  Lyons),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Gen ev.  1609.  fol.  —  The  poetical  extracts  were  collected 
and  edited  by  H.  Grotius.  Par.  1623.  4.  with  a  translation  in  Latin  verse.    Cf.  Scfuell,  vn.  159. 


VII — Mathematicians  and  Geographers. 

§  202  m.  The  very  name  of  Mathematics  (ua&t'huara,  ua&tiuany.u)  is  an  evi- 
dence that  their  scientific  form  originated  among  the  Greeks*,  although  the 
Egyptians  and  various  eastern  nations,  in  earlier  times,  possessed  arithmeti- 
cal, geometrical,  and  particularly  astronomical  knowledge.  Arithmetic  was 
in  a  very  incomplete  state  in  Greece  before  the  time  of  Pythagoras.  He  was 
the  first  who  considerably  cultivated  it ;  but  it  was  left  especially  to  Euclid 
to  treat  the  subject  scientifically  and  unite  with  it  the  study  of  geometry. 
The  elements  of  geometry  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  derived  from  the  Phoeni- 
cians ;  although  the  knowledge  which  Thales  acquired  in  Egypt  is  not  to  be 
overlooked.  The  science  was  afterwards  considered  as  a  special  means  of 
improving  the  intellect,  and  an  essential  preparatory  study  for  every  philoso- 
pher. (Cf.  §  175.)  Hence  its  great  estimation  and  high  cultivation  among 
the  Greeks.  There  are  many  indications  of  the  use  and  encouragement 
which  the  practical  mathematics  found  among  them,  especially  in  connection 
with  mechanical  sciences,  as  Statics,  Hydrostatics,  and  Hydraulics.  That 
the  Greeks  applied  mathematics  to  architecture,  and  with  the  most  happy 
success,  uniting  the  rigid  principles  of  science  with  the  rules  of  taste,  We 
have  sufficient  proof  in  the  descriptions  of  their  temples,  palaces,  porticos, 
and  other  edifices,  and  in  the  still  remaining  monuments  of  that  art.  Astron- 
omy was  introduced  by  Thales  from  Egypt.  Pythagoras  established  several 
principles  of  this  science.  Other  philosophers  exhibited  them  in  a  written 
form. 

§  203.  It  is  obvious,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  mathematical  studies  in 
Greece  can  be  traced  back  only  to  the  two  primary  schools  of  philosophy,  the 
Ionian  founded  by  Thales,  and  the  Italic  by  Pythagoras  (§  168). 

From  the  time  of  Pythagoras,  mathematics,  as  has  been  suggested,  formed 
an  essential  part  of  philosophy.  In  the  Academy  they  were  specially  culti- 
vated ;  this  may  be  inferred  from  the  inscription  (cf.  §  175)  placed  by  Plato 
himself  over  the  door  of  his  school.  To  the  philosophers  of  this  sect  the 
science  is  much  indebted.  But  in  the  want  of  historical  evidence,  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  a  definite  account  of  the  state  of  mathematical  knowledge 
during  the  time  preceding  Alexander.  The  names  of  several  mathematicians 
and  astronomers  are  recorded.  The  most  important  are  Archytas  of  Tarentum, 
inventor  of  various  machines  which  astonished  his  contemporaries;  Meton 
of  Athens,  author  of  the  celebrated  lunar  cycle  (cf.  P.  V.  §  194) ;  and  Autoly- 
cus  of  Pitane,  the  most  ancient  mathematician  whose  works  are  preserved. 
The  works  of  Autolycus  were  first  published  bv  C.  Raiuhfuss  (Dasypodiu*).   Strasb.  1572.  4. 

In  Lat.  trans,  by  /.  Auria,  Rome,  1587.  2  vols.  4." A  fnisrment  of  a  treatise  by  Archytas,  on 

■mathematical  science,  is  found  in  Porphyry  ;    it  was  published  by  J.  Gramm.  Copenh.  1707.  4. — 
Cf.  Plutarch,  Bympoa.  vii..  and  Life  of  Marcellus. 

§  204.    After  the  time  of  Alexander,  mathematical  studies  became  more 


MATHEMATICS    AND    GEOGRAPHY.  241 

prominent  than  before.  Mathematics  were  no  longer  merely  a  part  of  philos- 
ophy in  general,  but  held  the  place  of  a  science  by  themselves.  They  were 
cultivated  in  all  the  schools,  which  nourished  in  this  period.  The  mathemat- 
ical school  of  Alexandria  was  rendered  illustrious  by  the  reputation  of  Eu- 
clid, who  had  a  numerous  class  of  disciples,  and  among  them  Ptolemy  I.,  the 
king  of  Egypt.  One  of  the  most  distinguished  names  in  this  period  and  in- 
deed in  all  antiquity,  is  that  of  Archimedes  of  Syracuse,  celebrated  not  only 
for  his  successful  research  into  abstract  principles,  but  also  for  his  curious 
and  wonderful  mechanical  applications  and  inventions.  A  third  memorable 
name  adorns Nthis  period,  Apollonius  of  Perga,  whose  work  on  Conic  Sections 
formed  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  mathematics.  Euclid,  Archimedes,  and 
Apollonius,  with  Diophantus,  who  lived  in  the  third  and  fourth  century  after 
Christ,  may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  great  founders  of  mathematical  science. 

Other  names  belong  to  the  period  between  Alexander  and  the  capture  of 

Corinth  ;  as  Heron  of  Alexandria,  author  of  several  treatises  on  branches  of 
mechanics ;  Athenseus  and  Biton,  who  wrote  on  military  engines  and  missils  ; 
and  Philon  of  Byzantium,  who  wrote  on  the  same  subjects,  and  to  whom  is 
ascribed  a  work  on  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. Astronomy  was  cul- 
tivated with  success  in  this  period,  and,  according  to  some,  an  important  in- 
fluence was  exerted  by  the  intercourse  with  the  Babylonians  in  the  expedi- 
tion of  Alexander.  Aristarchus  of  Samos,  Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene,  and  Hip- 
parchus  of  Nicasa,  are  the  principal  authors  of  whom  we  have  remains. 
Marcoz,  Astronomie  solaire  d'Hipparque.  Par.  1828.  8. —  Wallis,  Aristarchus.  Oxf.  1688.  8. 
In  the  next  period,  i.  e.  between  the  fall  of  Corinth  and  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine,  we  find  no  eminent  authors  in  the  pure  mathematics.  Several  writ- 
ers on  astronomical  subjects  are  mentioned  ;  Claudius  Ptolemy,  in  the  age  of 
the  Antonines,  was  celebrated  above  all  others.  His  system  of  astronomy,  as 
is  well  known,  was  much  in  vogue,  and  exerted  a  great  influence.  Several 
authors  on  music,  of  whom  fragments  are  still  extant,  are  referred  to  this  pe- 
riod ;  some  of  them  were  among  the  mathematicians  of  the  age  ;  their  re- 
mains are  found  in  the  collection  of  Meibomius  (cited  §  208*.  1). — Cf.  SckOllt 
livre  vi.  ch.  xliv. 

§  205.  Between  the  time  of  Constantine  and  the  overthrow  of  Constantin- 
ople, the  list  of  Greek  mathematicians  is  much  larger,  but  contains  few 
names  of  great  eminence.  Diophantus,  a  contemporary  of  the  emperor  Ju- 
lian, and  already  mentioned  as  one  of  the  four  ancient  fathers  of  mathemat- 
ics, is  the  most  important.  Pappus  and  Theon  of  Alexandria,  at  the  close  of 
the  fourth  century,  may  be  mentioned  next.  Hypatia,  a  daughter  of  Theon, 
inherited  her  father's  love  of  mathematical  science  ;  she  became  a  public 
teacher,  and  wrote  several  works  which  perished  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Alexandrian  library.  Proclus  the  philosopher  wrote  on  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy. Leon  of  Constantinople,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth  century,  is 
spbken  of  by  the  Byzantine  historians  with  much  admiration.  He  was  solic- 
ited by  the  Arabian  Caliph,  Al-mamoun,  to  remove  to  Bagdad  ;  the  emperor 
Theophilus,  refusing  to  permit  this,  opened  a  public  place  for  Leon  to  give 
instruction,  and  bestowed  many  honors  and  privileges  upon  him.  He  has  left 
nothing  by  which  we  can  judge  of  his  merits.  We  will  add  only  the  name 
of  Anthemius  of  Tralles,  in  the  sixth  century,  employed  by  Justinian  to  con- 
struct the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  of  which,  however,  he  only  laid  the  founda- 
tion, not  living  to  complete  the  work.  There  remains  a  curious  fragment  of 
his  work  ITiqi  Ttaoadvzwv  /uj^avijuaTan'. — Cf.  SchOll,  livre  VI.  ch.  xci. 

The  fragment  of  Anthemius  was  published  in  the  Mem.  dc  PAcad.  fnscr.  et  Belles  Lettres,  vol. 
xlii.  by  Dupujj  and  separately,  Par.  1774.  4. Respecting  the  celebrated  Hypatia,  see  Me- 
nage, Hist.  Mulier.  Philosoph — Desvignoles,  Dissert,  in  Bibl.  German,  vol.  in. — Abbe  Goujet, 
Lett,  in  Contin.  des  Memoires  de  Litt.  by  Desmoids,  vol.  v.  vi. — Socrates,  Hist.  Eccles.  vn.  15. 

§  206.  On  the  subject  of  Geography,  the  knowledge  of  the  Greeks  was 
very  limited  and  imperfect;   yet  they  had  writers  on  the  subject,  of  much 

value  in  illustrating  the  condition  of  ancient  countries. The  earliest  work 

extant  is  the  Periplus  of  Hanno.  Eccataus  of  Miletus,  in  his  IleQu'jytjaig  yijq, 
described  the  countries  known  at  the  time  he  wrote,  in  the  reign  of  Darius, 
about  500  B.  C.  The  Periplus  of  Scylax  has  been  commonly  referred  to 
nearly  the  same  period.     The  Anabasis  of  Xenophon  may  properly  be  men- 

21 


242  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE/ 

tioned  among  the  geographical  works  anterior  to  the  time  of  Alexander,  bet- 
ing of  great  value  in  relation  to  upper  Asia.  Pytheas,  of  Massilia,  a  voyager 
and  geographer,  probably  belonging  to  the  same  period,  before  Alexander, 
Was  the  author  of  two  works,  a  description  of  the  ocean  and  a  Periplus.  The 
little  now  known  of  them  is  derived  from  Strabo  and  Pliny.  •  ■■  It  was  not 
until  the  period  between  Alexander  and  the  Roman  supremacy,  that  geogra- 
phy was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  science.  The  honor  of  effecting  this  is 
ascribed  to  Eratosthenes,  a  very  eminent  mathematician  and  scholar,  who 
flourished  at  Alexandria,  B.C.  about  230. — Cf.  SchOll,  livre  hi.  ch.  xviii. ; 
livre  iv.  ch.  xlv. 

§  207.  After  the  supremacy  of  Rome,  greater  advances  were  made  in  geo- 
graphical knowledge.  The  first  distinguished  geographer  of  this  period  is 
Strabo,  born  about  60  B.  C,  whose  work  styled  rsoyQaipixu  is  a  thesaurus- 
comprising  nearly  the  whole  history  of  geography  from  Homer  to  Augustus, 
with  all  then  known  upon  the  subject.  The  geographical  poem  of  Diony- 
sius  of  Charax  belongs  to  the  age  of  Augustus.  We  have  a  fragment  of  a 
work  on  Parthia,  by  Isidorus  of  Charax  ;  published  in  the  reign  of  Caligula. 
There  are  also  some  geographical  pieces  under  the  name  of  Arrian,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines.  But  a  more  important 
work  is  that  of  Pausanias  belonging  to  the  same  age,  and  entitled,  Itinerary 
of  Greece.  The  most  celebrated  of  all  the  ancient  writers  on  geography  was 
Claudius  Ptolemy,  already  mentioned  as  a  mathematician  and  astronomer  about 
the  middle  of  the  second  century  after  Christ.  His  system  of  geography  re- 
mained the  only  manual  in  vogue  for  fourteen  centuries. After  Ptolemy, 

the  history  of  Greek  letters  presents  no  author  of  much  importance  in  this 
department  of  study.  Before  the  time  of  Constantine,  Agatharcides  of  Cni- 
dus,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  2d  century,  is  said  by  Photius  to  have  written 
several  geographical  works ;  and  some  extracts  are  preserved  by  Photius, 
We  have  also  a  fragment  of  Dionysius  of  Byzantium  in  the  second  century, 
and  a  sort  of  geographical  epitome  by  a  certain  Agathemerus,  probably  of  the 
third  century.  Of  the  Byzantine  geographers,  or  those  subsequent  to  Con- 
stantine, we  may  mention  as  the  principal,  Marcianus  of  Heraclea  in  Pontus, 
Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  and  Cosmas  the  Egyptian  monk.  —  Cf.  SchOll,  vok 
v.  p.  275;  vn.  p.  33. 

§  208.  There  are  some  Greek  writers  on  Tactics,  who  may  be  mentioned  in 
this  place.  The  most  eminent  is  Onosander,  or  Onesander,  who  lived  probably 
about  the  middle  of  the  1st  century.  He  left  a  work  on  the  military  art,  in  a 
style  remarkably  pure  for  the  age  ;  it  was  a  source  whence  all  the  later  writers 
on  the  subject  drew  materials.  Polysenus,  a  native  of  Macedonia,  a  rhetorician 
or  advocate  of  the  2d  century,  should  probably  be  mentioned  as  next  in  rank, 
although  his  work  is  rather  a  historical  collection  of  stratagems  than  a  treatise 
on  tactics.  Apollodorus,  an  architect  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  left  a  work  en- 
titled IIo?.ioqxt]Ttxcs,  on  military  engines.  The  emperor  Adrian  is  said  to  have 
composed  a  military  treatise  called  'ETTirtjSBv/na,  a  fragment  of  which  is  still  ex- 
tant. Arrian  and  iElian  also  left  works  on  the  subject  of  Tactics.  The  empe- 
ror Mauritius,  of  the  6th  century,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  military  art.  There 
are  also  some  treatises  written  at  a  later  period,  which  it  is  not  important  to 
specify.— Cf.  SchOll,  vol.  v.  p.  261.  vn.  67. 

§  208 1.  We  will  now  introduce  some  general  references,  and  then 
speak  of  a  few  distinguished  individuals,  naming  first  the  mathema- 
ticians and  after  them  the  geographers. 

1.  On  the  history  of  Mathematics  among  the  Greeks,  see  references  P.  I.  §  24.  —  L.  Ludcr*, 
Pythagoras  und  Hypatia,  oder  die  Mathematik  der  Alten.  Lpz.1809.  8.—Delambre  on  the  Aritli- 

nietic  of  the  Greeks  in  Peyrard's  Archimedes,  cited  <$  210.  5. The  principal  mathematical 

Collections  are,  that  of  Tlievcnot,  Vet.  Mathemat.  Opera.  Par.  1693.  fol.  and  that  of  Wallis,  in  3d 
vol.  of  his  Opera  Math.  Oxf.  1099.  fol. The  following  collections  of  writers  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  mathematics  may  be  cited.— Astronomical,  by  Aldus.  Ven.  1429.  fol. — By  Petavius, 
Uranologion  &c.  Par.  1030.  Amst.  1703.  fol.  —  Musical,  by  Meursius.  Lugd.  Bat.  1016.  4.  — By 
Mcibomius,  Antiq.  Mu*icre  auctores,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Amst.  1652.  2  vols.  4.— On  Tactics,  by  Meursius, 
Gr,  &  Lat.  Lug.  Bat.  1613.  4.  —  P.  Scrivcrms,  Scriptores  rei  militaris.  Vesal.  1670.  8.  —  Ji.  H. 
Baumgdrtner,  Saminl.  aller  Kriegsschriftsteller  der  Griech.  ubersetzt  &c.  Mannh.1779.  2  vols.  4. 

2.  On  the  history  of  Geography  among  the  Greeks,  Gosselin,  Geographie  des  Grecs.  Par.1790. 
3  Vols.  4.  —  Blair,  cited  P.  I.  §  27.— We  may  also  refer  to  Malte  Brun,  and  to  Mannert  and  Ulcert, 
cited  §  7-.  7  (b). The  first  collection  of  Minor  Greek  Geographers  was  that  of  Hwschcl.  Augslu 


MATHEMATICIANS.      EUCLID.    ARCHIMEDES.  243 

1600.  8.— The  second,  Oronovius.  Leyd.  1627.  4.— The  third,  more  complete,  Hudson.  Oxf.1698- 

1712.  4  vols.  8 Much  preparation  for  a  new  edition  was  made  by  Brcclow,  before  1812.    On  his 

death  his  apparatus  passed  into  the  hands  ofSpohn  and  Friedemann,  from  whom  is  expected  an 
edition  containing  all  the  Greek  Geographical  remains,  excepting  those  of  the  four  authors  some- 
times denominated  Major,  viz.  Strabo,  Pausanias,  Ptolemy,  and  Stephen  of  Byzantium. — G.  Bern- 
hardy,  Geographi  Groeci  Minores,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1828.  8.  not  finished ;  but  very  good. 

§209.  Euclid  lived  at  Alexandria  B.  C.  about  300,  in  the  time  of 
the  Egyptian  king  Ptolemy  Soter.  His  native  place  is  not  known.  He 
was  a  teacher  of  mathematics,  particularly  of  geometry,  in  which 
branch  he  was  the  most  distinguished  scholar  among  the  Greeks. 

lu.  His  Elements  (Sroixtia),  in  15  books,  were  drawn  up  with  great  ability, 
and  in  a  very  perspicuous  manner.  There  are  two  Greek  commentaries  upon 
this  work,  by  Proclus  and  Theon.  The  latter  flourished  at  Alexandria,  in  the 
4th  century  (§  205),  and  it  is  only  according  to  his  revision  of  the  work  that 
we  now  possess  the  Elements  of  Euclid.  The  14th  and  15th  books  are  ascribed, 
and  with  great  probability,  to  Hypsicles,  who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  2d 
century.  Besides  the  Elements,  we  have  also  several  other  mathematical  pieces 
ascribed  to  Euclid. 

2.  The  principal  works  allowed  to  be  genuine  are  the  Data  (JtSoiiiva),  con- 
taining geometrical  theorems,  and  the  Phenomena  (ipaivoueva),  relating  to  as- 
tronomy.— Schdll,  in.  352. — Fuhrmann,  Kl.  Handb.  p.  339. 

3.  There  have  been  five  editions  of  the  Works  of  Euclid. — Privceps,  by  S.Grynceus.  Bas.1533. 
fol. — Bas.  1559.  fol. —  C.  Dasypodius  (Rauchfuss),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Strasb.  1571. — D.  Gregory,  Gr.  &; 
Lat.  Oxf.  1703.  fol.— Best  of  all,  Peyrard,  Gr.  Lat.  &  Gall.  Par.  1814.  3  vols.  4.  —  Of  the  Ele- 
ments, A.Caiano,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Rom.  1545.  2  vols.  8 — Ch.  Melden.  Leyd.  1673.  12.-7%.  Haseldcn, 
(with  the  Data).  Lond.  1732.  8.— Best,  Camerer,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Berl.  1824.  8.  (1st  vol.  containing 
6  books  of  the  Elements,  with  Excurs.  and  Plates.)  2d  vol.  continued  by  C.  F.  Haubcr.1726.  —* 
J.  C.  JVeidc.  Hal.  1825.  8.  good,  containing  first  6  books,  with  10th  and  12th.  —  E.  F.  August. 
Berl.  1826-30.  2  vols.  8.  critical  text. 

4.  Translations. — There  have  been  many  editions  of  the  Elements  in  Latin  ;  among  the  best, 
Bormann.  Lpz.1769.  8,—S.Horsley.  (12  bks).  Oxf.  1802.  8.  —  English.— R.Simpson  (bk.1-6, 11,12). 
Glasg.  1756.  4.  and  often  reprinted.— J.  Williamson  (whole  15).  Lond.  1781-88.  2  vols.  4.  —  Ger- 
man.—/. F.  Lorenz.  Hal.  1818.  8.  —  French. — Peyrard,  above  cited. 

§  210.  Archimedes  was  born  at  Syracuse  B.  C.  about  287,  and  was 
put  to  death  by  a  soldier  during  the  storming  and  capture  of  that  city 
by  the  Roman  general  Marcellus,  B.  C.  212.  He  was  celebrated 
especially  for  his  skill  in  mechanics ;  but  his  inventive  genius  en- 
riched almost  every  branch  of  mathematical  science. 

1.  The  sepulchre  of  Archimedes  was  near  one  of  the  gates  of  Syracuse,  but  was  forgotten  and 
almost  overgrown  with  briars  in  the  time  of  Cicero.  It  was  discovered  by  the  exertions  of  the 
latter,  while  Quaestor  in  Sicily,  marked  by  a  small  pillar  bearing  an  Iambic  inscription  and  the 

figures  of  a  cylinder  and  sphere. Melot,  Vie  d'Archimede,  and  Fraguier,  Du  tombeau  d'Ar- 

chimede,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  n.  321.  xiv.  128. 

2  u.  He  acquired  his  greatest  celebrity  by  discovering  the  relation  between 
the  Cylinder  and  Sphere,  and  by  contriving  several  military  engines,  by  the 
aid  of  which  the  Syracusans  defended  themselves  for  three  years  against  the 
Romans.  We  have  several  works  from  him ;  Hiol  rfjg  Zyaiqag  xai  Kv?.lv- 
Sqov,  On  the  Sphere  and  Cylinder;  Kifxlov  utTQrtaic,  The  Measuring  of  the  Cir- 
cle; JIsqL  twv  >0^ovuivo)v,  Of  floating  bodies  ;  Wauu'rtJ}q  Arenarius,  and  others. 
In  general  it  may  be  remarked,  however,  that  we  possess  the  works  of  Ar- 
chimedes only  according  to  the  recensions  of  Isidorus  and  his  pupil  Eutocius 
in  the  6th  century. 

3.  Polybius,  Livy,  and  Plutarch,  speak  of  the  engines  invented  by  Archimedes  to  harass  the 
Romans,  but  say  nothing  of  his  destroying  their  fleet  by  means  of  reflecting-mirrors,  or  burning- 
glasses,  contrived  for  setting  fire  to  the  vessels.  Lucian  is  the  first  author  who  mentions  the 
burning  of  the  fleet,  but  he  does  not  tell  the  means.  Tzetzes  and  the  writers  of  the  Bas-Empire, 
state  that  it  was  by  the  aid  of  mirrors.  The  story  has  been  treated  as  a  mere  fable,  although  the 
possibility  of  the  thing  has  been  proved  by  Bvffon.  —  Sclioll,  in.  360.  vn.57. — Cf.  Foreign  Rev. 
]\o.  i.  p.  305. — Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  xvm. — Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  in.  89,  108.—  Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  iv. 

p.  74.  ed.  N,Yk.  1822, For  an  account  of  the  magnificent  vessel  constructed  under  the  care 

of  Archimedes,  for  the  king  of  Syracuse,  see  Scholl,  vn.  p.  446.  cf.  P.  I.  §  167.  2. 

4.  There  have  been  four  editions  of  the  Works  of  Archimedes.  —  Princcps,  by  T.  Gechauff 
(printer  Hervag),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Bas.1544.  fol.  —  Rivault  (printer  MorWl),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.1615.fol. 
repr.  1646.  ed.  Richard.^~Borelli.  Messina,  1572.  fol.   repr.  Palerm.1685.  fol.  —  Best  entirely,  Abr. 

Robertson  (begun  by  Tprelli),  Gr.  &  Lat.    Oxf.  1792.  fol.  with  the  commentary  of  Eutocius 

Of  the  Dimcnsio  circuH  (with  the  Arenarius),  Wallis.  Oxf.1676.  8. — Arenarius,  with  Engl,  transl. 
by  G.  Anderson.   Lond.  1784.  8. 

&  Translations.  —  German — Sturm  (of  the  whole  Works).  Niirmb.  1670.  fol.  —  Hauber,  the 


244  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Sphere  and  Cylinder.  Tub.  1798.  S.—Kruger,  the  Arenarius.  Cluedl.  1820.  8. French,  Pey- 

rard,  of  whole  Works.   Par.  1807.  4.   1808.  2  vols.  8. 

§  211.  Apollonius,  surnamed  Per  genus  from  his  birth-place  Perga 
in  Pamphylia,  lived  at  Alexandria  about  B.  C.  250,  under  Ptolemy 
Euergetes.  He  studied  mathematics  under  those  who  had  been  pupils 
of  Euclid. 

1  u.  As  a  writer  he  is  known  by  his  work  on  Conic  Sections,  Ktovixa  2roiytia, 
in  8  books.  Only  the  first  4  books,  however,  are  in  the  Greek  ;  the  3  next  are 
in  a  Latin  translation  from  an  Arabian  version,  and  the  8th  exists  only  as  re- 
stored by  Halley  from  hints  found  in  Pappus. 

2.  The  4th,  6th  and  7th  books  of  the  Conic  Sections  were  translated  from  the 
Arabian  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  by  J.  A.  Borelli.  —  The  other 
works  of  Apollonius  were  Hiql  ^EjcaipCjv,  De  Tactionibus,  or  Contacts  of  lines 
and  circles,  and  ^EtcItibSoi  tojtol,  Planes,  which  have  come  to  us  in  a  very 
mutilated  state  ;  Ileal  Nsvoewv,  De  Inclinationibus ,  of  which  scarcely  anything 
remains;  LTbq'c  ;rwoiot>  J Aitoroufjg,  De  Sectione  Spatii,  of  which  we  have  no- 
thing; and  TTeQi  Jtoyov  y  Ano-toii^g,  De  Sectione  rationis,  which  is  preserved 
in  Arabic. 

3.  The  only  edition  of  the  Conks  is  that  of  E.  Halley,  (begun  by  Gregory,)  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf. 
1710.  fol.  —  Attempts  have  been  made  to  restore  some  of  the  other  treatises. — De  Tactionibus  ; 
by  Camercr.  Goth.  1795.  8. — By  Haumann.  Bresl.  1817.  8. — J.  Lawson,  the  two  books  of  A.  con- 
cerning Tangencies,  &c.  Lond.  1795.  4. — On  Planes,  by  R.  Simpson.  Glasg.  1749.  4.  —  On  Incli- 
nations, by  S.  Horsley,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1770.  4.  —  By  R.  Barrow.  Lond.  1799.  4.  —  De  Sectione 
Spatii ;  by  E.  Halley.  Oxf.  1706.  8.  with  a  Latin  translation,  from  the  Arabic,  of  the  treatise  De 
Sect,  rationis.  —  By  A.  Richter,  Des  Apollonius  zwei  Bucher  von  Verhiltniss-schnitt  (from  the 
Latin  of  Halley).   Elb.  1836.  8. 

§  212.  Pappus,  an  Alexandrine  philosopher  and  mathematician, 
flourished  in  the  4th  century.  His  principal  work,  known  to  us,  is 
entitled  McAijfiemxasl  ovraywyal,  Mathematical  Collections,  in  8  books. 

1.  This  work  is  chiefly  interesting  on  account  of  the  extracts  it  contains  from  mathematical 
writings,  which  are  lost.  Other  works  are  ascribed  to  him  ;  as,  a  treatise  on  military  engines, 
a  commentary  on  Aristarchus  of  Samoa,  a  work  on  geography,  &c. — Scholl,  vn.  49. — dm.  Quart. 
Rev.  No.  xxi. 

2.  Only  fragments  of  the  Greek  text  have  yet  been  published.  —  A  fragment  of  the  2d  book 
was  published  by  J.  TVallis,  in  his  ed.  of  Aristarchus  of  Samos.  Oxf.  1688.  8. — The  second  part 
of  the  5th  book,  by  Eisenmann.  Par.  1824.  fol.  —  The  preface  to  the  7th  book,  by  Halley.  Oxf. 
1706.  8.  (with  a  treatise  of  Apollonius,  as  cited  §211.  3.)  —  Some  lemmas  from  the  7th  book,  in 

Meibomius,  Dialog,  de  Proportionibus.   Hafn.  1G55.  fol. A  Latin  version  of  6  books  (3-8),  by 

Fr.  Commandhii,  an  Italian  mathematician  of  the  16th  century,  printed,  Pesaro,  1583.  fol.  and 
(ed.  Manolessius)  Bolog.  1660.  fol.— A  fragment  of  the  4th  book,  not  in  this  version,  is  given  by 
Bredow,  Epistolec  Parisienses.   Lpz.  1812.  8. 

§  213.  Diophantus  or  Diophantes,  of  Alexandria,  lived  probably 
in  the  4th  century,  under  Julian.  He  composed  an  Arithmetic, 
>A^t&ftrtrixi^  in  13  books,  of  which  6  are  now  extant.  A  work  styled 
iiiQi  jcolvywvwv  aQi&ii&v  \s  also  ascribed  to  him. 

1.  The  Arithmetic  of  Diophantus  is  not  only  important  as  contributing  to  the  history  of  Mathe- 
matics, by  making  known  the  state  of  the  science  in  the  4th  century,  but  it  is  also  interesting 
to  the  mathematician  himself,  as  it  furnishes  luminous  methods  for  resolving  various  problems. 
It  presents  also  the  first  traces  of  that  branch  of  the  science  which  was  called  Algebra,  in  honor 
of  the  Arabian  Ocber,  to  whom  its  invention  is  ascribed. — Scholl,  vn.  p.  43. 

2.  A  Latin  version  of  all  his  remains  was  published  by  Xylander  (Holzmann).  Bas.  1575.  fol. 
—  The  first  edition  of  the  text  was  by  C.  O.  Bachct  [de  Meziriac),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1621.  fol.  — 
A  German  translation  of  the  treatise  LTsni  no?..  uoi6.  {von  den  Polygonal-zahlen)  by  Posclgcr. 
Lpz.  1810.  8.— Of  the  Arithmetic,  by  Schultz.  Berl.  1822.  8.  (containing  also  Poselger's.) 

§  214.  Hanno,  the  first  name  we  mention  among  the  geographers, 
probably  lived  B.  C:  about  500.     He  was  a  Carthaginian  general. 

lw.  He  is  supposed  to  have  written  in  the  Punic  language  the  Voyage, 
which,  either  during  his  life  or  shortly  after,  was  translated  into  Greek,  under 
the  title  JIsQinloog.  What  we  possess  is  considered  by  some  as  only  an  ab- 
stract of  a  greater  work. 

2.  The  full  title  is  "Avvvnog  KaQx^orimv  paou.im  ntQinZoog  r^r  v;itQ  ru; 
cJInayJ.fovg  on\).ag  Jiiftvx.on1  ri]g  y>}c  ufowr  ov  y.ut  urithjyav  hro)  rov  Roorov  reui- 
vtt  8t]7.ovvra  rude.  Hanno  is  represented  as  sent  with  a  fleet  of  60  vessels  and 
30,000  colonists  to  explore  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  and  as  having  continued 


GEO  GUAP  HERS  .  JpANNO.    ERATOSTHENES.    STRABO.  245 

g* 

his  voyage  until  his  store  of  provisions  failed.  How  far  lie  proceeded  (a)  has 
been  a  theme  of  much  discussion.  —  The  age  and  authenticity  of  the  Periplus 
have  also  been  a  subject  (b)  of  dispute. 

(a)Rciuicll,  Geogr.  of  Herodotus,  §26.— Cf.  Vierthalcr,  on  the  Peripl.  of  Hanno.  Salzb.1798.  8. 
(b)Dodwell,  Diss,  in  Hudson's  Geogr".  Min.  cited  §  20«£.  2. — Bougainville,  in  the  Mem,  de  VAcad: 
des  Inscr.  xxvi.  and  xxvm. 

3.  Editions.  —  Gelenius  (with  Arrian).  Bas.  1533.  A.—Berkel.  (with  Stcphanus  Bi/zant.)  Leyd. 
1674.  12.— In  Hudson,  Gebg.  Min.— Separately,  /.  H.  Boklcr.  Strasb.  1661.4.— Th.  Falconer,  with 
an  Engl,  transl.  Oxf.  1797.  8.  —  J.  L.  Hug.  1808.  4.  with  a  list  of  authors  on  the  subject.  —  An 
Engl,  transl.  is  given  in  Anthon's  Lempriere,  Hanno. 

4.  There  is  extant  another  Periplus  of  an  early  date,  that  of  Scylax  of  Caryanda,  placed  by 
some  B.  C.  about  500. — Cf.  Scholl,  ii.  193. — Tliis  is  fonnd  in  Hudson's  collection.  —  Separately, 

by  /.  Vossius,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Amst.  1632.  4.  Pytheas,  of  Massilia,  at  a  later  period,  also 

vvrote  a  Periplus.  —  See  Bougainville,  La  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de  Pytheas  de  Marseille,  in  the 
Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xix.  p.l 46.— D'Anville,  Navigation  de  Pytheas  a  Thule  &c.  in  same  Mem.cfc. 
xxxvu.  436. 

§  215.  Eratosthenes,  of  Cyrene,  flourished  B.  C.  about  230.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Callimachus  and  the  philosopher  Ariston,  and  distin- 
guished as  a  mathematician  and  the  first  founder  of  scientific  ge- 
ography. 

\u.  He  was  also  known  as  a  poet,  interpreter  of  the  old  comic  writers,  a 
chronologist,  and  author  of  popular  philosophical  writings.  In  youth  he  lived 
at  Athens;  afterwards  at  Alexandria,  having  the  charge  of  its  famous  library. 
Of  his  numerous  writings,  pertaining  to  the  mathematical  sciences,  we  have 
only  some  imperfect  fragments.  These  belong  chiefly  to  the  work  entitled 
Tic  ytvjYQacpoi'uiva,  which  consisted  of  3  books,  and  contained  the  first  attempt 
at  the  measurement  of  the  earth.     The  loss  of  this  work  is  much  regretted, 

2.  In  the  1st  book,  Eratosthenes  treated  of  physical  geography  ;  in  the  2d,  of 
mathematical;  and  in  the  3d,  of  political.  What  remains  is  preserved  chiefly 
by  extracts  made  by  Strabo. — A  treatise  called  Karaartqia^ol,  explaining  the 
constcllutions,  has  passed  under  his  name,  but  on  various  grounds  it  is  con- 
sidered as  not  genuine. — Scholl,  m.  375,  385. 

3.  Editions.  —  The  fragments  of  Eratosthenes  were  published  by  Anchor.  Gbtt.  1770.  4*v- 
More  complete,  Scidd.  Gr7&  Lat.  Gbtt.1789.  8. — Most  full,  and  best,  Bernhardy,  Eratosthenica. 

Berl.  1822.  8. The  Catasterismi  were  published  first  bv  J.  Fell.  Oxf.  1672.  8.   Cf.  §  71.  3.  — . 

Gale,  in  his  Opusc.  Myth.   Amst.  1688.  8.— Best,  /.  C.  Schauback.  Gbtt.  1795.  8. 

§  216.  Strabo  was  born  at  Amasea  in  Pontus,  and  lived  about  the 
time  of  Christ,  under  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  By  his  travels  through 
Egypt,  Asia,  Greece,  and  Italy,  he  was  the  better  qualified  to  write 
his  great  work  on  geography. 

\u.  This  is  entitled  rswyQaquy.a,  and  consists  of  17 books.  It  is  not  a  mere 
register  of  names  and  places,  but  a  rich  store  of  interesting  facts  and  mature 
reflections,  and  is  of  great  utility  in  the  study  of  ancient  literature  and  art. 
The  first  two  books  are  a  sort  of  general  introduction  ;  the  rest  are  occupied 
in  descriptions  of  particular  countries,  their  constitutions,  manners,  and  re- 
ligion, interwoven  with  notices  of  distinguished  persons  and  events. 

2.  The  3d  book  describes  Spain  and  the  neighboring  islands  ;  the  4th,  Gaul, 
Britain,  and  the  islands  adjacent,  and  the  Alps  with  the  tribes  occupying 
them  ;  the  5th  and  6th  treat  of  Italy,  concluding  with  a  survey  of  the  Roman 
power  ;  the  7th  gives  an  account  of  the  northern  countries,  and  the  nations; 
on  the  Danube  ;  the  8th,  9th,  and  10th  are  devoted  to  Greece ;  the  next  six, 
from  the  11th  to  the  16th,  contain  an  account  of  Asia ;  and  the  17th  describes 
the  countries  of  Africa.  —  The  7th  book  has  come  to  us  in  an  imperfect  state  ; 
the  rest  complete.  —  There  is  an  abridgment  or  Chrestomathy  of  this  work, 
made  probably  in  the  10th  century  by  some  unknown  Greek.  There  are  also 
several  collections  of  extracts  from  Strabo  in  manuscript.  —  Strabo  wrote  a, 
continuation  of  Polybius  under  the  title  of  c Ynouv^uaxu  'Iotoqixu* 

Scholl.  v.  278. — Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  v.— A,  H.  L.  Heercn,  De  fontibus  Geograpbicorum 
Straboms.     Gbtt.  1823.  8. 

3.  Editions. — Princeps,  (in  red.  Aldi.)  Ven.  1516.  fol,— Is.  Casaubon,  (2d  ed.  by  Morel.)  Par, 
1620.  fol.  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Considered  good.- — tilmelovccn,  (Jr.  &  Lat.  Amst,  1707.  fol.  Repr.  of  Ca-- 
eaubon,  with  additional  notes. — Siebenkecs,  (continued  by  Tzschucke  and  Friedeviann,)  Gr.  & 
Lat.  Lpz.  1796-1819.  7  vols.  8,—Th.  Falconer,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1807.  2  vols.  fol.  The  most, 
ample  ed.  (yet  censured.)  Cf.  Edinb.  Rev.  vol.  xiv.— Class.  Jour.  \u4.b;  vn..  152,  445.— Coray* 

21* 


246  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Par.  1816-19.  4  vols.  8.   Best  text ;  preface  and  notes  in  Greek. The  Chrestomathy  is  found 

in  Hudson's  Geograph.  Min.  cited  §  206fci  2. 

4.  Translations.— German.— Penxel.  Lemg.  1775-77.  4  vols.  8. — K.  Kdrchcr,  in  the  Collec.  of 
New  Transl.  by  Tafel,  Osiander,  $c. French. — La  Porte  du  Theil  and  Coray,  (under  patron- 
age of  Fr.  Gov.)  Par.  1805-14.  5  vols.  4.    Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  v.  273. 

§  217.  Dionysius,  of  Charax  in  Persia,  was  a  contemporary  of 
Strabo.  He  was  sent  by  Augustus  into  the  East  in  order  to  prepare 
a  description  of  those  regions  for  the  use  of  his  adopted  son. 

1  u.  We  have  from  him  a  geographical  treatise  in  Hexameter  verse,  enti- 
tled Uequ'iY^atg  'Oixovfiivtjs,  a  description  of  the  habitable  world.  From  the 
title  of  this  piece  he  has  received  the  surname  of  Periegetes.     Cf.  §  32. 

2.  We  have  a  learned  commentary  on  the  Periegesis  written  by  Eustathius. — The  Periegesis 
is  in  the  4th  vol.  of  Hudson,  as  cited  §  208*.  2.  with  the  Commentary. — Also  in  Matthim's  Ara- 
tus,  cited  §71.  3. — Separately,  an  improved  edition,  Hudson,  Oxf.  1717.  8.  With  H.  DodicclVs 
Diss,  de  aetate  et  patria  Dionysii. 

§  218.  Claudius  Ptolemmus,  of  Pelusium  in  Egypt,  flourished  in 
the  middle  of  the  2d  century,  at  Alexandria.  He  acquired  great 
distinction  in  the  sciences  of  geography,  astronomy,  and  music. 

1  u.  Among  the  writings  left  by  him,  the  two  most  important  are  the  31ty- 
u?.yj  ovvru'zig,  Great  Construction,  and  the  rtwyopttpix^  TcpfyijOic,  a  system  of 
Geography.  The  former,  consisting  of  13  books,  now  called  the  Almagest,  is 
the  earliest  formal  system  of  astronomy.  The  latter,  in  8  books,  gives  a  ge- 
ographical account  of  countries  and  places,  with  a  designation  of  their  Lati- 
tude and  Longitude,  for  which  the  labors  of  Mar  inns  of  Tj7re  had  laid  the 
foundation.  Of  the  other  works  of  Ptolemy  now  extant  we  mention  particu- 
larly his  Kavcov  Baauioiv,  Table  of  Kings,  which  is  of  much  value  in  the  de- 
partment of  history  and  chronology. 

2.  The  astronomical  observations  of  Ptolemy  were  probably  made  in  the  Serapeinn,  or  tem- 
ple of  Serapis,  at  Alexandria,  and  not  in  the  Serapeum  of  Canopus.  The  name  of  Almagest 
is  derived  from  the  title  which  the  Arabians  gave  to  Ptolemy's  astronomical  work,  to  express 
their  admiration.  It  was  translated  into  the  Arabic  in  the  9th  century  with  tlie  patronage  and 
aid  of  Caliph  Almamoun.  From  the  Arabic  it  was  translated  into  Spanish  and  into  Latin,  be- 
fore the  Greek  original  was  known  in  Europe.  In  the  last  book  of  the  Geography,  Ptolemy 
states  the  method  of  preparing  maps,  and  here  are  found  the  first  principles  of  projection.  The 
lasting  reputation  of  this  work  has  been  mentioned  ($207). — Scltoll,  vol.  v.  240-260,  312-323. 
— Bonamy,  Des  Cartes  geographiques  des  anciens  &c.  Mem.  Acad.  Jnscr.  vol.  xxv.  p.  40. 

3.  Editions. — almagest  ;  Grijnmus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Basil,  1538.  fol.  With  the  Comm.  of  Theon. 

— Hbbe  Halma,  Gr.  &  Fr.    Par.  1813-15.  2  vols.  4. geography  ;    Princeps,  Erasmus.    Basil, 

1533.  fol.  (There  had  previously  been  several  editions  of  the  Latin.  Cf.  Schbll,  v.  319.) — 
Montanus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Frankf.  (and  Amst.)1605.  fol.  With  maps  by  G.  Mercator,  after  those  of 
Agathodcemon,  an  Alexandrine  of  the  5th  century. — Better,  P.  Bertius.  Leyd.  1618.  fol. — Hal- 
ma.   Par.  1828.  4.    But  containing  only  1st  book  and  part  of  7th,  with  a  French  version. 

canon-;    Periionius.    Leyd.  1745.  8. — Halma.    Par.  1820.   4. — The  Hypothesis  of  the  Planets,  by 

Halma,  Gr.  &  Gall.    Par."  1820.  4. For  other  works  of  Ptolemy  and  editions,  see  Scholl,  vol. 

v.  p.  255  ss. 

§  219.  Pausanias,  according  to  some  born  at  Ccesarea  in  Cappa- 
docia,  perhaps  however  a  native  of  Lydia,  flourished  in  the  2d  cen- 
tury. He  traveled  over  Greece,  Macedonia,  Italy,  and  a>great  part 
of  Asia. 

1  u.  In  advanced  life,  at  Rome,  in  the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines, 
he  composed  his  Itinerary  of  Greece,  f  E/./.uSoc  nsQiijyoic.  It  consists  of  10 
books,  which  are  frequently  named  from  the  provinces  described  in  them. 
The  work  is  full  of  instructive  details  for  the  antiquarian,  especially  in  refer- 
ence to  the  history  of  art,  as  the  author  makes  a  point  of  describing  the  prin- 
cipal temples,  edifices,  statues,  and  the  like.  This  gives  his  work  an  interest 
it  would  not  otherwise  possess. 

2.  The  style  of  Pausanias  is  rather  negligent  ;  sometimes  his  descriptions 
are  obscure  ;  but  he  displays  much  judgment  and  knowledge,  and  casts  light 
on  very  many  topics  of  history  and  mythology. — Scholl,  v.  307. 

3.  Editions.— Princeps,  by  Aldus  (ed.  M.  Musurus).  Yen.  1516.  fol.— Xylandcr.  Frankf.  1583. 
fol.-  Kuhn,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1696.  fol.— Better,  Facius.  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lpz.  1794-97.  4  vols.  8.— 
/.  Bekker.  Berl.  1826.  2  vols.  8.  Critical  text.— Best,  Siebclis,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1822-28.  5 
vols.  8. 

4.  Translations. German. — h  E.  Goldliagcn.  Berl.  1798.  5  vols.  8. French.— E.  Clavier 

(and  others).  Par.  1814-20.  6  vols.  With  original  Greek  and  notes. English — Th.   Taylor. 

Lond.  1793.  3  vols.  8.    Illustrated  by  Maps  and  views. 


MYTHOGRAPHERS.       PAIwEPHATUS.    HERACLITUS.  247 

5.  Illustrative. — F.  S.  C.  Cdnig,  De  Paus.  fide  et  auctoritate  in  historia,  mythologia,  artibus- 
que  Grsecorum  tradendis.  Berl.  1832.  8. — Hcyne,  Ueber  den  Kasten  des  Cypselus  &c.  nach 
dem  Pausanias.  Gott.  1770.  8. 

§  220  u.  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  was  a  grammarian  and  geographer,  who 
lived  towards  the  close  of  the  5th  century.  He  wrote  a  copious  grammatical 
and  geographical  Dictionary,  called  ''E&viy.u.  Of  the  original  work  we  have 
merely  a  fragment.  There  is  an  abridgment,  however,  ^E&viy.cov  iriroui], 
styled  also  Utql  7co7.ttov,  made  by  the  grammarian  Hermolaus  in  the  time  of 
Justinian. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Epitome  is  that  of  A.  Berkel  (completed  by  Oronovius).  Leyd.  1688.  fol. 
Amst.  1725.  fol. 

§  220.  Cosmas  Indicopleustes  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  who  died  about 
A.  D.  550.  He  traveled  in  Ethiopia  and  India.  His  geographical  work,  in 
12  books,  is  entitled  X^tariavixij  roTcoyntupia.  He  supposed  the  earth  to  be  of 
a  plane  surface,  and  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram ;  and  thought  this  to  be  the 
only  view  consistent  with  the  representations  of  the  Bible. 

His  Topography  is  given  in  B.  de  Montfaucon,  Collect.  Nov.  Patrum  Gnec.  Par.  1706.  2  vols, 
fol.  Gr.  &.  Lat.— A  Description  of  Plants  and  Animals  of  India  is  given  in  Tlievenot,  Relations 
de  Voyages  Curieux  (Par.  1666),  as  the  work  of  Cosmas.  —  Cf.  Gibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  iv.  67,  428. 
§  221.  Onesandcr  and  Polyainus  have  been  named  as  prominent  writers  on 
military  subjects.  The  work  of  the  former  is  entitled  ^xqurr^ixlg  loyog,  in  42 
chapters.  That  of  the  latter  is  entitled  ^rourr^^uariy.lx,  in  8  books;  it  is 
highly  recommended  by  Harwood,  for  beginners  in  Greek,  on  account  of  its 
easy  style  and  entertaining  matter. 

1.  Editions  of -Onesander —  First,  by  JV.  Rigault,  Gr.  &  Lat.»  Par.  1599.  4.  —  JV.  SchwebcL 
Nuremb.  1761.  fol.  with  the  French  version  of  Zurlauben,  and  engravings  of  ancient  military 
engines.  —  Coray.  Par.  1822.  8.  with  Zurlauben's  version,  forming  the  5th  vol.  of  his  Parerga  de 
la  Bibl.  Hellenique. 

2.  Editions  of  Polycenus. — First,  by  /.  Casaubon,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lvons,  1589. 12.— Best,  by  Coray. 
Par.  1809.  as  the  1st  vol.  of  his  Bibl.  Hcl There  is  an  Engl,  transl.  by  R.  Shepherd.  Lond.1793. 4. 


VIII. — Mythographers. 

§  221  u.  The  principal  existing  sources,  whence  the  traditions  and  fables  of 
the  Greeks  may  be  learned,  are  three;  the  poets,  who  bring  forward  mythical 
ideas  and  fabrications,  either  incidentally,  or  as  the  subjects  of  particular  songs  ; 
the  historians,  who  weave  into  their  narratives  the  popular  faith  and  tales,  and 
make  known  historical  circumstances  which  serve  to  illustrate  the  same  ; 
and  finally  the  mythographers ,  who  have  made  it  their  particular  business  to 
treat  of  mythological  subjects  and  to  present  connected  views  or  specific  de- 
tails of  the  ancient  fables.  —  Some  of  the  principal  writers  of  the  latter  class 
will  be  named  in  the  following  sections. 

The  following  Collections  pertain  to  this  subject.  —  Aldus  (Fabulists).  Ven.  1505.  fol.  —  Th. 
Qale,  Historic  poeticee  scriptores  antiqui.  Par.  1675.  8.  —  By  same,  Opuscula  mythologica  &c. 
Camb.  1671.  8.— Amst.  1688.  8. 

§  222.  Palcephatus,  an  Athenian,  probably  lived  about  B.  C.  320 ; 
some  place  him  in  the  time  of  Homer,  but  without  sufficient  grounds. 

\u.  His  book  IIsqI  a7rior<av,  On  things  incredible,  contains  50  Muthi,  or  fables, 
with  an  explanation  of  them.  It  is  probably  but  a  corrupted  abridgment  of  the 
first  part  of  the  larger  work,  in  5  books,  ascribed  to  this  author,  but  now  lost. 
The  style  is  very  simple  and  easy,  and  the  contents  amusing  and  instructive ; 
it  is  often  used  as  a  reading-book  in  teaching  the  elements  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage. 

2.  Editions.  —  It  is  found  in  Aldus,  and  Gale,  Opusc.  cited  §  221?*. — Separately,  best,  J  J.  F. 
Fischer,  Lpz.  1789.  8.  —  H.  JV.  Ernesti.  Lpz.  1816.  8.  with  a  Lexicon  ;  for  schools. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  D.  Buchlunr.  Hal.  1821.  8. French.  —  Polier.  Lausanne, 

1771.  12. 

4.  Euhemerusy  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Messene,  lived  about  the 
same  time  with  Palaephatus.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  c Ibqu  arayQCKp^,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  show  that  the  mythological  deities  were  mortals,  who 
had  conferred  benefits  upon  their  fellow-men,  and  on  that  account  were  deified. 


248  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

This  was  translated  by  Ennius  into  Latin.     Both  the  original  and  the  versioU 
are  lost,  with  the  exception  of  some  passages  in  Eusebius  and  Lactantius. 

Cf.  ScliSll,  Litt.  Gr.  vol.  m.  p.  249.  —  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  i.  94.  ed.  Phil.  1827.  —  So- 
vin,  and  Foucher,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  vm.107.  xxxiv.  417. 

§  223.  Heraclitus  was  a  grammarian,  whose  epoch  and  history  are 
wholly  unknown.  He  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  philosopher  of 
Ephesus  bearing  the  same  name  (§  177). 

1  u.  He  is  mentioned  as  the  author  of  two  mythographical  works,  one  enti- 
tled Heal  un Lot wr,  Of  things  incredible;  the  other,  3  AU.^yoo'iai  ""Our^oixal,  Ho 
meric  Allegories.  The  former  seems  to  be  a  mere  abridgment.  The  latter  ig 
a  more  considerable  work,  but  gives  the  most  forced  and  unnatural  explana- 
tions to  the  fictions  of  the  poet.  It  derives  value  from  containing  poetical 
fragments  of  Archilochus,  Alceeus,  Eratosthenes,  and  others. 

2.  The  first  work  is  given  in  Gale,  Opusc.  cited  §221u. — Separately,  by  L.H.Teuchcr.  Lemg. 
1796.  8.  school  ed.  —  The  other,  in  Gale  also.  —  Separately,  by  C.Gessner,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Bas.1544* 

8.  as  the)  work  of  Heraclides  of  Pontus.  —  Better,  by  JV.  Schoic.   Gbtt.  1782.  8. A  German 

translation  by  J.  G.  Schukhess.  Zur.  1779.  8. 

3.  There  is  another  work  extant  with  the  title  TIsqi  aniOTMV.  it  is  from  an  ■unknown  au- 
thor, who  is  suposed  to  have  lived  much  later,  about  the  time  of  the  emperor  Leo  the  Thracian. 

It  contains  22  sections,  and  appears  to  be  an  abstract  of  a  larger  work. Published  by  L.  Alla- 

tius.  Rome,  1641.  8. — Gale,  in  Opusc.  cited  above. —  Teucher,  with  Heraclitus  cited  above. 

§  224.  Apollodorus,  a  son  of  Asclepiades,  was  a  grammarian,  who 
lived  at  Athens,  B.  C.  about  145.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Aristarchus  and 
embraced  the  Stoic  philosophy.  / 

1m.  According  to  Photius  he  wrote  a  History  of  the  gods  (LTtql  &sojv),  in  24 
books.  We  have,  however,  only  3  books  under  the  title  of  Bip?.io&t}%y],  or  Li- 
brary,  which  may  be  an  abridgment  of  the  forementioned,  but  perhaps  is  a 
wholly  dirferent  work.  It  contains  a  brief  account  of  the  gods  and  heroes  be* 
fore  the  Trojan  war. 

2.  It  is  given  in  Gale,  Hist.  Poet,  cited  $  221u.— Separately,  best,  Hcyne.  Gott.  1802.  2  vols.  8v 

—E.Clavier,  Gr.  &  Fr.  1805.  2  vols.  8.— For  schools,  C.  L.  Sommer.   Rudolst.  1823.  8. German 

Translation,  by  F.  Beyer.  Herborn,  1802.  8.— Cf.  Schbll,  v.  36.  l  v.  57. 

§  225.  Conon,  also  known  as  a  grammarian,  lived  at  Athens  in  the 
time  of  Caesar  and  Augustus,  B.  C.  about  40. 

1m.  He  wrote  50  mythical  Narratives,  Ji^y^anq,  which  are  now  extant 
only  in  the  abstracts  given  by  Photius  in  his  Bibliotheca  (§142).  They  are 
addressed  to  Archelaus,  king  of  Cappadocia.  Although  containing  little  that 
is  peculiarly  interesting,  they  are  yet  of  some  value  in  illustrating  ancient  his- 
tory, relating  particularly  to  the  origin  of  colonies. 

2.  They  are  given  in  Gale,  Hist.  Poet,  cited  $  221m.— Separately,  J.  A.  Kanne.  Gott.  1798.  8.— 

French  translation,  by  Able  Gedoyne,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr,  torn.  xiv.  p.  170.  — 

Cf.  Scholl,  v.  41. 

§  226.  Parthenius,  born  at  Nicea,  lived  under  the  emperor  Au- 
gustus, and  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  preceptors  of  Virgil. 

1m.  He  wrote  a  work  dedicated  to  Cornelius  Gallus,  and  entitled  LJsol  «^or- 
rixojv  7ta&yuaTiDV,  On  amorous  affections,  designed  to  furnish  that  poet  with 
materials  for  song.  The  narratives  contained  in  it  were  drawn  from  the  old 
poets,  and  clothed  in  an  easy  and  prosaic  style.  He  seems  to  have  written 
other  works,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  although  the  elegiac  poet  of  this  name 
mentioned  by  Suidas  was  perhaps  another  person. 

2.  The  work  is  found  in  Gale,  as  last  cited. — Separately,  Comarius,  Gr.  &  Lat.  (printer  Fro- 
ben)  Pas.  1531.  8.— Teucher.  Lpz.  ]802.  8.  with  Conon.— Best,  Legrand  and  Hcyne.  Gott.  1798.  & 
with  Conon.  —  For  the  account  of  Parthenius  by  Suidas,  see  Schlill,  v.  42. 

§  227.  Phurnutus,  or  more  correctly  Annceus  Cornutus,  born  at 
Leptis  in  Africa,  probably  lived  in  the  last  half  of  the  1st  century- 
He  seems  to  have  been  the  teacher  of  Persius,  and  a  disciple  of  the 
Stoic  sect  in  philosophy. 

1m.  We  have  from  him  a  Theory  of  the  nature  of  the  gods,  OewQta  neQi  t>;5 
twv  0£<r>v  (pvOBwg,  in  35  sections.  It  is  an  attempt  to  solve  the  common  fablos 
by  the  help  of  allegories,  mostly  of  a  forced  and  extravagant  character. 


MYTHOGRAPHERS.       HEPHJESTION.       LIBERALIS.  249 

2.  Given  in  Gale,  Opusc.  Myth,  cited  §  221u. —  Villoison  left  the  Apparatus  for  a  new  edition  ; 
now  in  the  Royal  Library  of  France.  (Scholl,  v.  179.)— On  Cornutus  see  Enfield's  Hist.  Phil, 
bk.  iii.  ch.  ii.  §7. — D.  Martini  Disputatio  de  L.  Ann.  Cornuto.    Lngd.  Bat.  1825.  8. 

§  228.  Hephcestion  (cf.  §  134),  often  called  Ptolemaws  son  of  He- 
phaestion,  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  and  lived  in  the  2d  century 
under  Trajan. 

1m.  His  mythological  work  bore  the  title  Jltol  rfjg  hg  noXvuu&tiav  naivijs 
(aroo'iag,  Of  new  history  pertaining  to  erudition;  it  consisted  of  7  books,  but 
we  have  only  the  brief  extracts  found  in  Photius. 

2.  Published  by  Gale,  Hist.  Poet,  before  cited.— By  L.  H.  Teucher,  with  Canon  and  Parthcni- 
us.  Lpz.  1802.  8.— Cf.  Scholl,  v.  43. 

§  229.  Antoninus  Liberalis,  of  whom  little  is  known  with  cer- 
tainty, most  probably  lived  in  the  2d  century  under  the  Antonines. 

1m.  His  Collection  of  metamorphoses,  Mcra/ioqtpi»d*w  away  toy  tj,  is  a  com- 
pilation gathered  from  various  writers,  in  41  sections.  The  style  is  very  un- 
equal, and  shows  that  the  author  drew  his  materials  from  poetical  sources.     » 

2.  Contained  in  Gale,  Hist.  Poet. — Given  by  J.  G.  Walch,  in  his  Phadrus.  Lpz.  1713.  12. — 
Separately,  Princeps  by  Xylander  (Hohmann).  Basil,  15G8.  8. — Munker,  Gr.  &  Lat.  1676.  12. — 

Better,  Verheyk,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Leyd.  1774.  8 A  school  ed.  by  Teucher.    Lpz.  1806.  8.    With  the 

Fables  of  Gabrias.    Cf.  §  184.  1. On  Antoninus  and  other  mythographers,  see  Bast,  Lettre 

Critique  ;  in  Lat.  transl.  by  -Schafer.  Lpz.  1809.  8. 

§  230.  Sallustius,  who  was  a  Platonic  philosopher  in  the  time  of 
Julian  and  Jovian,  and  was  Consul  A.  D.  363,  may  be  mentioned  here. 

1m.  He  must  not  be  confounded  with  Sallust  the  Latin  historian,  nor  with 
the  Cynic  of  the  same  name  in  later  times.  He  lived  at  Athens  and  Alexan- 
dria, and  acquired  much  celebrity  as  a  speaker.  He  has  left  a  work  entitled 
Utoi  ■dsiov  y.ai  xoouov,  On  the  gods  and  the  icorld,  in  21  chapters.  It  is  per- 
haps a  philosophical  rather  than  mythological  treatise,  and  seems  to  be  direct- 
ed specially  against  the  system  of  Epicurus.  The  author  maintains  the  eter- 
nity of  the  world  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

2.  published  Jhrst  by  Naudaus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Rome,  1G38.  12.—  Gale,  Opusc.  Myth,  above  cited. 
—Formey,  Gr.  &.  Fr.  Berl.  1748.  8.— J.  C.  Orelli,  Gr.  &c  Lat.  Zur.  1821.  8.— The  titles  of  the 
chaptersare  given  in  Sclwll,  vu.  80. German  translation,  by  Schulthess.   Zurich,  1779.  8. 


IX. — Historians  and  Biographers. 

§  231  u.  In  very  early  times  the  Greeks,  like  other  nations  of  antiquity,  had 
few,  if  any,  regular  historical  records.  The  art  of  writing  was  not  brought 
into  that  frequent  and  general  use  which  is  requisite  for  such  purposes.  Oral 
traditions,  visible  monuments,  and  commemorative  festivals  were  the  princi- 
pal means  of  transmitting  a  knowledge  of  important  and  interesting  facts. 
The  oral  accounts  were  commonly  thrown  into  the  form  of  verse  and  song ; 
and  thus  the  poets  were  the  first  historians.  Their  poems,  in  epic,  lyric,  and 
dramatic  forms,  presented  the  story  of  the  fabulous  and  heroic  ages,  and  were 
impressed  on  the  memory  in  youthful  education ;  were  sung  at  the  festivals 
of  the  gods  and  the  funeral  celebrations  of  heroes,  and  afterwards  circulated 
by  means  of  written  copies.  When  afterwards  the  use  of  writing  became 
more  common,  and  prose  composition  began  to  be  cultivated,  historical  narra- 
tive was  the  first  and  principal  application  of  it. Pherecydes,  of  the  island 

Leros,  and  the  three  Milesians,  Dionysius,  Cadmus,  and  Hecataus,  who  lived 
between  550  and  500  B.  C,  are  named  as  the  earliest  authors  of  history  in 

prose. At  this  period  truth  and  fable  were  more   carefully  distinguished  ; 

the  former  was  selected  as  the  proper  material  for  prose  and  history,  and  the 
latter  was  left  to  the  sole  use  of  the  poet.  Afterwards  writers  began  to  re- 
cord the  history  of  their  own  times  and  connect  it  with  the  traditionary  ac- 
counts of  former  ages.     The  art  of  writing  was  more  sedulously  cultivated. 


250  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

The  theory  of  historical  composition  was  investigated  and  fixed  on  philo* 
eophical  principles.  Ere  long,  Greece  possessed  historians  who  are  even  to 
the  present  day  viewed  as  masters  in  the  art,  in  respect  both  of  matter  and 
manner. 

G.  F.  Creuzer,  Historisch  Kunst  der  Griechen.  rLeipz.  1803.  8. — G.  J.  Vossius,  De  Historicte 
Gnecis.  L.  B.  1651.  4. — On  early  methods  of  preserving  knowledge,  Du  Pin,  (as  cited  §  240}, 
bk.  i.  sect.  2. — G.  Hermann,  De  Hist.  Gr.  Primordiis,  cited  §  1.  2. 

§  232.  It  was  in  the  earliest  part  of  the  period  between  Solon  and  Alexan- 
der, that  historical  compositions  in  prose  began  to  be  produced.  Some  of  tha 
earliest  writers  were  natives  of  Asia  Minor.  Such  authors  were  termed  ?.oyo~ 
yoa^oi,  and  their  performances  loyoyQay'iat.  These  authors,  besides  drawing 
from  traditionary  accounts  and  the  works  of  poets,  consulted  all  the  monu- 
ents  of  antiquity  ;  inscriptions,  altars,  statues  and  edifices  erected  or  consecrat- 
ed in  connection  with  particular  events.  The  logographies  were  the  first  fruit 
of  this  spirit  of  investigation.  They  were  a  kind  of  writing  holding  an  inter- 
mediate place  between  epic  poetry  and  veritable  history.  We  have  no  entire 
specimen  of  them  ;  but  there  are  many  fragments,  for  which  we  are  indebted 
to  quotations  made  by  historians  and  writers  on  mythology  in  later  periods, 
by  the  scholiasts  and  some  of  the  Christian  Fathers.  The  works  of  the  prose 
writers  named  in  the  preceding  section  belonged  to  this  class.  Cadmus  ia 
mentioned  by  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist  vn.  56)  as  the  most  ancient  author  of  the 
kind.  There  are  extant  fragments  of  Pherecydes  of  Leros,  Acusilaus  of  Ar- 
gos,  Hecataeus  of  Miletus,  Charon  of  Lampascus,  Xanthus  of  Sardis,  and 
Hellanicus  of  Mitylene. 

G.  F.  Creuzer,  Hist.  Grace,  antiquiss.  Pragmenta.  Heidelb.  1806.  8. — Abbd  Sevin,  respecting 
Hecataeus  and  Charon,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  et  Belles  Lett.  vol.  vi.  p.  472;  xiv.  pi. 
f)6.— The  fragments  of  Hellanicus  collected  and  published  by  F.  W.  Sturz.  Lpz.  1787.  8. — 
Those  of  Pherecydes  and  Acusilaus  by  the  Same.  Lpz.  1789.  8.    2d  ed.  Lpz.  1824.  4. 

§  233.  The  writers  just  mentioned  are,  however,  scarcely  entitled  to  the 
name  of  historians.  Herodotus  is  the  earliest  Greek  author  who  gave  a  fin- 
ished and  connected  form  to  the  narration  of  interesting  events,  and  wag 
with  much  justice  styled  by  Cicero,  the  father  of  history.  After  him,  and 
partly  contemporary,  were  Thucydides  and  Xenophon.  These  three  are  the 
most  eminent  of  all  the  Greek  historians,  and  their  works  are  among  the  most 
valuable  remains  of  Greek  prose  composition.  They  all  belong  to  the  most 
brilliant  period  of  Grecian  literature.  Their  histories  were  chiefly  occupied 
with  Grecian  affairs,  and  are  the  grand  source  of  our  knowledge  respecting 
the  Grecian  states,  in  the  periods  to  which  they  relate. There  were  sev- 
eral other  historians  before  the  time  of  Alexander,  known  to  us  only  by  a  few 
fragments  of  their  works,  or  by  the  judgment  passed  on  them  by  ancient 
writers.  The  mo6t  important  of  these  were  Ctesias,  a  contemporary  of  Xen- 
ophon, and  Tkeopompus,  who  lived  a  little  later.  We  have  slight  fragments, 
likewise,  of  Philistus  of  Syracuse,  and  Ephorus  of  Cumse  in  JEolia. 

The  fracments  of  Philistus  published  by  Giiller,  in  his  De  Situ  et  or.  Syracusarum.  Lips* 
1818.  8.  C£  Sevin,  on  Philetus,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xm.  p.  1.— Of  Ephorus,  by  M.  Marx.  Carslr* 
1815.  8.— Of  Tkeopompus,  by  R.  H.  E.  Wickers.  Leyd.  1829.  8.    Cf.  A.  J.E.  Pflu<rk,  De  Theop. 

vita  et  scriptis.    Berl.  1827.  8.—F.  Koch,  Proleg.  ad  Theopomp.  Chium.  Stett.  1803.  4. Of 

Ctesias,  in  fVcsselincr's  Herodotus,  cited  $241.  3.  Cf.  K.  L.  Blum,  Herodot.  und  Ktesias,  diu 
friihsten  Geschichtsl'orscher  des  Orients.  Heidelb.  1836.  12.— Cf.  Scluill,  vol.  n.  p.  170. 

§  234.  It  may  be  proper  to  notice  here  a  class  of  writers  who  confined  them- 
selves to  the. history  and  antiquities  of  Athens.  Their  works  are  cited  under 
the  common  name  of  ^AtbiStg,  or  Treatises  on  Attica.  As  the  materials  for 
these  works  were  drawn  not  merely  from  loose  traditions,  but  from  various 
authentic  sources,  their  loss  is  to  be  regretted,  although  they  were  no  doubt 
abundantly  charged  with  fable  and  full  of  imperfection.  Works  of  this  de- 
scription were  written  in  the  period  before  Alexander,  by  Clitodemus  and 
Phanodemus,  of  whom  little  is  known.  Four  others  of  the  same  class  belong 
to  the  period  following  the  time  of  Alexander,  viz.  Demo,  Androtion,  Philo»- 
corus,  and  Ister. 

The  fracments  of  these  authors  were  collected  and  published  by  Lew  and  Sibclis  ;  (Philo- 
clioms  and  Androtion),  Lpz.  1811.  8.  (Phanodemus  and  Clitodemus,  Demon  and  Ister),  Lp& 
1812.  8.— SctoU,  ii.  J85  ;  m.  224. 

235.  The  principal  historian  in  the  next  period,  from  Alexander  to  the  Red- 
man supremacy  in  Greece,  is  Polybius  of  Megalopolis.    He  published  several 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY,  251 

historical  works,  which  are  all  lost  with  the  exception  of  a  part  of  his  Univer- 
sal Historij.  This  was  without  a  rival  in  its  kind.  In  style  and  eloquence  it 
is  inferior  to  the  histories  of  the  great  masters  of  the  preceding  era ;  but  it 
may  be  considered  as  the  first  successful  attempt  to  exhibit  in  a  philosophical 
manner  the  principles  of  morals  and  politics  as  developed  in  the  changes  of 
human  society.    Polybius  may  justly  be  ranked  among  the  most  distinguished 

of  ancient  historians. In  this  period  there  were  numerous  writers  who 

composed  historical  performances  chiefly  relating  to  the  life  and  exploits  of 
Alexander,  although  including  often  much  other  matter.  Almost  everything 
from  their  pens,  however,  has  perished.  The  following  were  some  of  the 
writers  ;  Callisthenes,  Hieronymus  or  Jerome  of  Cardia,  Diodotus  of  Erythae, 
Nearchus  and  Nymphis  of  Heraclea. 

Sante-Croiz,  Examen  des  Historiens  d'AIexandre-le-Grand.  2d  ed.  Par.  1805.  8.  —  Clayton, 
Crit.  Enq.  into  the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Lond.  1793.  4.  Cf.  Dibdin,  vol.  i.  p.  330.— Abbe 
Sevin,  Recherch.  sur  la  vie  et  sur  les  ouvr.  de  Callistheneg,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  &x. 
torn.  vii.  ;  de  Jerom  de  Cardie,  in  vol.  xm.  ;  de  Diodote,  in  vol.  xix.— Ang.  Mai,  Julii  Valerfi 
res  gestae  Alexandri  Macedonii,  translate  ex  iEsopo  Grtcco.  Mediolani.  1817.  8.— Fragments  of 
Nymphis,  in  the  collection  of  the  remains  of  Memnon  and  other  writers  of  Heraclea,  by  J.  C. 
Qrellius.  Lpz.  1816.  8. — Respecting  JVearchus,  see  under  Arrian  $  250. — SckSll,  livre  l  v.  ch.  36. 

§  236.  There  were  also  in  this  period,  between  Alexander  and  the  capture 
oT  Corinth  by  the  Romans,  other  historical  authors,  some  of  whom  ought  at 
least  to  be  mentioned  here  ;  as  Hecateeus  of  Abdera,  Berosus  the  Chaldean 
priest,  Abydenus  his  disciple,  and  Manetho  of  Diospolis  in  Egypt.  We  may 
name  also  TimceuB  of  Tauromenium,  who,  on  being  banished  from  Sicily,  re- 
sided at  Athens,  and  is  quoted  by  Cicero  a«  a  model  of  the  Asiatic  style  of  elo- 
quence (Brut.  95.  De  Orat.  II.  13.);  Aratus  of  Sicyon,  already  mentioned 
among  the  poets  (§  71)  ;  Phylarchus  his  contemporary  ;  and  Polemo  Periege- 
tes.  Of  only  a  part  of  these  authors  have  we  any  remains:.  The  most  impor- 
tant fragments  are  those  of  Berosus  and  Manetho. 

See  Sckall,  livre  iv.  ch.  37.  The  fragments  of  Hecataus  were  published  by  P.  Zorn.  Altona, 
1730.  ;  also  in  Creuter's  Hist.  Grace,  cited  *  232.  —  For  those  of  Berosus,  see  Jos.  Scaliger,  De 
emendatione  Temporum  ;  also  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Gr.  vol.  xiv.  —  J.  D.  Richter,  Chald.  Historian 
Lips.1825. 8.  with  life  of  Berosus.  A  work  on  antiquities,  under  the  name  of  Berosus,  was  pub- 
lished in  Latin  by  J.  Annius  or  Nanni,  a  Dominican  of  Viterbo,  who  died  1502.  This  forgery, 
with  other  pieces,  was  printed  by  E.  Silber.  Rome.  1488.  —  The  remains  of  Manetho  were  also 
published  by  Scaliger  in  the  treatise  above  cited.  The  discovery  (in  1792)  of  the  Armenian 
version  of  Eusebius  has  furnished  the  means  of  a  more  complete  collection.  Cf.  Journal  des 
Savans,  1820.  See  $  288.  —  Sir  J.  Marsham  endeavored  to  reconcile  Manetho  with  the  Scriptures 
4n  his  Chronicus  Canon.  Lond.  1662.  fol.  —  Cf.  Shuckford,  Sac.  and  Prof.  Hist,  connected,  bk.  xL 
(2d  vol.  p.  133.  ed.  Phil.  1824.)  —  The  Ancient  Fragments,  containing  what  remains  of  the  writ- 
ings of  Sanconiathon,  Berosus,  Abydenus,  Megasthenes,  and  Manetho.  Translated  by  J.C.Coru. 
Oiond.  1828. 

§  237.  The  period  which  comes  next,  the  time  of  Roman  supremacy,  pro- 
6uced  a  great  number  of  historians,  but  all  of  secondary  rank.  We  will  name 
first  those  who  wrote  before  the  Christian  era.  The  two  most  important  au- 
thors  were  Diodorus  Siculus  and  Dionysius  Halicarnasseus,  who  flourished  but 

Shortly  before  the  time  of  Christ,  and  whose  works  are  in  part  still  extant. 

There  were  several  authors  whose  works  are  lost :  as,  Castor  of  Rhodes,  a  con- 
temporary of  Julius  Caesar ;  Theophanes  of  Mitylene,  friend  and  biographer 
of  Pompey  ;  Timagenes  of  Alexandria,  selected  by  Augustus  as  his  historiog- 
rapher, but  discarded  for  certain  imprudent  sallies  of  wit ;  Posidonius  the  Stoic ; 
and  Juba,  son  of  the  king  of  Numidia,  taken  captive  by  Julius  Caesar,  and  edu- 
cated at  Rome.  Here  may  be  mentioned  also  Nicolaus  of  Damascus,  and 
Memnon  of  Heraclea,  who  both  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  of  whom 
some  fragments  remain. 

J.  Bake,  Posidonii  Rhodii  Reliquis  doctrine  &c.  Lugd.  Bat.  1810.  8.  —  The  fragments  of  JW 
tblaus,  were  published  by  Orellius.  Lpz.  1804.  with  a  Supplement,  1811. — Those  of  Memnon,  by 
H.  Stephanus.  Par.  1594.  ;  and  by  Orellius.  Lpz.  1816.— See  Schoill,  livre  v.  ch.  53. 

§  238.  Of  the  historians  between  the  time  of  Augustus  and  Constantine,  one 
Of  the  most  interesting  and  important  is  Flamus  Josephus  the  Jew.  His  his- 
tory of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness,  is  on 
many  accounts  of  great  value.  It  was  written  originally  in  Hebrew,  or  rather 
in  the  Syro-Chaldaic,  and  afterwards  by  himself  translated  into  Greek.  It  is 
a  work  full  of  tragic  interest. 

Plutarch,  who  flourished  in  the  1st  century  of  the  Christian  era,  must  be  in- 
cluded among  the  historical  writers,  not  only  because  his  Lives  partake  eo 


252  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

much  of  a  historical  character,  but  on  account  of  several  other  works  upon 
historical  topics.  After  Plutarch  the  most  important  historians  were  Arrian, 
Appian,  Dion  Cassius,  and  Herodian.  ^Elian  is  placed  among  the  historians, 
but  holds  a  low  rank.  Polyamus  ought  perhaps  also  to  be  mentioned  here,  as 
his  work  already  noticed  (§  221)  is  of  a  historical  character. 

There  were  some  other  historical  writers  in  the  times  of  which  we  are  speak- 
ing, to  whom  it  may  be  suitable  barely  to  allude.  Herennius  Philo  of  Biblus, 
in  the  2d  century,  is  said  to  have  written  several  historical  works,  particularly 
to  have  translated  into  Greek  from  Phoenician  the  antiquities  of  Sanconiathon. 
Praxis  or  Eupraxidas,  the  author  of  the  work  ascribed  to  Dictys  Cretensis, 
lived  in  this  period,  probably  in  the  time  of  Nero.  Phlegon  of  Tralles  in  Lydia 
wrote,  besides  other  pieces,  a  sort  of  universal  chronology,  most  of  which  is 
lost;  in  a  fragment  of  this  is  mentioned  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  the  18th  yeai 
of  Tiberius,  which  has  by  some  been  supposed  to  refer  to  the  darkness  that 
took  place  at  the  crucifixion  of  Christ. 

Respecting  Sanconiathon,  see  R.  Cumberland,  Sanconiathon's  Phoenician  history,  translated 
from  the  1st  book  of  Eusebius  de  Praepar.  Evang.  <fcc.  Lond.  1720. — Christ.  Meincrs,  Hist.  Doct. 
de  vero  Deo.  vol.  i.— if.  Dodieell,  Disc,  on  the  Phoenician  History  of  Sanconiathon.  Lond.  1680. 
8.  also  in  his  Works.  Lond.  1723.  —  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  cited  §  236.  —  F.  Wavenfield, 
Sancon.  Hist.  Phoen.  Gr.  &  Lat.  Brem.  1837.  8.  Cf.  Bibl.  Repos.  July,  1837.  p.  249.  April,  1838. 
p.  440. 

The  remains  of  Phlegon  were  published  by  Frani.  Halle, 1822.— Several  publications  appeared 
in  England  early  the  last  century,  on  the  eclipse  mentioned  by  him  ;  e.  g.    Sykes,  Dissertation 

upon  the  Eclipse,  &c.  Lond.  1732.  8.  —  Whiston,  Testimony  of  Phlegon  &c.  Lond.  1732.  8 

Chapman,  Phlegon  examined  &.c.  Lond.  1734.  8.  —  Cf.  Lit.  #  Theol.  Rev.  No.  v.  p.  53,  57. 

§  239a.  In  entering  upon  the  long  period  from  Constantine  to  the  capture  of 
his  favorite  city  by  the  Turks,  the  first  historian  we  meet  is  Eusebius,  a  Chris- 
tian and  bishop  of  Csesarea,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  age,  and 
particularly  patronized  by  the  Emperor  Constantine.  The  only  work  of  this 
author  which  belongs  strictly  to  classical  literature  is  his  Chronicle  or  Univer- 
sal History,  navroSarcij  iaro^ia.  (Cf.  §  288.)  After  Eusebius,  we  find  a  long 
list  of  historical  authors.  There  are,  however,  only  two  names  of  much  impor- 
tance, viz.  Zosimus  and  Procopius  (§  256,  257),  until  we  come  to  the  mass'of 
writers  still  less  celebrated,  and  commonly  grouped  under  the  name  of  Byzan- 
tine historians.  This  series  of  authors,  beginning  with  the  7th  century,  ex- 
tends to  the  final  overthrow  of  Constantinople.  "They  have  little  merit,  ex- 
cept that  they  are  the  only  sources  whence  we  can  derive  the  history  of  the 
middle  ages.  A  few  among  them  exhibit  a  degree  of  purity  and  elegance  in 
style  ;  but  most  of  their  works  are  destitute  of  taste  and  of  method,  and  de- 
graded by  superstition  and  abject  flattery." 

The  Byzantine  writers  have  been  divided  into  four  classes.  The  first  included  Zonaras,  Ni- 
cetas  Acominatus,  Nicephoms  Gregoras,  and  Laonicus  Chalcondylas,  which  four  authors  form 
what  is  termed  the  Corpus  or  Body  of  Byzantine  historians,  properly  speaking.  Taken  together, 
they  give  a  complete  history  of  the  period  from  Constantine  to  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by 
the  Turks. A  second  class  includes  the  writers  that  have  been  termed  Chroniclers,  who  at- 
tempted to  give  general  histories,  or  annals  extending  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  their 
own  times.  Scholl  mentions  15  or  16  names  belonging  to  this  class.  —  The  tliird  consists  of 
such  as  confined  themselves  to  the  history  of  a  short  period,  a  particular  event,  or  of  certain  in- 
dividuals, and  may  rather  be  called  biographers.  Above  20  names  are  given  in  this  class  ;  Jlga- 
thias  was  one  of  the  more  eminent  among  them. — The  fourth  class  is  composed  of  authors  who 
occupied  themselves  rather  with  antiquities  and  statistics.  Of  10  or  12  included  in  this  number, 
Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  was  one  of  the  principal.  Of  this  class  also  was  Lydus,  whose 
treatise  on  the  Roman  magistrates,  discovered  in  1784,  is  considered  by  Niebuhr  as  a  valuable 
source  of  information.   It  was  published  by  Hase.  Par.  1812.  8. 

The  works  of  the  Byzantine  authors  were  first  published  at  Paris,  with  the  patronage  of 
Louis  14th,  under  the  title  of  Corps  de  PHistoire  Byzantine,  1648-1711.  36  vols.  fol.  —  They  were 
reprinted  Ven.  1729  ss.  35.  in  23  vols.  fol.  the  23d  vol.  consisting  of  works  not  in  the  1st  edit. 
—  Cf.  Schmll,  vi.  415.  —  A  new  and  more  complete  edition  was  commenced  by  Niebuhr,  and 
continued  after  his  death  by  J.  Bekker  and  others,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 

at  Berlin.  24  vols.  8.  published,  1828-36.   Cf.  Bibl.  Repos.  a.  408. Much  use  of  the  Byzantine 

writers  was  made  by  Oibbon,  in  his  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  —  Also  by  L.  Cousin, 
in  his  Histoire  de  Constantinople  depuis  le  regne  de  l'ancien  Justin  jusqu'a  la  fin  de  l'empire 
traduite  sur  les  originaux  grecs.   Par.  1685.  11  vols.  12. 

§  239b.  In  relation  to  Biography,  we  may  remark  that,  as  a  department  of 
composition,  it  seems  to  have  been  almost  wholly  overlooked  by  the  earlier 
Greeks.  In  the  period  between  Augustus  and  Constantine  it  received  more 
attention.  The  Lives  of  Plutarch,  already  alluded  to  (§238),  are  the  most  val- 
uable productions*  in  Grecian  biography/  In  the  3d  century  we  find  two  bio- 
graphical works,  the  Lives  of  Diogenes  Lacrtius  and  the  Lives  of  Philo stratus, 
which  are  important  sources  of  information  respecting  the  ancient  philosophy. 


HISTORIANS.      HERODOTUS.  253 

We  may  also  mention  here  the  Lives  of  Moses  and  some  of  the  Patriarchs,  by 
Pkilo  the  Jew,  of  Alexandria ;  and  likewise  the  biographical  pieces  of  Porphyry 
(§  199).  —  After  Constantine,  we  have  the  Lives  of  Eunapius,  and  the  works 
t)f  a  large  number  of  the  Byzantine  writers,  one  class  of  them  being,  as  we 
have  just  remarked,  denominated  biographers. 

§  240.  We  now  proceed  to  notice  separately  the  most  distinguished 
<jreek  Historians,  giving  first  some  general  references. 

On  the  Greek  historians  generally,  L.  E.  Du  Pin,  Universal  Library  of  Historians*    Transl. 

from  French.   Lond.  1709.  2  vols.  1*2 T.  G.  Meusel,   Bibliotheca  Historica.   Lpz.  1732—1802. 

11  vols.  8.  This  work  contains  a  notice  of  the  authors  ancient  or  modern  who  have  written  on 
the  history  of  Grecian  or  Roman  affairs,  or  on  the  history  of  any  people  ;  with  some  account  of 

their  productions. The  following  is  a  valuable  collection.   J.G.  Eichhorn,  Antiqua  Historia 

ex  ipsis  vet.  Scriptorum  Graec.  narrationibus  contexta.  Lpz.1811. 4  vols.  8.  It  forms  a  complete 
body  of  ancient  history,  composed  of  extracts  from  Greek  authors,  arranged  in  systematic  order. 
On  the  margin  are  indicated  the  argument,  the  book  and  chapter  of  the  author  whence  each 

gassage  is  taken,  and  the  date.  The  1st  vol.  is  devoted  to  the  empires  and  states  of  Asia ;  the 
d  to  Greece  ;  the  3d  and  4th  to  Italy.  —  Eichhorn  also  published  a  similar  Collection,  drawn 
from  Latin  authors,  Antiqua  Historia  in  ipsis  vet.  Scriptorum  Lat.  narrationibus.  Lpz.  1811. 
2  vols.  8.— A  plan  for  reading  the  ancient  historians,  is  given  in  Priestley's  Lectures  on  History 

(lect.  xx-xxiv)  ;  also  in  Tytier's  Elements  of  History  (pt.  i.  sect.  49). We  may  mention  here 

J.  B.Gail,  Le  Philologue,  ou  Recherches  historiques,  militaires,  geographiques,  grammaticales, 
&.c.  d'apres  Herodote,Thucydide,Xenophon,Polybe,&c.  Par.1814-28.  21  vols.  8.  with  an  Atla8 
of  107  pi.  4. 

§  241.  Herodotus,  of  Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  flourished  B.  C.  about 
450.  He  is  the  oldest  Greek  historian  whose  whole  works  are  pre- 
served. 

1  u.  His  History,  in  9  books,  which  have  been  named  after  the  nine  muses^ 
was  originally  rehearsed  in  part  at  the  Olympic  games,  and  at  the  Panathe- 
naean  festivals  of  Athens,  and  ultimately  improved  and  finished  atThurium  in 
Lower  Italy.  Its  main  subject  is  the  history  of  the  Greeks,  whose  conflicts 
with  the  Persians  he  details  down  to  the  battle  of  Mycale  ;  but  he  also  intro- 
duces much  that  pertains  to  the  Egyptians  and  Lydians.  That  he  wrote  in 
his  44th  year,  is  a  circumstance  of  some  importance  in  reference  to  his  chro- 
nology. His  style  is  characterized  by  dignity  and  simplicity  united,  and  pre- 
sents a  striking  resemblance  to  the  poetical  drapery  of  Homer,  the  more  obvi- 
ous perhaps  from  being  in  the  Ionic  dialect.  The  contents  of  the  work  are 
also  highly  instructive  and  useful ;  although  some  things  in  it  have  no  suffi- 
cient evidence  to  support  them.  He  too  readily  adopted  as  matter  of  fact 
whatever  the  Egyptian  priests  related  to  him,  either  from  traditionary  reports, 
or  possibly  from  their  own  arbitrary  invention.  It  must  be  remembered,  that 
he  offers  many  things  merely  as  popular  traditions  and  rumors. 

The  names  of  the  muses  are  said  to  have  been  given  to  the  different  books  of  Herodotus  by 
the  hearers,  who  admired  their  style  and  manner  when  rehearsed  at  the  games.  It  was  at  one 
of  these  rehearsals  that  Thucydidcs  was  affected  to  tears.  —  Schmll,n.  140  ss.  —  Rollin,  Hist,  of 
Polite  Learning,  ch.  ii.  art.  1.  sect.  i» 

2.  Plutarch  boldly  assailed  the  veracity  of  Herodotus,  in  his  piece  styled  JTaot  rfjg  rHooSo- 
rov  xazotfieius.  The  Father  of  history  is  ably  defended  by  a  modern,  the  Abbe  Gcinou 
See  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xix.  p.115.  xxi.  p.120.  xxm.  p.101. — Larrhcr,  as  cited  below.— Gillies, 
Hist.  Greece.— Schcell,  iv.  162. 

3.  Editions.— B — Schweighduser,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Strasb.1816.  6  vols.  8.  Repr.  Lond.1817.  6  vols.  8* 
To  this  belongs  the  Lexicon  Herodoteum,  by  the  same  editor,  published  1824.  2  volsi  8.  — 
T.  Gaisford.    Oxf.  1824.   Lpz.  1826.  4  vols.  8.   Gr.  only ;   but  "  rich   in   explanatory   notes." 

F.  —  Princeps,  by  Aldus.  Ven.1502.  fol.  —  Gale,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Lond.  1679.  fol.  —  fVesseling, 

Gr.  &.  Lat.  Amst.  1765.  fol.  much  celebrated R.— Labor,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Edinb.  1806.  7  vols.  8. 

Borluck,  Gr.  Lemg.  1803.  3  vols.  8.   "  defiled  with  typographical  errors."  —  Schultz  (the 

parts  relating  to  the  war  with  the  Persians).  Halle,  1809.  2  vols.  —  G.  II.  Schafer,  Gr.  &.  Lat. 
Lips.  1825.  3  vols.  8.  —  J.  C.  F.  Bdhr.  Lpz.  1835.  4  vols.  8.  Gr.  only  ;  Gaisford's  text ;  with  dis- 
sertation <fcc.  and  maps.  —  ft  G.  Long,  with  English  Notes.  Lond.  1832.  8.  with  a  Summary  of 
Herod,  and  copious  Index,  published  1839.  8.  —  C.  W.  Stocker,  with  Engl.  Notes.  Lond.  1832. 
2  vols.  8.  —  ft  Struve,  in  the  Biblioth.  of  Jacobs  and  Rost. 

4.  Translations.  —  German Degen.   Frankf.  1784-91.  6  vols.  8. J.  Lange.  Berl.  1812. 

1824.  2  vols.  8.  "best  for  a  philologian." French.— Larcher.  Par.1736.  7  vols.  8.  1802.  9  vols.  8. 

—  In  Gail's  ed.  Gr.  &  Fr.  Par.  1821.  4  vols.  8.  • English.— Beloe.  Lond.  1791.  1812.  4  vols.  8. 

enriched  with  valuable  notes.  —  P.  E.  Laurent.   Oxf.  1837.  2  vols.  8. 

5.  Illustrative.  —  Porti  Diction.  Ionicum  Grarco-Lat.  fcc.  new  edit.  Oxf.  1821.  8.  Struve,  of 
Konigsburg,  has  been  preparing  a  new  Lexicon  of  Herodotus.  Cf.  ft  7.  4.  (/.)  —  Borheck,  Ap- 
paratus ad^Herodotum  intelligendum.  Lemg.1795-99.  5  vols.  8.— Creiizer,  Comment.  Herodotea. 
Lpz.  1819.  8.— Const.  Fr.  dc  Voticy,  Supplement  a  l'Herodote  de  Larcher  &c.  Par.  1809.  2  vols.  8. 

—  Rennell,  Geographical  System  of  Herodotus  <kc.  2d  ed.  Lond.  1830.  2  vols.  8.  with  maps.  — 
B.  G.  Niebu.hr,  Dissertation  on  the  Geography  of  Herodotus.     Oxf.  1830.  8.  —  G.  L.  Heyse,  do 

22 


254  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

vita  Herodoti.  Berl.  1827. 8.  —  F.  Hittig,  De  Cadyti  urbe  Herodotea.  Gott.  1829. 4.  —  P.  H.  Lar- 
ther,  Notes  on  Herodotus,  transl.  from  the  French.  Lond.  1827.  2  vols.  8. 

§  242.  Thucydides  y  an  Athenian,  flourished  a  little  after  Herodo- 
tus, B.  C.  about  420.  His  master  in  rhetoric  was  Antiphon.  In  the 
Peloponnesian  war  he  was  a  commander  of  the  Athenian  allies. 

1  u.  During  his  banishment  from  his  native  city,  he  prepared  the  materials 
for  his  History,  of  which  that  war  forms  the  subject.  His  work  does  not, 
however,  contain  an  account  of  the  whole  war,  but  terminates  with  the  begin- 
ning of  the  21st  year.  It  is  characterized  by  an  impartial  love  of  truth,  and  a 
style  noble  and  highly  cultivated,  yet  sometimes  obscure  from  its  very  close- 
ness and  fullness  of  thought.  The  ancients  viewed  him  as  a  model  of  good 
Attic  ;  and  Demosthenes  formed  his  style  upon  Thucydides.  The  History  is 
usually  divided  into  8  books,  sometimes  13.  Of  most  of  the  incidents  related, 
he  was  himself  an  eye-witness  ;  the  rest  he  collected  with  great  diligence  and 
careful  scrutiny. 

2.  On  his  banishment  he  retired  to  Scaptesyle  in  Thrace,where  his  wife  owned 
a  valuable  mine,  and  spent  there  20  years,  returning,  it  is  said,  near  the  time 
when  Athens  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spartans  under  Lysander,  B.  C.  404. 

Schall,n.  157. —  S/n?'f/i,Discourse  on  the  Life  of  Thucydides,  in  his  Trans,  cited  below. — Rolling 
Polite  Learning,  ch.  ii.  art.  1.  sect.  2. 

3.  Editions.  —  B.  —  Bckkcr,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Oxf.  1824.  4  vols.  8.  with  Greek  scholia  and  notes  of 
Wasse  and  Duker.  —  %  E.  F.  Poppo,  Gr.  Lips.  1821-38.  10  vols.  8.  said  to  be  very  learned  and 
complete.  —  Gottlebcr  and  Bauer,  Gr.  <fc  Lat.  Lpz.  1790-1804.  2  vols.  4.  Better  as  repr.  (by 
Priestley)  Lond.  1819.  5  vols  8.  —  F.  Goller,  2d  ed.  Lpz.  1836.  2  vols.  8.   This  is  considered  the 

best  for  common  use. F.  —  Princeps,  by  Aldus.  Ven.  1502.  fol.  —  Junta.  Flor.  1526.  fol.  — 

H.  Stephanas,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1564.  fol.— Hudson,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1696.  fol.  celebrated.— Dukei; 

Gr.  &  Lat.   Amst.  1731.  2  vols,  fol.— The  Bipont,  Gr.  &  Lat.  1788.  6  vols.  8. R.— P.  Elmsley-, 

Gr.  &  Lat.  Edinb.  1804.  8  vols.  12.  accurate  and  very  good.  —  J.  B.  Gail,  Gr.  Lat.  &  Gall.  Par. 
1807.  12  vols.  8.  with  maps  and  plates.  —  C.  F.  F.  Haack.  Lpz.  1820.  2  vols.  8.  text,  with  brief 
notes.— Same,  Gr.  &  Lat.  with  scholia.  Lond. 1823.  4  vols.  8,—S.T.BloomJield.  Lond. 1830.  3  vols, 
12.  a  good  school  ed.  with  Engl,  notes.  —  T.  Arnold.  Oxf.  1835.  3  vols.  8.  with  maps  from  ao~ 
tual  survey  ;   considered  good. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  Heilmann.   Lemg.  1760.  8.  edit,  by  Brcdow.  Lemg.  1823.  8.  — 

Max.  Jacobi,  Dusseld.  1805.  4  vols.  8. French. — Levcsque.  Par.  1795.  4  vols.  8. English. — 

Smith.  Lond.  1753.  4th  ed.  1805.  2  vols.  8.  Phil.  1818.  —  S.T.  Bloomjield.  Lond.  1819.  3  vols.  & 
' — —Modern  Greek,  by  JV.  Dukas  (Douka),  with  orig.  text.   Vienn.  1806.  10  vols.  8. 

5.  Illustrative —  T.  F.  Benedict,  Comment.  Critici  in  Thuc.  Lips.  1815. 8.—E.  F.  Poppo,  Obs* 
crit.  in  Thuc.  Lips.  1815.  8.  —  Crcuzer,  Herodot.  und  Thucyd.  Versuch  einer  n'ahern  Wurdi- 
gung  ihren  historischen  Grundsatze.  Lpz.  1798. — L.  P.  Hupeden,  de  Periclis  laudatione  funebn 
Thuc.  ii.  35.  Lips.  1831.  8.  —  D.  H.  Meyer,  Periclis  ap.  Thuc.  oratio  fun.  expl.  Osn.  1832.  8.  — 
Smith,  Discourses  on  Thucydides  and  his  History,  pref.  to  Transl.  above  cited. —  Lex.Thucydi- 
dceum,  a  Gr.  &  Engl.  Diet.  Lond.  1824.  8. — Maps  and  Plans  illustrative  of  Thucydides  and  He- 
rodotus.  Oxf.  1829.  2  vols.  8. 

§  243.  XenopJion  has  already  been  named  among  the  philosophers 
(§186).     He  is  also  distinguished  as  a  historian. 

1  u.  His  style  is  peculiarly  excellent  in  narrative,  being  uniformly  simple, 
tasteful,  and  agreeable.  The  work  entitled  cE?.?.rjvixu  comprises  7  books,  and 
may  be  considered  as  a  continuation  of  Thucydides.  It  relates  the  closing 
scenes  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  carries  on  the  history  of  the  Greeks  and 
Persians  down  to  the  battle  of  Mantinea.  The  Expedition  of  Cyrus,  Kvoov 
3Avu^aaiq,  is  also  in  seven  books,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  attempts  of  the 
younger  Cyrus,  and  the  celebrated  retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks. 

2.  The  Cyropccdia ,  Kvqov  natdsla,  is  usually  ranked  as  a  historical  work, 
although  some  place  it  among  the  philosophical  writings  of  Xenophon.  It 
consist  of  8  books,  unfolding  the  education  and  life  of  the  elder  Cyrus.  Many, 
both  ancients  and  moderns,  have  considered  it  as  a  sort  of  historical  and  politi- 
cal romance.  Cicero  remarks  (lib.  1.  Ep.  1.  ad  Q.)  that  Xenophon's  design 
Was  not  so  much  to  follow  truth  as  to  give  a  model  of  a  just  government. 
There  are  several  points  of  discrepancy  between  Xenophon  and  Herodotus  in 
giving  the  history  of  Cyrus,  especially  in  reference  to  the  circumstances  of  his 
birth,  the  manner  of  his  uniting  the  Median  and  Persian  thrones,  and  the 
occasion  of  his  death. 

Cf.  Gillies,  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  vii.  xxxii.  (vol.  i.  p.  315.  and  in.  p.  501.  Lond.  1801.)— Mitford1 
ch.  xliii.  sect.  1  (vol.  vn.  p.  150.  Bost.  1823).  —  Scholl,  n.  p.  172,  and  references  there  given. 

3.  Editions.  —  wholi  works,  see  §186. heixemca.   Best,  J.  G.  Schneider.   Lpz.  1821.  8. 

Morus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1778.  S.—Bothc.  Lpz.  1823.  8.— L.  Dindorf.  Oxf.  1831.  8. anabasis, 

Hutchinson,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Oxf.  1735.4.  often  repr.  Best,  Camb.  1785.  8.  with  Poison's  addenda.  — 
Lion.  Gbtt.  1822. 2  vols.  8.  —  C  G.  Krvger.  Hal.  1826.  8.  with  excellent  notes  in  Latin.  —  E.  H. 


HISTORIANS.      XENOPHON.    CTESIAS.    POLYBIUS.  255 

Barker,  with  Engl,  notes.  Lond.  1831.  8. cyropjcdia,  Hutchinson,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Oxf.  1727.  4. 

often  repr.  Latest,  Oxf.  1812.  8.  (1st  Am.  Phil.  1806.  8.)  —  Poppo.  Lpz.  1821.  8.  —  Weckherlin. 
Stuttg.  1822.  8.—Bornemann,  in  Rost's  Bibliotheca. — E.  H.  Barker,  with  Engl.  Notes  and  Ques- 
tions.  Lond.  1833. 12. 

4.  Translations.  —  German. — Cyropmdia,  by  Meyer.  Frankf.  1813.  8.  —  Anabasis,  by  HalbcarL, 

2d  ed.  Bresl.  1822.  8.  —  Hellenica,  by  Borheck.  Frankf.  1783.  8. French.— Cyr op.  by  Dacier. 

Par.  1777.  —  Jlnab.  bv  Larcher.   Par.  1778.  2  vols.  12.  (Fuhrmann,  p.  218.) English.  —  Anab. 

by  Spelman.  Lond.  1742.  8.  Bv  JV.  S.  Smith,  Gr.  &  Angl.  with  notes.  Lond.  1824.  8.  —  Cyrop. 
by  Ashley.  (Am.  ed.   Phil.  1810.  8.) 

5.  Illustrative.  —  Fischer,  Kommentar  iiber  die  Cyrop.  (ed.  Kuinbl)  Lpz.  1800.  8.  —  F.  A. 
Bornemann,  Der  epilog  der  Cyropaedie  erlautert.   Lips.  1819.  8. —  C.  Hoffmeister,  De  Cyro  Xeno- 

phontis.   Meurs.  1826.  4.  —  J.  Klerk,  De  Vita  Crcesi,  in  Cyropaedia,  &c.   Lugd.  1826.  8. T.  M. 

Holzmann,  Wbrterbuch  zu  Anabasis  und  Cyropaedie.  Carlsr.  1818.  8. — Creuier,  de  Xenophonte 
historico.  Lips.  1799.  8.  —  Renncll,  Illustrations  of  the  Expeditions  of  Cyrus  and  Retreat  of  the 
Ten  Thousand.  Lond.  1814.  4.  —  Fraguier,  also  Banur,  3ur  Cyropaedia,  in  Hist.  Acad,  des  Inscr. 
ii.  45.  vi.  400.  —  Freret,  on  Geogr.  of  Cyrop.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  iv.  588. —  W.  Ainsicorth,  on  the 
Cilician  &  Syrian  Gates  (mentioned  by  Xenophon),  in  the  Journal  of  Lond.  Roy.   Oeog.  Soc. 

vol.  ntt.  p.  185.  —  W.  Williams,  Essay  on  the  Geography  of  the  Anabasis.   Lond.  1829. Maps 

and  Plans  illustrative  of  Xenophon  and  Polybius.  Oxf.  1829.  8. 

§  244.  Ctesias  lived  in  the  same  period,  B.  C.  about  400.  He  was 
a  native  of  Cnidus  in  Caria,  and  a  physician  by  profession. 

1m.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Assyrian  and  Persian  history  (LTtQaixoiv),  in  23 
books,  and  also  one  book  on  India  (' Irdixcor).  He  employed  the  Ionic  dialect, 
and  his  style  is  commended  by  the  ancient  grammarians.  The  credibility  of  his 
accounts  has  been  often  questioned,  yet  there  are  many  considerations  that 
weigh  in  favor  of  it.  The  loss  of  his  works  is  much  to  be  regretted.  We  have 
some  fragments  of  both,  however,  preserved  in  Photius. 

2.  Ctesias  is  at  variance  in  many  points  with  both  Herodotus  and  Xenophon.  His  history  of 
India  abounds  with  fables,  some  of  which  are  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  ascribing  an  actual 
existence  to  such  hieroglyphical  and  emblematic  figures  as  are  still  found  on  the  ruins  of  Per- 
sepolis. — Schcll,  n.  174.   vn,  436.  —  Gedoyn,  Mem.  de  l'Acad.  des  Inscr.  torn.  xiv. 

3.  The  fragments  of  Ctesias  are  given  in  many  editions  of  Herodotus.  —  Separately,  H.  Ste- 
phanus.   Par.  1557.— A.  Lion.  Gott.  1823.  S.—Bdhr.  Frankf.  1824. 

§  245.  Polybius,  of  Megalopolis  in  Arcadia,  nourished  between 
200  and  150  B.  C.  distinguished  as  a  statesman  and  a  warrior.  He 
lived  many  years  at  Rome,  where  he  became  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
younger  Scipio;  the  last  six  years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  his  na- 
tive land. 

1m.  His  work,  entitled  rJaTonia  xa6o?.ix>;.  General  History,  consists  of  40 
books  ;  and  is  a  universal  history  for  the  period  of  53  years,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  Punic  war  to  the  reduction  of  Macedonia  under  Perseus, 
B.  C.  167.  We  have  only  the  first  5  books  entire,  and  some  fragments  of  the 
rest  as  far  as  the  17th.  Polybius  was  the  author  of  a  new  method  of  treating 
history,  expressed  by  the  term  'pragmatic.  His  details  of  military  operations 
are  more  particular  and  interesting  from  his  personal  experience,  in  the  military 
art.  H'is  style  is  not  pure  and  classical,  yet  it  is  vigorous  and  manly,  and 
evinces  both  learning  and  reflection. 

2.  "  Polybius,"  says  Scholl,  "  gave  a  new  character  to  history,  and  created 
a  new  kind,  Vhistoire  raisonnte,  or  pragmatique  (jiQayuarixi)').  Not  content 
with  merely  relating  events,  he  unfolds  their  causes,  and  explains  their  conse- 
quences. He  paints  characters  and  passes  sentence  upon  actions.  Thus  he 
forms  the  judgment  of  his  reader,  and  prompts  the  reflections  which  may  pre- 
pare him  for  the  administration  of  public  affairs  (,tou;'k«tu)."  —  Cf.  Cicero  de 
Or.  ii.  5.  —  Of  the  books  after  the  17th  we  have  no  remains,  except  what  is 
found  in  two  meagre  abridgments,  which  the  emperor  Constantine  Porphyro- 
genitus  caused  to  be  made. — Polybius  was  born  B.  C.  205,  and  died  B.  C.  123. 

—  Scholl,  in.  226—230. 

3.  Editions.— B.—Schweigh'duser,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1789-95.  9  vols.  8.  with  a  copious  Lexicon. 

Repr.   Oxf.  1823.  5  vols.  8. F.  —  Princeps,  by   Obsopeeus,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Hagan.  1530.  fol.  — 

Arlenivs,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Bas.  1549.  fol Casavbon,  Gr.  &.  Lat.   Par.  1609,  fol.  highly  commended. 

—  Oronovius,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Amst.  1670.  3  vols.  8 Emesti,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Lpz.  1764.  3  vols.  8. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.— F.  W.  Beniken.   Weim.  1820.  8. French.—  V.Thuillier,  with 

comment,  of  Chev.  Folard.  Par.  1727.  G  vols.  4.  and  with  Suppl.  Amst.  1753.  7  vols.  4. Eng- 
lish.— Hampton.   Lond.  1772.  4  vols.  8.   1809.  3  vols.  8.  Cf.  Moss,  ii.  530. 

5.  Illustrative.  —  Lipsius,  Comment,  ad  Polybium,  cited  P.  IV.  §  275.  —  Reiske,  Animadver- 
eiones  ad  Polybium.  Lips.  1763.  8.— J.  Moor,  Criticisms  on  Polybius,  &c.  Glasg.1759.  12. — Dry- 
den's  Character  of  Polybius,  &c— See  references,  $  531.  4. 


256  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

§  246.  Diodorus  Siculus,  of  Argyrium,  lived  under  Julius  Caesar 
and  Augustus.  By  his  travels  over  a  great  portion  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  also  in  Egypt,  and  by  a  diligent  perusal  of  the  earlier  Greek 
and  Latin  historians,  he  prepared  materials  for  his  great  historical 
work. 

lu.  This  is  composed  of  40  books,  under  the  title  of  Bt^?.io&(xt)  i<nooi-/.',n 
extending  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  Caesar's  Gallic  war,  B.  C.  about  60. 
A  large  part  of  the  work  is  lost ;  we  have  only  15  books  (viz.  1-5  and  11-20), 
with  fragments  of  the  rest.  It  is  marked  by  a  careful  indication  of  the  order 
of  time,  but  has  less  merit  in  point  of  style,  or  accuracy  in  other  respects. 

2.  Diodorus  employed  30  years  in  completing  his  Historical  Library.  For  a  view  of  the  plan 
and  contents,  we  refer  to  Schbll,  vol.  iv.  81,  and  Rollin,  Polite  Learning,  ch.  ii.  art.  1.  sect.  6. 

3.  Editions.  —  B.  —  L.  Dindorf.  Lips.  1828-31.  5  vols.  8.  "  the  most  critical  and  valuable."' 
Heyne  &>■  Eyring,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Bipont,  1793-1807,  11  vols.  8.—  Wesseling,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Amst.  1746. 

2  vols.  fol. F.—Princcps,  by  Obsopceus.   Bas.  1539.  4.  (bks.  16-20.)— H.  Stephanus.  Par.  1559. 

fol.  (10  bks.  1-5  &  11-15.)  —  Rhodomann,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Han.  1604.  fol. 

4.  Translations.  —  German Stroth  fy  Kaltwasser.  Frankf.  1782-87.  6  vols.  8. French.— 

Abbe  Terasson.  Par.  1777.  7  vols.  12. English.—  G.  Booth.  Lond.  1721.  fol. 

§  247.  Dionysius  Halicarnasscus  has  been  mentioned  among  the 
rhetoricians  (§117).  He  lived  22  years  at  Rome,  and  there  collected 
the  materials  for  his  Roman  Archeology. 

lu.  This  work,  >dQ%atQloy'ia  Pwuaixt',,  comprised  20  books,  and  was  designed 
to  make  known  to  the  Greeks  the  origin,  history,  and  constitution  of  the  Ro- 
mans. It  extends  from  the  building  of  the  city  to  the  beginning  of  the  first 
Punic  war.  There  are  now  extant  only  the  first  11  books,  and  some  fragments 
of  the  rest,  in  part  recently  discovered  by  Mai.  The  extant  books  bring  the 
history  to  the  year  of  Rome  312,  B.C.  442.  His  narrative  is  not  wholly  im- 
partial, being  often  too  favorable  to  the  Romans,  and  his  style  is  not  unexcep- 
tionable. Yet  we  may  obtain  from  this  work  the  best  insight  of  the  Roman 
system  and  constitution,  because  the  author  was  led,  in  explaining  to  the 
Greeks  a  novel  and  strange  subject,  to  enter  into  particulars  much  more  than 
the  Roman  writers  needed  to  do. 

2.  We  learn  from  Photius,  that  Dionysius  made  an  abridgment  of  his  work  in  5  hooks.  Mai 
supposed  he  had  discovered  this  abridgment  in  a  manuscript  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Mi- 
lan j  but  the  specimen  published  by  him  does  not  justify  the  opinion.  —  Schbll,  vol.  i  v.  100.  — 
K.  L.  Struve,  Ueber  die  von  A.  Maius  bekannt  gemachten  Bruchstlicke  des  Dionysius  &c. 
Kbnigsb.  1820.  8. 

3.  There  have  been  three  editions  of  the  whole  works.  —  Princeps,  that  of  Sylburg,  Gr.  & 
Lat.  Frankf.  1586.  2  vols.  fol.  (there  were  editions  in  Latin  earlier.) — Hudson,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Oxf. 
1704.  2  vols,  fol.— Reiske,  Gr.  &  Lat.  1774-77.  6  vols.  8.— A  better  edition  wanted.— The  arche- 
ology, R.  Stephanus.  Par.  1546.  fol.  (with  other  work?.)—  Grinwi.  Lpz.  1786.  8.  (but  containing 
only  a  part). — The  fragment  discovered  in  the  Amb.  Libr.  was  published  by  Mai.  Mil.  1816.  4. 
Repr.  Frankf.  1817.  8. 

4.  Translations  of  the  Archmolog-y. — German.— Bender.  Lemij.  1771-72.  2  vols.  8. French. 

— Jay  if  Bellanger.  Par.  1723.  2  vol's.  4.   1806.  6  vols.  8. English.— Ed.  Spelmau.  Lond.  1758. 

4  vols.  4. 

5.  Illustrative. — Petit-Radel,  and  Raoul-Rochette,  on  the  authenticity  of  Dionysius  &c.  in  the 
Mem.  deVInstitut,  Classe  d>  Hist,  et  Litt.  Anc.  vol. v.  p.143. — Hooke,  Observat.  on  Rom.  Senate, 
Dionysius  Halyc.  &c.  Lond.  1758.  4.  —  E.  Stanley,  Review  of  Hooke' s  Observations  &.c.  Lond. 
1758.  8.  —  P.  F.  Schulin,  De  Dionys.  Hal.  historico  &x.   Heidelb.  1821.  4. 

§  248.  Flavins  Joscphus,  the  Jew,  was  born  at  Jerusalem  A.  D.  37. 
He  possessed  a  large  knowledge  of  the  world,  united  to  much  famili- 
arity with  Greek  learning.  Belonging  to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees, 
and  being  a  descendant  from  the  royal  Asmonaean  family,  he  held  the 
prefecture  of  Galilaea  with  much  reputation.  He  became  a  prisoner  to 
Vespasian,  but  obtained  his  freedom  and  accompanied  Titus  during 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem.     Afterwards  he  lived  at  Rome. 

lu.  His  Jewish  Wars,  in  7  books,  he  wrote  originally  in  Hebrew  or  Syro- 
Chaldaic,  afterwards  in  Greek  (  'Jovda'Cx'^  ioroqia  nt^t  u/.wosuk)  in  order  to 
present  the  work  to  the  emperor.  Subsequently  he  composed  his  Jewish  An- 
tiquities ('IovdaCxij  yAox<Aioloyia),  in  20  books,  containing  the  history  of  the 
Jews  and  their  ancestors  from  the  creation  to  the  12th  year  of  the  emperor 
Nero.  The  genuineness  of  a  passage  of  the  18th  book,  respecting  Christ,  is 
very  questionable,  and  is  by  many  considered  as  an  interpolation.      We  h^VQ 


HISTORIANS.     JOSEPHUS.    PLUTARCH.    ARRIANUS.  257 

also  from  Josephus  a  work  in  2  books  on  the  antiquity  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
and  an  auto-biography.  With  all  their  defects  the  writings  of  this  author  are 
of  great  value  in  illustrating  the  Bible  and  the  history  of  religion. 

2.  The  work  on  the  antiquity  of  the  nation  is  in  reply  to  Apion,  a  gramma- 
rian of  Alexandria.  —  A  work  styled  'Eig  MaxxaSatovs  ?.6yog  (found  in  some 
editions  of  the  apocryphal  scriptures  as  the  fourth  book  of  Maccabees) ,  has  been 
erroneously  ascribed  to  Josephus.  —  An  account  of  the  discussion  respecting 
the  disputed  passage  above  mentioned,  is  given  in  Scholl  (vol.  iv.  p. 116). 

3.  Editions.  —  whole  works,  best,  Hudson,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1720.  2  vols.  fol.  —  Havercamp, 
Gr.  &  Lat.  Amst.  1726.  2  vols.  fol.  —  Oberthvr,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1782.  3  vols.  8.  (promising  to 
be  the  best,  but  not  completed  on  account  of  the  editor'3  death.)  —  auto-biography,  Gr.  &. 
Lat.  Hcnke.  Bruns.  1786.  8.  —  de  bello  judaico.  E.  Cardwell,  Gr.  &  Lat.    Oxf.  1837.  2  vols.  8. 

4.  Translations.  —  Latin. — Rujinus  (or  Cassiodorus).  1470. German. — Hedion.  Strasb.  1531. 

fol.— OtU  Zur.  1736.  6  vols.  8. Spanish.— ./3Z.  de  Palencia.   Sev.  1492.  fol. French.—  Verard 

(printer).  Par.  1492.  M.—  Gillet.  Par.  1756.  4  vols.  4. Italian.— Florence,  1493.  fol. Eng- 
lish.—  Whiston.  Lond.  1737.  fol.  often  reprinted. 

§  249.  Plutarch  was  named  among  the  philosophers  (§  195),  but 
also  deserves  a  place  with  the  historians. 

1.  In  his  Parallel  Lives,  Bioi  7iaQ«?.hj?.oi,  he  exhibits  and  compares,  in  a 
very  full  and  instructive  manner,  the  characters  of  the  most  distinguished 
Greeks  and  Romans.  There  are  22  parallels,  giving  the  lives  and  characters 
of  44  persons  ;  with  which  is  connected  the  biography  of  5  individuals  taken 
singly.  The  lives  of  several  others,  said  to  have  been  written  by  him,  are  now 
lost. 

The  Lives  of  Plutarch  have  been  universally  considered  as  a  rich  treasure  for  the  antiquarian, 
the  statesman,  and  the  scholar.     They  contain  citations  of  a  vast  number  of  ancient  authors, 

manv  of  whom  are  wholly  lost. Heercn,  de  fontibus  et  auctoritate  vit.  parol.  Plut.  Commen- 

tationes.  Gott.  1820.  8. 

2.  We  have  several  other  works  of  a  historical  character  from  him  ;  among 
them,  Roman  Questions  (' Airiui  f ' Poniuixai)  and  Grecian  Questions  (5 Air'uti 
c EULyvixai),  in  which  he  discusses  various  points  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiqui- 
ties ;  Comparison  of  analogous  events  in  Greek  and  Roman  history  ;  On  the  for- 
tune of  Alexander,  &c.  The  Lives  of  the  10  orators,  ascribed  to  him  (§  99),  is 
not  considered  as  genuine.  —  A  son  of  Plutarch,  named  Lamprias,  formed  a 
catalogue  of  his  father's  works,  styled  TI'LvtUq/qv  Bipkiair  niraz,  which  is  pre- 
served in  part,  and  given  in  Fabricius. — Scholl,  vol.  iv.  118-163.    - 

3.  The  Lives  are  published  in  the  editions  of  the  whole  icorks,  cited  §195.  —  Separately,  Pr/n- 
reps,  by  Junta.  Florence,  1517.  fol. — Best,  Bryan,  £  Du  Soul,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lond.  1729.  5  vols.  4. — 
Coray.  Par.  1809.  6  vols.  8.  with  notes  in  modern  Greek.  —  $  O.H.  Schiifcr  (in  Teubner'sCoU.) 
Repr.  Lond.  1829.  6  vols.  12.  -$F.  Jacobs,  in  the  Bibliothcca  ,1836. 

4.  Translations.  —  Latin. — Campania;  Rom.  1640.  2  vols.  fol.     The  Lives  were  published  in 

Latin  versions  several  times  before  the  first  edit,  in  Greek. German.  —  Kalticasser.   Magd. 

1799-1806.  10  vols.  8.  —  Klaiber,  in  the  Collection  of  Tafcl,  &c. French.  —  Jlmyot,  Whole 

Works  of  P.  (rec.  ed.)  Par.  1784.  18  vols.  4.  (cf.  Ftihrmann,  p.  394.)— Dacier.  (rec.  ed.)  Par.  1812. 

15  vols.  18. English.  —  J.  $■  TV.  Langhorne.  Lond.  1770.  6  vols.  8.  with  notes  and  a  Life  of 

Plutarch.    Several  times  reprinted. 

§  250.  Flavins  Arrianus,  of  Nicomedia,  in  the  2d  century,  has 
already  been  mentioned  among  the  philososophers  (§  194).  He  was 
not  without  celebrity  as  a  writer  of  history,  in  which  department  he 
was  a  very  successful  imitator  of  Xenophon. 

1  u.  He  composed  an  account  of  the  Expedition  of  Alexander  in  7  books, 
*Iotoqio)v  arapuoswc  ' A/.azurHoov  pip.ia  l.  and  a  work  on  the  Affairs  of  India, 
yIv8r/.a,  which  continues  the  history  of  Alexander.  The  latter  has  been  con- 
sidered as  the  8th  book  of  the  former,  but  without  grounds,  although  there  is 
indeed  a  connection  by  the  subject.  The  former  is  written  in  the  Attic  dia- 
lect, the  latter  in  the  Ionic.  In  the  latter  work  he  borrowed  much  from  the 
Periplus  of  Nearchus. 

2.  Arrian  wrote  also  several  other  historical  works,  which  are  lost;  among 
them  a  history  of  Parthia,  LTvcQ&iy.'a,  in  17  books;  of  Bithynia,  Bitowtaxa,  in  8 
books;  of  the  times  subsequent  to  Alexander,  T'u  uira  }A?.s:uvSqov. — There  are 
still  extant,  besides  what  has  here  been  named  and  his  philosophical  writings 
(§194),  a  treatise  on  Tactics,  Tiyvt\  xattrtxi/',  another  on  the  Chase,  Kvvtjyin- 
xbg  ;  and  a  Periplus  of  the  Black  Sea,  HtqinXovg  Evithov.  A  Periplus  of  the 
Red  Sea,  "EovQqag  6a?.aoo>ig,  also  bears  his  name. — Scholl,  iv.  166.  v.  256,  306, 

22* 


258  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

3.  Editions.  —  whole  works.  The  only  edition,  A.  C.  Borhcck.   Lemg.  1792.   1811.  3  ro2s.  S. 

not  highly  commended.  —  f.xped.  of  alex.  Best,  Schmicder,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1798.  8. J.  E. 

EUendt.  Kbnigsb.  1832.  2  vols.  8.  Gr.  only  ;  best  text,  with  explanatory  notes. i^dia,  Schmie- 

der.  Hal.  1788.  8.  A  good  edition  of  both  these  together,  Raphel  (by  Schmid),  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Amst. 
1757.  2  vols.  8.  —  tactics.  —  Best,  Blancard,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Amst.  1683.  containing  also  the  Peripli 
and  Chase.  The  Peripli  are  also  in  Hudson,  Geog.  Mia.  cited  $  208.  2.  —  The  Chase  in  Zeune's 
Polit.  of  Xenophon,  cited  §186.  3. 

4.  Translations. Alexander's  Expedition.— German.— Borheck.  Frankf.  1790-92.  2  vols.  8.  — 

French.—  Chaussard.  Par.  1802.  3  vols.  8. English. — I.  Rook.  Lond.  1729.  rec.  ed.  1814. 

2  vols.  8. 

5.  Illustrative.— P.  0.  Chys,  Comment,  geograph.  in  Arr.  de  Expedit.  Alexandri.  Lugd.  1828. 
4.  witli  maps. 

6.  The  Periplus  of  Xearchus,  mentioned  above,  is  found  in  Hudson,Geos.'Slin.  referred  to  above. 
See  W.  Vincent,  Voyage  of  Nearchus  from  the  Indus  &c.  Lond.1797.  18101 3  vols.  4.   Cf.  P.  I.  §  27. 

§  251.  Appianus  of  Alexandria  flourished  at  Rome  as  a  lawyer,  in 
the  2d  century,  in  the  reigns  of  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius, 
and  finally  acquired  the  office  of  imperial  procurator. 

1  u.  He  wrote  a  Roman  History/  Iaroo[ar  Ptouaixif,  in  24  books,  of  which  we 
have  only  11,  with  some  fragments.  It  extends  from  the  destruction  of  Troy 
to  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  order  of  narration  is  not  chronological,  but  the 
events  are  arranged  with  reference  to  the  countries  or  the  nations  particularly 
concerned  ;  thus  in  different  divisions  he  treats  of  different  wars,  in  which  the 
Romans  ware  engaged,  as  e.  g.  the  Punic,  Parthian,  Iberian  or  Spanish,  Syrian, 
Mithridatic,  &c.  In  this  work  much  is  borrowed  from  others,  especially  from 
Polybius  and  Plutarch.  It  is  particularly  serviceable  in  giving  an  idea  of  the 
Roman  system  of  war  and  military  affairs. 

2.  In  his  preface,  Appian  states  the  reason  of  his  renouncing  synchronism  as  a  principle  of 
historical  arrangement;  viz.  the  weariness  occasioned  by  being  obliged  to  turn  the  attention 
from  province  to  province  as  the  scene  of  events  is  changed  ;  to  hurry,  for  example,  from  Car- 
thage to  Spain,  from  Spain  to  Sicily,  from  Sicily  to  Macedonia,  and  thence  again  to  Carthage. 
The  style  of  Appian  is  formed  on  that  of  Polybius,  but  is  inferior  to  it.  He  is  charged  with  par- 
tiality in  favor  of  the  Romans.  —  Scholl,  it.  p.  173-176.  —  J.  Schweighduser,  On  Appian,  in  his 
Opuscula  Academica.   Argent.  1806.  8. 

3.  Editions.  —  The  best,  Schweighduser,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Lpz.  1785.  3  vols.  8. F.  —  Princeps  y 

by  C.  Slcphanus.  Par.  1551.  fol. —  if.  Stepfianus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Gen.  1592.  fol.—  Tollius,  Gr.  &LaL 
Amst.  1670.  2  vols.  8. R — Schdfcr,  in  the  Coll.  of  Tauchnitz.  4  vols.  18. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  Dillenius.   Frankf.  1793,  1800.  2  vols.  8. French. T.  J. 

Combes-Daunous.   Par.  1808.  3  vols.  8. English.— Davies.  Lond.  1679.  1703.  fol. 

§  252.  Dion  Cassius,  surnamed  Cocceianus,  of  Nicaea  in  Bithynia, 
lived  at  the  close  of  the  2d  and  beginning  of  the  3d  century,  and  was 
twice  Roman  Consul. 

1  u.  During  along  residence  at  Rome  he  made  himself  familiar  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  Romans,  on  which  he  wrote  a  work  in  8  Decades,  or  80  books,  ex- 
tending from  iEneas  to  his  own  time,  A.  D.  229.  The  first  35  books,  however, 
are  lost,  excepting  some  fragments  ;  we  have  the  succeeding  books,  from  the 
36th  to  the  54th,  almost  entire,  and  the  55th  in  parts  ;  of  the  following,  to  the 
60th,  we  have  an  abridgment  by  an  unknown  hand  ;  and  the  remaining  20 
books  are  in  the  abridgment  made  by  Xiphilinus  in  the  11th  century.  Dion 
details  with  much  exactness,  but  his  style  is  often  too  much  labored,  and  he  is 
sometimes  unnecessarily  minute. 

2.  His  name  was  properly  Cassius,  and  lie  is  said  to  have  assumed  the  other  as  descended,  by 
his  mother,  from  Dion  Chrysostomus  (§118).  Much  of  his  life  was  spent  in  public  official  em- 
ployments. The  remains  of  his  work  enable  us  to  fill  up  many  chasms  in  Roman  history,  and 
form  our  most  important  guide  for  the  events  of  his  own  times.  The  abridgment  by  Xiphilinus, 
alluded  to  above,  was  drawn  up  by  order  of  the  emperor  Michael  Ducas,  and  extends  from  the 
35th  book  to  the  end  of  the  original.— Scholl,  iv.  180-187, 

3.  Editions.  —  Best,  Rrimar  (begun  by  FabHcius),  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Hamb.  1750.  2  vols.  fol.  Some 
fragments  published  by  Morelli  (1728.  8.)  were  repr.  (ed.  Chardon  la  Rochctte)  Par.  1800.  in  folio, 

in  order  to  be  joined  with  this  edition. F.  G.  Stun,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lips.  1834-38.  9  vols.  8.  with 

notes  of  Reimar  and  others. F.  —  Princeps,  by  R.  Stephunus.  Par.1548.  fol.  —  H.  Stephanus. 

Gr.  &  Lat.   Gen.  1592.  fol.  —  Lcunclavius,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Han.  1606.  fol. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.— J.  A.  Wagner.  Frankf.  1783-86.  5  vols.  8. English. — Manning. 

Lond.  1704.  2  vols.  8. 

§  253.  Claudius  jElianus,  of  Prasneste  in  Italy,  was  a  sophist  of 
the  3d  century  ;    but  he  is  usually  ranked  among  the  historians. 

lu.  He  is  thus  ranked  on  account  of  his  work  entitled  Jlolxih]  loroola,  Va- 
rious history,  in  14  books.  It  is  a  mere  compilation  of  miscellaneous  incidents, 
made  without  much  close  scrutiny  or  discrimination  ;  yet  the  narratives  are 
very  entertaining,  although  the  style  is  unequal  and  sometimes  affected.     &*- 


BIOGRAPHERS.     DIOGENES  LAERTIUS.    PHILOSTRATUS.  259 

Iian  also  wrote  a  history  of  animals  (§  277).   The  work  on  Tactics,  which  some 
have  ascribed  to  him,  was  probably  from  an  earlier  writer  of  the  same  name. 

2.  Although  he  was  descended  from  Latin  parents,  and  according  to  his 
own  testimony  never  went  beyond  the  borders  of  Italy,  he  acquired  such  a 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  that  he  was,  according  to  Philostratus,  con- 
sidered worthy  of  a  rank  among  the  purest  Atticists,  and  according  to  Suidas, 
obtained  the  surname  of  MtUfpOoyyog  {honey-voiced).  —  Besides  the  works 
above  named,  there  are  also  ascribed  to  him  20  Letters  on  rural  topics  £  AyQoi- 
xai  zTtiorolai),  of  but  little  value. — SchOll,  iv.195. — Stollius,  Int.  in  Hist.  Lit. 
(Jena.)  1728. 

3.  Of  the  Var.  History B.—Gi-onovius,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Amst.  1731.  2  vols.  4 F.  Jacobs,  Gr- 

only.  Jena,  1830.  8.  with  notes. Principal  earlier  ;  Sckeffcr,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Ardent.  1685.  8. — 

Perhonius,  Gr.  &  Lat.   Lug.  Bat.  1701.  2  vols.  8. R.— Coray.  Par.  1805.  8.  with  notes  in  an- 
cient Greek.  —  Liincmann.  Gbtt.  1811.  8. The  Letters  are  found  in  the  collections  of  Aldua 

and  Cujas,  cited  §  152.  1. Of  the  work  on  Tactics  (hy  the  elder  ^Elian  A.  D.  120),  the  best 

edition  is  that  of  S.  Arcerius  {Elzevir  printer).    Leyd.  1613.  4. The  ichole  works  of  both  the 

iEIians  were  published  by  Oessner,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Tiguri  (Zurich),  1556.  fol. 

4.  Translations.  —  Various  History.— German,  by  Meinecke.  (iuedl.  1787.  8. French,  by 

J.  Dacier.   Par.  1772.  8. English,  by  T.  Stanley.   Lond.  1665.  8.  Tactics.  —  German,  by 

Baumgdrtncr.   Mannh.  1786.  4. 

§  254.  Uerodianus  the  historian,  not  the  same  as  JElius  Uerodia- 
nus named  among  the  grammarians  (§136),  lived  at  Rome  towards 
the  middle  of  the  3d  century. 

1m.  He  wrote  the  history  of  those  emperors  whose  reigns  he  had  seen,  from 
the  death  of  Marcus  Aur.  Antoninus  to  the  accession  of  the  younger  Gordian, 
A.  D.  180 — 238,  T>js  usra  Muqxov  paoiltiag  [otoqIcu,  in  8  books.  It  is  exe- 
cuted with  much  frankness  and  love  of  truth,  but  with  too  little  precision  in 
respect  to  chronology.  His  style  is  pure,  and  in  the  discourses  or  addresses, 
which  he  has  introduced,  there  is  a  great  degree  of  nobleness  and  dignity, 
without  excess  of  labored  ornament. 

2.  The  best  edition  of  Herodian  is  that  of  G.  W.  Irmisch,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1789-1805.  5  vols.  8. 
(with  a  vast  mass  of  notes.)  —  A  better  text  is  found  in  Wolf  (Gr.  only).  Hal.  1792.  8. — A  good 
ed.  for  common  use  is  Weber  (Gr.  only).   Lpz.  1816.  8. — Also  G.  Lange.  Hal.  1824.  8. 

3.  Translations.  —  Latin. — Ing.  Politian.  Rom.  1493.  fol.  This  was  made  by  order  of  Inno- 
cent 8th,  and  was  greatly  admired  and  often  reprinted. German.  —  J.  G.  Cunradi.  Frankf. 

1784.  8. English.— J.  Hart.   Lond.  1749.  8. French.— H.  de  Montgault.   Par.  1712.  12. 

§255a.  Diogenes  Laertius  flourished  probably  in  the  beginning  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury. Little  is  known  respecting  his  life.  He  left  a  work  entitled  JIsol  (titan 
r.ul  SoyuuTwv  riov  iv  (pi?.oooip'trc  ivdoy.iutinuvrov,  in  10  books,  which  contains  the 
biography  of  the  principal  philosophers  of  the  various  sects,  and  their  most  re- 
markable apothegms.   The  whole  of  the  last  book  is  devoted  to  Epicurus. 

The  contents  are  stated  by  Schdll,  vol.  v.  p.  226. 

1.  Editions.  —  B.  —  H.  G.  Hubner,  Gr.  &.  Lat.   Lips.  1828.  2  vols.  8.   A  commentary  on  the 

first  5  books,  by  same.   Lips.  1830.  8. F. — Princcps,  by  Froben  (the  sons  of).  Bas.  1553.  4.  — 

H.  Stephanus,  Gr.  &  Lat.     Par.  1570-94.  2  vols.  8.  —  |  M.  Meibomius,    Gr.  &  Lat.     Amst.  1692. 
2  vols.  4.  —  Longolius,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  (text  of  Jlleib.)  Hof.  1739.  2  vols.  8.  with  engravings  of  heads. 

2.  Translations.  —  The  work  was  first  published  in  the  Latin  of  Ambrosius  (Traversari), 
before  1475.  A  2d  ed.  Ven.  1475.  fol.  —  Walter  Barley,  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century, 
translated  or  closely  followed  Diogenes,  in  the  work  styled  De  vita  ct.moribus  philosopher -urn  &c» 
which  was  printed  at  Cologne,  1472.  4.    He  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  had  a  better  text  of  the 

original  than  is  now  possessed,  (cf.  Wolfs  Analekt.  Lit.  ii.  227.) German.— E.  A.  Borheck. 

Vien.  1807.  2  vols.  8. French.  —  (Anonymous.)  Amst.  1758.  3  vols.  12.  Par.  1796.  2  vols.  8. 

English.— By  several  authors.  Lond.  1688.  2  vols.  8. 

§255b.  Flavius  Philostratus  the  elder,  from  Lemnos,  lived  in  the  3d 
century,  and  in  the  profession  of  sophist  taught  eloquence  both  a,t 
Athens  and  Rome. 

1m.  We  have  from  him  the  Life  of  Apollonhis  Tyanensis,  3 AnoU.wiov  rod 
Tvavlwg  /Sioc,  in  8  books,  full  of  the  most  extravagant  encomiums,  especially 
upon  the  miracles  of  Apollonius,  who  lived  about  A.  D.  70. 

2.  It  has  been  thought  by  many  that  Philostratus  designed,  in  his  biography  of  Apollonius, 
to  ridicule  the  life  and  miracles  of  our  Savior.  In  the  time  of  Bioclesian,  less  than  a  century 
after  Philostratus,  his  work  was  placed  by  Hieroclesof  Nicomedia  in  opposition  to  the  writings 
of  the  evangelists.  The  absurdity  of  this  was  afterwards  exposed  by  Eusebius.— Huet,  DemonsL. 
Evang.  Prop.  ix.  c.  147.— ScMll,  iv.  289— Cf.  $  287,  288. 

3  m.  There  is  also  a  work  by  him  entitled  Ely.oveg,  in  2  books,  containing  66 
descriptions  of  paintings  in  a  gallery,  which  was  at  Naples. — There  is  a  work 
with  the  same  title  by  Philostratus  the  younger,  who  was  nephew  to  the  for- 


260  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

mer  and  also  of  Lemnos.    It  is  in  some  respects  valuable  for  artists,  although 
wanting  in  precision  and  simplicity. 

The  books  on  painting  have  received  attention  from  modern  writers.  —  There  is  a  work  on 
statues,  by  Callistratus,  of  an  unknown  era,  which  is  usually  joined  with  them. — Count  Caylus, 
Mem.  Acad.  laser,  torn.  xxix.  —  Heyne,  in  his  Opusc.  Acad.  vol.  v.  —  Fr.  Jacobs,  Animad.  in  Cal- 
listrati  statuas  et  Philost.  imagines.  Lips.  1797.  8. — Rehfues  Uber  den  jiingern  Philost.  u.  seine 
Gemlildbeschreib.  Tub.  1800.  8. 

4.  We  have  other  works  by  Philostratus.  In  a  piece  called  'HQta'iy.a,  he 
gives  the  fabulous  history  of  21  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war.  He  has  left  also 
about  70  letters,  and  an  epigram  found  in  the  Anthologies.  But  a  more  inter- 
esting and  valuable  work  is  his  Lives  of  the  Sophists,  Bioi  ooyiortov,  in  2books. 
One  book  gives  the  biography  of  26  philosophical  sophists;  the  other,  of  33 
rhetorical  sophists.  It  contains  a  fund  of  anecdotes  illustrating  the  manners 
and  morals  of  these  ostentatious  pretenders,  and  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
decline  of  genuine  eloquence. — Scholl,  iv.  190. 

5.  Editions.  —  Of  the  complete  works,  there  have  been  two  editions. — Morel.  Par.  1608.  fol. — 

Olearius.   Lpz.  1709.  fol.  containing  also  Philostratus  the  younger. After  the  edition  of  Ole- 

arius,  no  part  of  Phil,  was  published  (according  to  Scholl,  i  v.  296)  until  the  Hcroica  by  Boissonade, 
Gr.  &  Lat.   Par.  1806.  8.  —  Imagines,  by  F.  Jacobs   $  F.  T.  Welckcr.  Lips.  1825.  8.  containing 

also  Callistratus  on  statues. Cf.  O.  J.  Bekker,  var.  lect.  et  observ.  in  Philost.  vit.  Apollon. 

Sec.   Heidelb.  1818 C.  L.  Kaijser,  Not.  crit.  in  Philost.  Vit.  Sophistarum.   Heidelb.  1831.  8. 

6.  Translations.  —  German. —  Whole  works,  by  Scybold.   Lemg.  1777.  2  vols. English.  — 

Lives  of  Sophists,  by  Edw.  Berwick.   Lond.  1812.  8.      Also  Life  of  Apollonius.    Cf.  Land.  Quart. 
Rev.  in.  417. French.— Life  of  Apollonius,  by  Castillon.  Berl.  1774.  4  vols.  12. 

§255c.  Eunapius  was  a  native  of  Sardis.  He  studied  in  Athens,  and  traveled 
in  Egypt,  and  afterwards  officiated  in  Lydia  as  a  pagan  priest.  He  is  named 
here  on  account  of  his  work  entitled  Biui  ipi/.oooipow  xai  oo^jo-T<5v,which  contains 
notices  of  23  philosophers  and  sophists,  who  lived  in  his  time,  or  not  long  be- 
fore. It  betrays  his  hostility  to  the  Christian  system. —  Cousin,  Nouv.  Fragm. 
Phil.  (p.  200)  cited  §171. 

There  have  been  four  editions  of  Eunapius.  —  Princeps,  by  Ad.  Junghe  (Junius),  Gr.  &  Lat. 
Antw.  1568.  8.  —  The  last,  and  best,  by  J.  F.  Boissonade,  Gr.  only.  Amst.  1822.  2  vols.  8.  with 
notes.— Cf.  Scholl,  vn.  70. 

§  256.  Zosimus  flourished  in  the  5th  century.  He  held  the  office  of 
Comes  Fisci  at  Constantinople. 

lu.  His  New  History,  Nia  'IotoqIcc,  in  6  books,  embraces  the  reigns  of  the 
emperors  from  Augustus  down  to  A.  D.  410.  The  style  is  pure,  perspicuous, 
and  not  destitute  of  ornament.  But  he  is  by  no  means  an  impartial  writer, 
and  appears  to  have  been  strongly  prejudiced  against  Christianity. 

2.  Polybius  had  exhibited  the  causes  which  contributed  to  the  rise  of  Ro- 
man grandeur.  Zosimus,  in  imitation  of  this  distinguished  writer,  proposed 
to  trace  the  causes  of  its  decline.  His  object  and  plan  were  good,  but  he  had 
not  the  requisite  qualifications  for  the  task.  Among  the  causes  he  erroneously 
ranks  the  establishment  of  the  Christian  religion. — Scholl,  vi.  338 — 348. 

3.  The  best  editions  ;  Reitcmeier,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1784.  8.  (Fuhrmann.)  —  I.  Bekker.  Bonn. 
1838.  8.  in  Nicbuhr's  Corpus,  cited  §239a. —  The  first  complete  ed.  was  in  Sylburg's  collection, 
Script.  Htst.  Rom.  Franc.  1590. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  Scybold  and  Heyler.    Frankf.  1802.  2  vols.  8. French,  by 

Cousin. 

§  257.  Procopius,  a  native  of  Ccesarea  in  Palestine,  flourished  in 
the  6th  century,  as  a  sophist  and  lawyer  at  Constantinople.  He  was 
a  friend  to  Belisarius,  and  held  for  a  long  time  the  office  of  prefect  of 
the  Capital. 

1m.  He  wrote  a  History  of  his  own  times,  in  8  books,  Ttov  ■/.ah''  uvrov  iotoqiw* 
(ii^/.ia  ozTw.  The  work  is  divided  into  2  tetrades,  the  first  4  books  being  called 
Persic,  and  the  last  4  Gothic,  including  a  period  of  70  years,  A.  D.  482 — 552. 
The  former  portion  describes  the  wars  of  the  Romans,  both  with  the  Persians 
and  with  the  Vandals  and  Moors  in  Africa ;  and  the  latter,  those  with  the 
Goths.  He  has  left  also  a  work  styled  >Avix8ora,  which  is  a  secret  history  of 
the  Court  of  Constantinople  under  Justinian;  and  another  called  KrUiuura, 
Buildings,  in  6  books,  in  which  he  describes  the  various  works  constructed  or 
repaired  by  Justinian.    His  style  has  the  merit  of  accuracy  and  clearness. 

2.  The  Corpus  of  Byz.  Hist,  (cited  §  239)  includes  the  three  works  of  Procopius,  edit,  by  C. 
Maltret,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1662,  63.  3  vols,  fol.— ed.  by  G.  Dindorf,  1833.  3  vols.  8.  in  the  Corpus 
$c.  Cf.  $  239a — A  German  translation  of  the  secret  history,  by  J.  P.  Reinhard.  Erlang.  1753.  8. 


HISTORIANS.     PROCOP1US.    ZONARAS.    DARES.  261 

§  258.  Agathias,  of  Myrina  in  ^Eolis,  has  already  been  mentioned 
as  an  author  of  Epigrams  and  editor  of  an  Anthology  (§34,  35).  Ho 
was  a  Christian  jurist  or  advocate,  of  the  Alexandrine  school,  and 
lived  at  Constantinople  in  the  6th  century. 

1m,  We  have  from  him  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  Procopius,  through 
7  additional  years,  in  a  work  entitled  lleQi  xrtg  'lovorniavov  paoikslag,  On  th& 
reign  of  Justinian. 

2.  This  work  is  divided  into  5  books.  His  style  has  been  thought  to  suffer 
from  the  author's  habits  as  a  poet.  He  speaks  of  himself  as  being  especially- 
fond  of  poetry  from  his  youth.  His  History  derives  much  of  its  value  from 
an  account  it  contains  of  Persian  institutions  and  usages  drawn  directly  by 
him  from  Persian  writings. — Scholl,  vi.  377. — For.  Rev.  No.  n. 

3.  The  first  edition  was  by  B.  Vulcanius,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Leyd.  1594.  4.  —  Included  in  the  Corp. 
Byz.  Par.  1660.  fol.  with  his  epigrams.— By  B.  O.  JVicbuhr,  Gr.  &  Lat.  1828.  8.  in  his  ed.  of  the 
Corpus  Byz. 

§  259.  Zonaras  (Johannes)  flourished  at  Constantinople  in  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries.  He  was  raised  to  distinguished  honors  in  the 
court  of  the  emperor  Alexius  Comnenus,  but  resigned  them  and  re- 
tired as  a  monk  to  Mt.  Athos. 

lu.  Of  many  works  composed  by  him  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  we  notice 
as  belonging  here  his  Annals,  Xqovixot,  in  18  books,  including  a  general  his- 
tory from  the  beginning  of  the  world  down  to  A.  D.  1118.  It  consists  of 
abridgments  or  extracts  from  larger  works,  and  exhibits  great  inequality  of  style. 
The  history  of  the  Jews  is  given  first,  then  that  of  the  Greeks  and  of  the  Ro- 
man Republic,  and  lastly  that  of  the  Roman  Empire.  In  the  latter  part  he 
closely  follows  Dion  Cassius. 

2.  Another  work  of  Zonaras  was  an  Exegesis  on  the  Canons  of  the  Apostles,  Synods,  and 
Fathers.  He  left  also  a  Lexicon  or  Glossary,  which  is  useful  as  a  concomitant  to  that  of  He- 
eychius.— ScJioll,  vi.  288,  358.  vn.  241. 

3.  The  Annals  were  first  published  by  Wolf,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Bas.  1551.  3  vols,  fol.— Repr.  in  Corp. 

Byz.  Ducange,  ed.  1686. The  Exegesis  is  in  Beveridge,  Synodicon  sive  Pandect,  canonum 

S.  S.  apost.  concil.  ab  eccles.  Grose,  receptorum.  1672.  2  vols.  fol. Lexicon,  by  Tittmann  (cf. 

$142.4).   Lpz.  1808.  3  vols.  4. 

§  260.  Dares  the  Phrygian,  and  Dictys  the  Cretan,  may  be  men- 
tioned in  closing  our  list  of  names  in  the  department  of  history. 
Their  era  is  uncertain,  and  their  value  trifling. 

1.  Homer  (II.  v.  9)  mentions  Dares  as  a  priest  of  Vulcan  at  Troy.  JElian 
(Var.  Hist.  xi.  2.)  states  that  an  Iliad  or  history  of  the  Trojan  war  by  Dares 
was  extant  in  his  times  ;  yet  this  work  was  probably  not  from  the  Trojan  priest, 
but  the  fabrication  of  some  sophist.  There  is  extant  a  work  in  Latin,  entitled 
De  excidio  Troja  kistoria,  which  has  been  taken  for  a  translation  made  by 
Cornelius  JYepos  from  the  Greek  of  Dares.  It  is  now  admitted  to  be  merely 
the  prose  outline  of  a  poem  in  6  cantos  by  Joseph  Iscanius,  who  was  an  Eng- 
lish poet  of  the  12th  century,  born  at  Exeter  in  Devonshire,  and  called  Isca- 
nius from  Jsca  the  ancient  name  of  Exeter,  and  sometimes  Davonius  from  his 
native  county.  (Cambdens  Britannia,  p. 133.  Publ.  in  Latin  1607.  fol.  English, 
by  Gibson, 1617.) 

2.  There  was  a  kindred  fabrication  in  Greek,  made  by  Praxis,  in  the  name 
of  Dictys  Cretensis,  who  is  said  to  have  served  in  the  Trojan  war.  and  to  have 
kept  a  journal  (i(pt;ue<)is)  of  its  events.  The  original  Greek  is  lost;  but  there 
is  a  Latin  version  in  6  books.    Cf.  §  238,  522.— Scholl,  iv.  107. 

3.  The  pretended  works  of  Dares  and  Dictys  (§  238)  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  original 
source  of  the  famous  romance  of  chivalry  by  Guido  dalle  Colonne  (de  Columna),  a  Sicilian  lawyer 
and  poet  of  the  13th  century.  This  romance,  the  second  that  was  written  of  the  chivalric  class, 
was  translated  from  the  Latin  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and  received  with  universal 
enthusiasm.  The  first  romance  of  this  class  is  traced  to  an  eastern  origin  in  a  Persian  tale  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  translated  first  into  Greek  and  then  into  Latin.— Scholl,  vn.  3-5.  194-96. 
—Fabricius,  Biblioth.  Lat.  vol.i.  p.  116.— W.  Ouscley,  on  some  extraordinary  anecdotes  of  Alex- 
ander;  in  the  Transact,  of  the  Roy.  Soc.  of  Literature,  vol.  i.  Lond.  1829. 

4.  Dares  and  Dictys  have  usually  been  published  together.  The  first  edition  was  printed, 
Milan,1477.— The  best  edition  is  that  of  Per izonius.  Amst.  1702.  8.  a  reimp.  of  Madame  Dacicr'a 
(Par.  1680.  4),  and  containing  the  poem  of  Joseph  Iscanius  (cf.  §  522).  —  These  works  were 
translated  in  the  16th  century  into  the  Italian,  French,  and  German.  A  Russian  version  was 
published,  Mosc.  1712.  8.  Cf.  Fabricius,  above  cited,  p.  112. 


262  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 


X. — Writers  on  Medicine  and  Natural  History. 

§261?/.  The  science  of  Medicine  is  founded  essentially  upon  observation  and 
experience,  and  is  one  of  those  which  were  but  imperfectly  understood  in  an- 
cient times.  Indeed,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  it  could  not  be  brought  to 
perfection  until  later  periods.  The  same  is  true,  to  a  considerable  extent,  of 
Natural  History  and  Physics  in  general.  Yet  these  sciences  were  pursued 
among  the  Greeks  not  without  some  zeal  and  success.  But  their  success  in 
them  can  by  no  means  be  compared  with  that  which  they  enjoyed  so  peculiarly 

and  happily  in  literature  and  the  fine  arts. At  first  the  practice  of  medicine 

was  limited  almost  wholly  to  the  curing  of  external  wounds.  The  great  re- 
nown which  Esculapius  ('Aoy.l.ijTciog,  cf.  P.  III.  §  84.)  and  his  descendants 
called  the  Asclepiades  obtained,  is  a  proof  of  the  novelty  and  rarity  of  the  heal- 
ing art  in  those  times,  in  which  in  fact  it  was  considered  as  a  miraculous  gift 
from  the  gods.  The  Asclepiades  established  several  schools  in  medicine,  of 
which  those  at  Rhodes,  Cos,  and  Cnidus  were  the  most  celebrated.  It  was  not 
until  a  later  period  that  the  Greeks  became  acquainted  with  anatomy.  Hip- 
pocrates was  the  first  who  investigated  the  science  systematically,  or  wrote 
upon  the  subject. 

There  is  a  brief  collection  of  rules  of  health  ascribed  to  the  Asclepiades,  entitled  ' Aoy.7.r\7iict- 
d(ov  vytiva  naQayyi/.uara.  Found  in  J.  C.  d'Aretin,  Beytrage  zur  Gesch.  der  Lit.  vol.  ix. 
— and  in  Sclibll,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  vol.  til.  p.ll. 

§262.  After  Hippocrates,  the  physicians  of  the  same  period,  between  Solon 
and  Alexander,  seem  to  have  in  a  great  measure  abandoned  the  guidance  of 
experience,  and  plunged  into  the  labyrinths  of  speculation.  The  school  termed 
the  Dogmatic  was  now  established,  which  attempted  to  unite  the  theories  of 
the  philosophers  with  the  principle  of  Hippocrates.  The  sons  of  Hippocrates 
are  named  among  its  founders.  The  most  distinguished  of  this  school  were 
Diodes  of  Carystus  in  Eubcea,  and  Praxagoras  of  Cos.  Of  the  medical  writ- 
ings of  the  former  we  have  have  a  few  fragments. 

The  fragments  of  Diodes  are  published  in  C.  O.  Kuhn,  De  Medicis  Graecis  &c.  Lips.  1820. 4. 
—  Cf.  SchiiU,  in.  402. 

§  263.  It  was  by  the  physicians  at  Alexandria  that  the  actual  dissection  of 
the  human  body  was  first  attempted.  Among  the  earlier  physicians  of  the  Al- 
exandrine school,  the  most  distinguished  were  Herophilus  and  Erasistratus, 
who  lived  under  the  first  Ptolemies,  and  were  each  the  head  of  a  class  of  fol- 
lowers. Among  the  adherents  of  the  former  soon  arose  the  Empiric  school, 
founded  by  Philinus  of  Cos,  and  Serapion  of  Alexandria.  To  this  school  most 
of  the  physicians  of  the  period  before  the  fall  of  Corinth  attached  themselves. 
They  professed  to  follow  the  lessons  of  experience  (iuTitiQla).  —  One  of  the 
most  illustrious  of  the  Empirics  was  Dioscorides,  who  will  be  noticed  below 
(§  271).  We  may  mention  also  Apollonius  of  Citium,  and  Xenocrates  of  Aph- 
rodisium,  as  of  some  eminence. 

It  was  towards  the  close  of  this  era  that  the  medical  art  of  the  Greeks  was  introduced  among 
the  Romans,  by  Arcliaqathus ;  it  had  been,  at  first,  chiefly  practiced  by  Greek  slaves.  The 
physician  that  seems  to  have  acquired  the  highest  celebrity  at  Rome,  was  Asclepiades  of  Bithynia, 
B.  C.  about  100.  He  may  be  assigned  to  the  Empiric  school,  although  lie  professed  to  have  pecu- 
liar notions  of  his  own. 

C.  F.  H.  Beck,  De  Schola  medicorum  Alexandria.  Lips.  1810.  4.— Schbll,  in.  404.  v.  335.  — 
The  work  of  Xenocrates  (on  the  nourishment  furnished  by  aquatic  productions),  by  Coray.  Par. 
1814.  8.— The  remains  of  Asclepiades  of  B.  were  published  by  Oumpert,  Asclep.  Bith.  Fragmenta. 
Vimar.  1794.  8.  —  The  name  of  Asclepiades  was  borne  by  many  different  persons.  Cf.  Harlesst 
Medicorum  vet.  Asclepiades  dictorum  lustratio  &.c.  Bon.  1328. 

§  264.  In  the  period  succeeding  the  fall  of  Corinth  a  new  school  arose,  called 
the  Methodic  or  Methodistic,  founded  B.  C.  about  90,  by  Themison  of  Laodicea, 
who  was  a  disciple  of  Asclepiades,  and  fixed  himself  as  a  physician  at  Rome. 
The  system  was  matured  by  Soranus  of  Ephesus,  who  practiced  at  Rome  un- 
der Trajan  and  Hadrian  with  brilliant  success,  and  has  left  several  works. 
To  this  school  belonged  Criton,  also  celebrated  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  and 
Moschion,  the  reputed  author  of  a  work  on  Diseases  still  extant.  —  Within  the 
limits  of  the  same  period,  another  medical  sect  was  originated,  the  Eclectic, 
which  is  generally  ascribed  to  Archigenes,  another  physician  in  the  time  of 
Trajan.   Aretceus,  whose  works  will  be  noticed  below,  was  an  eminent  advocate 


MEDICINE    AND    NATURAL    HISTORY.  263 

of  this  school.  Rufus  of  Ephesus  was  an  eminent  physician  not  assigned  to 
any  of  the  sects  ;  his  works  are  still  considered  valuable.  But  the  name  which 
is  most  important,  not  only  in  the  space  between  Augustus  and  Constantine, 
but  in  fact  in  the  whole  history  of  the  Greek  physicians,  is  that  of  Galen.  With 
transcendant  genius  he  broke  from  the  restraints  imposed  by  the  different 
medical  sects,  and  built  a  system  for  himself  upon  the  ruins  of  them  all,  and 
became  and  continued  for  many  centuries  the  oracle  of  the  art. 

The  works  of  Soranus  are  in  Ant.  Cocchi,  cited  below,  §  269.  —  That  of  Moschion,  separately, 
F.  O.  Dewez.  Vienn.  1793.  8.— Those  of  Rufus,  by  W.  Clinch.  Lond.  1726.  A.—Schall,  v.  338. 

§  265.  During  the  long  period  from  Constantine  to  the  capture  of  Constan- 
tinople, no  progress  was  made  in  the  science.  Alexandria  continued  for  a 
long  time  the  chief  seat  for  the  theory  and  science  of  medicine,  while  Rome 
and  Constantinople  furnished  ample  fields  for  its  practice.  Most  of  those  who 
attempted  to  write  on  the  subject,  contented  themselves  with  commenting 
upon  the  works  of  Galen  or  some  author  of  times  previous  to  their  own.  They 
formed  what  is  called  the  School  of  Galen,  although  they  professed  to  be  Eclec- 
tic, and  to  draw  their  principles  from  all  the  different  sects.  There  are  but 
few  names  which  are  specially  deserving  of  mention.  Oribasius,  in  the  time 
of  Julian,  is  the  first  writer  of  any  note ;  he  has  been  called  the  ape  of  Galen, 
on  account  of  borrowing  so  much  from  him;  among  his  works  was  a  medical 
compilation  from  preceding  writers,  made  by  order  of  Julian,  and  called  'E(i- 
douijy.ovTupipJi.og,  from  its  comprising  70  books,  8  or  9  of  which  yet  remain  in 
Greek,  and  several  others  in  Latin  only.  JEtius  of  Amida  in  Mesopotamia, 
was  a  physician  at  Constantinople,  in  the  6th  century.  He  left  a  compilation 
from  the  earlier  medical  authors  tinder  the  title  of  BifDAov  taT(u*6r,in  16  books. 
Alexander,  of  Tralles  in  Lydia,  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  and  after 
much  travel  practiced  in  Rome  with  great  celebrity;  his  Therapeutics,  Bip.iov 
.&sqcmtvTixbv,  in  12  books,  is  extant.  Paul  of  iEgina  may  also  be  mentioned 
as  a  practical  physician,  and  as  the  author  of  a  compilation  entitled  an  Abridg- 
ment of  all  Medicine.  We  will  add  only  the  name  of  Constantine,  surnamed 
the  African,  a  native  of  Carthage.  He  studied  among  the  Arabians,  Chaldeans, 
and  Persians,  both  medicine  and  astronomy,  with  the  kindred  sciences.  Re- 
turning to  the  west  after  an  absence  of  nearly  forty  years,  he  was  regarded  as 
a  sorcerer,  and  finally  retired,  in  a  religious  habit,  to  Salernum  in  Italy,  where 
the  monks  of  Mont-Cassin  had  established  a  medical  school.  Here  he  employed 
himself  until  his  death,  towards  the  close  of  the  11th  century,  in  making  known 
the  Greek  and  Arabian  medicine,  and  contributed  much  to  the  high  celebrity 
which  that  school  attained. 

An  edition  of  Oribasius  in  Latin  was  published,  Bas.  1537.  3  vols.  8.  but  not  complete.— The 
works  of  Alexander  are  given  in  the  collection  of  Holler  (cf.  $  269).— The  Latin  version  of  JEtius 
by  J.  Cornarius  and  J.  Montanus  is  also  in  Haller.—Paul  ofJEg.  was  published  by  Remusmus.  Baa. 
1538.  fol.  There  is  an  English  version  by  F.  Adams. — Constantine  left  numerous  works,  but  in 
the  Latin  language— Schwtt,  vn.  247  ss. 

§266w.  Physics,  or  JYatural  Science,  formed  a  prominent  object  of  many  of 
the  first  Greek  philosophers,  and  furnished  subjects  for  some  of  the  earliest 
didactic  poems.  The  study  of  philosophy  in  later  periods  usually  implied 
some  attention  to  these  branches.  But  for  want  of  sufficient  observation,  and 
of  the  necessary  helps,  many  errors  were  adopted  and  long  retained  in  the 
Grecian  schools. 

§  267.  The  merit  of  first  treating  these  subjects  systematically  and  scientifi- 
cally is  universally  ascribed  to  Aristotle.  Alexander  is  said  to  have  aided  his 
studies  in  natural  history  with  a  princely  liberality.  Theopkrastus,  the  disciple 
and  successor  of  Aristotle,  pursued  the  same  studies  with  considerable  success. 
While  Aristotle  is  called  the  father  of  Zoology,  Theophrastus  must  be  ac- 
knowledged to  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  Mineralogy  and  Botany. — Among 
the  Alexandrine  scholars,  the  subjects  of  natural  science  seem  to  have  obtained 
but  comparatively  little  attention.  This  could  not  have  been  owing  wholly  to 
want  of  encouragement,  because  the  Ptolemies  are  said  to  have  expended  con- 
siderable sums  in  procuring  collections  of  what  was  curious  in  the  three  king- 
doms of  nature.  Antigonus  of  Carystus  is  the  principal  Alexandrine  writer  of 
whom  we  have  remains  pertaining  to  this  department,  and  his  work  is  chiefly 

a  collection  of  marvelous  stories,  and  not  a  description  of  natural  objects. 

Nor  under  the  Roman  supremacy,  from  the  fall  of  Corinth  even  to  the  time  of 


264  HISTORY  OP  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

Constantine,  do  we  find  any  manifest  advancement.  The  chief  writers  were 
Dioscorides .  who  was  distinguished  as  a  botanist  (nitorouog)  as  well  as  physi- 
cian, and  Milan,  who  compiled  a  considerable  work  on  the  history  of  animals. 

The  superstition  and  love  of  the  marvelous,  which  prevailed  both  in  this  and  in  the  preced- 
ing period,  were  probably  a  hindrance  to  the  real  progress  of  natural  science.  We  may  refer, 
as  evidence  of  their  influence,  to  the  works  of  Melampus  in  the  former,  and  Artcmidorus  in  the 
iatter.  Melampus  wrote  on  the  art  of  divination  in  several  branches,  and  also  a  work  on  Prog- 
nostics from  the  changes  in  the  moon,  which  is  yet  in  manuscript  in  the  library  of  Vienna. — Arte- 
tnidorusleft  aworkonthe  Interpretation  of  dreams,  *  OvstooxoiTiy.lc,  which,  with  all  its  absurd- 
ity, is  of  some  value  in  illustrating  mythology  and  the  symbolical  and  allegorical  figures  of  an- 
cient sculpture.  It  was  published  by"  J.  G.  Reiff.  Lpz.  1805.  2  vols.  8.  —  Cf.  Schcell,  m.  393  ss. 
v.  277  ss. 

§  268.  Under  the  emperors  of  Constantinople,  all  the  sciences  connected 
with  the  study  of  nature  were  in  a  state  of  almost  utter  neglect ;  in  the  whole 
time  we  do  not  meet  with  a  single  name  of  any  eminence,  nor  one  work  of 
epecialjvalue.  We  find  a  treatise  of  Epipkanius,  Ilsoi  xStv  5u>$ty.a  /.i&vr,  Onthe 
12  stones  in  the  breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high-priest;  and  another,  IIbqI  iiAmr 
dwautwv,  On  the  virtues  of  stones,  by  MichceL  Psellus,  in  the  9th  century.  We 
have  a  large  compilation  on  agriculture,  entitled  r$omovir.u,  in  20  books,  by 
Cassianus  Bassus,  in  the  10th  century.  We  have  likewise  a  compilation  on  the 
veterinary  art,  in  2  books,  entitled  c l7V7viaTQixa,  collected  by  an  unknown 
writer,  by  order  of  the  emperor  Constantine  VI.  Porphyrogenitus.  There  are 
also  several  works,  yet  in  manuscript,  on  Chemistry,  or  rather  Alchemy,  or  the 
<lrt  of  making  gold;  especially  one  by  Stephanies  of  Athens,  in  the  7th  century, 
Tltqi  xQvoonoiiag,  in  9  books,  and  parts  of  another  styled  Xvusvrixu,  in  28  books, 
by  Zosimus  of  Egypt.  The  latter  author  has  left  us  a  treatise  on  the  making  of 
beer,  JJsqi  tv&wv  noitjotuK.  Such  is  the  trivial  list,  with  which  we  must  close 
our  view  of  the  Greek  writers  on  natural  science. 

The  treatise  of  Epiphanius  was  published  by  Qessner,  De  omnium  fossilium  senere.  ZUrich, 
1565.  8.  Cf.  P.  I.  $195.  3.— That  of  Psellus,  by  Bernard.  Leyd.  1745.  8.— The  Oeoponics  of  Bas- 
sus, best,  by  J.  JV.  JYiclas,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1781.  4  vols.  8.  —  The  Mss.  on  Alchemy  are  in  the 
Libraries  of  Paris  and  Vienna. — The  last  treatise  above  named  is  given  in  C.  G.  Gruner,  Zosi- 
tni  de  Zythorum  covfectione  fragmentum.   Solisb.  1814.  8. — Schozll,  vn.  197  ss. 

One  discovery  or  invention  of  this  dark  period  ought  perhaps  to  be  mentioned,  that  of  the 
celebrated  Greek  fire  {feu  Gregeois),  the  composition  of  which  was  so  carefully  kept  a  secret 
above  400  years.  The  recipe  for  making  it  is  given  in  a  Work  ascribed  to  Marcus  the  Greek, 
a  Latin  version  of  which,  in  manuscript,  was  found  in  the  Royal  Library  of  Paris  ;  and  from 
this  the  work  was  printed,  the  same  year,  by  Laportc  du  Theil.  Par.  1804.  4.—Schall,  vn.  21L. 
Cf.  Gibbon,  Dec.  and  Fall,  &c.  ch.  Hi.— Warton,  Hist.  Poetry,  i.  169. 

§  269*.  We  give  the  following  references  to  works  pertaining  to 
Greek  medicine  and  physics,  before  speaking  of  the  authors  sepa- 
rately. 

1.  H.  Stephanus,  Medics  artis  principes  post  Hippocratem  et  Galenum.  Lat.  Par.1567.  2  vols, 
fol. — Int.  Cocchi,  Grfficorum  Chirurgicorum  libri,  &c.  Flor.  1754.  fol. — Fernelius,  Medic,  antiq. 
qui  de  febribus  scrips,  collectio.  Ven.  1594.  fol.— Holler,  Artis  medicse  principes.  (cur.  Vicatii) 
Laus.  1784-87.  11  vols.  8.  in  Lat.  version  only.  —  C.  F.  Matthai,  Mediocor.  xxi.  vet.  Grasc 
Mosc.  1808.  4.— C.  G.  KKihn,  Opera  med.  Grajc.  quce  extant.  Gr.  &  Lat.  Lpz.  1821-33.  26  vols.  8. 
— C.  G.  Gruner'' s  Bibliothek  der  alten  Aerzete  in  Uebersetzungen  und  Ausziigen.  Lpz. 
1780-82.  2  vols.  8.  —  Cf.  P.  I.  §  23.  —  For  some  remarks  on  the  anatomical  knowledge  of  the 
Greeks,  see  J.  Elmes,  Annals  of  the  Fine  Arts.  vol.  v.  p.  225.  Lond.  1816-20.  5  vols.  8. 

2.  Frani,  Scriptores  physiognomoniffi  veteres.  Altenb.  1780.  8.  —  J.  G.  Schneider,  Eclogae 
physics  e  script,  praecipue  Gracis.  Jen.  1601.  2  vols.  8.  containing  natural  history  and  physics. 
—  /.  L.  Ideler,  Meteorologia  vet.  Grsee.  et  Romanorum.  Berl.  1832.  8.  —  A.  Libes,  Histoire  de  la 
Physique.  Par.  1810.  4  vols.  8. 

§  270.  Hippocrates,  of  Cos,  a  descendant  of  iEsculapius,  flourished 
B.  C.  about  420.  In  philosophy  he  was  a  disciple  of  Heraclitus.  He 
practiced  the  medical  art  particularly  in  Thrace  and  Thessaly,  and 
died  at  Larissa  in  the  latter  country. 

1m.  With  uncommon  acuteness  of  intellect  he  combined  a  rich  variety  of 
knowledge  and  experience  which  was  increased  by  travels,  and  which  gave  to 
his  writings  a  value  not  limited  to  ancient  times,  but  enduring  even  to  the 
present  day.  Of  the  numerous  works  that  have  been  ascribed  to  him,  many 
are  spurious.  Of  those  which  are  genuine,  the  Aphorisms,  or  brief  medical 
principles  and  maxims,  are  the  most  generally  known. 

2.  Besides  the  yA(pooia^toi,  the  following  works  are  by  all  acknowledged  to 
be  genuine,  viz.  the 3 Enid 'foiia, Epidemics;  IIfJoyvu)OTixu,Prognostics,  in  4  booksj 


PHYSICIANS.     HIPPOCRATES.    DIOSCORIDES.    ARETiEUS.         265 

jJTtoi  ditttrr^  o|«W,  Of  regimen  in  acute  diseases  ;  IIsqI  'AtQow,  ^YSarov,  T6~ 
nov,  Of  Air,  Water,  and  Climate,  a  work  of  general  interest;  Tlsql  twv  lv 
xecpa?.)]  Tquukxtwv,  Of  wounds  of  the  Head  ;  TItqly  Ay uoiv,  Of  Fractures.  There 
are  12  or  13  others,  which  some  of  the  critics  receive  ;  and  a  much  larger  num- 
ber of  pieces,  which  all  consider  spurious. 

Scholl  (vol.  in.  12  ss.)  gives  a  view  of  the  various  opinions  of  the  critics. For  remarks 

on  Hippocrates,  see  B.  Rush,  Introductory  Lectures  (medical).  Phil.  1811.  8.  lect.  xii.  —  J.  O. 
Tlderf elder'' s  Lemosii  Judicium  operum  Hippocratis.   Mis.  1835.  8. 

3.  Editions.  —  Works.  The  most  convenient  for  use  is  that  of  Kuhn.  Lips.  1827.  3  vols.  8. 
belonging  to  his  Coll.  above  cited.  —  The  best  previously  ;  Feesius  (Fas).  Gr.  &  Lat.  Frankf. 
1595.  Genev.1657.  fol.  to  which  belongs,  as  a  glossary  or  lexicon,  Fwsii  CEconomia  Hippocratis. 
Gen.1662.  M.--R.  Charterus  (Chartier).  Par.  1679.  13  vols.  fol.  with  Galen.  (More  full  than  Fees.) 
— An  ed.  was  commenced  by  A.  M.  Dornier,  Gr.  Lat.  &.  Gall.   Par.  1827.  vol.  i.-xi.  containing 

Aphorisms  and  Prognostics,  With  a  notice  of  Life  and  Writings  of  H. The  Aphorisms  have 

often  been  published  separately  ;  Berl.  1822.  12.  a  reimp.  of  Bouillon.  Par.  1785.  with  the  Prog- 
nostics.—J.  W.  Underwood,  Gr.  &  Ang.   Lond.  1831.  12. Of  Air,  &c.    Coray.  Gr.  &  Fr.  Par. 

1800.  2  vols.  8.  repr.  1816.— An  ed.  of  select  works  was  commenced  by  De  Mercy,  Gr.  &  Fr.  1815. 

4.  Translations.  —  Whole  works.   Latin,  by  Fms,  ed.  by  Pierer.  Altenb.  1806.  3  vols.  8.  Lips. 

1827 German.— Grimm.  Alt.  1781-92.  4  vols.  8.— Gruner,  cited  $269. English.— Clifton. 

1734. French.— Gardeil.  Toul.  1801.  4  vols.  8. 

§  271.  Pedanius  Dioscorides  of  Anazarbus  in  Cilicia,  flourished  in 
the  1st  century.  He  was  a  distinguished  physician,  and  in  various 
travels  in  Europe  and  Asia  he  studied  the  nature  of  plants,  which  he 
afterwards  described  for  the  benefit  of  pharmacy. 

1m.  We  have  from  him  a  work,7Isot  vlt\g  larqixijg,de  Materia  medica,\n  5  books. 
Besides  this  there  are  ascribed  to  him  a  treatise  on  Antidotes,  3 AX£%apaquaxay 
in  2  books,  and  another  JItQi  Ivnoqiarwv  (faq^axwv,  On  medicines  easily  pre- 
pared ;  but  their  genuineness  is  doubted. 

2.  It  has  been  mentioned  that  Dioscorides  was  celebrated  as  a  botanist 
(§  267) ;  for  many  centuries  his  work  (de  Mat.  Med.)  above  named  was  con- 
sidered as  a  sort  of  oracle  in  Botany,  although  he  treats  of  the  subjects  only  in 
reference  to  medicine. — Scholl,  v.  332. — Spreng el,  Hist,  rei  herb.  Amst- 1807.  8. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best,  by  C.  Sprengel.  Lpz.  1829.  2  vols.  8.  in  the  Coll.  of  Kuhn,  cited  §  269.  1. 
—  The  best  previous  is  that  of  Saracenus  (Sarrasin),  Gr.  &  Lat.  Frankf.  1598.  fol. — Respecting 
the  curious  manuscript  of  Diosc.  see  P.  I.  $107.  2. 

§  272.  Aretceus,  of  Cappadocia,  probably  lived  towards  the  close 
of  the  1st  century,  at  least  later  than  Pliny  the  elder,  and  Dioscorides. 

1m.  He  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Greek  physicians,  and  left 
two  works  :  IIeqI  Alrtojv  xal  Srjiielmv  b^itav  xal  xQoviwv  jtaQcov,  On  the  Causes 
and  Signs  of  acute  and  chronic  diseases  ;  and  the  other,  On  the  Cure  of  the  same, 
HeQi  OtqaTtsiag  o^ioiv  xal  ^oovtcov  nab&v.  Both  of  them  have  come  to  us  only 
in  a  mutilated  state. 

2.  He  is  considered  as  the  most  faithful  observer  of  facts  after  Hippocrates.  His  works  are 
well  written,  and  may  be  termed  truly  classical.  —  Schcell,  v.  344. 

3.  A  good  edition  is  given  in  the  Collect,  of  Kuhn,  cited  $  269.  1.— Also  by  J.  Wiggan,  Gr.  & 

Lat.  Oxf.  1723.  fol.— And  by  H.  Bbrhave.   Leyd.  1731.  1735.  fol. A  German  translation  of 

both  works  by  F.  O.  Deicez.  Vienn.  1790.   1802.  2  vols.  8. 

§273.  Claudius  Galenus  was  born  at  Pergamus  in  Asia,  about 
A.  D.  130.  He  traveled  much,  and  repeatedly  took  his  residence  at 
Rome.  He  wrote  not  merely  on  medical  topics,  but  also  on  subjects 
of  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  grammar.  Many  of  the  writings  as- 
cribed to  him  are  undoubtedly  spurious,  especially  such  as  are  extant 
only  in  Latin. 

1.  The  name  of  Galen  is  justly  associated  with  that  of  Hippocrates,  as  to  these 
two,  above  all  the  ancients,  the  healing  art  is  indebted.  The  time  of  his  death 
is  unknown.  He  was  the  confidential  physician  of  the  emperor  Marcus  Aure- 
lius.  Some  of  his  works  composed  at  Rome  are  said  to  have  perished  by  the 
burning  of  his  house ;  yet  there  are  extant  82  treatises  of  established  genuine- 
ness, besides  18  commentaries  on  Hippocrates  and  a  number  of  fragments.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  are  18  published  under  his  name  of  doubtful  genuine- 
ness, and  a  still  larger  number  now  acknowledged  to  be  spurious,  and  many 
still  in  manuscript  in  the  Libraries.  Among  the  most  interesting  and  important 
of  his  works  are  the  following  :  Ilioi  hraxouixwv  '2fy;f»i^a«ew,  Of  anatomical 
23 


266  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

manipulations,  in  9  books  (originally  15)  ;  LTeqI  /(m'ac  r<ov  lv  av&qaiTtov  ouuaru 
fioQiow,  On  the  use  of  the  different  parts  of  the  human  body,  in  57  books,  regarded 
as  his  chef-d'oeuvre,  and  containing  a  demonstration  of  divine  wisdom  and  de- 
sign; Tixrt]  iax'uy.,],  The  healing  Art,  cited  also  in  the  middle  ages  under  the 
title  of  Tegnum,  Microtegnum  or  Michrotechnum,  a  work  which  was  adopted  in 
all  the  schools,  and  familiarity  with  it  made  a  prerequisite  for  admission  to 
practice;  and  OeQaTTsvTuo'i  ui&oSog,  Therapeutics,  in  14  books,  called  in  the 
middle  ages  Megalotechnum.  We  may  mention  another  work,  which  is  rather 
curious,  LTsoi  twv  id'itx)v  pifiliojv  yqacpt,,  a  systematic  enumeration  of  his  own 
writings,  with  incidents  of  his  life,  composed  when  advanced  in  age. — Schott, 
V.  345  ss. 

2.  There  have  heen  many  editions  of  Galen's  works  in  Latin  ;  Schall  speaks  of  22 There 

have  been  two  of  the  Greek  text  alone  ;  Andre  d'Asola  (in  red.  Aid.)  Ven.  1525.  5  vols.  fol.  — 
A.  Cratander  (printer,  ed.  Gemusceus).  Bas.  1538.  5  vols,  fol.— There  are  two  also  of  the  Greek 
■with  a  Latin  version ;  R.  Chartier.  Par.  1679.  13  vols.  fol.  (cf  §270.  2.)— Best,  K.G.  Kvhn,  in  the 
first  20  vols,  of  the  collection  cited  §  269.  1. We  notice  the  following  works,  separately  pub- 
lished :  That  the  best  physician  is  also  a  philosopher,  by  Coray.  Par.  1816.  with  a  treatise  of  Hip- 
pocrates (§  270.  3).— Exhortation  to  study  of  the  sciences,  Willet,  Leyd.  1812.  8. — A  German  trans- 
lation of  the  works  of  Galen,  commenced  by  Nbldecke.   Oldenb.  1805.  (1st  vol.)  8. 

§  274.  Aristotle  must  not  only  have  a  place  among  the  rhetoricians 
(§115)  and  the  philosophers  (§1.91),  but  also  be  ranked  high  among 
naturalists. 

1  u.  He  was  the  first  to  bring  both  physics  and  natural  history  into  a  scien- 
tific form.  In  these  branches,  he  displayed  fine  powers  of  observation,  with 
habits  of  close  reasoning.  Of  his  works  pertaining  to  this  department,  we 
mention  as  the  principal  his  <t>voix>]  'AxQuaoig,  a  work  on  general  physics,  in 
3  books,  and  the  History  of  Animals,  LTbqI  Zojvjv  loroqiag,  in  10  books.  Some 
of  the  others  ascribed  to  him  are  not  genuine,  or  at  least  did  not  come  from 
him  in  their  present  form;  as  e.  g.  the  treatise  LTbqL  Qav^aoioiv  'Axovoiiutwv, 
On  wonderful  reports. 

2.  These  treatises  are  found  in  the  editions  of  A.'s  works,  $191.  2. History  of  Animals,  by 

J.G.Schneider,  Gr.  &  Lat.  1811.  4  vols.  8.  very  satisfactory. —  Wonderful  Reports,  by  J.  Beckmann. 
Gb'tt.  1786.  4.  —  Three  pieces  pertaining  to  sleep  and  dreams,  by  G.  A.  Becker.    Lpz.  1823.  8.  — 

Meteor ologica,  by  J.  G.  Idcler,  Gr.  &  Lat.     Lpz.  1834.  2  vols.  8. A  German  Translation  of 

the  Hist,  of  Animals,  by  F.  Struck.   Frankf.  1816.  8. A.  F.  A.  Wiegmann,  Observ.  zoologi- 

cae  in  Arist.  Hist.  Animalium.  Lips.  1826.  4. 

§  275.  Theophrastus  also  stands  among  the  naturalists,  as  well  as 
among  the  philosophers  (§  192). 

1m.  The  works  which  place  him  here,  are  principally  the  following  :  Iltql 
tpvrwv  tOToyiag,  History  of  Plants,  in  10  books  ;  LTsqI  <pvrixwv  yAniwv,  On  the 
causes  of  Plants,  in  10  books,  of  which  only  6  remain  ;  LTtyL  ).'i&vov,  Of  stones. 
"We  have  also  from  him  several  other  treatises,  on  Winds,  Fire,  Odors,  &c. 
and  various  fragments  preserved  in  Photius. 

2.  Schneiders  ed.  of  the  whole  works  (cf.  $192. 2.)  furnishes  the  best  of  these  parts.— The  latest 
ed.  of  the  Hist,  of  Plants,  is  J.  Stackhouse.  Oxf.  1813.  8.  handsome,  but  not  correct.  (Fuhrmann.) 

3.  Translations.— German.— Hist,  of  Plants,  by  Sprengel.  Alton, 1822.  8.— Stones,  by  Schneider. 

Freib.  1806.  8. French.— Stones,  (anon.)  Par.  1754.  8. English Of  stones,  by  J.  Hill. 

Lond.  1746.  1777.  8. 

§  276.  Antigonus  of  Carystus,  in  the  island  Euboea,  lived  about 
B.  C.  284,  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

1m.  He  compiled,  from  the  works  of  other  naturalists,  his  r Ioxoqiwv  naqa- 
tfoijwv  away  coy)'],  Collection  of  marvelous  things.  It  consists  of  189  sections, 
containing  particularly  an  account  of  animals.  The  last  62  sections  are  the 
most  important,  being  drawn  from  authors  that  are  lost. 

2.  This  work  was  first  published  by  Xylander  {Holimann).  Bas.  1568.  8.  —  Another  ed.  by 
Meursius.  Leyd.  1619.  4. — Best,  by  J.  Beckmann.  1791.  4. 

§277.  JElianus  has  been  named  among  the  historians  (§252). 
But  we  have  a  work  from  him,  belonging  to  this  place,  on  the  pecu- 
liarities of  animals,  m^l  toW  iSioTyjrog,  in  17  books.  It  is  chiefly  a 
compilation  from  earlier  writers,  particularly  Aristotle.  The  additions 
by  JElian  are  mostly  of  a  fabulous  character. 


HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE.  267 

1.  It  is  given  in  the  editions  of  his  works,  cited  §  252.  2.  —  Separately,  Abr.  Gronov.  Lond. 
1744.  2  vols.  4.— Schneider.  Lpz.  1784.  8.— Best,  F.  Jacobs.  Jen.  1830.  2  vols.  8. 

2.  The  compilation  of  Apollonius  Dyscolus,  styled   Wonderful  Histories  (cf.  $135),  might  be 
ranked  in  this  department ;  but  it  is  of  little  value.— Scholl,  v.  379. 


Jezcish  and  Christian  Writings  in  the  Greek  Language. 

§  278.  Before  leaving  the  history  of  Greek  Literature,  we  ought  to  remark, 
that  we  find  in  the  Greek  language  two  classes  of  writings,  which  have  not 
been  noticed  in  the  preceding  glance,  and  which  ought  not  to  be  overlooked, 
although  they  are  not  commonly  included  in  the  range  of  classical  studies. 

The  first  of  the  classes,  to  which  we  here  refer,  comprises  those  writings 
which  may  perhaps  properly  be  termed  Hebrezo  Grecian  ;  being  published  in 
the  language  of  the  Greeks,  but  of  a  Hebrew  origin  and  character.  These  are, 
the  Septuagint  version,  and  the  Greek  Apocrypha,  of  the  Old  Testament. 
These  writings  breathe  a  moral  spirit  quite  at  variance  with  that  of  pagan  lite- 
rature, and  it  cannot  be  doubted,  that  they  exerted  some  influence,  when  made 
known  to  the  scholars  of  Alexandria.  Indeed  it  has  been  thought,  that  their 
influence  is  apparent  in  the  style  of  some  of  the  pagan  writers  of  the  age  (cf. 
§  68.  3).  —  The  most  marvelous  stories  have  been  reported  as  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  proper  literature  of  the  Hebrews,  composed  of  their  Canonical 
Books  and  called  by  us  the  Old  Testament,  was  first  presented  to  the  Greeks 
in  their  native  tongue.  The  true  account  is,  probably,  that  the  Jews  of  Alex- 
andria, who  had  lost  the  use  of  their  national  language,  procured  for  their  own 
benefit  a  Greek  translation  of  these  Books,  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
B.  C.  about  280.  This  translation  received  the  sanction  of  their  Sanhedrim, 
consisting,  like  that  at  Jerusalem,  of  70  or  72  members,  and  was  from  this  cir- 
cumstance called  the  Septuagint.  This  version  enjoyed  a  high  reputation 
both  among  Greeks  and  Jews  for  many  years  ;  but  in  some  of  the  most  inter- 
esting parts  it  fell  far  short  of  the  spirit  and  force  of  the  original,  and  attempts 
were  made  at  a  later  period  to  give  to  the  Grecian  reader,  in  a  more  elegant 
dress,  this  body  of  sacred  history  and  poetry. 

For  an  account  of  the  Septuagint,  and  of  other  Greek  versions,  we  refer  to  Home's  Introd.  to 
Crit.  Study  of  the  Scriptures,  vol.  it.  pt.  i.  ch.  v.  sect.  1.  3  2.  ed.  Phil.  1825.  4  vols.  8.  —  Works  of 
higher  critical  authority  are  J.O.Eichhorn,  Einleitung  ins.  A.  Test.  (4th  ed.)  Gbtt.  1824.  5  vols.  8. 
and  W.  M.  L.  Be  Wette,  Einleitung  in  die  Bibel  Alt.  u.  New.  Test.  (3d  ed.)  Berl.  1829.  8. 

§  279.  The  books  termed  the  Apocrypha  (aTtuy.Qvcpa)  were  originally  writ- 
ten, some  of  them  in  the  Greek,  but  most  of  them  in  the  Hebrew  or  Chaldee, 

They  were  all,  or  nearly  all,  composed  before  the  Christian  era. Several 

of  the  pieces  contain  authentic  narratives  of  events,  and  are  highly  valu- 
able in  supplying  the  historical  deficiencies  of  the  canonical  books,  and 
illustrating  the  circumstances  of  the  age  to  which  they  refer.  A  larger 
number  must  be  viewed  as  mere  historical  fictions,  having  perhaps  their  foun- 
dation in  matters  of  fact,  but  embellished  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  author, 
often  ingenious  and  amusing ;  yet  framed  wholly  for  moral  and  religious  pur- 
poses. Some  of  the  books  are  more  purely  and  directly  didactic  in  character, 
consisting  of  proverbial  reflections,  and  maxims  of  prudence  and  wisdom. 
"  The  song  of  the  three  children"  is  the  only  piece  in  the  collection  which  can 
be  justly  called  poetical  ;  in  form  and  structure  it  almost  exactly  resembles 

the  Psalms  of  David. What  interest  these  apocryphal  writings  excited,  or 

to  what  extent  they  were  circulated  among  the  Greek  literati,  it  may  be  im- 
possible now  to  determine ;  but  it  is  manifest  from  the  reply  of  Josephus  to 
the  attack  of  Apion,  that  about  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
antiquities  and  historical  records  of  the  Jews  had  become  interesting  subjects 
of  inquiry  among  pagan  scholars.  At  first  the  Greeks  very  generally  looked 
upon  the  Jews  with  profound  contempt,  classing  them  without  distinction 
under  the  leveling  epithet  of  barbarians.  Occasionally  they  honored  them 
with  a  tribute  of  derision  for  their  proud  claims  as  a  nation  favored  of  heaven, 


268  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

and  their  bigoted  adherence  to  a  system  of  burthensome  ceremonies.  But  at 
length  the  Greeks  became  more  acquainted  with  their  sacred  books,  and  con- 
version from  paganism  to  Judaism  was  not  an  uncommon  occurrence.  Syna- 
gogues, composed  in  great  part  of  proselytes,  existed  in  many  of  the  Grecian 
cities,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 

On  the  writings  classed  under  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament,  see  J.  Jl.  Fabricius,  Co** 
dex  Pseud-epigraphus  Veteris  Testamenti.  Hamb.  1723.  2  vols.  8. — Home,  Intro.  &c.  cited 
§  278.  vol.  i.  p.  626.— Besides  the  apocryphal  books  above  mentioned,  there  are  some  other  spu- 
rious productions,  ascribed  to  biblical  personages.  The  book  of  Enoch  and  the  Ascension  of 
Isaiah  have  been  found  in  the  Ethiopic  language,  in  modern  times.  See  R.  Lawrence,  Book  of 
Enoch  &c.  Oxf.  1821.  8. — Same,  Ascensio  Isaia?  etc.  Lond.  1819.  8. 

§  280.  The  other  class,  to  which  we  alluded  (§  278),  comprehends  the  nu- 
merous writings  from  Christian  authors.  After  the  time  of  Christ,  there  be- 
gan to  appear  in  both  the  Greek  and  Roman  tongues,  works  totally  different 
in  their  whole  spirit  and  character  from  all  that  is  found  in  pagan  literature. 
In  the  notices  already  given  of  Greek  authors,  a  few  names  of  professed  be- 
lievers in  Christ  are  found  ;  but  they  have  been  presented  only  as  their  works 
related  to  the  subjects  strictly  included  in  the  compass  of  profane  studies. 
Independent  of  all  such  works,  there  was  a  body  of  Christian  literature,  which 
deserves  our  notice  here,  and  which  in  fact  offers  a  spacious  and  most  inter- 
esting field  of  observation.  Our  limits  confine  us  to  a  glance  at  the  Christian 
writings  in  the  Greek  language  before  and  during  the  time  of  Constantine. 

§  281.  The  first  object  which  appears  as  we  enter  this  field,  is  the  collec- 
tion of  sacred  writings  contained  in  the  New  Testament.  These,  considered 
in  a  literary  point  of  view,  may  be  classified  under  the  three  heads  of  histori- 
cal, epistolary,  and  prophetical  composition. Of  the  Jive  pieces  which  are 

historical,  four  illustrate  the  life,  death,  and  character  of  the  great  Founder 
of  the  religion,  while  the  fifth  relates  the  circumstances  of  his  followers  for 
some  time  after  his  death,  and  details  the  labors  particularly  of  one  apostle. 
They  are  written  in  a  style  of  the  most  affecting  simplicity,  and  contain  a 
historical  and  biographical  narrative,  which,  in  whatever  light  it  is  consid- 
ered, is  altogether  without  a  parallel  in  the  literature  of  the  world. The 

epistolary  part  consists  of  letters  from  five  of  the  first  teachers,  directed  to 
companies  of  believers  in  the  Christian  faith  united  together  in  churches,  or 
to  individual  converts.  Those  letters  must  of  course  be  accommodated  to 
the  specific  object  of  each,  and  contain  many  allusions  to  the  peculiar  wants 
and  circumstances  of  the  times.  But  they  were  intended  for  general  instruc- 
tion, and  present  it  in  almost  every  variety  of  form  in  which  it  can  be  offered 
to  the  mind  and  heart  of  man  ;  in  rigid  demonstration  of  truth ;  in  clear  ex- 
posure of  error ;  in  strong  warnings  against  impurity  of  life  ;  in  warm  en- 
couragements to  active  goodness  and  benevolence  ;  all  urged  with  sanctions 

drawn  from  the  sublime  realities  of  a  future  eternal  existence. One  piece 

only  is  considered  as  prophetical,  styled  the  Revelation.  It  was  composed 
last  of  the  whole  collection,  and  is  marked  by  many  striking  peculiarities. 
There  is  one  trait  in  its  style  specially  remarkable,  to  which  there  is  nothing 
similar  in  any  department  of  pagan  literature,  the  singular  use  of  symbolical 
language.  This  peculiar  language  was  chiefly  derived  from  the  Hebrew 
prophets,  by  whom  it  seeems  to  have  been  employed  as  essential  to  the  pro- 
phetical style.  It  throws  an  air  of  mystery  over  the  composition,  but  at  the 
same  time  imparts  to  it  an  overwhelming  majesty  and  sublimity.  The  grand 
and  simple  object  of  this  beautiful  vision  of  the  venerable  exile  at  Patmos 
seems  to  have  been  to  show  forth  the  hastening  overthrow  of  Judaism  and 
Gentilism,  the  future  general  triumphs  of  Christianity  on  earth,  and  the  final 
rewards  of  its  disciples  in  Heaven. 

For  whatever  pertains  to  the  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  its  interpretations,  and  kin- 
dred topics  ;  Home,  as  already  cited.  —  Especially,  J.  L.  Hug,  Einl.  in  a.  Schriften  d.  N.  Test. 
(3d  ed.)  Stuttg.  1826.  8.  Transl.  into  English,  by  D.  Fosdick,  with  notes  by  M.  Stuart.  And. 
1836.  8. — H.  A.  Schott,  Isagoge  Historico-Critica  in  Libros  Nov.  Feed.  Sacr.  Jen.  1830.   8. 

§  282.  It  would  be  impious  sacrilege  to  speak  of  the  writings  just  named 
only  as  a  part  of  the  general  mass  of  literary  productions.  It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  they  constitute,  taken  in  connection  with  the  sacred  books  of 
the  Jews,  a  series  of  authentic  communications  from  God  to  man ;  they  are* 


CHRISTIAN    WRITINGS.  269 

if  the  expression  can  be  allowed,  the  second  volume  of  divine  inspiration. 
There  is  irresistible  evidence,  that  they  are  from  the  pens  of  men  who  wrote 
as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  contain  the  infallible  rule  of 
faith  and  practice  for  us  as  the  intelligent  moral  subjects  of  the  Great  Ruler 
of  the  universe.  By  the  principles  of  these  books  we  are  each  to  be  tried  at 
the  day  of  final  judgment,  and  each  to  receive  his  eternal  retribution.  It  is 
only  by  giving  earnest  heed  to  these  books,  that  we  can  cleanse  our  ways  from 
sin,  or  obtain  part  in  the  life  and  immortality  which  they  and  they  only  have 
brought  to  light.  "  The  law  of  the  Lord  is  perfect,  converting  the  soul."  — 
Yet  these  writings  should  be  noticed  as  included  among  those  mental  produc- 
tions of  antiquity,  which  are  presented  to  us  in  the  language  of  the  Greeks, 
especially  as  the  literary  importance  and  influence  of  the  New  Testament  has 
been  too  generally  overlooked.  It  is  often  interesting  to  the  scholar  to  con- 
sider how  the  writings  of  a  distinguished  individual,  a  Homer,  a  Plato,  an 
Aristotle  or  a  Bacon,  have  given  a  cast  to  the  general  mind  through  distant 
ages ;  how  a  single  production  has  affected  the  thoughts  and  feelings,  and 
modified  the  whole  character,  of  many  successive  generations.  Viewed  in 
this  light,  no  work  of  human  genius  suggests  so  interesting  a  train  of  reflec- 
tions as  the  inspired  writings  of  Christianity.  No  work  or  class  of  works  has 
operated  so  powerfully  or  so  extensively  on  the  human  mind,  none  has  effect- 
ed so  much  in  arousing  the  latent  energies  of  intellect,  in  preparing  it  to  put 
forth  splendid  and  successful  efforts  in  the  various  departments  of  science 
and  literature.     Cf.  P.  I.  §  83. 

§  283.  The  writings  which  next  fall  under  our  notice,  following  the  order 
of  time,  are  those  which  are  ascribed  to  the  Apostolical  Fathers.  Barnabas, 
Clemens  Romanus,  Hennas,  Polycarp  and  Ignatius,  are  included  under  this 
denomination. Barnabas  was  a  native  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  was  edu- 
cated at  Jerusalem,  in  the  school  of  Gamaliel,  and  was  for  some  time  a  com- 
panion of  the  Apostle  Paul.  The  letter  extant  under  his  name  is  chiefly  an 
argument  addressed  to  the  Jews,  showing  that  the  Mosaic  law  had  been  abol- 
ished by  Christ,  and  a  purely  spiritual  service  substituted  instead  of  their  cer- 
emonial rites  and  sacrifices. The  work  left  by  Hernias,  is  styled  Pastor  or 

Shepherd,  consisting  of  three  Parts ;  viz.  12  commands,  12  similitudes,  and 
4  visions.  The  commands  are  so  many  practical  positions  or  principles  laid 
down  and  illustrated.  The  visions  and  similitudes  are  fanciful  and  puerile  in 
the  extreme,  and  little  worthy  of  attention  except  as  they  indicate  the  great 

sincerity  and  piety  of  the  author. The  only  genuine  remains  of  Clement 

of  Rome  are  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  and  concerning  the  second  of 
these  there  is  reason  to  doubt.  They  are  altogether  of  a  practical  character, 
exhorting  the  Corinthians  to  cultivate  the  Christian  virtues  and  to  manifest 
in  their  deportment  the  superior  excellence  of  the  Christian  faith.  Clement 
enjoyed  distinguished  reputation,  and  on  this  account  several  works  by  later 
writers  were  ascribed  to  him  in  order  to  give  them  currency  ;  as  the  Apostol- 
ic Canons,  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  the  Recognitions,  and  the  Clementines. 
These  works,  although  spurious,  afford  much  useful  and  curious  information 
respecting  the  state  of  Christian  society,  opinions,  and  views  in  the  period  to 
which  they  belong. Polycarp  and  Ignatius  are  both  remembered  as  ven- 
erable and  heroic  martyrs.  The  former  at  the  age  of  more  than  eighty  years 
died  at  Smyrna,  bound  to  the  stake  ;  the  latter,  at  about  the  same  age,  was 

devoured  by  lions  in  the  Amphitheatre  at  Rome. The  only  fragment  of 

Polycarp  is  an  epistle  to  the  Philippians,  applauding  their  faith,  enforcing  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  giving  precepts  to  the  different  classes  in  the 
church,  and  warning  its  members  against  errors  in  belief  and  sins  in  practice. 

A  large  number  of  epistles  are  extant  ascribed  to  Ignatius.     Only  seven, 

of  them  are  considered  as  genuine  ;  one  of  them  was  a  letter  of  Christian 
friendship  to  Polycarp,  and  the  others  were  pastoral  addresses  to  different 
churches,  written  after  he  commenced  his  fatal  journey  from  Antioch  to  Rome, 
a  prisoner  of  the  emperor  Trajan. These  various  remains  of  the  Apostol- 
ical Fathers  were  held  in  high  estimation  by  the  primitive  Christians.  Some 
of  them  were  occasionally  read  with  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  the  religious  as- 
aemblies  on  the  Sabbath. 

23* 


270  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

The  best  edition  of  the  writings  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers  is  that  of  J.  B.  Coteleriua  (as 
emended  by  J.  Clericns)  Gr.  &  Lat.  Amst.  1724.  2  vols.  fol.  —  An  English  translation  was  pub- 
lished by  Abp.  Wake.  Reprinted,  Lond.  1817 An  accouut  of  their  lives  may  be  found  in  Cave** 

History  of  the  Primitive  Fathers.  Lond.  1697.  fol.  —  See  also  Mosheim  translated  by  Murdoch, 
(New  Haven,  1832.  3  vols.  8.)  1st  vol.  p.  89. 

§  284.  In  the  2d  and  3d  centuries,  as  was  perfectly  natural,  there  appeared 
a  number  of  spurious  productions,  which  claimed  to  be  from  the  Apostolical 
Fathers  and  others,  who  had  been  active  in  the  introduction  and  first  promul- 
gation of  Christianity.  Many  of  these  were  undoubtedly  written  with  the 
best  intentions,  and  perhaps  were  understood  by  their  first  readers  as  assert- 
ing a  fictitious  origin  not  expected  to  be  believed  or  allowed,  according  to  a 

law  which  has  existed  in  the  republic  of  letters  from  time  immemorial. 

Among  the  fabrications  alluded  to  we  must  rank  the  Apostles'  Creed,  a  beau- 
tiful little  summary  of  doctrine,  which  is  still  regarded  with  great  respect. 
To  the  same  class  belong  the  books  styled  the  Revelation  and  the  Preaching  of 
St.  Peter,  the  latter  of  which  contains,  together  with  some  interesting  matter, 
many  ridiculous  statements  and  anecdotes.  A  still  bolder  fiction  is  found  in 
the  two  Edessan  Epistles,  which  purport  to  be  a  letter  from  Abgarus,  king  of 
Edessa,  sent  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  answer  returned  to  him  by  the  Savior. 
The  story  is  briefly,  that  Abgarus  in  a  dangerous  sickness  wrote  to  implore 
relief,  and  that  Christ  sent  back  a  gracious  reply,  accompanied  with  a  present 
of  his  picture,  which  was  miraculously  impressed  upon  a  handkerchief  by 
Christ  himself.  Besides  pieces  of  this  description,  there  were  several  pro- 
fessed biographies  of  the  Savior,  crowded  with  the  most  puerile  superstitions 
and  absurdities,  but  in  some  instances  exhibiting  the  marks  of  a  lively  and 
truly  poetical  imagination. The  collection  of  writings  termed  the  Apoc- 
ryphal Testament  is  composed  of  such  productions  as  have  just  been  men- 
tioned ;  productions  perfectly  consonant  to  the  circumstances  of  the  age  and 
the  character  of  the  times ;  when  the  Savior  and  the  Apostles  had  been  so 
long  departed,  that  their  lives  and  actions  might  be  embellished  by  exaggera- 
tion and  fiction,  and  the  reading  class  among  Christians  had  become  so  nu- 
merous, and  the  general  curiosity  so  awakened,  as  to  create  an  increased  de- 
mand for  writings  relating  to  their  common  faith  and  the  history  of  their 
Founder  and  his  companions. 

Many  of  these  works  have  perished.  Those  extant  were  collected  and  published  by  J.  A. 
Fabricius,  in  his  Codex  Apocryphus  JVovi  Testamenti.  Hamb.  1719-43.  2  vols.  8.— An  apocryphal 
hook,  purporting  to  be  the  Acts  of  the  Apostle  Thomas,  was  lately  discovered  at  Paris,  and  was 
published  by  Jo.  Car.  Thilo,  (Thoma  Apoitoli  Acta.)  Lpz.  1822.  8.—Thilo,  commenced  an 
ed.  of  the  Apocr.  JV.  Test.  Lips.  1832.  8.  learned  and  celebrated — An  English  translation  of 
most  of  these  productions  was  published,  entitled  The  Apocryphal  JVew  Testament  &c.  Lond. 
1820.  8.— Cf.  Home,  before  cited,  vol.  i.  Appendix  No.  V. 

§  285.  The  works,  which  have  thus  far  been  noticed,  proceeded  chiefly  from 
men  comparatively  illiterate.  But  in  the  2d  century,  and  still  more  in  the 
3d,  Christians  could  rank  among  their  advocates  and  writers  many  distin- 

fnished  scholars  and  philosophers,  particularly  of  the  Greeks.  Very  early, 
owever,  arose  two  opposite  opinions  respecting  the  importance  of  human 
attainments.  A  considerable  class  of  Christians  utterly  disapproved  of  the 
study  of  science  and  philosophy,  as  useless  and  inconsistent  with  the  design 
of  Christianity.  Another  class  warmly  advocated  such  study  as  perfectly 
proper  and  highly  useful,  especially  to  those  who  aspired  to  be  public  teach- 
ers of  religion.  The  latter  opinion  gradually  gained  the  ascendency,  and  the 
sciences,  which  had  been  taught  in  the  pagan  schools,  were  at  length  to  a 
considerable  extent  introduced  into  the  Christian  Seminaries.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §83.) 
But  Philosophy  constituted  the  principal  study  thus  derived,  and  nearly  all 
the  Christian  writers,  who  remain  to  be  noticed  in  the  glance  we  are  now 
taking,  will  come  under  the  general  name  of  philosophers.  None  of  them 
wrote  treatises  expressly  philosophical ;  but  many  of  them  were  philosophers 
by  profession  before  they  were  converted  to  Christianity,  and  afterwards  con- 
tinued the  same  pursuits,  while  all  of  them  studied  more  or  less  the  pagan 
systems,  and  employed  the  doctrines  of  philosophy  in  whatever  they  wrote 
in  support  of  their  own  religion.  —  The  fathers  down  to  Origen  have  been 
termed  Platonizing,  because  they  generally  preferred  the  system  of  Plato  and 
adopted  many  of  his  views.     Justin  Martyr  and  Irenreus  were  the  most  dis- 


CHRISTIAN   WRITINGS.  ,  271 

tinguished  of  this  class.  Origen  and  most  of  the  early  Greek  Fathers  after 
him  have  been  termed  Eclectic,  because  they  embraced  the  system  of  Ammo- 
tiius,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded  (§  181).  Some  of  the  Fathers  were 
partial  to  the  doctrines  of  other  sects,  particularly  the  Stoics ;  but  the  Eclec- 
tic philosophy  became  altogether  the  most  popular  arfiong  Christians  as  well 
as  pagans.  The  views  of  the  Fathers  were,  however  fin  many  points  peculiar 
to  themselves,  and  formed  what  might  be  called  a  Christian  philosophy. 
(Scholl,  livre  v.  ch.  lxviii.)  The  productions  of  the  writers,  whose  philosoph- 
ical studies  and  partialities  have  thus  been  hinted  at,  may  be  classed  under 
the  several  heads  of  Biblical,  Controversial,  Doctrinal,  Historical,  and  HomU 
letical  writings. 

§  286.  The  early  Christians  attached  great  importance  to  Biblical  studies. 
The  writings  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament  they  endeavored  not  only 
to  explain  to  their  children  and  to  those  who  attended  their  public  assemblies, 
but  also  to  circulate  among  all  the  heathen  around  them.  For  this  purpose, 
versions  were  very  early  made  into  several  of  the  different  languages  then 
spoken.  Much  care  and  labor  were  expended  also  in  collecting  various  cop- 
ies, in  correcting  the  versions  in  use,  and  publishing  more  perfect  editions- 
Many  of  the  Fathers  engaged  in  these  efforts  with  ardor,  but  the  palm  of  pre-- 
eminent zeal  and  diligence  belongs  to  Origen.  His  Polyglott,  usually  called 
the  Hexapla,  has  been  considered  one  of  the  most  astonishing  monuments  of 
philological  industry,  and  the  loss  of  it  is  still  deeply  lamented  by  every  sa- 
cred interpreter. Harmonies  of  the  Gospels  were  likewise  among  the  bib- 
lical compositions  of  the  age.  That  of  Tatian,  about  the  middle  of  the  2d 
century,  is  the  earliest  on  record  ;    it  was  called  To  Sia  rtooa^wv  or  Movorio- 

oaqov. But  the  most  important  and  numerous  productions  of  this  general 

class  were  Commentaries.  In  the  2d  century  Theophilus  of  Antioch  wrote 
on  the  Gospels  ;  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  on  the  Epistles  ;  Justin  Martyr,  on 
the  Apocalypse.  In  the  3d  century  we  find  among  the  commentators,  Hippo- 
lytus,  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and  Origen,  the  most  prolific  and  most  distin- 
guished of  them  all.  These  authors  understood  but  very  imperfectly  the  true 
principles  of  interpretation.  Justin  Martyr  adopted  the  Jewish  idea  of  a 
double  meaning  belonging  to  one  and  the  same  passage,  and  made  a  constant 
endeavor  in  his  expositions  to  ascertain  a  hidden  and  remote  sense  in  addition 
to  the  literal.  The  same  principle  was  embraced  by  Origen,  who  incorporat- 
ed it  with  notions  borrowed  from  the  allegorizing  Platonists,  and  spread  it  out 
into  a  system,  which  soon  led  its  founder  and  his  followers  into  endless  laby- 
rinths of  mystical  extravagance. 

Respecting  the  early  versions,  consult  Home's  Introd.  P.  I.  ch.  v.  sect.  1.  §3,  4.—  Gerard's 
Institutes  of  Bibl.  Crit.  Bost.  1823.  8.  ch.  iv.  §  4,  5,  6.— An  account  of  Origen's  Hexapla  is 
given  by  Home,  vol.  II.  p.  171.  Cf.  Stuart,  Dissertations  on  studying  the  Orig.  Languages  of 
the  Bible,  Note  C. — A  particular  description  of  the  six  Greek  versions  in  the  Hexapla  of  Origeu 
Is  given  by  Epiphanius,  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century,  in  his  Treatise  on  Weights 
and  Measures ;  a  treatise  which  was  written  for  the  purpose  of  elucidating  the  Scriptures,  and 
which  is  still  useful.    It  is  given  in  D.  Petavius,   S.  Epifhanii  Opera.  Gr.  et  Lat.   Par.  1622. 

6  vols.  fol.  repr.  Col.  1082.  2  vols.  fol. On  the  early  harmonists  and  commentators,  Home,  n. 

p.  478,  741.— On  the  Christian  poetical  writings,  cf.  Warton,  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  ill.  198. — Poetfl* 
Christiani  Grmci.    Par.  1609.  8. 

§  287.  The  Controversial  writings  of  the  early  Greek  Christians  constitute 
an  interesting  part  of  their  literature.  They  consist  of  books  designed  either 
for  heretics,  or  for  Jews,  or  for  pagan  Gentiles. The  errors  of  the  vari- 
ous classes  of  heretics  and  schismatics  were  opposed  by  a  great  number  of 
writers  whose  books  are  lost ;  but  the  five  books  of  Irenseus,  in  which  he  ex- 
amines and  refutes  the  doctrines  of  the  whole  body  of  them,  are  still  extant, 
partly  in  the  original  Greek  and  partly  in  a  Latin  version. — The  chief  work 
from  the  Greek  Fathers  in  controversy  with  the  Jews,  which  now  remains,  is 
the  curious  dialogue  of  Justin  Martyr  with  Trypho  Judaeus,  although  Sera- 
pion  of  Antioch  and  other  Christian  doctors  wrote  particular  treatises  against 
them.  —  The  polemical  writings  intended  for  Gentile  readers  were  chiefly 
Apologies  for  Christians,  or  exhortations  to  pagans  ;  great  numbers  of  which 
were  composed  before  the  time  of  Constantine.  The  most  distinguished 
authors  were  Justin  Martyr,  Tatian,  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Athenagoras, 
find  Theophilus  of  Antioch.     But  the  Fathers  were  also  called  upon  to  aij- 


272  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

swer  particular  attacks  upon  Christianity  made  by  heathen  authors ;  Origen 
published  a  triumphant  reply  to  Celsus,  Methodius  to  Porphyry,  and  Eusebi- 

us  to  Hierocles  and  Philostratus  (§  255b.2). In  these  compositions  they 

exposed  the  unsatisfactory  and  contradictory  doctrines  of  the  Greek  philoso- 
phy, demonstrated  the  vastly  superior  nature  of  the  Christian  religion,  and 
defended  its  disciplfe  from  the  numerous  aspersions  cast  upon  their  charac- 
ter ;  thus  they  contributed  much  to  promote  that  mighty  change  which  ulti- 
mately took  place  in  the  complete  extirpation  of  the  old  mythology  and  the 
establishment  of  the  Christian  faith. 

The  best  editions  of  I  r  e  n  ae  u  s  are  those  of  J.  E.  Orabe,  Oxf.  1702.  fol.  and  Ren.  Mas-sneL, 
2d  ed.  Par.  1734.  fol.— Of  the  dialogue  of  Justin  a  good  edition  is  that  of  S.  Jebb,  Lond. 
1719.  8.  with  his  apologies.  It  is  given  in  the  edition  of  his  works  bv  P.  Maranus,  (Maran) 
Par.  1742.  fol.— Also  in  F.  Oberthur,  Opera  Patrum  Gnec.  (Gr.  &  Lat.)  Wurtzb.  1777-94.  20 
vols.  8.  This  is  called  poor  by  Prof.  Sears,  having  often  a  "  text  corrupt  and  translation  false  ; 
yet  it  is  "cheap,  of  very  cood  type,  and  of  convenient  form."  —  Tatian,  bv  Worth,  Gr. 
&  Lat.  Oxf.  1700.  8.— A  the"nagoras,  by  E.  Dechaire,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Oxf.  1706.  8.— Clemens 
A 1  e  x  a  n  d  r  i  n  u  s,  by  J.  Potter,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Lond.  1715.  2  vols,  fol.— T  h  e  o  p  h  i  1  u  s,  by  J. 
Chr.  Wolf,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Hamb.  1724.  8.— We  may  also  refer  to  the  work  entitled  Sanctorum  Par 
tram  Opera  polemica  de  veritatis  Rel.  Christ,  contra  Gentiles  et  Judceos.  Wurtzb.  1778.  4  vols. 
8.— Cf.  Murdochs  Mosheim,  vol.  i.  144. 

English  Translations.  —  "  There  is  no  English  translation  of  Irenjeus."  A.  Clarke,  (as  cited 

$  293^)    vol.  i.  p.  108 Justin  ;     The  two  Apologies  for  Christians,  by   W.  Reeves.     Lond.  2d 

ed.  1716.  2  vols.  —  The  Dialogue  with  Trypko,  by  H.  Browne.    Lond.  1755.  2  vols.  8. The 

Exhortation  to  the  Gentiles,  by  T.  Moses.  Lond.  1757.  8.  —  Athenaooras,  by  D.  Humphreys. 
Lond.  1714.  8.  including  both  the  Apology  for  the  Christians,  and  the  treatise  on  the  resurrec- 
tion.—  Clemens  Alex.  "No  English  translation  has  yet  been  given  of  any  part  of  St.  Clement's 
works,  which  is  much  to  be  regretted.  A  translation  of  his  Pedagogue,  would  be  particularly 
Useful."  Clarke,  as  above  cited,  p.  127. — Theophilus.  By  J.  Betty."  Oxf.  1722.  8.— Of  Origen's 
Sight  books  against  Celsus,  there  is  a  good  French  translation  by  Bouhercau.  Amst.  1700.  4. 

§  288.  The  chief  Historical  writer  among  the  Christian  authors,  who  come 
tinder  notice  in  the  period  before  us,  was  Eusebius.  He  lived  in  the  time  of 
Constantine,  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  scholars  of  the  age,  and  left 
enduring  monuments  of  his  learning  and  diligence  in  different  departments 
of  study.  His  Universal  History  has  already  been  mentioned  as  falling  with- 
in the  circle  of  classical  literature  (§  239).  It  was  written,  however,  for  the 
purpose  of  confirming  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  is  a  very 
valuable  help  and  guide  in  the  perplexing  labyrinths  of  ancient  chronology. 
The  Greek  text  is  lost ;  but  we  possess  a  Latin  translation  by  Jerome,  and 
also  an  Armenian  version  (cf.  §  236)  as  old  as  the  5th  century.  His  Ecclesi- 
astical History,  ' Exx?.rlaiaarixil  r Ioxoq'i*,  is  justly  ranked  among  the  most  val. 
nable  remains  of  Christian  antiquity,  being  our  principal  source  of  informa- 
tion respecting  the  affairs  of  the  church  in  the  first  centuries.  It  consists  of 
10  books,  and  extends  from  the  origin  of  Christianity  to  A.  D.  324.  His  Life 
of  Constantine,  in  4  books,  although  abounding  with  eulogium,  i3  yet  of  much 
Value.  One  of  his  greatest  works  is  that  entitled  'EvayysXixtlg  a/iodii^aus 
rtooTiaqaoxevri)  Praparatio  Evangelica,  in  15  books.  Its  object  is  to  show, 
how  vastly  superior  the  Gospel  is  to  all  the  pagan  systems.  The  work  styled 
*Evayytlir.ri  anu$tizi$,  Demonstratio  Evangelica,  is  also  celebrated,  as  contain- 
ing the  proofs  of  the  credibility  and  authority  of  the  Christian  religion.  It 
consisted  of  20  books,  of  which  only  10  are  preserved.  Both  these  works 
might  perhaps  be  ranked  among  the  controversial  writings,  to  which  we  have 
alluded. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Universal  History  la  that  of  Mai  and  Zohrab,  Mil.  1818.  2  vols.  4. 
Containing  the  Greek  fragments,  and  a  Latin  translation  from  the  Armenian  version.— The 
Armenian  version,  with  a  new  Latin  transl.  was  published  by  J.  B.  Aucher.  Ven.  1818.  2  vols. 
4.— O.  B.  Xeibuhr  has  a  memoir  on  the  Armen.  version,  in  his  Kleine  HistoriscU  und  Philology 
ische  Schriften.—J.  Scaliger  attempted  to  reconstruct  the  Greek  text,  and  published  the  collect- 
ed fragments  in  his  Thesaurus  Temporum.  (2d  ed.)  Leyd.  Bat.  1658.  fol. The  Ecclesiastical 

History  ;  best,  F.  A.  Heiarichen,  Lpz.  1827.  3  vols.  8.  with  copious  notes.— Reading,  Gr.  &  Lat, 
Camb.  1820.  3  vols.  fol.  Containing  also  the  other  early  Greek  eccles.  historians,  Socrates, 
Bozomen,  Thcodoret,  4"c— An  English  translation  was  published,  Lond.  1683.  fol.— A  recent 
one  was  published  at  Philadelphia,  entitled  The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Eusebius  Pamphilus, 
Translated  from  the  original  by  the  Rev.  C.  F.  Cruse,  A.  M.  Assistant  Professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  1833.  8. Life  of  Constantine;  best,  Hcinrichen.  Lpz.  1830.  8. Pr<gp. 

Evangelica;  Vigerus,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1628.  fol.    Reprinted,  Lpz.  1688. Demons.  Evangel.) 

Figerus,  Gr.  &.  Lat.  Par.  1628.  Reprinted,  Lpz.  1683.— See  Schlill,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.  vn.  8. 

§  289.  A  few  Doctrinal  treatises  made  their  appearance  as  early  as  the  2d 
century;  but  there  seems  to  have  been  nothing  like  an  attempt  at  systematic 


CHRISTIAN   WRITINGS.  273 

theology  until  the  third,  when  Origen  published  his  four  books  of  Elements 
vr  first  principles,  IIiqL  3Aqx<*>v>  illustrating  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  after 
a  philosophical  manner.  Other  works  of  a  similar  character  soon  followed, 
and  essays  and  discussions  altogether  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned,  on  vari- 
ous points  of  faith  and  practice,  of  theology  and  of  morals,  were  given  to  the 
church. 

The  name  of  Athanasius  must  not  here  be  passed  in  silence  ;  he  has  just- 
ly been  pronounced  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  whom  the  church  can  boast. 
"  His  life,  his  struggles,  his  genius,"  says  an  elegant  French  writer  (Ville*- 
main),  "  did  more  for  the  advancement  of  Christianity  than  all  the  power  of 
Constantine.  Trained,  as  it  were,  in  the  midst  of  religious  dissensions,  re- 
nowned while  young  in  the  Council  of  Nice,  chosen  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
by  the  suffrage  of  an  enthusiastic  people,  exiled  by  Constantine,  proscribed 
by  Constance,  persecuted  by  Julian,  threatened  with  death  under  Valens,  he 
ended  his  life  in  the  patriarchical  chair,  from  which  he  had  repeatedly  been 
driven.  The  writings  of  such  a  man,  it  is  easily  seen,  are  not  the  writings  of 
a  mere  theologian.  If  he  often  contended  on  points  of  deep  obscurity,  his 
aim  was  to  establish  that  religious  unity  of  which  he  well  understood  the 
value  and  the  power."  The  chief  theme  of  his  doctrinal  discussions  was  the 
subject  of  the  Trinity,  on  which  he  most  vigorously  opposed  the  notions  of 
Arius.  The  celebrated  compend  or  formula  of  Christian  doctrine  long  as- 
cribed to  him,  and  still  usually  called  the  Athanasian  Creed,  "  is  now  gener- 
ally allowed  not  to  have  been  his,  but  to  have  been  deduced  from  his  works." 

The  Greek  text  of  Origen's  First  Principles  is  chiefly  lost ;  we  have  a  Latin  version  made  by 
Rufinus  in  the  4th  century,  first  published  separately  by  E.  R.  Redepenning,  Lips.  1837.  8,  with 
notes- — O  r  i  g  e  n  '  s  Works,  by  (the  Benedictines  Charles  8f  Charles  Vincent)  De  la  Rue.  Par. 
1733-59.  4  vols.  fol.  Reprinted,  by  Obcrthur.  Wiirtzb.  1780.  15  vols.  8.  This  has  beeo 
ranked  as  the  best  edition.  A  new  ed.  containing  the  whole  of  De  la  Rue,  and  said  to  be  bet- 
ter, is  now  in  progress,  by  C.  H.  E.  Lommatzsch.  Berl.  1831-39.  vol.  i.-vii.  12. The  best  ed. 

of  the  works  of  Athanasius  is  that  of  Bern,  de  Monte-Falconis  (Montfaucon),  Gr.  &  Lat. 
Par.  1698.  2  vols,  fol.— Some  pieces  (opuscula),  not  contained  in  this,  are  given  in  the  2d  voL 
of  Montfaucon's  Biblioth.  Patr.  Grasc.    Par.  1706.— Cf.  Harles,  Int.  in  Hist.  Ling.  Gr.  vol.  m. 

p.  225.  —  Villemain,  as  cited  $292. T.  A.  Mohler,  Athanasius  &x.   Mainz,  1827.  2  vols.  8. 

*'  The  writings  attributed  to  Athanasius  may  he  divided  into  three  clases,  genuine,  dubious,  and 
supposititious;  amounting  in  the  whole  to  upwards  of  one  hundred  distinct  treatises."  Clarke,  as 
cited  $  293. 

§  290.  The  last  class  of  writings  mentioned,  as  included  in  the  Christian 
literature  of  these  early  ages,  was  the  Homiletical.  The  Homily  of  the  primi- 
tive church  held  nearly  that  place  in  the  public  worship,  which  the  sermon 
does  at  the  present  day ;  it  was  the  address  of  the  religious  teacher  to  the  au- 
dience assembled,  and  intended  for  their  instruction  and  improvement.  But  it 
differed  widely  in  its  character  from  the  modern  sermon.  It  was  neither  a 
labored  discussion  of  a  single  subject,  nor  a  critical  interpretation  and  illustra- 
tion of  a  single  text ;  but  a  rapid  exposition  of  a  whole  context,  or  a  full  chap- 
ter, or  even  a  larger  portion  of  scripture  ;  combining  in  a  manner  quite  irregular 
and  accidental,  the  most  various  matter,  doctrinal,  philosophical,  critical  and 

practical. The  eloquence  of  the  pulpit,  contemplated  in  its  origin,  progress, 

and  effects,  presents  truly  one  of  the  most  interesting  topics  of  study  in  the 
whole  history  of  the  human  mind.  The  subject,  however,  comes  before  us  in 
this  place  only  so  far  as  relates  to  the  remains  of  sacred  oratory  which  exist  in 
the  language  of  the  Greeks.  These,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted,  are  compara- 
tively few  until  after  the  time  of  Constantine.  Nearly  every  one  of  the  authors 
who  have  been  named  was  a  preacher  or  sacred  orator.  The  great  business  of 
the  Apostles  was  to  address  their  fellow-men  on  the  sublime  truths  of  religion 
and  the  momentous  interests  of  eternity.  The  apostolical  Fathers  were  also 
chiefly  employed  in  the  same  duty.  The  other  writers  mentioned  were  public 
religious  teachers.  Yet  of  the  actual  addresses  of  so  many  speakers,  we  have 
scarcely  any  full  and  fair  specimens,  until  we  reach  Origen.  Their  other  writ- 
ings, however,  afford  us  some  aid  in  judging  of  their  oratory.  The  apostles 
imitated  the  simple  and  powerful  manner  of  the  Redeemer  himself,  who  spake 
as  never  man  spake.  They  practiced  an  easy,  artless,  moving  eloquence, 
warm-hearted  and  pungent,  which  was  astonishingly  efficacious  to  convince 
and  to  reform.  The  apostolical  Fathers  and  their  contemporaries  generally 
followed  the  same  natural,  unstudied,  unostentatious  method  of  speaking* 


274  HISTORY  OP  GREEK  LITERATURE. 

But  an  unfortunate  change  in  taste  soon  made  its  appearance.  The  writings 
of  the  Platonizing  Fathers,  of  whom  Justin  may  be  taken  as  a  representative, 
furnish  plain  evidence  that  in  their  public  discourses  they  indulged  to  a  mel- 
ancholy extent  in  feeble  reasonings  and  frivolous  allegories,  in  erroneous  and 
even  puerile  and  ridiculous  applications  of  Scripture.  The  oratory  of  Justin 
was  strikingly  marked  by  these  faults,  but  was  nevertheless  flowing  and  per- 
suasive in  its  character. 

On  the  preaching  of  the  first  centuries,  see  Bernh.  Eschenburg.  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  de» 
offentlichen  Rcligionsvortrage  in  der  griech.  und  lat.  Kirche.  Jen.  1785.  8.  — M.  O.  Hanscb* 
Abbildung  der  Predigten  ira  ersten  Christenthum.  Frankf.  1725.  8. 

§291.  The  principal  genuine  homiletical  remains  of  the  period  under  notice  are 
from  the  hand  of  Origen,  who  has  already  been  mentioned  as  a  writer  of  ex- 
tensive acquirements  and  extraordinary  abilities.  The  homilies  of  Origen 
exhibit  as  one  of  their  most  prominent  characteristics  the  disposition  for  alle- 
gory and  mystery,  for  which  he  was  so  much  distinguished  as  an  interpreter 
of  Scripture.  Interpretation  or  exposition  still  continued  to  be  the  essence  of 
preaching.  The  speaker  proceeded  from  clause  to  clause  of  the  passage  be- 
fore him,  offering  miscellaneous  observations  and  reflections  as  he  advanced. 
This  was  the  manner  of  Origen.  His  explanations  were  more  full  and  diffuse 
than  those  of  earlier  speakers,  with  more  of  studied  oratory  and  a  freer  use  of 
human  erudition.  He  had  prepared  himself  for  the  highest  duties  of  a  sacred 
orator  by  cultivating  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
Scriptures,  with  the  languages  important  to  a  biblical  interpreter,  and  with  the 
literature,  philosophy,  and  arts,  both  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  He  possessed 
less  ardor  of  religious  feeling  than  some  others  of  the  same  age,  but  maintained 
a  character  of  uncommon  courage,  independence,  and  decision,  so  as  to  be  en- 
titled to  the  name  which  was  sometimes  applied  to  him,  the  man  of  adamant 
(aSauumvog).  Had  he  not  been  misguided  by  a  lively  and  fertile  imagination, 
he  would  have  secured  a  much  higher  place  in  the  annals  of  sacred  eloquence- 
Many  of  the  homilies  of  Origen  are  lost ;  and  of  those  extant  a  considerable  number  are  only 
In  the  Latin  translations  made  by  Rufinus  or  Jerome ;  those  in  Greek  are  chiefly  included  unde» 
his  Exegetica  or  Commentaria,  and  the  Philocalia,  a  collection  of  extracts  from  his  works  made 
by  Basil  the  Great.  —  Clarke,  (as  cited  §  S>93)  i.  162-166. 

The  best  edition  of  Origen's  works  has  been  named,  §  289.  —  For  a  good  account  of  Origen, 
see  Murdoch's  Mosheim,  vol.  i.  p.  204. — Homilies  from  Origen,  Athanasius,  and  others,  are  giveA 
in  the  Homiliarium  Patristicum  by  Rheinwaldt  fy  Vogt,  commenced  1829-33.  pt.  i-iv.  8. 

§  292.  Although  confined  by  our  plan  and  limits  to  the  Christian  writers 
before  the  death  of  Constantine,  we  cannot  forbear  while  speaking  of  the  early 
sacred  eloquence,  to  mention  the  names  of  two  or  three,  who  lived  at  the  closa 
of  the  4th  century,  and  who  were  highly  distinguished  as  scholars  and  oratora. 
We  refer  especially  to  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Basil  the  Great,  and  Chrysostom. 

The  published  works  of  Gregory  consist  of  about  50  orations  or  sermons, 
with  a  large  number  of  epistles  and  small  poems.  As  an  orator  he  exhibits  a 
fertile  imagination  united  with  much  strength  and  grandeur,  but  is  charged 
with  indulging  in  false  ornament  and  as  deficient  in  method.  —  Basil  was  a 
contemporary,  fellow-student,  and  intimate  friend  of  Gregory.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  the  rhetorician  Libanius  (§128)  at  Constantinople.  His  education  was  com- 
pleted at  Athens,  where  Gregory  and  Julian  the  apostate  were  his  companions 
in  study.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  nearly  a  hundred  discourses  and 
homilies.  He  is  esteemed  a  fine  scholar,  an  elegant  writer,  and  a  good  rea- 
soner.  —  But  both  Gregory  and  Basil  were  wholly  surpassed  in  eloquence  by 
John  Chrysostom,  who  was  born  at  Antioch  A.  D.  354,  and  was  in  early  life 
distinguished  for  his  genius,  literary  acquirements,  and  piety,  and  in  the  year 
898  was  made  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  His  works  include  above  300  dis- 
courses and  orations,  and  above  600  homilies,  besides  numerous  letters  and 
treatises.  "  For  overpowering  popular  eloquence,  Chrysostom  had  no  equal 
among  the  fathers.  His  discourses  show  an  inexhaustible  richness  of  thought 
and  illustration,  of  vivid  conception,  and  striking  imagery.  His  style  is  ele- 
vated, yet  natural  and  clear.  He  transfuses  his  own  glowing  thoughts  and 
emotions  into  all  his  hearers,  seemingly  without  effort,  and  without  the  power 
of  resistance.  Yet  he  is  sometimes  too  florid,  he  uses  some  false  ornaments, 
he  accumulates  metaphors,  and  carries  both  his  views  and  his  figures  too  far.v 
(Murdock.) 


CHRISTIAN   WRITINGS.  275 

1.  The  best  edition  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  is  that  of  Billius,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1630.  2  vols, 
fol.  A  better  edition  commenced  by  the  Benedictines  ;  yet  only  1st  vol.  executed,  by  Clemencet, 
Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.  1771.  fol.  A  2d  vol.  (said  to  have  been  executed  by  Clemencet,  and  lately  dis- 
covered) was  published  in  1838.  —  Ullmann,  Gregorias  von  Nazianz.  Darmst.  1825.  8.  a  good 
biography.  —  Basil,  that  of  J.  Gamier,  Gr.  &  Laf.  Par.  1721  -30.  3  vols.  fol.  —  C  h  r  y  s  o  s  to  m  , 
Montfaucon,  Gr.  &  Lat.  Par.1718-38. 13  vols.  fol.  reprinted,  Ven.1756.  Also  Par.1834-37. 13  vols, 
royal  8vo.  a  beautiful  work.  —  De  Sax.erd.otio,  by  A.  R.  Meo.  Lips.  1834.  8.  —  Neander's  Life  of 
Chrysostom  (2d  ed.  Lpz.  1832.  2  vols.),  transl.  into  English.  Lond.1838.— See  a  very  interesting 
account  of  these  orators  in  the  Essay  De  V Eloquence  Chretienne  dans  le  quatriemc  Siecle,  by  Fille- 
main  in  his  Nouvcauz  Melanges  &c.  Par.  1827. 8. 

2.  There  have  been  English  Translations  of  some  portions  of  these  authors.  H.  S.  Boyd,  Se- 
lect passages  from  Gregory  Nazianzen,  St.  Basil,  and  St.  Chrysostom.  Lond.  1810.  8.  H.  S. 
Boyd,  Select  Poems  of  Synesius,  and  Gregory  Nazianzen.  Lond.  1814.  12.  "  The  Poems  of 
Gregory,  though  principally  the  productions  of  his  last  years,  betray  nothing  of  the  decay  of 
^either  intellect  or  imagination  ;  they  abound  with  the  fire  of  genius,  and  the  vigor  of  youth  ; 
without  the  aid  of  pagan  machinery,  the  imagery  is  bold,  the  expressions  strong,  and  the 
thoughts  frequently  mounting  to  the  sublime."  —  W.  Barker,  S  t .  B  a  s  i  1  the  Great  his  Exhor- 
tations to  his  kinsmen  to  the  Studie  of  the  Scriptures.  Lond.  1557.  8.  —  "  An  Homelye  of  Ba- 
eilius  Magnus,  howe  young  men  oughte  toreade  Poetes  and  Oratours.  Translated  out  of  the 
Greke.  Anno  MDLVII.  8vo.  Lond.  J.  Cawood."  (The  original  Greek  of  this  treatise  or  dis- 
course (cf.  P.  I.  $  83.)  was  published  by  J.  Potter,  with  the  Lat.  version  of  Grotius.  Oxf.1694.  8. 
republ.  by  Mai.  Frankf.  1714.  4.— A  good  edition  of  the  text  alone  is  F.  G.  Stun.  Gera,1791.  8.) 
—  J.  Evelyn,  Chrysostom's  Golden  Book  on  the  Education  of  Children.  Lond.  1559.  12. 
R.  Hollier,  Chrysostom  on  the  Priesthood.  Lond.  1728.  8.  The  same  treatise  translated  also  by 
J.  Bunce.  Lond.1759.  8.  and  recently  by  H.  M.  Mason  (Rector  of  St.  John's  church  Fayetteville, 
tf.C.)  Phil.  1826. 

§  293.  For  brief  but  very  satisfactory  notices  of  all  the  principal  early  Christian  authors,  or 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  we  refer  to  the  notes  of  Dr.  Murdoch's  Transla- 
tion of  Mosheim.  —  For  an  analysis  of  their  works  ;  Adam  Clarke,  Succession  of  Sacred  Litera- 
ture in  a  chronological  arrangement  &c.  to  A.  D.  1300.  Lond.  1830-32.  2  vols.  8.  a  convenient 
work.  —  The  following  works  are  ranked  among  the  authorities  on  this  subject.  —  J.  G.  Wal- 
ehii  Bibliotheca  Patristica.  Jen.  1770.  8.    As  edited  by  J.  L.  Dam,  Jen.  1834.  it  is  one  of  the 

best  works.—  W.  Cave,  Scriptor.  Eccles.  Historia  Literaria.  Oxf.  1740-3.  2  vols.  fol.  good. 

L.  E.  Du  Pin,  Nouv.  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  Eccles.  Par.  1693-1703.  14  vols.  4.  —  Ant.  Gal- 
landus,  Biblioth.  Gr.  and  Lat.  vet.  Patr.  Ven.  1778.  in  fol.  "  this  is  the  most  critical  collection 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers."— L'Abbe  Tricalet,  Bibliotheque  Portative  des  Peres  de  l'Eglise, 

Sui  l'histoire  abregee  de  leurs  vies,  l'analyse  de  leurs  principaux  ecrits,  etc.  Par.1758-62.  9  vols. 
.  new  ed.  1787.  8  vols.  8.  —  A  work  more  extensive,  entitled  Bibliotheque  Choisiedes  Peres  de 
V Eglise, by  Guillon,  was  commencedPar.1831.  to  consist  of  20  vols.  8.  "elegant  and  well  spoken 
Of." — A  collection  entitled  Biblioth.  Sacra  Patr.  Grmcorum,  containing  the  Greek  text  only,  was 
commenced  by  Richter.  Lips.  1826.  in  12mo.  —  Many  of  the  Fathers  mentioned  in  the  preced- 
ing glance,  with  the  works  of  later  writers,  are  found  in  De  la  Bigne,  Maxima  Biblioth.  Vet.  Patr. 
(ed.  by  Despont)  Lugd.  1677.  27  vols.  fol.  "  this  is  the  fullest  collection,  yet  it  does  not  contain 
the  original  text  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  but  only  a  Latin  version."  —  C.  Fr.  Rb'ssler,  Biblioth. 
der  Kirchen-Vater,  in  Uebersetzungen  und  Ausziigen.  Lpz.  1776-85.  5  vols.  8.  —  A  new  Ger- 
man translation  by  Catholics  is  in  progress.  Sammtliche  Werke  der  Kirchen-Vater  etc.  Kempt. 

1830-36.  vol.  i— x.  8. There  is  a  Collection  of  the  Latin  Fathers,  by  Oberthilr,  Opera  Pa- 

trum  Latinorum,  in  13  vols.  8. ;  not,  however,  complete.  His  collection  of  the  Greek  Father* 
is  cited  above,  $  287. 


PLATE    IX. 


HORACE. 


SENECA. 


LIVY. 


CICERO 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


'     Introduction, 

§294w.  Next  to  the  Greeks,  the  Romans  deserve  an  honorable  rank  in  the 
literary  history  of  antiquity.  But  in  the  first  periods  of  their  republic  they 
Were  too  much  engrossed  by  war,  and  the  prevailing  taste  was  too  much  for 
conquest  and  for  the  extension  of  their  power  to  allow  any  considerable  leisure 
or  patronage  to  the  arts  of  peace.  Subsequently,  however,  when  security  and 
opulence  were  enjoyed,  and  the  Romans  had  by  their  very  conquests  been  led 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  sciences  existing  in  the  conquered  countries  ; 
when,  especially,  they  began  to  have  intercourse  with  the  Greeks,  and  became 
acquainted  with  the  productions  of  Grecian  taste  and  art  (P.  I.  §  119)  ;  then 
they  themselves  imbibed  a  love  for  letters  and  the  sciences,  and  cultivated 
their  language  with  greater  care  j  then  also  they  imitated  the  best  writers  of 
Greece  with  peculiar  talents  and  happy  success.  Accordingly  we  find  in  their 
literature  master-productions  of  eloquence,  poetry,  history  and  philosophy. 
The  most  flourishing  period  of  Roman  literature  and  art  was  in  the  last  ages 
of  the  republic  and  the  reigns  of  the  first  emperors,  especially  that  of  Augus- 
tus. Afterwards  (P.  I.  §121,  128), under  the  withering  influence  of  tyranny, 
luxury,  and  moral  corruption,  there  was  a  gradual  and  complete  decline  of 
letters. 

ISAbbe  le  Moine  dWrgival,  Considerations  sur  l'origine  et  les  frrogres  des  belles  lettres  chez 
les  Romains  et  les  causes  de  leur  decadence.  (2d  ed.)  Ams't*  175(K  8.  Transl.  into  Germ,  by 
J.  C.  Stockhausen*  Hann.  1755.  8. — C.  Meincrs,  Geschichte  &c.  as  cited  P.  I.  §  128.  — J.  H.  Eber- 
hardt,  Ueber  den  Zustand  der  schiinen  Wissenschaften  bei  den  Rbmern  ;  aus  dem  Schwedis- 
chen  rait  Zusitzen.  Altona,  1801.  8.  This  work,  says  Dunlop,  "  contains  in  its  original  form 
only  a  superficial  sketch  of  the  subject ;  but  valuable  notes  and  corrections  accompany  the 
German  translation." 

§295m.  From  these  remarks  it  is  obvious  that  the  study  of  the  Roman  lan- 
guage and  authors  must  be  attended  with  many  advantages.  An  acquaintance 
with  both  is  the  more  indispensable  to  the  learned  of  every  class,  because  the 
Latin  language  has  been  so  extensively  employed  as  a  general  medium  of  writ- 
ten communication  in  the  republic  of  letters. 

To  the  English  and  American  scholar,  the  study  of  this  language  is  highly  important  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  number  of  English  words,  derived  from  it.  Cf.  $  298.  2. — On  the  study  of  the 
Classics  in  general,  cf.  P.  I.  §  29. 

§296w.  Respecting  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  Latin  language,  we  have 
already  (P.  I.  §114)  mentioned  what  is  most  important. — Four  ages  have  been 
commonly  assigned  to  it ;  these  are  also  considered  as  periods  of  Roman  lite- 
rature, and  in  reference  to  their  relative  character  and  value  are  denominated 
from  four  metals.  But  in  this  assignment,  the  period  of  the  rise  and  formation 
of  the  language  is  not  included.  The  golden  age  continued  from  the  second 
Punic  war  to  the  death  of  Augustus ;  the  silver,  from  the  death  of  Augustus 
to  the  death  of  Trajan  ;  the  brazen,  from  the  death  of  Trajan  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  R,ome  by  the  Goths  (A.  D.  410) ;  the  iron,  from  this  event,  during  the 
whole  of  the  middle  ages,  to  the  restoration  of  letters. — Others  divide  the  his- 
tory of  this  language  into  periods,  which  are  denominated,  according  to  an 
analogy  in  human  life,  the  infancy,  the  youth,  the  manhood,  and  the  old  age  of 
the  Roman  language  and  literature. 

The  last-mentioned  is  the  division  made  by  Funccius,  in  his  History  of  the  Roman  Language 
and  Literature.  Pee  $  299.  8.  The  same  is  followed  by  Harles.  —  Dunlop  (tiled  «  599.  8.)  sug- 
gests a  division  into  three  periods  :  the  age  before  Augustus;  the  age  marked  by  his  name; 
and  the  age  after  him,  extending  to  the  destruction  of  Rome.  But  we  shall  adopt  another  di- 
vision, which  is  suggested  hy  Scholl  (cited  §  299.  8.),  and  appears  more  simple  and  exact.  Cf. 
$301. 

24 


278  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

§  297.  The  true  pronunciation  of  the  Latin,  like  that  of  the  Greek  (§  5), 
cannot  be  determined  with  certainty.  There  is  no  dispute  among  scholars  re- 
specting the  principles  which  are  to  guide  us  in  locating  the  accent;  i.  e. 
in  deciding  on  which  syllable  to  place  the  stress  in  enunciating  any  word. 

The  following  rule  is  adopted.  In  all  words  of  only  two  syllables,  place  the  stress  always  on 
the  first  syllable  or  penultima;  in  all  words  of  more  than  two  syllables,  place  the  stress  on  the 
penultima  when  the  penultima  is  long  in  quantity,  but  on  the  antepenultima  when  the  penul- 
tima  is  short  in  quantity.  This  rule  is  thought  to  be  supported  by  the  authority  of  Quiittilian. 
"Namque  in  omni  voce,  acuta  intra  numerum  trium  syllabarum  continetur,  sive  ha;  sint  in  ver- 
bo  sola;,  sive  ultima; ;  et  in  his  aut  proxima  extremae,  aut  ab  ea  tertia.  Trium  porro,  de  quibus 
loquor,  media  longa  aut  acuta  aut  flexa  erit ;  eodem  loco  brevis,  utique  gravem  habebit  sonum, 
ideoque  positam  ante  se,  id  est  ab  ultima  tertiam,  acuet.  Est  autem  in  omni  voce  utique  acuta, 
sed  nunquam  plus  una ;  nee  ultima  unquam  ;  ideoque  in  dissyllabis  prior.'  Instit.  Orat.  L.  I. 
a  5. 

But  with  reference  to  the  sound  of  the  letters,  the  vowels  especially,  there 
is  not  such  agreement.  Many  think  it  proper  to  adopt  what  are  called  the 
Continental  sounds  of  the  vowels,  while  others  choose  to  follow  English  anal- 
ogy. The  latter  is  the  custom  at  most  of  the  seminaries  in  the  U.  States,  par- 
ticularly the  northern. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Frenchman,  German,  and  Italian,  in  pronouncing  Latin,  each 
yields  to  the  analogies  of  his  native  tongue.  Each  of  them  may  condemn  the  other,  while  each 
commits  the  same  error,  or  rather  follows  in  truth  the  same  general  rule.  Erasmus  says  he 
was  present  at  a  levee  of  one  of  the  German  princes,  where  most  of  the  European  ambassadors 
were  present;  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  conversation  should  be  carried  on  in  Latin.  It  was 
so ;  but  you  would  have  thought,  adds  he,  that  all  Babel  had  come  tog-ether.  —  Cf.  C.  Middleton, 
De  Latinarum  literarum  pronunciatione,  in  his  Miscellaneous  Works.  Lond.  1755.  5  vols.  8. 
(vol.  4th). See  Rules  for  pronouncing  Latin,  &x.  cited  §  5. Andrews  &•  Stoddard,  Lat.  Gram- 
mar, under  Orthoepy. 

§  298.  It  is  important  that  the  study  of  this  language  as  well  as  the  Greek 
should  be  commenced  in  early  life.  In  the  introduction  to  the  History  of  Greek 
Literature,  we  offered  (§6)  some  remarks  on  the  methods  of  teaching  the  lan- 
guages.   We  will  add  here  a  few  particulars. 

1.  Besides  the  various  exercises  before  alluded  to  (§6.  4.)  that  of  conversa- 
tion may  be  mentioned  as  a  very  valuable  aid  in  acquiring  familiarity  with 
Latin  or  any  other  foreign  language.  It  may  in  fact  be  a  question,  whether 
the  inconvenience  of  the  old  regulation,  which  required  the  intercourse  be- 
tween pupil  and  teacher  in  the  higher  seminaries  to  be  carried  on  in  Latin, 
was  not  more  than  compensated  by  the  knowledge  of  the  language  thereby 
acquired.  Certain  it  is,  that  under  our  present  systems  of  study,  languages 
are  learned  as  it  were  by  the  eye  rather  than  the  ear;  and  it  often  happens,  that  a 
scholar  would  be  quite  puzzled  by  a  sentence  spoken  to  him,  when  he  could 
readily  translate  the  same  sentence  presented  to  his  eye  in  a  written  form. 
The  difficulty  is,  partly  at  least,  that  he  has  associated  the  meaning  of  the  for- 
eign word  with  its  visible  form  rather  than  its  sound.  Frequent  conversation 
would  remove  this,  besides  contributing  in  other  ways  to  familiarity  with  the 
language. — A  very  useful  exercise,  preparatory  for  more  regular  conversation, 
is  to  give  orally  in  Latin  (and  the  same  of  course  may  be  done  in  the  case  of 
any  other  language  which  one  wishes  to  learn)  the  name  of  each  object  that  is 
noticed  in  a  room,  a  walk,  ride,  or  visit  to  a  place  of  resort,  a  store,  a  shop,  or 
the  like.  This  exercise  is  particularly  calculated  to  please  youthful  beginners, 
and  might  be  practiced  by  several  students  in  company,  either  with  or  without 
a  teacher. 

Some  aid  in  exercises  of  this  kind  may  be  derived  from  Vocabularies,  in  which  the  names  of 
things  belonging  to  the  same  class,  or  of  subjects  related  to  each  other,  are  brought  together. 
The  London  Vocabulary,  for  the  Latin,  and  Howard's  Vocabulary,  for  the  Greek,  are  little  works 
of  this  sort,  of  considerable  merit. 

2.  Another  amusing  and  useful  exercise,  in  studying  the  Latin  and  Greek 
in  particular,  is  to  trace  terms  in  our  own  language  back  to  the  Latin  or 
Greek  originals,  from  which  they  were  derived. It  is  also  specially  ser- 
viceable, in  acquiring  the  mastery  of  a  language,  to  examine  into  the  analogies 
established  in  it  in  the  formation  of  derivative  words  from  their  primitives, 
and  of  compounds  from  their  simple  constituents. 

Special  exercises  for  these  objects  may  be  devised  by  the  teacher,  besides  directing  the  stu- 
dent's attention  to  them  in  connection  with  particular  Words  occurring  in  the  daily  lessons.  — 
A  verv  good  introduction  to  etymological  studies  is  furnished  by  the  following  small  works. — 
The  Student's  Manual,  being  an  etvmolosrical  and  explanatory  vocabulary  of  words  derived 
from  the  G  r  e  e  k  ,  by  R.  H.  Black,  LL.  D.   Lond.  1834.  18.  and  the  Sequel  to  the  Student's  Man- 


INTRODUCTION.       METHODS  AND  HELPS  IN  STUDYING  LATIN.  279 

val,  an  etymoloir.  and  explan.  Dictionary  of  words  derived  from  the  Latin,  by  the  same  Au- 
thor. —  See  also  Oswald's  Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  English  language,  by  J.  M.  Keagy. 
Phil.  1836.  12. 

3.  Some  valuable  remarks  upon  a  Course  of  Latin  Studies  will  be  found  in  the  Am.  Quart.  Rev. 
vol.  vi.  p.  303.—  See  also  T.  F.  Heynatz,  Versuch  eines  Schulstudien-plans.  (4th  Absch.  von 
Erlernung  der  lat.  Sprache.)    Lpz.  1794.  8. 

4.  The  following  extract  contains  an  account  of  the  system  of  instruction  in  the  Boston  Latin 
School.  It  is  from  a  pamphlet,  which  was  kindly  furnished  to  the  writer  by  Mr.  C.  K  Dillaway> 
the  present  Principal  (1836),  and  which  contains  an  interesting  account  of  the  origin  and  his- 
tory of  that  School. 

"  The  scholars  are  distributed  into  four  separate  apartments,  under  the  care  of  the  same  num- 
ber of  instructors,  viz.  a  Principal,  or  head-master,  a  sub-master  and  two  assistants. When 

a  class  has  entered,  the  boys  commence  the  Latin  Grammar  all  together  under  the  eye  of  the 
principal ;  where  they  continue  until  he  has  become  in  some  degree  acquainted  with  their  in- 
dividual characters  and  capacities.  As  they  receive  credit-marks  of  5,  4,  3,  1,  or  0  at  each  reci- 
tation, and  as  these  are  added  up  at  the  end  of  every  month  and  the  rank  of  each  boy  ascer- 
tained, those  boys  will  naturally  rise  to  the  upper  part  of  the  class  who  are  most  industrious, 
or  who  learn  with  the  greatest  facility.  After  a  time,  a  division  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  boys 
is  taken  off  from  the  upper  end  of  the  class  ;  after  a  few  days  more,  another  division  is  in  like 
manner  taken  off;  and  so  on,  till  the  whole  class  is  separated  into  divisions  of  equal  number , 
it  having  been  found  that  from  twelve  to  fifteen  is  the  most  convenient  number  to  drill  together. 

In  this  way  boys  of  like  capacities  are  put  together,  and  the  evil  of  having  some  unable  to 

learn  the  lesson  which  others  get  in  half  the  time  allowed,  is  in  some  measure  obviated.  The 
class,  thus  .iiranired  for  the  year,  is  distributed  among  the  assistant  teachers,  a  division  to  each. 
—  When  this  distribution  is  made,  the  boys  continue  for  the  year  in  the  apartment  in  which 
they  are  first  placed,  unless  some  particular  reason  should  exist  for  changing  them ;  or  when 
the  divisions  study  Geography  or  Mathematics  with  the  instructor  to  whom  these  branches  are 
committed. — This  method  of  studying  each  branch  separately,  is  adopted  throughout  the  school. 
The  same  individuals  do  not  study  Latin  one  part  of  the  day  and  Greek  the  other,  but  each  for 
n  week  at  a  time.  In  this  way  the  aid  of  excitement  from  the  continuity  of  a  subject  is  secured, 
and  a  much  more  complete  view  of  the  whole  obtained,  than  when  studied  in  detached  portions, 
and  the  grammar  of  neither  language  permitted  to  go  out  of  mind.  For  it  should  '  be  remem^ 
bered,  that  if  the  grammar  be  the  first  book  put  into  the  learner's  hands,  it  should  also  be  the 
last  to  leave  them.'  —  At  convenient  times  the  boys  in  each  apartment  undergo  a  thorough  ex- 
amination in  the  studies  they  have  been  over.  If  any  class,  or  any  individuals,  do  not  pass  a 
satisfactory  examination,  they  are  put  back,  and  made  to  go  over  the  portion  of  studies  in  which 
they  are  deficient  till  they  do  pass  a  satisfactory  examination. 

Boys  commence  with  Adam's  Latin  Grammar,  in  learning  which  they  are  required  to  com- 
mit to  memory  much  that  they  do  not  understand  at  the  time,  as  an  exercise  of  memory,  and  to 
accustom  them  to  labor.  There  are  some  objections  to  this,  it  is  true,  but  it  has  been  found  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  make  boys  commit  thoroughly  to  memory  at  a  subsequent  period,  what  they 
have  been  allowed  to  pass  over  in  first  learning  the  grammar.  It  takes  from  six  to  eight  months 
for  a  boy  to  commit  to  memory  all  that  is  required  in  Adam's  Grammar  ;  but  those  who  do 
master  the  grammar  completely,  seldom  find  any  difficulty  afterwards  in  committing  to  memory 
whatever  may  be  required  of  them. — The  learned  Vicesimus  Knox  thinks  it  may  be  well  to  re- 
lieve boys  a  little  while  studying  grammar,  '  for,'  says  he,  '  after  they  have  studied  Latin  Gram- 
mar a  year  closely,  they  are  apt  to  become  weary.' -  When  boys  can  write  Latin  prose  gram- 
matically, they  are  required  to  make  nonsense  verses,  or  to  put  words  into  verses  with  regard  to 
their  quantity  only.  When  the  mechanical  structure  of  different  kinds  of  versification  is  familiar, 
they  have  given  them  a  literal  translation,  of  a  few  verses  at  a  time,  taken  from  some  author 
with  whose  style  they  are  not  acquainted,  which  is  to  be  turned  into  verses  of  the  same  kind 
as  those  from  which  it  was  taken  ;  and  then  compared  with  the  original.  Afterwards  portions 
of  English  poetry  are  given  to  be  translated  into  Latin  verse.  Original  verses  are  then  re- 
quired, which,  with  themes  in  Latin  and  English,  continue  through  the  course.  Considerable 
portions  of  all  the  Latin  and  Greek  poets  used  in  school  are  committed  to  memory,  as  they  are 
read  ;  particularly  several  books  of  Virgil ;  all  the  first  book  of  Horace,  and  parts  of  many  oth- 
ers ;  the  third  and  tenth  Satires  of  Juvenal  entire  ;  all  the  poetry  in  the  Greek  Reader,  and 
many  hundreds  of  verses  in  Homer.  This  is  an  important  exercise  to  boys  ;  and  without  it 
they  can  never  write  Latin  prose  or  verse  with  the  same  facility  as  with  it.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  the  idioms  of  any  language  are  gained  ;  and  in  writing  verses  the  quantity  and  proper  use 
of  most  words  employed  by  the  best  writers  are  instantaneously  determined,  by  recalling  a  verse 
in  which  it  occurs." 

§299t.  Here  is  the  proper  place  to  name  some  of  the  works  which  may  serve 
as  aids  in  studying  the  Latin  language  and  literature. 

1.  Chrestomathies and  Reading-Books. — F.Ge- 
dike's  lateinisches  Lesebuch, 18th  ed.  Berl.l82D. 
8. — By  same,  Lat.  Chrestomathie.  4th  ed.  Berl. 


1822.  8.  —  F.  Jacobs  (and  F.  W.  Daring's)  lat. 
Lesebuch.  Jen. 1818.  The  latter  has  been  pub- 
lished in  this  country  under  the  title  of  The 
Latin  Reader  edited  by  George  Bancroft,  in  2 
vols.  (Parts  I  and  II.)  The  first  part  of  it  also, 
under  the  title  of  Andrews'  Latin  Reader,  by 
E.  F.Andrews.  Bost.  4th  ed.  1839.  —  F.  Ellendt, 
Lateinisches  Lesebuch  fur  die  untersten  Klas- 
sen.  5th  ed.  Konigsb.  1815.  8. — The  Liber  Pri- 
mus (stereotyped  1827),  Viri  Roma  (as  published 
for  Boston  Lat.  School,  1833),  and  Historic  Sa- 
cra, are  also  used  in  teaching  beginners.— The 
Exccrpta  Latino  (Bost.1810.  8.)  was  designed  for 
itudents  more  advanced,— Analecta  Latino,  Ma- 


jora,  containing  selections  from  the  best  Latin 
Prose  Authors,  with  English  notes,  &c.  on  the 
plan  of  Dalzel's  Analecta  Graica.   Lond.  1831. 

8. The  authors  usually  read  first  after  the 

Chrestomathy  are  Cornelius  Ne-pos,  Ccesar,  Vir- 
gil, Odd,  Cicero,  Salhtst,  Horace. 

2.  Grammars.  Of  the  great  number  of  gram- 
matical helps,  we  mention  the  following. — G. 
J.  Vosshis,  Aristarchus  s.  de  arte  grammatica. 
Amst.  1632.  2  vols.  4. — Fr.Sanctius,  Minerva  s. 
dc  causis  lingine  lat.  Comment.  (ed.  C.L.Bauer) 
Lips.  1793-1801.  2  vols.  8.  (ed.  Eb.  Scheidius.) 
Amst.  et  Goth.  1809.  8.— A.F.BernJiardi,Vo\\st. 
lat.  Grammatik.  Berl.  1795-97.  2  vols.  8.—1.G. 
Schcller,  Ausftirhliche  lat.  Sprachlehre.  Lpz. 
1803.  8.  Translated  into  Eng.  by  G.  Walker. 
Lond.  1827.  2  vols.  8.  —  Ch.  G.  Braider,  Prak- 


280 


HISTORY    OP    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 


tische  Grammatik  der  lat.  Sprache.  (14th  ed.) 
Lpz.  1820.  8.— H.  B.  Wench's  lat.  Sprachl.  (ed. 
G.  F.  Grotefend)  Frankf.  1820-23.  2  vols.  8.— 
C.  G.  Zump't's  lat.  Gramm.  (4th  ed.)  Berl.  1824. 
8.  Transl.  into  Eng.  bv  Kenrick.  Also  publ. 
N.  York.  1829.  8.  —  K.  L.  Schneider,  Ausfuhrl. 
Gramm.  der  lat.  Sprache.  Berl.  1819.  2  vols.  8. 
— Port  Royal  Lat.  Grammar  (a  new  method  &c. 
translated  from  the  French  of  the  Messrs.  de 
Port  Royal)  by  T.  Nugent.  Lond.  1803.  2  vols. 
8. — D.  Ludw.  Ramshorn,  Lateinische  Gramma- 
tik. Lpz.  1830.  8.  pp.  1165.  —  The  Grammar 
which  Jas  been  most  usually  adopted  in  our 
schools  is  that  of  Adam ;  the  best  editions  of 
which  are  those  of  Gould  and  of  Fisk.  The 
Grammar  by  Andrews  and    Stoddard  is  now 

(1838)  most  highly  recommended. We  may 

here  mention,  as  very  useful  helps  in  studying 
the  first  principles  of  Latin  grammar  in  the 
method  suggested  on  a  former  page  (§6.2)  the 
following :  Goodrich's  Outlines  of  Latin  Gram- 
mar &c.  —  Willard's  Introduction  to  the  Latin 
Language.  Bost.  1835. 12. 

3.  Dictionaries. — We  may  mention  as  valu- 
able, Calepinus,  Lexicon  Latinum  variarum 
linguarum  interpretatione  adjecta.  Patav.1681. 
2  vols.  fol.  first  ed.  1503.  The  most  complete  ; 
J.  M.  Gessner,  Novus  Lingua?  Romanae  The- 
saurus, post  R.  Stephani  et  aliorum  curas  di- 
gestus.  Lpz.  1749.  4  vols.  fol.  —  Facciolati  &. 
Forcellini,  Lexicon  totius  Latinitatis  &c.  (auc- 
tum  labore  variorum.)  Lips.  1835.  4  vols.  fol. 
—  /.  J.  G.  ScheUer,  Ausfuhrliches  lateinisch- 
deutsches  u.  deutsch-lat.  Worterbuch.  Lpz. 
1804, 5.  7  vols.  8.  —  The  Universal  Latin  Lexi- 
con of  Facciolatus  and  Forcellinus,  edited  by 
J.  Bailey.  Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  4.  —  A  smaller 
work  of  great  utility  is  Scheller's  Handlexikon, 
verbessert  und  vermehrt  durch  G.  H.  Lune- 
mann,  5th  ed.  Lpz.  1822.  3  vols.  8 — J.  E.  Rid- 
dle, Scheller's  Lex.  lingua?  Latina?,  with  the 
Germ,  explanations  translated  into  English. 
Oxf.  1835.  fol.  —  W.  Frcund,  Worterbuch  der 
Lat.  Sprache  nach  historisch  genetischen  Prin- 
cipien.  To  be  completed  in  4  vols.  8.  2  vols. 
8.  executed,  1837.  "  considered  in  Germany  as 
one  of  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  lexicog- 
raphy."  The  Dictionaries,which  have  been 

most  commonly  used  in  our  schools,  are  Ains- 
worth's,  Morrell's  Abridgment  of  Ainsworth, 
and  Young's.  —  J.  TV.  Niblock,  Latin  and  Eng- 
lish Dictionary  ;  for  schools.  —  In  Germany 
much  use  has  been  made  of  Scheller's  Kleines 
lat.  Worterbuch,  edit,  bv  Lvnemann,  5th  ed. 
Han. 1816. 8.— Ch.H.Dbmer, Worterbuch  d.Lat. 
Sprache.  commenced  Stuttg.  1836.  8.   its  value 

not  known. The  best  for  common  use,  F.P. 

Leverett,  A  new  Latin-English  and  English- 
Latin  Lexicon,  abridged  from  the  Lexicon  of 
Facciolati  &  Forcellini,  with  improvements 
drawn  from  Schellcr  &.  Lunemann.   Bost.  1836. 8. 

For  Grammars  and  Lexicons  of  the  Latin 

and  other  languages,  see  J.  S.  Vater,  Literatur 
der  Graminatiken,  Lexica,  und  Wbrtersamm- 
lungen  aller  Sprachen  der  Erde,  &c.  Berl. 1815. 
8. 

4.  We  may  refer  also  to  a  few  works  on  par- 
ticular branches  of  Grammar  or  Lexicography. 

(a)  On  Sijnonym.es.— J.  Hill,  The  Synonymes 
of  the  Lat.  Language  with  crit.  Dissert,  upon 
the  force  of  Prepositions.  Edinb.  1804.  4.  —> 
G.  Dusmenil,  Synon.  Lat.  —  Same,  trans- 
lated from  French  into  German  by  I.  Ch.  G. 
Ernesti.  Lpz.  1779.  3  vols.  8.  —  M.  Lieber,  Ho- 
monyma  Ling.  Lat.  Lips.  1837.  8.— Ludw.  Db- 
derlein,  Lateinische  Synonyme  <kc.  Lpz.  1826- 
38.  6  vols.  8.— There  is  a  briefer  work  by  Rams- 
horn, in  which  the  Sanscrit  is  applied  to  the 
Latin.  —  E.  C.  Babicht,  syno»yHU8cb.es  Hand- 
worterbuch  d.  Lat.  Sprache,  &c.  Lemg.1829.  8. 

(b)  On  Particles.— Ch.  G.  Schvtz,  Doctr.  par- 
ticular. Lat.  linguae.  Dessa v.  1784^  8.  —  Hor. 


TurseUinus,  De  particulis  ling.  Lat.  libellus. 
(cur.  J.  A.  Ernesti)  Lpz.  1769.  8.  ed.  by  J.  Bai- 
ley. Lond.  1828.  8.—  T.  Hand,  TurseUinus  sen 
De  particulis  Latin  is  Commentarii.  Lips.  1829- 
38.  5  vols.  8.  "  an  original  and  splendid  work, 
completely  exhausting  the  subject." 

(c)  On  Analogies  and  affinities  of  the  lan- 
guage and  Etymology.  —  Dunbar,  Inquiry  into 
the  Structure  and  Affinity  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages.  Ed.  1827.  8. — It  may  be  profit- 
able to  consult  Harris's  Hermes,  a  philosophical 
Inquiry  concerning  Universal  Grammar.  Lond. 
1751.  8.  —  JV.  Fork,  Etymologisches  Handwb'r- 
terbuch  d.  Lat.  Sprache.  Lpz.  1838.  2  vols.  8.— 
JV.  Salmon,  Stemmata  Latinitatis,  or  Etymo- 
logical Lat.  Diet,  wherein  the  mechanism  of 
the  Latin  tongue  is  exhibited  &c.  Lond.  1791. 
2  vols.  8.—  G.~Sharpe,  Structure  of  Lat.  tongue. 
1751.  —  C.  E.  Prefer,  De  Gra?ca  atque  Latina 
declinatione.   Lips.  1827.  8. 

(d)  Prosody  &,  Metre.— C.  H.  Sintenis,  Gradus 
ad  Parnassum  &c.  Ziillich.  1816.  2  vols.  8.  — 
N.  A.  Heidcn,  Anleitung  zur  Kenntniss  der 
Dichtkunst  des  alten  Roms.  Xorimb.  1815. 
2  vols. — M.  C.  Kirchner,  Prosodia  Latina  com- 
pleta  &c.  Bas.  1643.  4.  —  T.  Gaisford,  as  cited 
$422. 

5.  In  writing  Latin,  there  are  various  useful 
helps.  —  Scheller's  Prnecepta  stili  bene  latinu 
Lpz.  1797.  2  vols.  8.  —  C.  D.  Beck,  Artis  latina 
scribendi  pra?cepta.  Lpz.  1801.  8.  —  E.  Valpy, 
Elegantia?  Latina? ;  or  Rules  and  Exercises  il- 
lustrative of  Elegant  Latin  Style.  9th  ed.  Lond. 
1831.  Introductory  to  this  are  the  two  works 
styled  First  Latin  Exercises  and  Second  Latin 
Exercises,  by  E.  Valpy. — The  New  Latin  Tutor, 
or  Introduction  to  the  making  of  Latin,  &c. 
This  is  now  much  used  in  our  schools.  —  TV. 
Robertson,  Dictionary  of  Latin  Phrases,  &c. 
for  the  more  speedy  progress  of  students  in 
Latin  Composition.  Lond.  1830.  12. — 11.  Crom- 
bie's  Gymnasium,  or  Symbola  Critica.  Lond. 
1830.  2  vols.  8.  Cf.  Class.  Journ.  x.  384.  xi.296. 
xii.  167.  —  E.  H.  Barker,  Elements  of  Latin 
Prosody,  with  Exercises  designed  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  scanning  and  making  Latin 
verses.  6th  ed.  Lond.1830. 12.— S.Butler,  Praxis 
on  the  Latin  Prepositions,  being  an  attempt  to 
illustrate  their  Origin,  Signification,  and  Gov- 
ernment. 3d  ed.    Lond.  1832.  8. We  may 

name  also  as  valuable  in  reference  to  idiom  and 
stvle,  C.  J.  Grysar,  Theorie  des  Lateinischen 
Stils.  Col.  1831.  8. — T.  P.  Krebs,  Antibarbarus 
der  Lateinischen  Sprache.  2d  ed.  Frankf. 
1837.8.   pp.515. 

6.  For  helps  pertaining  to  the  subjects  of  Ge- 
ography, Chronology,  and  Biography,  consult 
$7.  7.— We  add  here,  Clinton's  Fasti  HellenicL 
Oxf.  1826-34.  3  vols.  4.  —  Biographia  Classica. 
Iiond.  1740.  2  vols.  8.  Transl.  from  Eng.  to 
Germ.  Hal.  1767.— v*.  Th.  Bischoffk.  I.  H.  Mbl- 
ler,  Vergleichung  des  Wb'rterbuchs  der  alter, 
mittleren,  und  neuen  Geographic  Goth.  1829. 
8.—  Chr.  Midler,  Roms  Campagna  in  Beziehung 
auf  alte  Geschichte,  Dichtung,  und  Kunst. 
Lpz.  1824.  2  vols.  8.— Cramer's  "Ancient  Italy. 
Oxf.  1826.  2  vols.  8.  with  map. 

7.  Among  the  valuable  helps  of  a  historical 
character,  we  mention  the  following.  —  Ge- 
schichte der  Rbmer,  zur  ErkLirung  ilircn  klas- 
sischen  Schriftsteller.  Lpz.  1787.  2  vols.  8.  — 
F.  Fielder's  Geschichte  des  rom.  Staates  und 
Volkes.  Lpz.  1821.  8.— TJios.  Blackwell  ;  Me- 
moirs of  the  Court  of  Augustus  (completed  by 
J.  Mills).  Edinb.  1753-03.  4  vols.  4.— Ad.  Fer- 
guson, Hist,  of  Rise  and  Progress  of  Rom.  Re- 
public. Often  reprinted.  Transl.  into  German 
with  additions  bv  C.  D.  Beck.  Lpz.  1784.  3  vols. 
8.—  Goldsmith^  History  of  Rome.  Often  re- 
printed. Same  work  abridged  ;  one  of  the  best 
editions  is  by  Pinnock  (republ.  by  Key  <$•  Biddls) 
Phil..  1835. 12.— Bentzler's  Gesch.  de*  Rbmev  (ft 


INTRODUCTION.      HELPS  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  LATIN. 


281 


transl.  of  Goldsmith)  Lpz.  1785.  2  vols.  8.— JV&- 
buhr's  Rbm.  Gesch.  Berl.1831.  Transl. English, 
Cambr.  1832.  2  vols.  8.  Cf.  Amer.  Quart.  Rev. 
vol.  iv.  p.  367.  JV.  Amer.  Rev.  xvi.  438.  —  JV. 
Hooke,  The  Roman  History  from  the  building 
of  Rome  to  the  ruin  of  the  Commonwealth. 
Lond.  1806.  11  vols.  8.  —  Ed.  Gibbon,  Hist,  of 
Decline  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Empire.  Often  repr. 
A  French  transl.  by  Suard,  with  notes  by  Gui- 
zot.  Par.  1812.  13  vols.  8.  (The  infidel  insinua- 
tions of  Gibbon  are  exposed  and  refuted  in 
Watson'' s  Apology  for  Christianity  ;  often  re- 
printed.)—  T.  Arnold,  History  of  Rome.  1st  vol. 
Lond.  1838.  8.  highly  commended  in  Black- 
wood's Jlacr.  vol.  xliv.  p.  141.  —  T.  Keightley, 
Hist,  of  Rome  (to  the  reign  of  Augustus). 
Lond.  1837.  8.  —  W.  C.  Taylor,  Overthrow  of 
Rom.  Empire  (extending  from  Constantine  to 
the  fall  of  Constantinople.)   Lond.  1838. 

8.  Works  belonging  to  the  class  Histories  of 
Latin  Literature,  or  Introductions  to  the  same, 
are  very  useful  helps.  We  have  already  men- 
tioned (<§  7.  9.)  some  which  treat  of  the  Latin 
authors  together  with  the  Greek.  Some  others 
relating  to  the  Latin  may  be  added  here. — /.  JV. 
Funecius.  cited  P.  I.  §  114.  2.  Three  portions 
of  his  History  of  Latin  Literature  are  there  cited; 
the  other  parts  are  the  following:  De  vh  ili  state 
Linguce  Latins  Tractatus.  Marb.  1727-30.  2 
vols.  ;  De  imminente  L.  L.  Senectute  Tract. 
Marb.  1744.  ;  De  inerti  ac  decrepita  L.  L.  Se- 
nectute Commentarius.  Lemg.  1750.  —  /.  A. 
Fabricii,  Bibliotheca  Latina,  rectius  digesta  et 
aucta  diligentia  J.  A.  Ernesti.  Lpz.  1773.  3 
vols.  8.—  O.  E.  Mvller,  Hist.  krit.  Einleitung 
zu  nb'thiger  Kenntniss  u.  nutzlichen  Gebrauche 
der  alten  lat.  Schriftseller.  Dresd.  1747-51.  5 
vols.  8.  not  completed. — T.  C.  Zeunii  Introduc- 
tio  in  linguam  latinam.  Jen.  1779.  8.  —  F.  A. 
Wolf,  Geschichte  der  rom.  Literatur  ;  ein  Leit- 


Th.  Ch.  Harles,  Introductio  in  Historiam  lin- 
guae latins.  Norimb.  1781.  2  vols.  8. — By  same, 
Notitia  literaturs  Romans,  in  primis  scripto- 
ruin  latinorum.  Lpz. 1789.  8.  with  Supplements 
I.  &.  II.  Lpz.  1799,  1801,  and  III.  (ed.  C.  F.  H. 
Klvgling)  Lpz.  1817.  —  By  same,  Notitia  liter, 
romans  &c.  accomod.  in.  us.  schol.  Lpz. 1803. 
8.  with  Additamenta  by  Klugling.  Lpz.  1819.  8. 
—  F.  Scholl,  Histoire  Abregee  de  la  Litterature 
Romaine.  Par.  1815.  4  vols.  8.  Cf.  Ed.  Rev. 
No.  lxxx.  vol.  xl.  p.  375.  —  J.  Dunlop,  History 
of  Rom.  Literature,  from  the  earliest  period  to 
the  Augustan  age.  Lond.  1823.  2  vols.  8.  Repr. 
Phil.  1827.  Cf.  Ed.  Rev.  as  just  cited.  A  3d 
vol.  (Lond.  1828.)  continues  the  history  during 
the  A u gustan  age. —  CAarpentier,Etudes  morales 
et  historiques  sur  la  literature  Romaine,  depuis 
son  origine  jusqu'a  nos  jours.  Hach.  1829.  8. — 
G.  Bcrnhardy,  Grundriss  der  Rbmischen  Lite- 
ratur. Halle,  1830.  8.  —  J.  Chr.  F.  Bdhr,  Ge- 
schichte der  Rb'mischenLiteratur.  2d  ed.  Carlsr. 
1832.  8.  This  is  probably  the  best  work  of 
the  kind.  There  is  a  valuable  Supplement  en- 
titled Die  Christlich-rb'mische  Literature.  1836- 
38.  —  Other  works  of  this  class  are  cited  by 
Dunlop  at  the  close  of  his  Appendix. 

9.  On  editions  and  translations,  we  refer  to 
the  works  cited  §  7.  10.  —  F.  A.  Ebert,  General 
Bibliographical  Dictionary  transl.  from  the  Ger- 
man. Oxf.  4  vols.  8.  —  A  recent  ed.  of  Black- 
wall's  Introduction  (cf.  P.  I.  $29.  4.)  Oxf.1837. 
12.  contains  some  notices  of  editions  of  Class, 
authors.  —  On  German  translations  the  follow- 
ing may  be  added  ;  T.  F.  Degen,  Versuch  einer 
vollstindigen  Literatur  der  deutschen  Ueber- 
setzungen  der  Rbmer.  Altenb.  1794.  2  vols.  8. 
Supplem.  Erl.  1799.  8.  —  Consult  also  Harles, 
Notitia  &.c.  above  cited  ;  in  which  are  found 
likewise  references  on  most  of  the  subjects 
specified  under  the  preceding  heads. 


faden  fur  akad.  Vorlesungen  Halle.  1787.  8.  — 

§  300.  In  giving-  the  history  of  Roman  literature,  we  shall  follow  the  same 
method  as  in  treating  of  the  Greek.  We  shall  first  suggest  a  division  of  the 
whole  extent  of  time  included  into  a  few  distinct  periods,  and  designate  the 
several  departments  particularly  cultivated  among  the  Romans  ;  and  then 
proceed  to  notice  these  departments  separately.  In  doing  this,  a  general 
view  of  the  department  will  be  given  first,  and  then  a  brief  notice  of  the 
most  important  authors  in  it,  ranged  in  chronological  order.  In  speaking  of 
individual  authors,  we  shall  advert  to  their  lives  and  characters,  to  their 
works,  and  to  the  most  important  editions  and  translations,  and  other  useful 
helps  in  studying  them. 

§  301.  The  history  of  Roman  literature,  in  its  most  extensive  signification, 
comprehends  a  space  of  twelve  hundred  years,  from  the  building  of  Rome, 
B.  C.  752,  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire,  A.  D.  476.  It  may  be 
very  conveniently  divided  into  five  distinct  periods. 

The  first  period  extends/ror/i  the  building  of  Rome,  to  the  close  of  the  first 
Punic  War,  B.  C.  240.     It  includes  more   than  five  centuries,  during  which 

the   language  continued  in  a  state  quite  unpolished. The    second    period 

extends  from  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  War,  to  the  civil  War  of  Marius  and 
Sylla,  B.  C.  88.  It  includes  about  one  century  and  a  half,  during  which  the 
language  was  greatly  improved  and  enriched   in  consequence  of  intercourse 

between  the  Romans  and  the  Greeks  of  Magna  Graecia. The  third  period 

extends  from  the  Civil  War  of  Marius  and  Sylla,-  to  the  death  of  Augtistus,  A. 
D.  14.  It  includes  about  a  century,  during  which  the  language  exhibited  the 
highest  degree  of  refinement  it  ever,  attained.      This  may  properly  be  called 

the  golden  age  of  Roman  literature. The  fourth  period  extends  from  the 

death  of  Augustus  and  accession  of  Tiberius,  to  the  age  of  the  Antonincs,  A.  D. 
160.     It  includes  about  a  century  and  a  half,  during  which  the  language  lost 

something  of  its  elegance  and  polish. The  fifth  period  extends  from  the 

age  of  the  Antonincs,  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire,  A.   D.   476.     It 
includes  about  three,  centuries,  in  which  the  language  became  greatly  corrupt- 
ed and  finally  loaded  with  barbarisms. 
24* 


282  HISTORY    OF   ROMAN    LITERATURE, 

§  302.  In  noticing  the  most  important  authors  and  prominent  circumstan- 
ces in  the  literary  history  of  the  periods  above  named,  we  shall  follow  the 
order  which  we  adopted  in  treating  of  the  Greek  literature.  We  shall  speak 
fiVst  of  the  Poets  ;  next  of  the  Orators  ;  then  of  the  Rhetoricians,  the  Gram- 
marians, the  writers  of  Epistles  and  Fiction,  the  Philosophers,  the  Historians-^ 
the  Mathematicians  and  Geographers  ;  here  we  shall  mention  some,  who  may 
b  e  called  Economists,  treating  of  practical  arts,  especially  husbandry ;  then 
he  Mythographers,  and  the  tcriters  on  Medicine  and  Natural  History.  We 
propose  also  to  introduce  a  brief  notice  of  the  writers  on  Law  and  Jurisprudence. 


I. — Poetry  and  Poets, 

§  303.  In  the  first  centuries  after  the  building  of  their  city,  the  Romans 
were  but  little  acquainted  with  poetry.  During  the  whole  time,  which  we 
have  designated  as  the  first  period  of  Roman  literature  (§  301),  they  did  not 
really  cultivate  any  branch  of  letters.  It  was  not  until  B.  C.  240,  above  500 
years  after  the  founding  of  Rome,  that  they  had  properly  speaking,  any  liter- 
ature. (Cf.  P.  I.  §  113).  At  this  time,  the  conquests  of  the  Romans  had 
brought  them  into  intercourse  with  the  Greeks  settled  in  the  southern  part  of 
Italy,  and  the  influence  was  soon  felt  at  Rome  in  awakening  and  cherishing 
a  love  of  the  arts.  Dramatic  poetry  appears  to  have  been  the  first  form  of 
literature  thus  derived  from  the  Greeks.  Subsequently,  the  Romans  looked 
to  the  Greeks  for  their  models,  not  only  in  poetry,  but  in  every  other  branch 
of  literature. 

§304.  Previously  to  the  introduction  of  the  drama  just  mentioned,  there 
were  indeed  some  compositions  of  a  poetical  kind,  which  were  rehearsed  on 
festive  and  commemorative  occasions.  Such  was  the  hymn  chanted  by  the 
Fratrcs  Jlrvalcs,  supposed  to  be  the  earliest  specimen  of  the  Roman  language 
now  extant.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  114.) — Such  also  were  the  hymns  (sometimes  called 
axamenta)  sung  by  the  Salic  priests.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  215.) — Such  too  were  the 
Fescennine  verses  {versus  Fescennini) ,  rude  and  satirical  verses,  that  were  re- 
hearsed at  certain  festivals,  in  the  time  of  harvest,  and  accompanied  with 
rustic  gestures  and  dances.  Their  name  was  derived  from  Fescennium,  a  city 
of  Etruria,  or  from  a  deity  termed  Fascinu9.  They  were  also  called  Saturni- 
an,  from  the  irregularity  of  their  metre,  or  their  freedom  from  definite  rules 
of  structure.  They  were  of  a  very  licentious  character,  which  it  became  ne- 
cessary to  restrain  by  law.  Traces  of  this  sort  of  poetical  effusions  were  re- 
tained, in  the  latest  times  at  Rome,  in  the  songs  of  young  men  on  nuptial  oc- 
casions. 

Cf.  G.  H.  Heinricks,  Versus  ludicri  in   Romanorum  Caesares  priores  oJim  compositi.      Hal. 

1810.  8.— Cf.  Hor*  Ep.  II.  i.  145. Respecting  Fascinus,  see  Forcellini,  Lexicon  Tot.  Lat.     On 

the  Saturnian  verse,  Cf.  Dunlop,  as  cited  $  299.  8.  (Phil.  ed.  i.  63.)— On  the  Fescennine  verse, 
Scholl,  Lit.  Rom.  i.  74.— J.  Casaubon,  De  Sivtyrica  Graec.  Poesi  et  Roirian.  Satira.  Hal.  1774.  8. 
(p.  177.)— Cf.  Hor.  Epist.  L.  ii.  Ep.  1. 

§  305.  Before  the  introduction  of  the  more  regular  drama  from  Magna 
Greecia,  there  were  also  practiced  at  Rome  some  performances  of  a  dramatic 
nature  ;  particularly  the  plays  of  the  Tuscan  Histriones,  and  the  Fabuloc 
Attllana. — The  former  were  first  introduced  about  B.  C.  364,  in  order  as  is 
stated,  to  appease  the  gods,  when  their  wrath  was  felt  in  a  prevailing  epidem- 
ic. Players  were  invited  from  Etruria,  and  called  Histriones,  from  the  Tus- 
can word  hister  ;  they  danced  to  the  music  of  a  flute,  with  which  they  also 
united  singing  and  mimic  actions.  These  performances  were  called  Ludi 
scenici;  a  phrase  which  was  also  used  'to  include  all  the  various  forms  of  dra- 
matic exhibition  subsequently   introduced. The   Fabula  Atcllanoi  derived 

their  origin  and  name  from  Atella,  a  city  of  the  Osci,  lying  between  Capua 
and  Naples.  They  were  a  kind  of  rude  irregular  comedy  or  farce,  in  the 
Oscan  dialect.  Originally  they  were  probably  in  some  measure  extempora- 
neous performances,  in  which  the  actors  after  previous  agreement  and  prep- 
aration filled  up  the  scenes  according  to  their  own  skill  and  pleasure.     This 


DRAMATIC    POETRY.       TRAGEDY.  283 

species  of  entertainment  was  very  popular  at  Rome,  and  continued  to  be  st> 
after  the  introduction  of  the  regular  drama ;  and  several  writers  composed 
pieces  denominated  Atellane  Fables.  The  exhibitions  of  these  compositions, 
and  also  the  pieces  themselves,  were  called  Ludi  Osci. 

Livy,  Lib.  vii.  c.  Q.—Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  75.— Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  i.  230.  (ed.  Phil.  1827). 
— J.  Casaubon,  (as  cited  §  304)  p.  184,  241. — J.  O.  Suiter,  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  schonen 
Kunste,  Lpz.  1792.  4  vols.  8.)     Vol.  i.  p.  518. 

§  306.  It  should  also  be  remarked,  that  in  the  early  periods  of  Rome,  there 
were  national  ballads,  which  celebrated  the  praises  of  native  heroes,  and  the 
victories  gained  by  Roman  arms.  Triumphal  songs  and  pagans  were  sung  by 
the  soldiers  marching  in  procession  through  the  streets  of  the  city.  At  con- 
vivial feasts  likewise,  songs  of  the  same  description  were  rehearsed  accompan- 
ied with  instrumental  music.  These  ballads  were  founded  on  the  traditions  re- 
specting the  kings  and  heroes  and'early  achievements  of  the  people.  Niebuhr 
and  Schlegel  suppose  the  stories,  which  Livy  and  others  relate  in  the  regular 
history  of  Rome,  to  have  been  chiefly  drawn  from  such  popular  ballads  and 
traditionary  poems  of  the  primitive  ages. 

Dunlop,  i.   40,   79 F.  Schlegel,  Hist,   of  Lit.  Lectl  iii.— O.  B.  Niebuhr,   Hist,   of  Rom©> 

(Trans,  from  Germ,  by  Hare  Sf  Thirlwall,  p.  193.  vol.  i.  ed.  Phil.  1835. — Perizonius,  Animad- 
versiones  Histories,  (c.  6.) — Cf.  Cicero,  Tusc.  (iuaest.  L.  i.  c.  2.  iv.  c.  2.     Brutus,  18.  19. 

§  307.  With  the  exceptions  which  have  been  noticed  in  the  preceding  sec- 
tions (304-306),  the  Romans  had  no  poetry  until  their  conquests  in  Magna 
Grascia.  From  this  period,  they  began  to  imitate  the  Greeks  ;  and  most  of 
the  forms  of  poetry  found  among  the  latter,  were  finally  introduced  at  Rome, 
We  shall  have  occasion  to  notice  in  this  sketch,  the  Dramatic,  Epic,  Lyric, 
Bucolic,  Elegiac  and  Didactic  ;  also  the  Fable,  the  Epigram,  and  the  Satire. 

§  308.  (a)  Dramatic.  It  has  already  been  remarked  that  the  drama  was 
the  first  form  of  literature  borrowed  from  the  Greeks.  Regular  dramatic 
pieces  were  first  exhibited  at  Rome,  by  Livius  Andronicus,  B.  C.  about  239 
or  240,  at  the  commencement  of  the  second  period  before  specified  (§  301). 
But  the  drama  never  reached  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection  among  the 
Romans.  The  mass  of  the  people  were  more  fond  of  the  public  shows  and 
spectacles  ;  and  the  higher  ranks  were  engrossed  in  ambitious  projects  for 
power  and  wealth.  Comedy  seems  to  have  been  more  congenial  with  the 
native  taste  of  the  Romans  than  tragedy  ;  such  dramatic  performances  as 
preceded  the  time  of  Livius,  seem  to  have  been  wholly  of  the  comical  species. 

§  309.  1.  Tragcdxj.  It  has  been  disputed  whether  the  first  drama  repre- 
sented at  Rome  by  Livius  Andronicus,  was  a  comedy  or  a  tragedy.  However 
this  may  be,  he  is  the  acknowledged  founder  of  Roman  tragedy.  He  was  an 
actor  himself,  and  for  a  considerable  time  the  sole  performer  of  his  own 
pieces.  "  Afterwards,  however,  his  voice  failing  in  consequence  of  the  au- 
dience insisting  on  the  repetition  of  favorite  passages,  he  introduced  a  boy 
who  relieved  him  by  declaiming  in  concert  with  the  flute,  while  he  himself 
executed  the  corresponding  gesticulations  in  the  monologues,  and  in  the 
parts  where  high  exertion  was  required,  employing  his  own  voice  only  in  the 
conversational  or  less  elevated  scenes."  Hence  originated  the  custom  by 
which  the  singing  or  rehearsal  in  the  monologues  was  separated  from  the 
mimic  action,  and  only  the  latter  was  assigned  to  the  actor  ;  a  custom  which 
continued  in  the  Roman  drama  during  the  most  refined  periods. 

This  change  from  the  Grecian  custom,  in  which  the  tragic  singing  and  mimic  action  were 
performed  by  one  person,  is  mentioned  by  Livy,  L.  vii.  c.  2.  The  terms  Canticum  and  Diverbia, 
commonly  interpreted  as  referring  to  the  monologue  or  rehearsal,  and  dialogue  or  conversation, 
are  otherwise  explained  by  some.     Cf.  Schbll,  i.  p.  108. 

§  310.  During  the  period  extending  from  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war, 
to  the  civil  war  of  Marius  and  Sylla  B.  C.  88,  we  find  three  other  principal 
writers  in  tragedy  besides  Livius  Andronicus  ;  viz.  Ennius,  Pacuvius,  and 
Attius.  Noevius  was  also  the  author  of  several  tragedies,  but  held  a  higher 
rank  as  a  comic  poet.  All  these  authors  drew  their  materials  almost  wholly 
from  Grecian  originals  ;  their  productions  being  either  translations  or  imita- 
tions of  Greek  authors.  With  a  very  few  exceptions,  their  tragedies  were 
of  the  class  termed  palliates ,  i.  e.  constructed  of  Grecian  characters  and  inci- 
dents ;  only  three  or  four  (cf.  §  353.  1.  354.  1.)  were  of  the  class  called  pra- 
textatce  or  togatai,  i.  e.  composed  of  native  materials. — It  is  worthy  of  remark, 


284  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

that  these  authors  could  not  avail  themselves  of  personages  and  events 
already  long  celebrated  in  epic  song,  as  the  Greek  tragedians  did.  Roman 
poetry  commenced  with  the  drama,  and  the  poets  were  obliged  almost  necessa- 
rily to  go  to  a  foreign  mythology  and  history  for  subjects  and  scenes  of  a  date 
sufficiently  ancient  to  be  employed  with  dramatic  effect.  Whatever  causes 
may  be  assigned,  the  fact  is  a  striking  one,  that  the  Romans  exhibit  less  orig- 
inality in  tragedy  and  in  the  drama  generally  than  in  any  other  species  of 
composition. 

See  T.  Baden,  De  causis  neglects  apud  Romanos  tragoedife.  Gott.  1789.  8. — Cf.  Dunlop,  i. 
219-227. — F.  Jacobs  (remarks  on  the  same  topic)  in  the  Ckaraktere  d.  vornehmst.  Dichtcr,  iv.  p. 
332.—  W.  Schlegel,  Dramat.  Lit. 

§  311.  In  the  next  period  of  Roman  literature,  extending  from  the  civil 
war,  B.  C.  88,  to  the  death  of  Augustus,  A.  D.  14,  regular  tragedy  was  al- 
most driven  from  the  stage.  The  taste  for  gladiatorial  combats,  and  the  shows 
exhibited  by  the  aediles,  had  greatly  increased ;  and  a  simple  dramatic  repre- 
sentation became  rather  an  insipid  thing,  unless  attended  with  a  pageantry 
wholly  inconsistent  with  its  proper  character.  It  was  in  accordance  with  this 
taste,  that  a  "  thousand  mules  pranced  about  the  stage  in  the  tragedy  of  Cly- 
temnestra  ;  and  whole  regiments,  accoutred  in  foreign  armor,  were  marshaled 
in  that  of  the  "  Trojan  Horse." — The  species  of  representation  called  Mimes, 
was  introduced,  and  was  a  novel  kind  of  spectacle,  which  was  more  agreea- 
ble   to  the   Romans   than  anything  furnished  by  the  Greek  imitations  in  the 

regular  drama. Tragedy,  however,  continued  to   afford  pleasure  to  many, 

and  writers  of  merit  occupied  themselves  in  this  species  of  composition,  al- 
though it  was  nearly  banished  from  the  stage.  C.  Julius  Ccesar  Strabo,  who 
after  having  been  chief  pontiff,  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Cinna,  is  named 
as  a  good  tragic  poet.  The  dictator  C.  Julius  Ccesar  left  a  tragedy  entitled 
(Edipus,  of  which  Augustus,  it  is  said,  forbade  the  publication.  P.  Asinius 
Pollio  composed  tragedies.  L.  Varius,  a  friend  of  Virgil  and  of  Horace, 
named  by  the  former  among  his  heirs,  and  charged  by  Augustus  with  the 
duty  of  revising  the  jEneid,  was  also  a  tragic  poet.  His  Thyestes,  in  the 
judgment  of  Quintilian,  might  bear  comparison  with  the  most  perfect  perform- 
ance of  the  Greeks.  Ovid  wrote  a  tragedy  called  Medea,  applauded  by  Quin- 
tilian, but  lost.  Maecenas  also  left  two  tragedies,  which  are  lost.  Augustus 
attempted  a  tragedy  with  the  title  of  Ajax. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  O.  JV*.  Itcerkens,  a  physician  of  Groningen,  and  an- 
thor  of  an  interesting  account  of  a  journey  made  by  him  in  Italy,  announced  that  he  had 
in  possession  a  tragedy  in  manuscript,  entitled  Tereus,  which  was  from  Varius  the  friend  of 
Virgil.  In  the  preface  to  a  collection  of  poems  entitled  Icones,  published  at  Utrecht  1787,  he 
gave  some  extracts  from  his  Terms.  But  the  Abbe  Morelli,  keeper  of  the  library  of  St.  Mark 
at  Venice,  in  a  letter  dated  1792,  exposed  the  literary  imposture,  showing  that  the  same  tragedy 
had  been  published  twice,  first  at  Venice  1558,  under  the  title  of  Progne,  and  was  written  by 
6.  Gorrario,  a  Venetian. — Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  212.—  Chardon-Larochctte,  Melanges  de  Critique 
et  de  Philologie — Harles,  Brev.  Not.  Lit.  Rom.  Suppl.  i.  494. — A.  Weichert,  De  Lucii  Varii  et 
Oassii  Parmensis  vita  et  carminibus.     Grim.  1836.  8. 

§  312.  In  the  next  period,  from  Augustus  to  the  Antonines  A.  D.  160,  the 
same  taste  for  shows  and  for  mimes  and  pantomimes  continued  among  the 
Romans.  Those  writers  who  composed  tragedies,  seem  to  have  done  it  rath- 
er for  the  sake  of  rhetorical  exercise  than  with  a  design  to  furnish  pieces  for 
actual  representation  on  the  theatre.  The  most  distinguished  name  is  that  of 
Seneca.;  the  tragedies  ascribed  to  him  have  occasioned  much  discussion  among 
the  critics  (cf.  §  374. 1).  P.  Pomponuis  Sccundus,  a  contemporary  of  Seneca, 
is  mentioned  by  the  younger  Pliny,  and  by  Quintilian  (Inst.  Or.  x.  1.  98),  as  a 
tragic  author  of  great  excellence  JE-milius  Scaurus  was  the  author  of  a 
tragedy  entitled  Mrcus  ;  he  was  put  to  death  by  Tiberius,  who  was  incensed 
against  him  by  a  passage  of  his  composition,  which  the  emperor  imagined  to 
be  directed  against  himself  {Dion.  Cass.  lvii.  24).  Curatius  Maternus  is 
cited  as  a  tragic  poet  of  celebrity;  and  the  titles  of  four  tragedies,  Medea, 
Thycsf.es,  Cato  and  Domitius,  are  mentioned ;  he  was  put  to  death  by  Domi- 
tian  (a)  on  account  of  his  language  in  a  declamation  (utXinj)  respecting  tyr- 
anny.— During  the  last  period  included  in  our  glance,  that  which  extends 
from  the  Antonines,  A.  D.  160,  to  the  overthrow  of  Rome,  A.  D.  476,  the 
history  of  Roman  tragedy  presents  nothing  that  is  worthy  of  notice. 

(a)  Cf.  Dialog,  de  causis  corrupt,   eloquentiie.   c.  2.   3. SchUll,  Litt.  Rom.  ii.  2fi6.ss 

There  is  extant  a  sort  of  tragedy,  entitled  Medea,  composed  (according  to  Tertullian,  Hseret.  c. 


DRAMATIC  POETY.   COMEDY.  285 

39.)  by  Hosidius  Geta;  of  whom  nothing  is  known,  except  that  there  was  a  consul  in  the 
reign  of  Claudius  by  name  of  Cn.  Hosidius  (or  Osidius)  Geta.  It  consists  of  4G1  verses, 
formed  of  centos  or  hemistichs  of  Virgil  ;  published  in  P.  Scrivcrius,  Fragmenta,  vet.  trag, 
cited  $  348.  2 ;  also  in  P.  Burmann,  Anthol.  Lat. :  and  in  Lemaire,s  Poet.  Lat.  Minores. 

For  references  on  Tragedy  in  general,  and  Greek  tragedy,  see  $  40. — On  Roman  tragedy,  see 
references  under  $  310  ;  cf.  $  374.  1.—  Osann,  Analecta  critica,  cited  below  §  348.  1.— Rose,, 
Tragische  Buhne  der  Romer.  Anspach,  1777-81.  3  vols.  8.— Planck,  De  origirie  atque  indole 
trag~  ap.  Romanos,  in  his  ed.  of  the  Medea  of  Ennius,  cf.  §  351.  2. — A.  G.  Lange,  Vindiciee 
trag.  Rom.  Lips.  1822.  4. —  C.  J.  Ch.  Reuvens,  Collectanea  seu  Conjecture  in  Attium  &c. — max. 
part,  ad  Roman,  rem  scenicam  pertinentes.     Leyd.  1815.  8.  a  specimen  of  an  intended  work  to 

contain  all  the  fragments  of  the  Roman  Comic,  Tragic  and  Satiric  writers. On  the  earliest 

dramatic  pieces  after  the  Roman,  see  Warton,  ii.  p.  68.    Cf.  §  320. 

§  313.  2.  Comedy.  It  has  already  been  remarked  (§  308),  that  comedy 
seems  to  have  been  more  agreeable  to  the  native  taste  of  the  Romans,  than 
tragedy.  The  earliest  dramatic  performances  among  them  were  comedies  of 
some  sort  (cf.  §  305).  But  Livius  Andronicus  and  JYcevius  were  the  first  au- 
thors of  regularly  constructed  plays.  Plautus,  however,  may  justly  be  styled 
the  father  of  Roman  comedy;  he  possessed  preeminent  talents  for  this  species 
of  composition.  Terence  followed  him,  and  has  obtained  equal  or  greater  ce- 
lebrity. The  comedies  of  both  these  authors  were  imitations  or  copies  from 
Greek  originals.  Indeed  the  regular  comedy  of  the  Romans  was  for  the  most 
part  of  the  kind  termed  palliates,  because  the  personages  and  incidents  were 
Grecian.  It  is  from  the  plays  of  Terence  and  Plautus,  that  we  learn  the 
character  of  the  new  comedy  of  the  Greeks  (cf.  §  43). 

§  314.  Plautus  and  Terence  are  the  principal  names  in  the  history  of  Ro- 
man comedy.  But  there  are  some  other  comic  poets  of  the  same  period, 
known  to  us  merely  by  being  mentioned  in  ancient  authors  ;  or  by  slight  frag- 
ments of  their  writings  ;  as  L.  Quinctius  Atta,  Caecilius  Statius,  Lucius  Af- 
ranius,  Sextus  Turpilius,  Quintus  Trabeas,  P.  Licinius  Imbrex. 

See  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  L.  iv.  c.  1.  v. — Fragments  of  these  poets  are  given  in  H.  Stephanas^ 

Comicor.  Lat.  Fragmenta.  Par.  1569.  8.—Scholl,  Litt  Rom.  i.  138 Cf.  Hot.  Epist.  L.  ii.  Ep.  L 

12.—  Velleius  Paterc.  i.  17.—  Aulas  Gellius,  Noct.  Att.  xiii.  2.  xv.  24. 

§  315.  In  the  next  period,  the  third  of  our  division  (§  301),  we  meet  with 
the  name  of  a  certain  Titinius,  who  is  spoken  of  by  the  grammarians  as  the 
author  of  several  comedies.  Suetonius  (De  illust.  grammaticis,  c.  21.)  men- 
tions Caius  Mclissus,  a  freedman  of  Maecenas,  as  the  inventor  of  a  new  spe- 
cies of  comedy  called  trabeata. — The  only  other  name  which  we  have  to  no- 
tice, is  that  of  Verginius  Romanus,  who  belongs  to  the  following  period;  he 
is  highly  commended  by  Pliny  (Epist.  21.  Lib.  vi),  as  an  author  both  of  mimes 
and  comedies  ;  by  his  pieces  of  the  latter  class,  he  is  said  to  have  merited  a 

place  by  the  side  of  Plautus  and  Terence. It  may  be  remarked,  that  under 

the  influence  of  the  love  of  spectacles  and  pantomime  which  has  already 
been  mentioned  as  adverse  to  the  regular  drama  at  Rome,  comedy  after  the 
time  of  Terence  seems  to  have  been  still  more  neglected  than  tragedy.  The 
writing  of  comedies  furnished  less  improvement  as  a  mere  rhetorical  exercise, 
and  would  therefore  be  less  practiced  for  such  a  purpose. 

§  316.  Two  particulars  have  been  pointed  out,  in  which  the  Latin  comedy 
differed  from  the  Greek  in  form.  The  first,  is  that  the  Latin  comedy  had  not 
the  chorus,  properly  speaking.  The  place  of  the  chorus  was  supplied  either 
by  interludes  of  music  alone,  or  by  the  appearance  of  the  troop  (grex  or  cater- 
va),  composed  of  all  the  actors,  or  of  the  dancers,  musicians  and  singers. 
The  other  particular  is  the  use  of  the  prologue,  which  is  not  found  in  the 
Greek  comedy.  In  Plautus  and  Terence  the  prologue  is  pronounced  in  the 
name  of  the  poet.  But  perhaps  the  few  remains  we  have  of  the  Greek  com- 
edy will  not  justify  the  assertion  that  it  never  contained  this  sort  of  intro- 
duction. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  different  kinds  of  comedy  among  the  Romans. 
Three  varieties  are  specified  according  to  the  rank  of  the  persons  represented; 
the  pratextata,  in  which  the  personages  were  civil  magistrates  ;  the  trabeatce, 
in  which  they  were  military  officers;  and  the  tunicatai  or  tab  ernar  ice,  in  which 
people  of  the  lower  classes  were  represented. — There  was  also  in  comedy 
the  same  distinction  into  two  kinds,  as  in  tragedy  ;  the  palliatce,  in  which 
Grecian  characters  and  manners  were  exhibited,  so  called  from  the  Grecian 
dress  worn  by  the  actors  (palla,  pallium)  ;  and  the  togatm,  in  which  Roman 
characters  and  manners  were  represented,  likewise  denominated  from  the  n.a- 


286  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

tional  dress  {toga).  Quinctius  Atta,  according  to  the  scholiasts,  was  the  first 
who  produced  a  play  belonging  to  the  latter  class  ;  and  Afranius  was  the  most 
distinguished  among  the  authors  in  this  kind  of  comedy. — The  epithets  moto- 
ric and  stataricB  were  also  applied  to  comedies,  according  as  their  plot  was 
more  or  less  complicated. 

Sulzer's  Allg.  Theor.  der  schbn.  Klinste.  I.  521.—  Sclibll,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  118. 137.— Dunlop,  HisU 
Rom.  Lit.  i.  228.— Cf.  Hor.  Ars  Poet.  228.— On  the  music  of  the  flute  in  comedy,  cf.  P.  IV. 
$238. 

§  317.  In  glancing  at  the  Roman  comedy  we  must  not  overlook  the  two 
actors  so  celebrated  among  the  Romans,  viz.  iEsopus  and  Roscius.  They 
were  contemporaries  of  Cicero,  and  lived  in  familiar  acquaintance  with  him. 
iEsopus  is  said  to  have  excelled  in  tragic  scenes.  Roscius  gained  such  a  rep- 
utation, both  as  a  comic  and  as  a  tragic  actor,  that  his  name  became  a  common 
term  to  designate  a  man  of  distinguished  excellence  in  any  art  or  science. — 
No  Grecian  actor  seems  to  have  acquired  a  renown  equal  to  that  of  these  Ro- 
man comedians.  Yet  in  Greece,  the  employment  was  sufficiently  honora- 
ble to  allow  citizens  to  engage  in  it,  while  at  Rome  it  was  confined  to  slaves 
or  freedmen.  The  vast  extent  of  the  Roman  theatres  must  have  increased 
the  difficulty  of  performing  successfully.  We  cannot  easily  conceive  how  a 
a  speaker,  obliged  to  make  himself  heard  by  40  and  even  80,000  persons, 
should  be  able  to  preserve  the  tones  and  expression  of  voice  which  are  re- 
quisite in  order  to  touch  the  feelings.  Another  thing  added  to  the  task  of  a 
Roman  actor ;  he  was  obliged  to  play  a  female  part  sometimes,  as  women 
never  appeared  on  the  stage  except  in  the  character  of  mimes  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  dancing.  But  the  business  of  a  comedian  at  Rome  was  very  lucra- 
tive ;  both  iEsopus  and  Roscius  acquired  immense  wealth. 

Scholl  Litt.  Rom.  i.  217.— Cf.  Cicero,  Epist.  ad  Div.  vii.  1.— Valerius  Max.  vm.  2.—Pht- 
tarch,  Life  of  Cicero,  c.  5.— Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  x.  72.  ix.  59.  vii.  40.— Hor.  Sat.  n.  iii.  239.  x.  359. 

Cicero,  pro  Arch.  c.  8. For  a  sketch  of  the  education  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  actors,  see 

Will.  Cooke,  Elements  of  Dramatic  Criticism.    Lond.  1775.  8. 

§  318.  3.  Atellane  Fables.  The  introduction  of  the  regular  drama  by  Liv- 
ius  Andronicus  did  not  banish,  except  for  a  short  time,  the  Atellane  Fables, 
When  the  poets  ceased  themselves  to  act  their  own  plays  and  committed  them 
to  a  set  of  professed  comedians,  the  free  Roman  youth  were  allowed  to  per- 
form pieces  of  this  description.  By  appearing  in  such  representations,  the 
young  patricians  were  not  considered  as  reducing  themselves  to  a  level  with 
mere  stage  actors.  The  Atellane  farces  were  so  popular  that  several  writers 
engaged  in  composing  them ;  and  the  Oscan  dialect,  which  was  at  first  em- 
ployed in  them,  was  gradually  abandoned  for  the  Latin.  These  pieces  con- 
sisted of  detached  scenes  following  each  other  without  much  connection. 
One  of  the  characters  usually  exhibited  had  the  appellation  of  Maccus,  "  a 
grotesque  and  fantastic  personage  with  an  immense  head,  long  nose  and  hump 
back,  who  corresponded  in  some  measure  to  the  clown  or  fool  of  modern  pan- 
tomime." Pappus  was  another  character  introduced  ;  a  personage,  perhaps, 
of  Greek  origin  rather  than  of  Oscan,  and  derived  from  Tlunnoz,  the  Silenus 
or  old  man  of  the  Greek  dramatic  satyre. — The  most  approved  writers  of 
these  fables  were  Quintus  JYovus  and  L.  Pomponius  Bononiensis  ;  the  latter 
composed  them  wholly  in  Latin,  and  so  much  improved  them  as  to  be  called 
the  inventor.      Memmius  and  Sylla  are  said  to  have  imitated  him  by  writing 

pieces  of  the  same  kind. There  was  another  species  of  comic  performances 

practiced  by  the  Roman  youth,  called  Exodia.  These  were  short  pieces  of  a 
more  loose,  detached,  and  farcical  character  even  than  the  AtellanoB.  They 
were  acted  in  connection  with  the  Atellane  Fables,  being  introduced  at  the 
close,  as  a  sort  of  after-piece. 

Sulzcr,  Allg.  Theorie,  1.518.— Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  140.— Dunlop,  I.  230.— Vellcius  Paterc.  lib. 
ii.    c.  9. —  Valerius  Max.  lib.   n.    c.  4. — Mhcnaus,  lib.  vi.  c.  17.— Macrobius,  Sat.  lib.  i.  c.  10. — 

Juvenal,  Sat.  vi.  71.— Suetonius,  vit.  Galb.   c.    13. Some   fragments  of   L.  Pomponius   are 

found  in  R.  fy  H.  Stephanus,  Fragmenta  vet.  Poet.  Lat.  Par.  15(34.  83  al30  in  if.  Stephanas,  Com. 
Lat.  cited  above  §  314. 

§  319.  4.  Mimes.  It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  regular  drama,  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greeks,  did  not  greatly  flourish  among  the  Romans.  One 
ground  of  hindrance  existed,  it  is  believed,  in  the  fondness  for  a  peculiar  spe- 
cies of  comic  representation,  called  Mimes,  which  became  very  fashionable  be* 


DRAMATIC  POETRY.       MIMES.       PANTOMIME.  287 

fore  the  time  of  Cicero.  The  Latin  Mimes  were  considerably  different  from 
the  Greek  Miuot  (cf.  §  46).  The  latter  represented  a  single  adventure  taken 
from  ordinary  life,  not  having  incidents  and  duration  sufficient  for  a  whole 
comedy,  and  not  requiring  more  of  gesture  or  of  mimetic  arts,  than  any  other 
dramatic  piece.  The  Mimes  of  the  Romans,  on  the  other  hand,  had  more  of 
the  dramatic  character,  although  they  did  not  contain  a  full  or  complete  com- 
ic fable,  and  were  represented  with  mimetic  gestures  of  every  sort  except 
dancing,  and  also  often  exhibited  grotesque  characters  which  had  no  founda- 
tion in  real  life.  They  were  too  generally  mere  exhibitions  of  gross  and  li- 
centious buffoonery.  Notwithstanding  this,  women  sometimes  took  part  in 
them  ;  sometimes,  according  to  Valerius  Maximus,  submitting  to  great  inde- 
cencies ;  Cytheris  is  mentioned  as  a  celebrated  actress  in  these  plays.  Orig- 
inally the  Mimes  were  employed  merely  as  afterpieces  or  as  interludes  to  more 
regular  performances  ;  but  subsequently  usurped  the  principal  place  them- 
selves, and  in  a  great  measure  superseded  other  forms  of  the  drama.  They 
were  warmly  patronized  by  Sylla  and  Julius  Crosar  as  a  public  amusement. 
The  most  distinguished  authors  of  mimes  (mimographi)  were  Laberius,  Pub- 
lius  Syrus,  and  Mattius  (cf.  §  368)  ;  and  it  is  important  to  remark  that  these 
writers  greatly  elevated  the  style  of  this  species  of  plays,  purging  them  from 
much  of  their  grossness  and  ribaldry.  Verginius,  of  a  later  period  (cf.  §  315), 
is  also  celebrated  as  a  writer  of  mimes. 

1.  Sclibll,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  203.— Dunlop,  i.  324.— Becher  <$•  Ziegler,  as  cited  $  368.  5.— Cicero, 
Epist.  lib.  ix.  c.  16 — Ovid,  Tristia,  lib.  u.  v.  497.—  Valerius  Max.  lib.  ii.  c.  5. 

2.  The  Mime  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Pantomime.  In  the  former  the  gestures  were 
accompanied  with  language  ;  but  in  the  latter  everything  was  expressed  without  words.  The 
pantomime  was  a  sort  of  ballet,  in  which  a  whole  story  or  drama  was  represented  by  means  of 
attitudes,  gestures  (loquaci  manu),  and  dancing.  This  species  of  representation  was  not  in- 
vented in  the  time  of  Augustus,  as  is  sometimes  stated,  but  was  then  carried  to  its  greatest 
perfection  by  the  celebrated  performers  (pantomimi,  chironomi)  Pyiades  &  Bathyllus.  The  panto- 
mime was  sometimes  accompanied  with  music  and  songs.  The  taste  for  pantomime  was  dif- 
fused from  Rome  through  the  provinces  ;  and  although  the  amusement  was  repeatedly  pro- 
hibited by  the  emperors,  it  seems  to  have  continued  even  after  the  downfall  of  the  city. 

Oct.  Ferrarius,  De  Mimis  et  Pantomimis.  Guelph.  1714.  8.  —  JV.  Calliachus,  De  Ludis  seen. 
Mim.  et  Pantomim.  Patav.  1713.  4.  Both  contained  in  the  Novus  Thesaurus  of  Sallengre  (cited 
P.  IV.  $197).  —  J.  Meursius,  De  Saltationibus  veter.  contained  in  the  Thesaurus  of  Gronovius, 
cited  P.'  IV.  $13.— J.  Weaver,  History  of  the  Mimes  and  Pantomimes.  Lond.  1728.  8 — Boulan- 
gcr  de  Rivery,  Recherches  histor.  et  crit.  sur  les  Mimes  et  les  Pantomimes.  Par.  1751.  12.— Bu- 
rette, in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inner,  i.  —  Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie  i.  523. 

3.  For  references  on  comedy  in  general,  and  the  Greek  comedy,  see  §  43. — On  the  history 
and  various  forms  of  comedy,  Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie,  i.  486,ss.— On  Roman  comedy,  see  refer- 
ences given  in  the  preceding  sections  v314-318).— We  may  add  Ch.  Duclos,  Sur  les  Jeux  scen- 
iques  des  Romains,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  xxvi. —  Osann,  cited  §  348.  1.— C.   F. 

Fliigel,  Geschichte  der  komischen  Literatur.  Liegnitz  u.  Leipz.  1784.  6  vols.  8. T.  C.  Bullen- 

ger,  De  ludis  scenicis  eorumque  apparatu  tarn  apud  Graecos  quam  Romanos,  in  his  Opusc. 
Ludg.  Bat.  1621.  Fol.  and  in  9th  vol.  of  the  Thesaurus  of  Grcevius  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  197).— Foote, 
The  Roman  and  English  comedy  considered.     Lond.  1747.  8.— For  references  on  the  Drama  in 

general,  its   history  in  different  ages  and  nations,  &c.  Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie,  i.  711. On  the 

structure  of  theatres,  decorations,  masks,  &c.  among  the  ancients,  P.  I.  §  235.  P.  IV.  §  89.  238. 

$  320.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  dramatic  exhibitions  of  modern  times  grew  out  of  the 
Roman  mimes  and  pantomimes.  Cassiodorus,  who  lived  in  the  6th  century,  makes  mention 
of  the  plays  of  pantomime.  In  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  in  the  8th  century , the  Mimi  and  Histri- 
ones  are  spoken  of  as  still  acting  in  their  profession.  At  this  period,  trade  was  carried  on 
chiefly  by  means  of  fairs,  held  for  several  days  in  different  places,  where  merchants  brought 
their  goods,  and  people  from  various  quarters  assembled  for  the  occasion.  The  attendance  of 
musicians,  buffoons,  and  histrionic  performers  of  every  sort,  would  be  very  natural ;  and  it 
was  by  this  means,  as  some  have  supposed,  that  the  foundation  was  laid  for  modern  comedy 
and  theatric  representations  in  general.  The  Christian  clergy  are  said  to  have  condemned 
these  amusements  at  first ;  but,  finding  their  opposition  fruitless,  to  have  afterwards  attempted 
to  turn  the  taste  for  such  shows  to  the  best  account  they  could,  by  taking  scenic  exhibitions 
into  their  own  hands ;  they  became  actors  themselves,  and  instead  of  profane  fables  and  sto- 
ries derived  from  pagan  history  and  mythology,  made  use  of  the  legends  of  the  church,  or  the 
incidents  recorded  in  the  Bible.  Thus  originated  a  kind  of  sacred  comedies,  or  holy  farces, 
which  were  acted  in  the  chapels  of  the  monasteries,  by  the  monks  themselves,  accompanied 
by  music  and  scenic  decorations.  Particular  seasons  or  festivals  seem  to  have  gained  a  special 
notoriety  and  popularity  from  a  connection  with  such  exhibitions  ;  as,  e.  g.  the  Feast  of  Fools 
(Fete  de  Fouz)   or  Jesters,     Festival  of  the  Jiss  (DeVAne,  Festum  AsinorumJ,  &.C. 

Other  writers  have  supposed  that  the  religious  plays,  which  were  in  vogue  in  the  middle  ages 
under  the  name  of  Mysteries,  and  Moralities,  had  "their  origin  more  directly  from  the  Greek 
stage  at  Constantinople.  There  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides  continued  to  be  rep- 
resented until  the  fifth  century.  The  fascinations  of  the  paean  theatre  occasioned  much  anxi- 
ety to  the  Greek  Bishops  and  Fathers  ;  they  petitioned  the  Emperor  to  suppress  dramatic  exhi- 
bitions, at  least  on  the  sacred  days  of  the  church  ;  and  they  often  denounced  such  amusements 
in  their  preaching  and  writings.  Yet  some  of  them  composed  sacred  dramas,  founded  on  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  for  the  purpose  of  public  representation.      Gregory  Aazianzen,  who 


$88  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

was  a  bishop  of  Constantinople  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century  (cf.  §  292),  is  said  to 
have  introduced  such  pieces  upon  the  stage  instead. of  the  pagan  tragedies.  One  of  his  own 
plays,  written  for  this  use,  is  still  extant,  entitled  Xninrlig  nua/oir.  Apollinaris,  bishop  of 
Laodicea,  is  said  to  have  written  tragedies  adapted  to  the  stage,  after  the  manner  of  Euripides, 
on  most  of  the  grand  events  related  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  also  comedies  in  imitation  of 
Menander,  on  some  of  the  domestic  stories  of  the  Bible.  The  introduction  of  histrionic  farces, 
with  singing  and  dancing,  into  the  churches  and  houses  of  religious  worship,  is  ascribed  to 
Theophylact,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  the  10th  century.  The  religious  spectacles  and 
plays  thus  introduced  might,  without  difficulty,  be  carried  thence  to  the  west  by  the  commer- 
cial intercourse  which  existed  between  Constantinople  and  Italy. 

See  J.  fVarton,  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  vol.  u.  73.  in.  193. M.  du  Tilliot,  Memoires  pour  servir 

a  l'histoire  de  la  Fete  de  Foux  &c.   Laus.  &  Genev.  1741.  4.  1751.  8.  —  Flbgd,  Geschichte  des 

Groteske-komischen.     Liegnitz.  1783.  8.  —  J.  O.  Butter,   Allg.  Theorie.  i.  524,  726. The 

views  of  theChristian  Fathers  respecting  the  theatre  may  be  gathered  from  the  treatise  of  T  e  r- 
tu  1 1  i  an  on  Theatrical  Shows  (de  Spectaculis,  in  the  1st  vol.  of  his  Works  by  ObcrtMu:  Wire. 
1780.  2  vols.  8.) :  that  of  C  y  p  r  i  a  n  on  Theatrical  Representations  (in  the  2d  vol.  of  his  Works 
by  Obertkvr.  Wirc.l782.2vols.  8.) ;  the  4th  homily  of  Bas  i  1  (cf..§292,  and  the  15th  of  Chry- 
eos  torn  to  the  Antiochians  (cf.  i  292).  —  On  this  subject  see  A.  G.  Walch,  He  theatro  primis 
Christianis  expso.   Schleus.  1770.  4. 

321.  (b)  Epic  Poetry.  The  honor  of  being  the  earliest  epic  poet  of  the  Ro- 
mans is  usually  ascribed  to  Ennius.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that 
Livius  Andronicus  made  a  translation  of  the  Odyssey  of  Homer  ;  that  the 
grammarians  speak  of  a  historical  poem  by  him  on  the  exploits  of  the  Romans, 
in  35  books  ;  and  that  Nasvius  composed  a  historical  poem  on  the  first  Punic 
war.  The  songs  and  ballads  (already  spoken  of  §306),  respecting  various  in- 
cidents of  the  national  traditions,  also  existed  long  before  the  time  of  Ennius. 
Neibuhr  has  imagined  that  Ennius  borrowed  much  from  a  great  poem  on  the 
traditional  history  of  the  Romans,  beginning  with  the  reign  of  L.  Tarquinius 
Priscus  and  ending  with  the  battle  of  Regillus  ;  "  an  epopee,"  he  says,  "  which 
in  force  and  brilliance  of  imagination  leaves  everything  produced  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  later  times  far  behind  it;"  but  he  adduces  no  proof  or  authority  to 
sustain  this  idea.  However  this  may  be,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  Ennius 
made  use  of  the  old  national  lays,  which  were  in  Saturnian  verse,  molding 
them  into  hexameters  in  his  own  poem.  How  far  his  Annals  were  framed 
conformably  to  historical  truth,  may  be  a  question  impossible  for  us  to  answer; 
Vossius  maintains  an  opinion  entirely  opposite  to  the  views  of  Niebuhr,  and 
ascribes  general  historic  verity  to  the  whole  work.  Nor  can  it  be  denied,  how- 
ever popular  this  production  was  among  the  Romans,  that  it  was  deficient  in 
the  peculiar  embellishments  of  fancy,  and  might  be  called  a  Chronicle  in 
verse,  more  justly  than  a  proper  epic  poem. 

Cf.  §  351.  —  Sclioll,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  141.  —  Dtinlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  i.  78.  —  J^iebuhr, Hist.  Rom. 
(transl.  by  Hare  &  Thirwall)  p.  196.  vol.  i.  ed.  Phil.  1835.  —  Vossius,  de  Historicis  Latinis, 
L.  i.  c.  2. 

§  322.  After  Ennius,  we  find  no  epic  poet  until  we  reach  our  third  period 
(cf.  §  301),  the  golden  age  of  Roman  letters  ;  and  here,  although  we  meet 
with  several  names,  there  is  one  which  eclipses  all  others  in  this  branch  of 
Roman  poetry  ;  it  is  that  of  Virgil.  The  author  of  the  .Eneid  obviously  imi- 
tated the  author  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  yet  he  produced  a  poem  strictly 
national  ;  and  if  the  work  is  not  so  strongly  marked  with  the  impress  of  origi- 
nal genius  as  its  models,  it  is  yet  full  of  beauties  and  signs  of  cultivated  taste. 

§  323.  Of  the  other  epic  writers  in  this  period,  Lucius  Varius  was  most 
highly  commended  by  the  ancients.  He  has  already  been  noticed  (§  311)  as 
a  dramatic  author.  Before  the  appearance  of  the  JEneid,  the  first  rank  in  epic 
poetry  was  assigned  to  him  (cf.  Hor.  Sat.  I.  x.  v.  43.).  Varius  sung  the  ex- 
ploits of  Augustus  and  his  son-in-law  Agrippa  ;  and  his  poem,  which  is  wholly 
lost,  must  therefore  have  had  more  of  the  historical  than  of  the  epic  character. 

The  other  names  to  be  mentioned  in  speaking  of  the  epic  poetry  of  this 

period,  are  the  following;  Cneius  Mattius,  the  mimographer  (§  319),  who 
translated  the  Odyssey  ;  P.  Terentius  Varro,  surnamed  Atacinus,  who  trans- 
lated the  Argonautics  of  Apollonius,  and  composed  a  poem  on  the  war  of  Ju- 
lius Caesar  against  the  Sequani  ;  Hostius,  author  of  a  poem  on  the  war  of  Is- 
tria;  C.  Rabirius,  who  wrote  on  the  battle  of  Actium  ;  and  T.  Valgius  Rufus, 
highly  eulogized  by  Tibullus  (El.  IV.  i.  80.)  :  their  works  have  perished. 
Pedo  AlLinovanus  is  also  said  to  have  composed  epical  pieces.  Cornelius  Seve- 
rus  commenced  a  poem  upon  the  Sicilian  war. Sckall,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  225. 

§324.  In  the  fourth  period  of  our  division  (§301),  after  the  death  of  Augus- 


POETRY.        EPIC.    LYRIC. 

tus,  there  were  four  poets  who  must  be  ranked  among  the  epic  writers  ;  but 
no  one  appeared  who  could  rival  or  equal  Virgil.  Although  they  imitated  him, 
Vet  they  all  fell  far  below  him.  They  were  well  informed  and  well  disciplined, 
but  were  deficient  in  native  enthusiasm.  Two  of  the  number  chose  national 
subjects  ;  and  their  poems  may  be  said  to  belong  to  the  historical  class  rather 
more  properly  than  to  the  epic.  —  The  first  in  order  of  time  was  Lucan,  who 
celebrated  in  his  Pharsalia the  civil  war  between  Pompey  and  Ccesar  (cf.§375). 
Valerius  Flaccus,  next  in  order,  took  the  Argonautic  expedition  for  a  theme, 
and  in  the  estimation  of  some  critics  even  surpassed  his  Grecian  model,  Apol- 
lonius  of  Rhodes  (cf.  §  73).  Silius  Italicus,  selected  a  national  subject,  the 
second  of  the  Punic  wars;  and  his  work  is  much  valued  as  a  help  in  illustrat- 
ing the  history  of  the  period  (cf.  §  377).  Statins  left  two  performances  in 
epic  verse,  The  Thebaid,  and  the  Achilleid;  the  latter  in  an  unfinished  state 
on  account  of  his  premature  death  (cf.  §  378) .  All  these  poets  flourished  within 
the  1st  century ;  after  which  the  history  of  Roman  literature  presents  no  im- 
portant name  in  the  department  of  epic  poetry. 

§  325.  There  were,  after  the  1st  century,  many  versifiers  ;  and  they  com- 
posed many  pieces,  of  a  historical  or  descriptive  character,  in  the  heroic  meas- 
ure ;  but  the  only  one  that  can  claim  any  notice  as  an  epic  writer  is  Claudian, 
who  flourished  at  the  close  of  the  4th  century.  His  poems  (cf.  §386),  with  all 
their  blemishes,  show  a  genius  worthy  of  a  better  age.  —  The  elder  Gordian, 
who  became  emperor  of  Rome  A.  D.  238,  is  said  to  have  been  a  poet  in  his 
younger  days,  and  to  have  composed  a  poem  in  30  books,  entitled  JlntoniaS) 
of  which  Antoninus  Pius  and  Marcus  Aurelius  were  the  heroes. — Some  of  the 
descriptive  pieces  of  Ausonius  (cf.  §  385),  a  poet  of  the  4th  century,  were  of 
the  heroic  kind.  We  might  also  rank  in  the  same  general  class  some  of  the 
productions  of  several  of  the  Christian  poets  (cf.  §  329)  of  the  same  century, 
as  e.  g.  Juvencus,  Victorinus,  and  Sidonius  Apollinaris. 

On  the  Epic  poetry  of  the  Romans,  see  B'dhr,  Geschichte  der  Rom.  Lit.  pp.  120-163.  —  Char- 
actere  der  vornehmsten  Dichter  viii.  378  ss. — For  references  on  Epic  poetry  in  general,  cf.  §  20. 

§  326.  (c)  Lyric  Poetry.  While  the  dramatic  and  epic  productions  of  the 
Greeks  were  translated  and  imitated  by  the  Romans  as  soon  as  a  sufficient 
degree  of  intercourse  existed  between  the  nations,  it  was  not  until  many  yeara 
had  elapsed  that  the  Romans  made  any  attempts  in  lyric  verse.  This  was  a 
form  of  poetry  in  which  translation  is  less  likely  to  be  successful;  in  which 
originality  is  perhaps  more  indispensably  essential  to  merit.  The  early  cir- 
cumstances of  the  Romans,  and  their  peculiar  habits  and  traits  of  character, 
were  such  as  to  render  them  less  susceptible  to  the  lively  impressions  of  lyric 
poetry.  It  was  not  until  the  third  period  of  our  division,  i.  e.  after  the  civil 
war  of  Marius  and  Sylla,  that  this  form  of  poetry  began  to  be  cultivated. 
Cf.  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  3d.  Lond.  ed.  1828. 

§  327.  Catullus,  born  B.  C.  86,  was  the  first  to  open  to  his  countrymen  this 
new  field.  ~Only  four  of  his  pieces  now  extant  are  called  odes,  yet  in  others 
there  are  passages  of  a  lyrical  cast.  The  third  of  the  odes  is  a  translation  from 
Sappho.  These  few  productions,  however,  have  secured  him  a  place  in  the 
catalogue  of  lyric  poets  (§  358).  —  But  the  first  rank  in  Roman  lyrics  belongs 
unquestionably  to  Horace,  to  whom  the  Greeks  themselves  can  present  a  su- 
perior only  in  the  bold  and  lofty  Pindar.  That  Horace  borrowed  freely  from 
the  Greeks,  the  critics  have  clearly  shown  ;  yet  the  universal  admiration 
which  his  odes  have  awakened,  demonstrates  the  power  of  his  genius  (cf. 
§  363). 

§  328.  From  the  time  of  Horace,  lyric  poetry  held  an  honorable  place  in  the 
amusements  of  society  ;  but  a  writer  who  should  rival  or  equal  Horace  him- 
self was  not  to  be  expected.  Quintilian  (Inst.  Or.  x.  1.)  names  Ccesius  Bassus, 
in  the  next  period  after,  as  approaching  him  ;  but  we  have  no  means  of  judg- 
ing for  ourselves.  Vestritius  Spurinna,  who  is  repeatedly  named  in  the  history 
of  Tacitus,  'vs  said  to  have  written  lyric  pieces  both  in  Greek  and  Latin. 
Pliny  (Enist.  iii.  1.)  highly  commends  them.  Statins  is  also  sometimes  named 
among  lyric  poets,  on  account  of  two  odes  contained  in  his  Sifvati  one  of  them 
is  addressed  to  Septimius  Serenus.  This  Sercnus,  we  may  add,  is  cited  by  the 
grammirians  as  the  author  of  a  lyric  poem,  or  a  collection  of  lyric  pieces,  en- 
titled Falisca,  written  in  a  peculiar  metre  invented  by  him. — There  is  extant, 

25 


290  HISTORY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

probably  from  some  author  in  this  period,  a  poem  of  about  a  hundred  lines'/ 
entitled  Pervigilium  Veneris,  in  imitation  of  the  Carmen  Sceculare  of  Horace  ff 
it  was  formerly  ascribed  to  Catullus. 

Oaspar  Barth  published  in  1613,  in  the  collection  entitled  Poetec  Latini  venatici  et  bucolici,  four 
odes,  said  to  have  been  found  by  him  in  an  old  Ms.  at  Marbourg,  which  he  ascribed  to  Spurin- 
na  ;  they  were  the  production  of  a  later  age.  —  Serenus  is  also  said  to  have  written  several 
small  poems  on  the  various  labors  of  the  field,  opuscula  ruralia;  of  which  the  Moretum,  com- 
monly ascribed  to  Virgil  (§  362. 2),  is  supposed  to  be  one.^-The  Pervigilium  Veneris  is  a  hymn 
in  honor  of  Venus,  and  takes  its  title  in  reference  to  the  festival  of  Venus  iri  April,  held  during 
three  successive  nights,  which  were  devoted  to  music,  dancing,  and  pleasure  (nocturne  pervi- 
a-ilationes  cf.  Ovid,  Fast.  iv.  133)  ;  it  has  been  ascribed  to  various  authors  ;  the  piece  is  given  in 
Lemaire's  Minor  Latin  Poets  (cited  $348.)  2d  vol.— See  Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  ii.  340.  m.  24. 

§  329.  After  the  2d  century,  although  a  few  lyric  pieces  may  be  found 
among  the  remains  of  the  minor  poets,  there  is  nothing  worthy  of  particular 
notice,  within  the  remaining  period  included  in  our  division,  except  the  songs 
and  hymns  of  the  Christian  poets.  Among  the  earliest  of  these  authors  of 
Christian  hymns  were  Hilarius  and  Prudentius  (cf.  §  387).  Those  of  the  for- 
mer were  expressly  designed  to  be  sung  ;  and  are  said  to  have  been  set  to  mu- 
sic by  Hilary  himself.  Damasus,  who  attained  to  the  Pontificate  in  the  4th 
century,  left  a  number  of  hymns,  among  which  is  one  in  rhyme.  The  works' 
of  Ambrose  bishop  of  Milan,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  century,  contain  a- 
collection  of  sacred  hymns. 

The  collections  of  the  Minor  Latin  Poets  contain  the  lyric  pieces  above  referred  to:  e.  g.  iri 
Lemaire's  (cf.  §  348.  2.)  are  the  Carmen  de  fortuna,  by  Symposius  ;  de  beata  vita,  by  Pentadius ; 
de  oetate,  by  Lindinus.— On  the  Christian  poets  who  wrote  in  Latin,  we  refer  to  the  Supplement 

o/Bdhr,  cited  §  299.  8. For  references  on  the  subject  of  lyric  poetry  generally,  and  that  of 

the  Greeks,  see  §26.— On  Roman  lyric  poetry,  Dunlop,  as  cited  §  299.  8.--- Character e  der  vorn. 
Dichter.  v.  301  ss«— R.  Schombergi  The  character  and  writings  of  Pindar  &  Horace.  Lond.1769. 
8.— Cf.  §  363. 

$  330.  (d) Bucolic  or  PastoralPoetry .  Virgil  appears  to  have  been  the  first  among 
the  Latin  poets  to  attempt  the  composition  of  pastorals.  He  commenced,  as 
did  the  poets  in  every  other  department,  with  an  imitation  of  the  Greeks. 
The  Eclogues  of  Virgil  are,  in  a  great  measure,  borrowed  from  the  Idyls  of 
Theocritus.  If  the  Roman  poet  has  less  of  natural  simplicity,  and  of  that  mi- 
nute accuracy  and  vividness  which  are  the  result  of  original  observation  ;  he 
has,  on  the  other  hand,  the  merit  of  a  more  judicious  selection  of  incidents, 
and  a  greater  freedom  from  what  is  gross  and  offensive.  The  Bucolics  were 
among  the  earliest  of  the  poetical  compositions  of  Virgil,  and  Were  greatly  ad- 
mired by  the  Romans.  The  6th  Eclogue,  entitled  Silenus,  was  recited  in  the 
theatre,  shortly  after  its  composition,  by  Cytheris,  the  celebrated  actress  of 
mimes. 

§  331.  After  Virgil  we  find  no  pastoral  writer  Until  the  latest  period  in- 
cluded in  our  view  of  the  Latin  authors.  Calpurnius,  who  lived,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  3d  century  after  Christ,  composed  eclogues  in  imitation  of  Virgil 
and  Theocritus.  He  was  probably  the  author  of  the  pastoral  pieces  which 
have  sometimes  been  ascribed  to  Nemesian,  a  poet  of  the  same  period.  The 
eclogues  of  Calpurnius  are  not  without  merit,  but  he  is  far  inferior  to  his 
models  (cf.  §  384.  2.). — The  name  of  Idyl  is  given  to  a  number  of  the  poems 
of  Ausonius  (§385),  who  flourished  in  the  next  century  ;  but  the  subjects  and 
style  of  these  pieces  are  not  such  as  to  bring  them  properly  under  the  head  of 
pastoral  poetry.  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  the  Idyls  of  Claudian 
(§  386).  There  is  a  performance  from  Sever  us  Sanctus,  a  Christian  poet  of 
the  same  century,  which  may  perhaps  more  justly  be  considered  as  a  pastoral 
poem,  and  which  is  not  wholly  destitute  of  merit. 

The  poem  of  Severus,  entitled  De  mortibus  bourn,  is  given  in  Lemaire's  Poetoe  Lat.  Minores, 

cited  §  348. On  the  Pastoral  Poetry  of  the  Romans,  see  Ckaraktere  der  corn.  Dichter.  vn. 

242-256.— Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  352.—IIarriv(rton,  Essay  upon  Virgil's  Bucolics.   Loud.  1658. 12. 

— Diss,  de  Carmine  Bucolico,  in  Lemaire's  Virgil,  vol.  i.  p.  53. -On  the  Greek  Pastoral  Poetry, 

see  references  given  §  30. About  the  time  of  the  revival  of  letters  there  seems  to  have  been 

a  great  fondness  for  pastoral  poetry,  and  many  pieces  of  this  kind  were  composed  in  Latin. 
Before  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  a  Collection  of  no  less  than  thirty-cieht  bucolic  authors 
was  published  by  J.  Oporinus  (in  his  Autor.  Bucol.  Basil.  1546.  8).  —  Cf.  Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie 
ii.  p.  592. 

§  332.  (e)  Elegiac  Poetry.  In  this  variety  of  poetical  composition,  the  Ro- 
mans had  many  successful  authors.  Like  the  other  departments  of  poetry  and 
literature  generally,  it  flourished  most  in  the  age  of  Augustus.  It  commenced 
with  Catullus,  whom  we  have  noticed  already  as  the  first  author  of  lyric  pieces 


POETRY.       PASTORAL.    ELEGIAC.    DIDACTIC.  291 

{§  327).  Cornelius  Gallus  succeeded  and  excelled  him  in  the  elegy;  he  was 
ranked  among  the  best  poets  of  this  class  (cf.  §  359). — But  Tibullus  and  Pro- 
pertius (cf.  §  360,  361)  are  more  celebrated  names.  M  With  reason  did  the 
ancients  doubt  to  which  of  them  to  ascribe  the  first  rank  among  the  Latin  ele- 
gists.  Both  possess  many  qualities  which  raise  them  above  ordinary  poets  to 
a  place  of  eminence;  while  each  has  peculiarities  of  distinguished  excellence. 
Tibullus  has  a  high  degree  of  elegance  and  propriety  of  expression  ;  Proper- 
tius  a  great  richness,  a  great  variety  of  poetic  erudition.  In  the  one  the  purity 
of  his  language  shows  a  writer  born  and  educated  in  the  Roman  capital ;  in 
the  other,  the  character  of  his  diction  indicates  an  author  deeply  versed  in 
Grecian  productions.  The  one  is  more  delicate  ;  the  other  more  nervous. 
The  first  has  the  appearance  of  having  written  with  ready  simplicity  ;  the 
other  of  having  thought  what  he  ought  to  write ;  if  the  one  is  more  natural, 
the  other  is  more  careful.     You  may  love  the  one,  and  admire  the  other." 

§  333.  There  was  another  elegiac  poet  of  the  Augustan  age,  scarcely  less 
eminent ;  by  some  even  considered  as  the  superior.  Ovid  is  less  tender  than 
Tibullus,  and  less  chaste  than  Propertius  ;  but  more  original,  and  of  a  more 
free  imagination,  than  either.  His  works  generally  are  characterized  by  little 
imitation  of  the  Greeks,  and  by  independent  reliance  on  his  own  resources. 
Ovid  was  one  of  the  greatest  versifiers  among  the  Latin  poets  :  his  verse  is 
like  the  flowing  of  the  stream  from  a  full  fountain  :  in  this  respect  both  Ti- 
bullus and  Propertius  must  be  confessed  to  stand  below  him.  Three  of  his 
works,  the  Amorcs,  the  Tristia,  and  the  Letters  from  Pontus,  belong  to  the 
head  of  elegiac  poetry  (cf.  §  364).  —  C.  Pedo  Albinovanus,  a  friend  of  Ovid, 
is  usually  placed  in  the  list  of  elegiac  poets,  although  it  is  not  agreed  by  all 
the  critics  that  he  was  the  author  of  'the   elegies  by  some  ascribed  to  him  (cf. 

§  366). After  the  Augustan  age  we  find  nothing  important  in  this  branch 

of  poetry.  Arborius,  in  the  4th  century,  a  relative  of  Ausonius  (§385)  is  said 
to  have  imitated  Propertius  ;  an  extant  elegy  ascribed  to  him  is  far  inferior  to 
its  model.  The  Itinerary  of  Rutilius,  in  the  5th  century,  is  in  elegiac  verse 
(cf.  §  389).  —  Some  of  the  Christian  poets  (§  329)  composed  pieces  in  elegiac 
verse. 

1.  The  elegy  of  Arborius  {ad  Ntjmpham  nimis  cultam)  is  found  in  Lemaire's  Poet.  Lat.  Minores, 
vol.  ii.  —  There  is  extant  an  elegy  by  a  writer  named  Lupercm  Servastus,  of  the  5th  century, 
(de  cupiditatej  given  in  the  same  vol.  of  Lemaire. 

2.  Before  leaving  this  topic,  it  may  be  proper  to  allude  to  the  songs  called  nmnia.  They  were 
sung  to  the  flute,  in  funeral  processions  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  340.)  ;  but  seem  to  have  been  more  of  a 
panegyrical  than  of  an  elegiac  character.  "  We  are  not  to  suppose  them,"  says  Niebnhr,  "  like 
the  Greek  thrones  and  elegies  ;  in  the  old  times  of  Rome,  the  fashion  was,  not  to  be  melted  into 
the  tender  mood  and  to  bewail  the  dead  ;  but  to  pay  him  honor.  We  must  therefore  imagine 
the  neenia  to  have  been  a  memorial  lay,  such  as  were  sung  at  banquets  (cf.  §  27.)  ;  indeed,  the 
latter  were  perhaps  no  others  than  what  had  first  been  heard  at  the  funeral."  Perhaps  we 
have  some  specimens  or  fragments  of  the  iwnia,  in  such  inscriptions  as  are  found  on  the  stones 
beloneing  to  the  sepulchre  of  the  Scipios  (cf.  P.  I.  $133. 2).—J\"kbahr,s  Hist.  Rom.  1st  vol.  p.  194. 
Phil.  ed. 

3.  On  the  origin  of  elegiac  poetry  &c.  see  references  $29. Respectinsthe  elegiac  poetry  of  the 

Romans, &A#K,Litt.Rom.i. 324.— Fr.Aug.  Wideburg,  De  Poetis  Roman.  Elegiacis.  Helmst.i773.  4. 
— F.  G.Barth,  super  Elegia,  maxime  Romanorum,  in  his  ed.  of  Propertius,  cited  below  $  361.  3. — 
Pack,  Essay  upon  the  Roman  Elegiac  Poets,  in  Addison's  Dissertation  upon  the  most  celebrated 
Roman  Poets.  Lond.  1721.  8.  Cf.  Class.  Journ.  ix.  346.  —  E.  C.  Chr.  Bach,  Geist  der  rbm.  Ele- 
gie.  1809.  8. — Fracruier,  as  cited  §  29. — Souchay,  on  Latin  elegiac  poets,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vn. 
384.   xvi.  399. — JDurini,  Dissertatio  de  carm.  eleg.  natura  &c.  in  the  Collect,  of  C.  Michaicr, 

cited  §  348.  2. A  collection  of  the  modern  Latin  elegiac  poets  was  published  by  Michuler. 

Vinddb.  1784.  2  vols.  8. 

§  334.  (f)  Didactic  Poetry.  The  Romans  paid  but  little  attention  to  didac- 
tic poetry,  until  the  third  period  of  our  division  ;  i.  e.  from  the  civil  war  B.  C. 
88  to  the  death  of  Augustus  A.  D.  14.  In  the  previous  period  Ennius  had  in- 
deed composed  a  poem  on  eating  (cf.  §351),  and  translated  a  Greek  philo- 
sophical poem.  But  the  first  who  gained  any  distinction  in  this  kind  of  poetry 
was  Lucretius  ;  his  poem  on  the  nature  of  things  has  ever  commanded  especial 
notice  as  a  didactic  performance.  Cornelius  Sever  us  is  ranked  among  the  di- 
dactic poets,  on  account  of  his  poem  entitled  JEtna,  although  it  is  by  some 
ascribed  to  a  later  author.  (§  335,  365). 

The  most  finished  didactic  poem  is  found  in  the  Georgics  of  Virgil.  It  was 
composed  on  the  suggestion  of  Maecenas ;  the  four  books  treat  of  agriculture, 
the  culture  of  trees,  the  training  of  animals,  and  the  keeping  of  bees.  "  It  is 
in  this  work,"  says  Scholl,  "that  Virgil  shews  all  his  genius.    He  commenced 


292  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

it  at  the  age  of  34,  and  did  not  cease  to  amend  it  until  the  end  of  life.  The 
Latin  language  does  not  contain  a  more  perfect  work."     It  has  been  a  model 

for  imitation  to  modern  poets  of  all  nations. The  name  of  Ovid  must  not 

be  omitted  in  this  place,  as  several  of  his  works  belong  to  the  didactic  class. 
His  eminence  in  elegiac  verse  has  already  been  noticed  ;  he  is  to  be  consid- 
ered also  as  one  of  the  great  didactic  poets  of  the  Augustan  age.  —  Some  may 
perhaps  consider  it  proper  to  put  Horace  in  the  list  of  didactic  authors  on  ac- 
count of  his  Art  of  Poetry. 

There  were  in  this  period  several  poets  of  inferior  grade  who  composed  di- 
dactic verse.  Gratius  Faliscus  wrote  a  poem  on  hunting,  a  fragment  of  which 
is  still  extant  (cf.  §  367).  Csesar  Germanicus  (cf.  $  370),  JEmilius  Macer 
(§  371),  and  Marcus  Manilius  ($  369),  are  included  among  the  didactic  poets  of 
the  Augustan  age.  We  may  mention  also  Varro  Jltacinus,  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  Ckorogr aphid,  which  was  a  sort  of  description  of  the  universe, 
and  another  on  navigation  entitled  Libri  JSavales. 

The  fragments  of  various  poems  of  Varro  Macinus  are  given  in  Lemaire,s  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  vol. 
4th Cf.  also  Harles,  Brev.  Not.  Suppl.  i.  165. 

§  335.  In  the  next  period,  extending  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the  An- 
tonines,  there  was  no  very  eminent  production  in  this  branch  of  poetry  ;  al- 
though we  must  assign  to  this  period  Terentianus  Maurus,  author  of  a  poem 
on  letters,  syllables,  feet,  and  metres,  which  Schbll  pronounces  ingenious  and 
elegant.  The  ancients  cite  a  poem  on  metres  as  the  work  of  Ceesius  Bassus, 
who  was  much  commended  for  his  lyrical  pieces  (§  3*28).  There  is  extant  a 
poem  on  iceights  and  measures,  by  some  ascribed  to  Rhemnius  Fannius  Palre- 
mon,  said  to  have  been  a  grammarian  of  the  1st  century,  but  by  others 
ascribed  to  Priscian,  of  a  much  later  age.  Lucilius  Junior  is  mentioned  by 
Seneca  (Quaest.  nat.  iii.26)  as  a  poetical  friend,  and  is  by  some  supposed  to  be 
the  author  of  the  poem  entitled  Mtna  ($  334).  We  may  perhaps  properly 
name  here  the  tenth  book  of  Columella  (§  500a),  which  is  in  hexameter  verse, 
and  is  entitled  Cultus  hortorum  ;  it  seems  to  have  been  suggested  by  a  passage 
in  the  Georgics  of  Virgil  (iv.  147),  where  he  expressly  says  he  shall  leave  the 
subject  of  horticulture  for  another  writer. 

The  poem  of  Terentianus  is  given  in  the  Grammatical  Collect,  of  Putschius,  cited  $  422.— Cf. 
Fr.  Reinert,  De  vita  Terent.  Mauri.  Lenig.  1808.  4 — A  fragment  of  Bassus  is  given  in  the  same 
Collect.  —  The  poem  on  Weights  &c.  (de  ponderibus  et  mensuris)  is  given  in  the  4th  vol.  of  Le- 
maire's  Poet.  Lat.  Minores.  Cf.  Harles,  Brev.  Not.  p.  353.  Suppl.  i.  p.12.— Fragments  of  Lucil- 
ius are  also  found  in  Lemaire's  Minor  Poets,  vol.  3d.  —  The  7th  vol.  of  the  same  also  contains 
Columella  on  gardening. — Cf.  Stlwll,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  306  ss. 

§  336.  The  last  period  included  in  our  view  of  Roman  literature  is  not  with- 
out names  of  didactic  poets  ;  but  none  of  them  are  of  special  celebrity.  JYeme- 
sian,  of  the  3d  century,  is  probably  the  most  important  (cf.  $383).  Sammoni- 
cus,  whom  we  shall  have  occasion  to  notice  as  a  physician  ($  555),  was  the 
author  of  an  inferior  poem  on  diseases  and  their  remedies.  The  last  book  in 
the  treatise  of  Palladius  on  agriculture  is  a  didactic  poem  in  elegiac  verse,  up- 
on the  art  of  grafting  (§  500b).  The  principal  work  of  Avienus  (j  381.  4)  was 
a  didactic  performance.  Several  of  the  Christian  poets,  as  Commodian,  Pru- 
dentius,  and  others,  composed  didactic  poems. 

It  may  be  suitable  to  remark,  before  leaving  this  topic,  that  we  find  among 
the  Romans  a  few  specimens  of  that  kind  of  poetry  which  the  Greeks  termed 
Gnomic  ;  in  which  the  composition  consists  of"  moral  sentences  or  maxims  (cf. 
§  31).  The  principal  gnomic  author  of  the  Romans  was  Dionysius  Cato,  who 
lived  in  the  2d  century  ($  382).  The  remains  of  Publius  Syrus,  a  celebrated 
mime  of  the  Augustan  age  ($  319), may  be  ranked  perhaps  in  the  same  class. 

For  references  on  Didactic  poetry  generally,  see  P.  II.  $32.  —  On  the  Roman  didactic  poets, 
Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  246  ss.  n.  306.  —  Dunlop,  vol.  in.  Lond.  ed.  particularly  on  the  Georgics 
of  Virgil,  and  the  didactic  parts  of  Ovid.  —  See  also  the  sections  below,  in  which  the  poets 
above  mentioned  as  didactic  are  noticed  separately.— On  the  sententious  poetry,  J.  Elphinstone, 
as  cited  below,  $  368.  3. 

§  337.  Since  the  Fable  may  be  considered  as  a  form  of  didactic  poetry,  it 
may  be  proper  to  notice-it  here.  "  The  iEsopian  fable,"  says  Scholl,  "  gained 
little  attention  from  the  Romans.  The  Roman  orators  either  did  not  know 
the  use  made  of  it  by  the  Greeks,  or  from  their  serious  turn  of  character  they 
rejected  it.  The  fable  of  Menenius  Agrippa  (see  Livy  ii.  32)  is  a  solitary  in- 
stance, where  it  is  employed  for  the  purpose  of  rhetorical  ornament.      Aulus 


POETRY.       FABLE.    EPIGRAM.  293 

Gellius  (Noct.  Att.  ii.  29)  relates  that  Ennius  inserted  adroitly,  in  one  of  his 
satires,  the  fable  of  the  lark  (cassita).  His  example  was  followed  by  Lucilius. 
But  the  first  who  treated  the  fable  as  a  form  of  poetry  having  its  appropriate 
rules,  was  Horace.  His  fable  of  the  city-mouse  and  country-mouse  (mus  urba- 
nus  and  rusticus ;  Sat.  ii.  6)  is  well  known.  After  him,  Roman  literature  pre- 
sents us  with  no  fables  until  the  reign  of  Tiberius." 

In  his  reign  flourished  Plmdrus,  who  received  his  freedom  from  Augustus. 
He  was  the  principal  author  of  fables  among  the  Romans  (cf.  $  372).  "  He  had 
the  merit  of  first  making  known  to  the  Romans  the  fables  of  iEsop  ;  not  that 
all  his  fables  are  translations  of  those  of  the  Phrygian  philosopher  (cf.  $  184); 
but  those  which  seem  to  be  properly  his  own,  or  of  which  at  least  we  do  not 
know  the  Greek  originals,  are  in  the  manner  of  iEsop.  He  is  as  original  as 
La  Fontaine,  who  like  Phaedrus  borrowed  the  subject  in  a  great  number  of  his 
fables."  —  The  next  author  of  fables  in  Latin  verse  is  Flavius  Avianus  (cf. 
§  381),  who  employed  the  elegiac  metre  instead  of  the  iambic  (cf.  $  372).  Ju- 
lianus  Titianus,  who  lived  under  Caracalla,  wrote  fables  in  prose,  or  rather 
translated  into  Latin  prose  the  fables  of  Babrius  (cf.  $  31,  184).  We  find  no 
other  fabulists  within  the  period  included  in  our  notice. 

There  are  extant  80  fables  in  Latin  prose,  under  the  name'  of  Romulus,  of  whose  person  and 
age  nothing  is  known  ;  Warton  (Hist.  Eng.  Poetry  i.  246)  says  the  work  was  probably  fabri- 
cated in  the  12th  century.  They  were  published  in  the  Ulm  Collection,  which  was  the  earliest 
collection  of  Latin  fables,  printed  at  Ulm,  1473.  fol.  —  There  is  also  a  collection  of  60  fables,  in 
elegiac  metre,  which  are  but  so  many  of  the  fables  of  Romulus,  versified  hy  some  unknown 
author;  Fuhrmann  (klein.  Handb.  p.  727)  says  probably  by  HUdebert,  hp.  of  Tours,  who  died 
A.  D.  1136.  They  were  published  under  the  title  Anomjmi  Fabulaz,  by  /.  JVic.  Nevelet,  in  his 
Mytholog.  JEsop.  Francft.  1618.  8. — There  is  likewise  a  collection  of  67  fables  in  prose,  which 
are  merely  variations  or  mutilations  of  those  of  Romulus.  These  were  published  by  J.F.  Nilant, 
in  his  work  styled  Fabulce.  Antiques,  &c.  Lugd.Bat.  1709. 12. — There  are  also  95  fables  in  Latin, 
considered  by  some  as  translations  from  a  lost  collection  in  Greek  by  Cyrillus,  called  also  Con- 
stantine  the  Philosopher,  bishop  of  Thessalonica  in  the  9th  century,-  they  were  in  4  books,  and 
the  Latin  title  is  Quadripartitu.--  Apolon-icu*,  or  Speculum  sapientiee  ;  published  by  B.Cordicr,  with 
the  title  Apologi  Morales.   Vienna,  1630.  12.     Cf.  Scholl,  Litt.  Grecque  vi.  214. 

For  notices  of  other  fabulists,  and  of  Collections  of  Latin  fables,  see  Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie 
vol.  ii.  p.l82ss.— On  the  Roman  fabulists,  see  references  given  below,  $  372. 

§  338-  (g)  The  Ejrigram.  In  this  form  of  poetry  the  Romans  appear  to 
have  been  very  successful  in  the  time  of  their  first  attempts  in  literature. 
Several  epigrammatists  flourished  in  the  period  preceding  the  war  of  Sylla 
and  Marius  (the  second  of  our  division  $301).  Aulus  Gellius  (xix.  9)  speaks 
of  three  in  particular,  viz  Porcius  Licinius,  Q.  Lutatius  Catullus,  and  L.  Va- 
lerius iEdituus  ;  and  remarks  that  some  of  their  epigrams  are  not  surpassed  in 
eleoance  by  anything  known  to  him  in  Latin  or  Greek  poetry.  L.  Pomponius, 
perhaps  the  same  that  has  been  noticed  as  an  author  of  Atellane  comedies 
($318),  is  also  mentioned  as  an  epigrammatist  by  Priscian. 

§  339.  Many  of  the  small  poems  of  Catullus  are  properly  regarded  as  epi- 
grams. The  Garland  of  Meleager  (cf.  $  35)  had  been  compiled  before  his 
time,  and  thus  he  might  easily  become  familiar  with  the  style  of  the  Greek 
epigrams.  Some  of  his  pieces  are  allowed  to  possess  distinguished  merit;  of 
the  crowd  of  epigrammatists  whose  names  occur  in  the  period  before  the  death 
of  Augustus,  he  is  decidedly  the  best.  Among  these  names  we  find  those  of 
Virgil,  and  Cicero,  and  his  brother  Quintus  ;  of  Julius  Caesar,  Augustus,  and 
Maecenas  ;  from  each  of  whom  some  remains  are  preserved  in  the  Latin  An- 
thology. Licinius  Calvus  was  celebrated  for  the  sarcastic  tone  of  his  epi- 
grams ;  in  the  only  one  now  extant  in  full,  he  satirizes  Pompey's  mode  of 
scratching  his  head.  Domitius  Marsus  was  ranked  among  the  best  epigram- 
matists in  the  time  of  Augustus  ;  there  seems  to  have  been  a  collection  of  epi- 
grams by  him,  entitled  Cicuta  ;  only  two  pieces  now  remain. 

§  340.  Passing  by  others  of  this  period  who  have  a  place  in  the  An- 
thology, we  come  to  Martial,  in  the  following  period  of  Roman  literature  ;  to 
whom  the  critics,  almost  without  an  exception,  have  awarded  the  palm  in 
preference  to  Catullus  and  every  other  Latin  epigrammatist.  His  pieces  are 
marked  by  something  of  that  point  which  is  considered  essential  in  a  modern 
epigram  (cf.  $  34).  Several  less  important  names  belong  to  this  period.  A 
number  of  epigrams  are  contained  among  the  remains  of  Petronius  Arbiter. 
The  pieces  in  the  Greek  Anthology  ascribed  to  an  author  called  raixov/.Xiog. 
and  rccirov?.ixiog,  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  productions  of  Cornelius 

25* 


294  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

Lentulus  Gsetulicus,  whom  Suetonius  cites  as  a  historian,  and  Martial  names 
as  a  poet.  L.  Asinius  Gallus,  son  of  Virgil's  friend  Asinius  Pollio;  Alfius 
Flavus,  mentioned  by  Seneca  the  rhetorician  as  an  eminent  orator  of  his  time; 
Septimius  Serenus,  surnamed  Faliscus  (cf.  §  328)  ;  Vulcatius  Sedigitus,  so 
called  from  the  number  of  his  fingers;  and  Sentius  Augurinus,  lauded  by 
Pliny  the  younger  CEp.  iv.  27.  ix.  9)  for  the  delicacy  and  irony  of  his  pieces; 
must  be  included  in  the  catalogue  of  epigrammatists.  We  may  add  Pliny 
himself,  and  Seneca  the  philosopher,  unless  we  suppose  the  epigrams  con- 
tained in  the  writings  of  the  latter  to  be  interpolations  by  some  scholastic  au- 
thor. The  emperor  Hadrian  or  Adrian  was  the  author  of  epigrams  in  Greek 
as  well  as  Latin.  There  are  some  pieces  from  a  poet  by  the  name  of  Florus, 
who  was  living  in  the  time  of  Adrian,  and  is  by  some  supposed  to  be  the  same 
as  L.  Annaeus  Florus  the  historian  (§  536a 

§  341.  in  the  last  period  included  in  our  glance,  from  the  Antonines  A.  D. 
160  to  the  overthrow  of  Rome  A.  D.  476,  there  were  many  productions  of  an 
epigrammatic  kind.  The  more  distinguished  authors  were  Ausonius  and 
Claudian.  In  the  works  of  the  former  fcf.  §  385J  we  find  about  150  epigrams, 
generally  framed  after  the  manner  of  Martial,  but  inferior  to  their  model  in 
force  and  point.  About  40  epigrams  are  ascribed  to  Claudian;  2  are  in  Greek; 
but  some  of  these  pieces  are  not  considered  as  genuine  fcf.  $386J.  Several  of 
the  Christian  poets  might  be  mentioned  among  the  epigrammatists. 

It  is  perhaps  worthy  of  notice  here,  that  in  the  later  ages  some  of  the  Latin  poets  imitated 
the  frivolous  devices  that  were  invented  by  certain  Greeks  of  the  Alexandrine  school,  who 
amused  themselves  in  composing  little  poems,  in  which  the  verses  were  so  formed  and  ar- 
ranged as  to  present  the  figure  of  an  altar,  egg,  musician's  pipe  (cf.  §  68.  2),  or  other  object.  A 
specimen  of  this  sort  of  effort  is  given  in  a  Latin  poem  by  P.  Optatianus  Porphyrins,  who  lived 
in  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great.  He  had  been  banished  by  that  emperor  ;  but  he  regained 
his  favor  by  the  poem  here  mentioned.  It  was  a  eulogy  on  the  emperor  made  up  of  a  series  of 
poems,  having  something  of  the  epigrammatic  character,  but  representing  by  their  form  differ- 
ent objects,  one  an  altar,  another  a  flute,  another  a  sort  of  organ,  &c.  It  included  also  other 
devices;  e.  g.  in  one  poem  the  first  line  was  composed  of  words  of  two  syllables,  the  second  of 
words  of  three  syllables,  and  so  on  ;  another  poein  was  a  complicated  acrostic  of  20  lines,  the 
first  letters  of  which,  taken  from  top  to  bottom,  formed  the  words  Fortisshnus  Imperator ;  the 
letters  in  the  14th  place  formed  the  words  Clementissimus  rector ;  and  the  last  letters,  Constanthius 
invictus. 

§  342.  Anthologies.  This  term  has  been  applied  to  collections  of  Latin  epi- 
grams as  well  as  Greek.  They  include  many  epigrams  from  unknown  au- 
thors. It  should  also  be  remarked  that  they  include  not  only  such  epigrams 
as  were  preserved  in  ancient  manuscripts,  but  many  others  which  are  epi- 
grams in  the  original  sense  of  the  term,  i.  e.  inscriptions,  placed  on  public  or 
private  monuments.  The  latter  class  have  been  drawn  from  monuments  scat- 
tered over  Italy  and  the  Roman  provinces,  but  found  in  greatest  number  in 

the  region  of  Rome  itself. Collections  of  the  Greek  epigrams  began  to  be 

made  more  than  100  years  before  Christ.  fSee  $  35J  But  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  Romans  thought  much  of  similar  collections  of  Latin  epigrams. 
Perhaps  we  may  consider  the  Priapeia  as  being  something  of  the  kind,  since 
it  consists  of  little  poems  pertaining  to  the  god  Priapus,  very  probably  written 
by  different  authors,  although  sometimes  ascribed  to  Virgil  C§  362). 

1.  The  modern  Latin  Anthologies  seem  to  have  originated  in  the  collecting  and  publishing  of 
actual  inscriptions  found  on  ancient  monuments.  An  Italian  of  the  15th  century,  Pizzocolli, 
known  also  by  the  name  of  Cyriacus  Jlnconitmvus,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  enter  upon 
this  work.  Under  the  direction  of  Nicolas  I.  he  traveled  in  Italy,  Hungary,  and  Greece,  for 
the  purpose  of  copying  inscriptions  both  Greek  and  Latin.  He  prepared  a  volume  of  prose  in- 
scriptions, and  another  of  inscriptions  in  verse  ;  and  although  no  part  of  his  collection  was 
printed  until  about  200  years  afterwards,  yet  his  example  influenced  other  scholars  to  pursue 
the  study  of  inscriptions,  and  a  number  of  collections  were  published  during  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries.  Ten  or  twelve  such  works,  at  least,  preceded  the  first  edition  of  Gruter's  collection 
(cf.  P.  I.  $  130). 

2.  The  Anthology  differs  from  the  mere  collection  of  inscriptions,  not  by  excluding  epigrams 
preserved  only  on  monuments;  for,  as  has  been  observed,  many  such  are  admitted.  But  the 
Anthology  properly  admits  only  those  pieces  which  seem  to  possess  some  merit  as  literary  pro- 
ductions, while  the  collection  of  the  other  kind  will  receive  the  most  insignificcint  or  trivial 
inscription,  although  it  may  contain  merely  detached  words,  or  proper  names.  Several  collec- 
tions of  these  more  select  and  choice  pieces  were  published  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries. 
The  one  which  is  considered  the  most  complete,  and  the  best  in  arrangement,  is  the  Latin  An- 
thology of  Burmann,  cited  §  348.  2.  The  1st  volume  of  this  is  devoted  chiefly  to  epigrams  and 
small  poems,  drawn  from  manuscripts  ;  while  a  great  part  of  the  2d  volume  is  occupied  with 
inscriptions  properly  so  called,  and  originally  taken  from  existing  monuments.  The  pieces 
contained  in  the  work  are  arranged  in  6  books.  —  Of  the  collections  that  come  under  the  class 
of  the  jinthnlo tries,  the  earliest  that  is  mentioned  by  Fabricius  is  that  of  P.  Fithoeus  (entitled 
Epigrammata  vetera  &c).  Par.  1590.  12. 


POETRY.       ANTHOLOGIES.    SATIRE.  295 

3.  On  Latin  epigrams,  see  Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  320.  —  Sclioll,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  153,  365. 
ii.  349.  in.  124.  —  Dunlop,  Rom.  Lit.  i.  319.  ed.  Phil.  1827.  —  Sulzer,  Allg.  Theorie,  iv.  398.  — 
Burmann,  as  above  cited.— On  the  epigram  generally,  see  references  §  34,  35 On  the  sub- 
ject of  Latin  Inscriptions,  cf.  P.  I.  $130. 

§  343.  (h)  Satire.  There  has  been  much  disputing  among  the  learned  on 
the  question  whether  the  Satire  of  the  Romans  was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks, 
or  was  of  their  own  invention.  The  word  is  derived  differently  by  those  who 
take  the  opposite  sides  on  this  question.  Those  who  suppose  that  satire  de- 
scended from  the  Greeks,  derive  the  word  from  Survqog,  Satyrus,  the  imagin- 
ary being  said  to  be  composed  of  a  man  and  a  goat.  Those  who  maintain  the 
native  origin  of  satire,  generally  derive  the  word  from  satura  ;  this  term  was 
applied  to  the  platter  or  vessel  filled  with  all  sorts  of  fruits  {lanx  satura), 
which  was  offered  to  Bacchus  at  his  festivals  ;  and  it  might  easily  be  thence 
transferred  and  employed  to  designate  a  composition  written  in  various  me- 
tres and  comprehending  a  medley  or  farrago   of  subjects. But   whatever 

may  have  been  the  real  derivation  of  the  term,  satura  or  satira,  and  whatever 
may  have  been  the  fact  as  to  the  question  whether  the  Roman  satirists  imitated 
the  Greeks  and  borrowed  from  them,  two  things  may  be  here  asserted.  The 
first  is,  that  the  Roman  satire  was  quite  different  in  its  character  from  the 
Greek  dramatic  satyre  (cf.  §  45).  The  other  is,  that  the  Romans  exhibited 
in  very  early  times  the  beginnings  of  their  satire,  in  the  rude  taunts  and  rail- 
eries  which  were  practiced  at  the  festivals  of  their  rural  gods. 

§  344.  The  invention  of  the  Roman  Satire  is  commonly  ascribed  to  Ennius. 
He  composed  satires,  which  were  not  designed  to  be  recited  like  the  rude  jests 
at  the  festivals,  but  to  be  read  more  privately.  He  employed  a  diversity  of 
metres.  Pacuvius  imitated  Ennius.  Lucilius,  who  follows  them  in  order  of 
time,  gave  to  satire  something  of  a  new  form  and  character,  and  is  therefore 
spoken  of  by  some  of  the  ancients  as  its  inventor.  He  aimed  less  at  mere 
comic  effect,  and  more  at  the  castigation  of  vice,  and  thus  rendered  the  com- 
position more  didactic ;  he  also  confined  it  much  more  to  one  kind  of  verse, 
particularly  the  hexameter.  —  Of  the  satires  of  these  authors  mere  fragments 
now  remain. 

In  a  work  ascribed  to  Suetonius  (De  illust.  gramm.  c.  11.  cf.  below  $  537),  are  preserved  two 
fragments  of  another  satirist  of  this  period,  viz.  M.  Furius  Bibaculus,  by  some  of  the  ancients 
placed  by  the  side  of  Horace.  —  The  name  of  Valerius  Cato  may  be  perhaps  properly  intro- 
duced here,  on  account  of  the  poem  entitled  Diva:  in  Battarum.  It  is  given  in  Lemaire's  PoeU 
Lat.  Minores,  2d  volume. 

§  345.  In  the  next  period,  that  including  the  Augustan  age,  most  of  the 
writers  who  composed  satires  followed  the  manner  of  Lucilius.  One  author, 
M.  Terentius  Varro,  whom  we  shall  have  occasion  again  to  notice,  preferred 
the  manner  of  Ennius,  especially  in  the  use  of  various  metres.  He  also  ming- 
led prose  and  verse.  His  satirical  compositions  were  termed  Menippean,  from 
a  certain  Menippus  of  Gadara,  not  because  Menippus  had  written  pieces  of 
this  kind,  but  because  Varro  imitated  his  humorous  and  pungent  style.  These 
writings  of  Varro'were  not  professed  satires  exactly  ;  although  they  may  be 
ranked  under  this  better  perhaps  than  under  any  other  denomination  (cf.  §  423J. 

Peculiarly  eminent  in  the  department  of  satire  is  the   name  of  Horace 

(cf.  §  363).  He  gave  the  finishing  hand  to  the  method  introduced  by  Lucil- 
ius. The  satires  of  Horace  are  wholly  in  the  hexameter  verse,  of  a  familiar 
style,  not  much  elevated  above  that  of  prose,  and  not  unfrequently  assuming 
the  form  of  dialogue.  Ridicule  of  foibles  is  a  peculiar  characteristic  of  his 
pieces,  a  trait  well  suited  to  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  which  was  marked  by 
luxury,  folly,  and  extravagance,  rather  than  by  the  gross  crimes  and  enormi- 
ties which  called  forth  the  keener  severity  of  later  satirists. 

Perhaps  the  Ibis  of  Ovid,  (cf.  §  364.  4),  may  require  the  mention  of  him  as  a  satirical  writer. 
It  is  a  sort  of  imitation  of  the  poem  of  Callimachus  under  the  same  title  (cf.  §  70.  1),  written 
during  his  banishment  at  Tomi,  and  containing  a  series  of  imprecations  against  his  enemies.  — 
It  is  like  the  Dirce  of  Cato. 

§  346.  In  the  following  period  there  were  two  authors  of  distinguished  ce- 
lebrity for  the  composition  of  satires;  Persius  and  Juvenal.  The  circumstan- 
ces of  their  times  were  such  as  demanded  the  strong  tone  of  reproof  and  fear- 
less censure,  with  which  they  assailed  the  prevalent  vices  of  Rome.  They 
employed  the  metre  and  external  form  which  the  example  of  Horace  had  set- 
tled as  appropriate  to  satire  j  but  neither  of  them  retained  the  ease  and  simpli- 


296  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

city  of  his  language  ;  yet  in  point  of  merit  they  are  by  no  means  unworthy  of 

comparison  with  him  (cf.  §  380.  2). There   are  some  other  names  which 

ought  to  be  mentioned  here.  Martial  (Ep.  xi.  10)  and  other  writers  speak  of 
a  Turnus  as  an  eminent  satiric  poet  in  the  times  of  Nero  and  Vespasian.  An 
existing  fragment  of  a  satire  against  Nero  has  been  ascribed  to  him  by  a  mod- 
ern critic.  We  have  also  a  satirical  poem  from  a  female  author,  Sulpicia,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  Domitian  and  after.  The  production  of  Petronius  Arbiter , 
entitled  Satijricun  (cf.  §  472),was  a  sort  of  romance  made  up  of  satirical  pieces, 
after  the  manner  called  Menippean  or  Varronian,  in  mingled  prose  and  verse. 
There  is  a  Menippean  satire,  ascribed  to  Seneca  (cf.  §  374.  2),  but  its  genuine- 
ness has  been  doubted. 

Cf.  Schiill,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  337.  —  Wemsdorf  gives  the  fragment  by  him  ascribed  to  Turnus  in 
his  Port.  Lat.  Minores.  It  is  also  contained  in  Lemaire's  Minor  Latin  Poets,  vol.  2d.  The  same 
vol.  of  Lemaire  likewise  contains  the  satire  of  Sulpicia,  which  treats  of  the  banishment  of  the 
philosophers  from  Rome  by  Domitian. 

§  347.  In  the  subsequent  history  of  Roman  literature,  we  find  no  produc- 
tions strictly  belonging  to  the  class  of  satires.  Two  pieces  of  Claudian  in  the 
4th  century,  considered  among  his  best  performances,  the  invectives  against 
Rufinus  and  Eutropius  (cf.  §  386),  are  commonly  ranked  here  ;  they  are  how- 
ever quite  different  from  the  satire  of  Horace  or  Juvenal,  the  manner  of  treat- 
ing the  subject  being  more  full,  and  more  conformed  to  epic  description. 

The  Satyricon  of  Marcianus  Capella,  of  the  5th  century,  is  a  work  composed 
partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse,  and  thus  in  form  resembles  what  is  called 
the  Menippean  or  Varronian  satire  ;  but  it  is  a  philosophical  medley,  or  a  sort 
of  encyclopaedia,  rather  than  a  satirical  performance  (cf.  §  473). 

On  Roman  satire  and  satirists  ;  —  /.  Ant.  Vulpius,  De  Satyrs  Latins  naturaetratione,  ejus- 
que  scriptoribus.  Patav.  1744.  8.  —  Jo.  Gerber,  Diss,  de  Romanorum  Satira.  Jen.  1756.4.  — 
G.  L.  Konig,  De  Satira  Romana  ejusque  auctoribus  prscipuis.    Oldenb.  1796.  8.  —  /.  Casaubon-, 

De  Satyrica  Grscorum   Poesi  et  Romanorum  Satira.     Hal.  1774.  8. i.  Dacicr,  Discours  sur 

la  Satire,  in  the  Pref.  to  transl.  of  Horace,  cited  below  §  363.  5  ;  also  in  the  2d  vol.  of  the  Menu 
Acad,  Inter,  et  Belles-Lettres,  p.  187.  —  J.  Dryden,  Discourse  concerning  the  origin  and  pro- 
gress of  Satire,  in  his  vers,  of  Juvenal  cited  §  380.  —  Du  Saulx,  Satyriques  Latins,  Mem.  Acad. 
Iiuitr.  vol.  mil.  p.  157.  —  Cf.  Sclwll,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  143.  n.  311.  —  See  also  references  under 
$  363,  380. 

§  348.  Before  proceeding  to  notice  the  poets  singly,  we  will  refer  here  to  a 
few  works,  which  relate  to  them  collectively,  or  to  classes  of  them. 

1.  Gyraldi,  Historian  Poetarum,  cited  §  47t. — G.  J.  Vossius,  De  vet.  poet.  Grsc.  et  Lat.  tem- 
poribus, — cited  <§,  47t. — L.  Crusius,  Lives  of  the  Roman  Poets.  Lond.  1733.  2  vols.  8.  Trans- 
lated into  German,  by  C.  T.  Schmid,  Halle,  1777.  2  vols.  8. — F.  Jacobs,  Kurzer  Abriss  der 
Geschichte   der  romische  Poesie,  in  the  work  styled    Charaktere  der  vomehmsten  Dichter  &c 

cited  $  Alt. J.  C.  F.  Manso,  Leber  Horazens  Beurtheilung  der  altern  romischen  Dichter,   in 

his  Vermischten  Abhandluvgen.  und  Aufs'dtzen.  Breslau,  1821.  8. —  Osann,  Analecta  Critica,  Poesis- 
Romanorum  scenics  reliquias  illustrantia.  Berl.  1717.  cf.  p.  59  of  Appendix  to  Dunlop's  Hist. 
Rom.  Lit.  cited  §  299.  8. — Ziegler,  de  Mimis  Romanorum.  Gbtting.  1789. — J.  C.  JVernsdorf, 
Dissert,  de  poetis  lat.  satyricis,  elegiacis,  lyricis  &c.  prefixed  to  the  3d  vol.  of  his  Poet.  Minor. 
below  cited.  Altenb.  &.  Helmst.  1780-99.  6  vols.  8. — Connoissance  de  Poetes  le  plus  celebres. 
Par.  1752. 2  vols.  8. — ftT.  A.  Heiden,  Anleitung  zur  Dichtk.  des  alten  Roms  und  dessen  vorzuglich- 
ster  Dichter.  Trans,  from  the  French  (Etrennes  du  Pamasse).  Niirnb.  1815.  8. — Hawkins,  In- 
quiry into  the  nature  of  Latin  Poetry.  Lond.  1817. — Polyc.  Leyser,  Hist.  Poetarum  et  poema- 
tummedii  svi.     Hal.  1721.  8 — J.  Spence,  Polymetis  &c.  cited  P.  I.  §  151. 

2.  The  following  are  some  of  the  various  collections  of  Latin  poetry. — Stephanus  (R.  <$'  H.) 
Fragment.  Vet.  Poet.  Par.  1564.  8.—H.  Stephanus,  Comicorum  Lat.  Fragmenta.  Par.  1569.  8. 
— Almelovcen,  Fragmenta  comicorum  Lat.  Amst.  1686.  8.— M.  A.  Dclrius,  Syntagma  tragcedis 
Lat.  Lutel.  Par.  1607.  4.— P.  Scriverius,  Fragmenta  vet.  tragicorum  Lat.  Amst.  1720.  8.—F.  H. 
Bothe,  Poet®  scenici  Latinorum.     Halberst.  1822.  Lips.  1834.  6  vols.  8. — J.  B.  Levee,  (&  others), 

Theatre  complet.  des  Latins,  15  vols. Gasp.  Barth,  Poets  Lat.  Venatici  et  bucolici.  1613. — 

Poetae,  Lat.  rei  venaticre  scriptores  et  bucolici  antiqui.      Lugd.   1728.  4.— C.  Mic/iailer,  Collect. 

Poetar.  Elegiac.  Aug.     Vind.  1776.  2  vols.  8. M.  Mattaire,  Corpus  Poetarumr  Lat.  (opera  et 

fragmenta  vet.  Poet.  Lat.  Profan.  et  Ecclesias).  Lond.  1713.  2  vols,  fol.— Rice.  Malatesta  &  PA. 
Argelati,  Corpus  omn.  vet.  poet.  Lat.  cum  Italica  versione.  (Raccolta,  di  tutti  gli  antichi  &c.) 
Mediol.  1731-1765.  35  vols.  4.  cf.  JVovelle  delta  Republ.  delle  Lettere,  Anno.  1736.  p.  88.—  Collectio 
Pisauricnsis  Comn.  poematum  omn.  poetarum  &.c.)  Pisaur.  1766.  6  vols.  4. — P.  Burrmann,  An- 
tholog.  vet.  Lat.  epigrammatum  etc.  Amst.  1759.  1773.  2  vols.  4.  fcf.  $  342. 2.>-There  is  a  recent 
edition  of  this,  by  H.  Meyer,  Lips.  1835.  2  vols.  8.   "edit.   Burmannian.  digessit  et  auxit." — 

J.  C.  Wernsdorf,  Poetau  Lat.  Minores.    Altenb.  1789-99.  6  vols.  8. JV.  E.  Lemaire,  Poets  Lat. 

Minores.  Par.  1824-26.  7  vols.  8.—G.  S.  Walker,  Poetarum  Latinorum  Corpus.  Lond.  1827. 
royal  8.— Poets  Lat.  veteres,  in  unum  vol.  redacti.     Flor.  1829.  8. 

§  349.  Livius  Jlndronicus,  who  flourished  about  B.  C.  230,  was  a  Greek,  born 
at  Tarentum,  and  a  freedman  of  M. Livius  Salinator.  He  was  the  first  dramat- 
ic poet  among  the  Romans,  and  brought  the  first  play  upon  the  stage,  about 
B.  C.  239.     His  style  had  a  degree  of  roughness,  and  was  in  part  unintelligi- 


POETS.       LIVIUS    A.      N.EVIUS.    ENNIUS.  297 

ble  to  the  later  Romans.  He  wrote  many  poems  of  different  kinds  ;  among 
them  was  one  on  the  Roman  history,  and  a  translation  of  Homer's  Odyssey. 
We  have  merely  a  few  fragments  of  his  writings. 

1.  It  is  asserted,  that  when  his  country  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  he 
was  taken  captive  and  carried  to  Rome,  where  he  became  the  slave  and  after- 
wards the  freedman  of  the  consul  Livius  Salinator,  from  whom  he  took  the 
name  of  Livius.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  least  until  about  B.  C.  220. 
In  Cicero's  dialogue  De  Scncctute  (c.  14),  Cato  is  introduced  saying  that  he  had 
seen  old  Livius,  while  he  himself  was  a  youth.  Livius  composed  both  trage- 
dies and  comedies.  Some  of  the  titles  which  have  been  collected  by  Fabrici- 
us  and  others,  are  Achilles,  Adonis,  ^gisthus,  Ajax,  Andromeda,  Antiopa,  Cen- 
tauri,  Equus  Trojanus,  (cf.  Fvhrmann's  Klein.  Handb.  p.  549),  Hellene,  Her- 
mione,  lno,  Teucer.  They  indicate  that  most  of  his  dramas  were  translated 
or  imitated  from  the  works  of  his  countrymen  of  Magna  Graecia,  or  from  the 
great  tragic  writers  of  Greece.  A  building  was  assigned  to  Livius  on  the 
Aventine  hill,  which  served  also  for  a  theatre,  and  was  inhabited  by  a  troop 
of  players. 

Cf.  Dunlofs  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  fp.  54.  vol.  i.  ed.  cited  §  299.  8.—Ca*p.  Sagittarius,  De  vita  et 
script.  L.  Androuici,  Naevii  etc.  Altenb.  1672.  8. —  Osann  ('cited  $  348.  \),  cap.  2.—  Quintilian, 
L.  x.  c.2. 

2.  The  fragments  of  L.  Andronicus  are  given  in  the  collection  of  Mattaire,  vol.  2d  as  cited 
§  348.  2.— Also  in  those  of  Delrius,  and  Scriverius,  as  there  cited. 

$  350.  C'neius  Neevius,  a  native  of  Campania,  flourished  about  the  same 
time.  Having  been  banished  from  Rome,  he  died  in  Utica,  about  B.  C.  200. 
He  wrote  a  historical  poem  on  the  first  Punic  War  ;  also  tragedies,  comedies, 
satires  and  epigrams  ;  not  without  wit,  but  in  a  very  rude  style.  A  few  frag- 
ments only  are  preserved.  This  poet  must  be  discriminated  from  a  later  au- 
thor by  the  name  of  'Novius,  who  composed  pieces  belonging  to  the  class  of 
writings  called  Atellane  plays  (Fabulce  Atellanee). 

1.  The  tragedies  of  Naevius  were  all  translations  from  Greek  dramatists,  or 
close  imitations  :  the  following  titles  are  preserved;  Alcestis,Danae,  Dulores- 
tes,  Hesiona,  Hector,  Iphigenia,  Lycurgus,  Phanissce,  Protesilaus,  Telephus. 
Naevius  was  considered  a  better  comic  than  tragic  poet.  His  comedies  partook 
of  the  personal  satire  and  invective,  which  characterized  the  old  comedy  of 
the  Greeks  (§  41),  and  which  are  seen  in  the  plays  of  Aristophanes.  His  re- 
proaches against  the  chief  men  of  the  city  caused  his  imprisonment,  and  per- 
severance in  the  same  after  a  release,  led  to  his  banishment. — His  poem  on 
the  Punic  War  was  in  the  Saturnian  verse  (cf.  $  304),  and  his  style  in  all  his 
productions,  is  said  to  have  been  more  rugged  than  that  of  L.  Andronicus. — 
Naevius  has  generally  been  considered  as  the  author  of  the  Cyprian  Iliad  (a) 
a  translation  from  a  Greek  poem  called  the  Cypria  (to.  Kvjiqiu),  a  work  of 
amorous  fiction  in  12  books. 

(a)  Some,  however,  ascribe  it  to  a  later  poet  named  Laevius.  Cf.  Heyne,  Excurs.  I.  ad  Lib. 
II.  iEneid. On  Naevius,  cf.  Dunlop,  i.  p.  59.—Bdkr,  p.  76. — Sagittarius,  as  cited  $  348.  1. 

2.  The  fragments  of  Nasvius  are  found  in  the  collections  named  in  the  preceding  section, 
referred  to  above,  $  349.  2.  and  others  cited  §  348.  2. 

$  351.  Quintus  Ennius  was  born  at  Rudiae  in  Calabria,  B.  C.  about  240. 
The  elder  Cato  brought  him  from  Sardinia  to  Rome,  where  he  was  employed 
as  a  teacher  of  Greek.  He  contributed  much  to  the  improvement  of  the 
Latin  language.  He  was  the  earliest  epic  poet  in  that  tongue,  and  was  highly 
valued  by  the  later  and  better  writers,  particularly  Cicero  and  Virgil.  Enni- 
um,  sicut  sacros  vetustate  lucos,  adorcnuis,  in  quibus  grandia  et  antiqua  robora 
jam  non  tantum  habent  speciem  quantum  religionem  (Qui  n  til.  x.  i).  He 
composed  a  historical  poem  of  Roman  Annals,  in  18  books  :  an  epic  poem 
called  Scipio  ;  many  comedies  and  tragedies  ;  also  satires  and  other  pieces. 
Of  all  these  we  have  but  brief  and  scattered  passages,  occasionally  quoted  by 
other  authors. 

1.  Ennius  lived  until  about  B.  C.  170,  when  he  died  at  the  age  of  70,  of  a 
disease  (morbus  articular  is)  probably  brought  on  by  intemperate  drinking 
(Hor.  Epist.  L.  I.  Ep.  19.  v.  7).  But  he  is  said  to  have  lived  generally  in  a 
frugal  manner.  His  residence  was  on  the  Aventine  hill.  He  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  many  patrician  families,  and  particularly  of  Scipio  Nasica. 

A  bust  of  him  was  placed  (Cic.  pro.  Archia,  c.  9.;  in  the  family  tomb  of  the  Scipios  ("cf.  P.  L 


298  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

§  133.  2J  ;  "  a  laureled  bust  of  Peperino  stone,  which  was  found  in  this  tomb,  and  which  now 
stands  on  the  Sarcophagus  of  Scipio  Barbatus  in  the  Vatican,  is  supposed  to  be  that  of  Enni- 
us."   Cf.  Rome  in  the  19th  century,  Letter  36. 

2.  Ennius  surpassed  his  predecessors  both  in  poetical  genius  and  in  versifi- 
cation, and  is  said  to  have  been  the  master  of  three  tongues,  Oscan,  Latin 
and  Greek.  He  professedly  imitated  Homer,  whose  spirit  he  pretended  to 
possess,  by  a  Pythagorean  transmigration  through  the  medium  of  a  peacock, 
if  we  may  rely  upon  a  satire  of  Persius  (vi.  10)  ;  destertuit  'esse — Mceonides 
Quintus  pavone  ex  Pythagoreo. — In  his  tragedies  he  imitated  from  Euripides 
more  than  from  the  other  Greek  dramatists ;  perhaps,  because  the  Romans 
preferred  such  plays  as  were  crowded  with  action  and  the  bustle  of  a  compli- 
cated fable,  The  titles  of  some  of  these  pieces  were  Ajax,  Alcmaon,  Alexan- 
der or  Paris,  Andromache,  Erectheus,  Hectoris  Lustra,  Hecuba.  Iphigenia, 
Medea,  Telamon,  Telephus,  Thyestes.  Most  of  these  were  evidently  bor- 
rowed from  Euripides.  The  Medea  was  considered  as  one  of  the  best  pro- 
ductions of  Ennius  and  was  very  popular.  Attius,  Varro,  Ovid  and  Seneca, 
successively  imitated  from  this  tragedy. — Of  the  satires  of  Ennius  little  is 
known,  the  remaining  fragments  being  very  short  and  broken. — The  Annals 
seem  to  have  been  the  great  work  of  this  poet ;  written  in  hexameter  verse, 
and  devoted  to  the  celebration  of  Roman  exploits  from  the  earliest  periods  to 
the  conclusion  of  the  Istrian  war ;  not  completed  until  within  a  few  years  of 
his  death.  It  was  a  work  highly  gratifying  to  the  national  pride,  and  continu- 
ed long  popular  at  Rome ;  much  relished  in  the  age  of  Horace  and  Virgil, 
and  even  down  to  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  recited  in  the  theatres  and 
places  of  public  amusement. — Ennius  wrote  a  didactic  poem  on  eatables,  en- 
titled Phagetica  ;  and  another  entitled  Epicarmus,  being  a  translation  from 
the  Greek  work  of  Epicharmus  the  comedian,  on  the  nature  of  things.  He 
also  left  a  prose  translation  of  the  work  of  Euhemeres  (cf.  §  222.  4),  on  the 
ancient  mythology  ;  some  passages  of  which  are  preserved  in  Lactantius. 

Dunlop,  i.  64.—  W.  Fr.  Kreidmann,  Orat.  de  Q.  Ennio.  Jen.  1754.  A.—Sclioll,  Hist,  de  la  Litk 
Rom.  1. 114, 141, 145.— Biihr,  p.  94,  120. 

3.  The  fragments  of  Ennius  were  first  published  by  H.  Columna,  Fragm.  poet,  veter.  Lat. 
Nap.  1590.  4. — A  full  and  good  edition,  by  Fr.  Hessel.  Amst.  1707.  4.— Recent,  by  J.  A.  Oiles. 
Lond.  1835.  12. — The  Medea  separately,  by  H.  Plank.  GStt.  1807.  4.  with  a  commentary. 

§  352.  M.  Accius  Plautus,  a  native  of  Sarsina,  in  Umbria,  also  flourished 
about  B.  C.  200 ;  being  born  B.  C.  227  and  dying  B.  C.  184.  He  became  so 
straitened  in  his  circumstances,  that  he  worked  for  daily  wages  at  a  hand-mill. 
He  possessed  eminent  talents  for  a  comic  writer,  a  rich  vein  of  cutting  wit,  a 
happy  invention,  and  great  force  of  humorous  expression.  The  Greek  comic 
writers  Epicharmus  and  Diphilus  were  his  chief  models.  He  was  particular- 
ly successful  in  the  low  comedy  ;  but  in  this,  out  of  compliance  with  the 
taste  of  the  age,  he  often  transgressed  the  limits  of  propriety.  From  the 
multitude  of  his  comedies,  which  Gellius  numbers  as  high  as  130,  only  twen- 
ty now  remain ;  these  have  frequently  been  used  and  imitated  by  modern 
dramatists. 

I.  Plautus  was  the  son  of  a  freedman,  and  received  his  name  from  his 
splay  feet  (a  pedum  planitie  sive  n/.arvxt^i).  He  is  said  to  have  realized  a 
considerable  fortune  by  the  popularity  of  his  plays,  and  to  have  lost  it  in  spec- 
ulation, or  expended  it  in  splendid  decorations  as  an  actor  ;  thus  he  was  reduced 
to  the  necessity  of  laboring  like  a  slave,  when  a  famine  at  Rome  diminished 
the  general  resort  to  theatrical  amusements.  Plautus  like  his  predecessors 
borrowed  from  the  Greek  writers  ;  from  Philemon  and  Menander  as  well  as 
from  those  named  above.  Although  he  took  his  plots  and  incidents  freely 
from  the  middle  comedy,  his  spirit  and  manner  in  execution,  his  coarse  wit 
and  personal  satire,  agreed  more  fully  with  the  character  of  the  old.  Cf.  $41. 
Many  of  the  comedies  which  passed  under  the  name  of  Plautus,  were  proba- 
bly spurious.  Aulus  Gellius  (Noct.  Alt.  Lib.  ill.)  quotes  a  work  of  Varro, 
Quaistiones  Plautince,  much  of  which  was  devoted  to  a  discussion  concerning 
the  authenticity  of  the  plays  commonly  ascribed  to  Plautus  ;  twenty-one  were 
admitted  in  this  discussion  to  be  unquestionably  genuine.  These  were  sub- 
eequently  termed  Varronian,  and  included  the  twenty  still  extant.  The  titles 
of  these,  with  an  analysis  of  each,  and  a  notice  of  the  principal  modern  imi- 
tations, may  be  found  in  Dunlop' s  Roman  Literature.     Amphitryon,  Mencechmi, 


POETS.       PLAUTUS.    PACUVIUS.    ATTItfS.  299 

Capteivei  and  Miles  Gloriosus,  are  among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  plays  J 
some  of  the  others,  however,  were  more  popular  on  the  Roman  stage.  The 
wit,  drollery  and  buffoonery  of  Plautus  were  so  captivating  to  the  people,  that 
his  plays  were  still  favorite  pieces  on  the  Roman  stage,  even  after  those  of 
Terence  began  to  be  represented. — Moliere,  Shakspeare  and  Dryden,  may  be 
named  among  the  moderns  who  have  copied  from  Plautus. 

2.  The  comedy  entitled  Famulus  for  Little  Carthaginian)  has  furnished  occasion  for  much 
philological  speculation,  in  the  specimens  of  the  Punic  language,  which  it  contains.  In  these 
•scanty  remains,  commentators  have  found  traces  of  various  different  tongues,  according  to 
their  fancy,  or  favorite  system. — J.  J.  Bellcrmann  published  three  Programms  on  the  subject ; 
(Einen  Versuch  die  punischen  Stellen  in  Ponulus  des  Plautus  zu  erklaren).  Berl.  1809.  8. — 
Cf.  Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  i.  123. —  Vallancey,  Essay  on  the  antiquity  of  the  Irish  language  (cf. 
P.  V.  $  13G).  Dubl.  1772.  8. — Southern  Review,  Aug.  1829.  p.  37.  where  are  given  several  ver- 
sions of  the  Punic  Monologue. —  W.  Gesenius,  iiber  Phcenische  und  Punische  &c.  as  cited  P.  I. 
$  45.  2.  | 

3.  Editions.— Best ;  F.  H.  Bothe.  Berl.  1810.  4  vols.  8.      "  Beautiful  and  truly  admirable.  '■ 
(Dibdin).— By  same,  Halberst.  1821.  2  vols.  8.  and  Stuttg.  1829.  4  vols.   12.— B.  F.   Schmieder.   * 

Gott.  1804,  1805.  2  vols.  8. Princeps  or  earliest ;  G.  Merula,  (Vindclin  de  Spira).    Ven.  1472. 

fol. — Second  ;  Paul  de  Ferraria,  Tarvis,  1482.  fol. — Of  many  others,  the  most  important  are, 
J.  Camerarius,  Bas.  1558.  8.— D.  Lambinus.  Par.  1577.  fol.—" F.  Taubmann.  Witteberg,  1622.  4. 
with  a  good  commentary. —  Variorum,  fed.   J.  F.    Oronovius,)  Amst.   1684.   8. — Miller.   Berl. 

1755.  3  vols.  8.  with  a  Lexicon  Plautinum. Editions  of  single   plays  have  been   numerous  ; 

we  mention  on  account  of  their  emendations  in  reference  to  metre.  F.  W.  Reitz,  the  Ru  d  e  n  s. 
Leipz.  1789.  8.  and  G.  Hermann,  the  T  r  i  n  u  m  n  u  s .  Berl.  1800.  8.— F.  Gtillcr,  the  Trucu- 
lentus.  Colon.  1824.  8. — —There  is  a  neat  ed.  of  the  Captivi  (mere  text),  Cambridge, 
1632.  12.  S  ' 

4.  Translations — German Ch.  Kiiffner  (metrical).  Vienn.   1806,  7.  5  vols.  8.— *G.  G.  S. 

Kbpke.    Berl.  1809,  1820.  2  vols.  8.— J.  T.  L.  Dam,  Lat.  &  Germ.  1806-11.  4  vols.  8 French. 

Mich.  Marolles,  Par.  1658.  4  vols.  8.—H.  Ph.  De  Limicrs,  Lat.  &  Gall.  Amst.  1719.  10  vols.  12. 
H.  Gucdevillc,  Leyd.  1719.  10  vols.  12. English.— Later.  Echard.  Lond.  1716. 12.— B.  Thorn- 
ton (blank  verse),  2nd  ed.    Lond.  1769.  2  vols.  8 R.  Warner.  Lond.  1772-74. 5  vols.  8. 

5.  Illustrative.— D.  Chr.  H.  Schmid,  Amveisung  der  vornehmsten  Bucher  in  aller  Theilen 
der  Dichtkunst.  Lpz.  1781. — Leasing,  Abh.  uber  Plautus  Leben  und  Schriften,  in  his  works, 
cf.  P.  I.  §  168.  2.—  Thos.  Cooke,  Amphitryon,  (Lat.  et.  Angl.)  with  a  Dissert,  and  the  Life  of 
riautus.  Lond.  1750.  12. — Hard,  The  opinion  of  Cicero  and  Horace  respecting  Plautus  com- 
pared, in  his  Commentary  on  the  Art  of  Poetry.  Lond.  1766.  8.  (p.  214.  vol.  i).— Cf.  Sulzer's 
Allg.  Theorie  &x.  vol.  in.  p.  706.— G.  E.  Rost,  Opuscula  Plautina.  Lpz.  1836.  vol.  i.  Com- 
mentationes.     1837.  vol.  n.  Translations. 

§  353.  Marcus  Pacuvius,  of  Brundusium,  was  a  nephew  of  Ennius,  born  B. 
C.  about  220.  He  was  celebrated  at  Rome  both  as  a  painter  and  a  tragic  poet. 
Quintilian  praises  the  dignity  of  the  thought,  expression,  and  characters  in 
his  tragedies.     Of  these,  however,  we  have  but  a  few  unimportant  fragments. 

1.  Pacuvius  in  advanced  life  retired  from  Rome  to  Tarentum,  where  he 
died  at  the  age  of  nearly  ninety.  The  epitaph  inscribed  upon  his  tombstone, 
placed  by  the  side  of  a  public  road,  is  quoted  by  Aulus  Gellius  (Noct.  Att.  L.  i. 
c.  24).  —  The  ancients  speak  of  19  tragedies  written  by  him;  the  titles  are 
given  by  Dunlop.  Pacuvius,  like  his  predecessors,  chiefly  borrowed  from  the 
Greeks.  "  His  Paulus,  however,  was  of  his  own  invention,  and  was  the  first 
Latin  tragedy  formed  on  a  Roman  subject ;  "  only  five  lines  of  it  are  extant. 
The  tragedy  entitled  Antiope  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  his  pieces. 
A  scene  in  the  lliona,  where  the  ghost  of  Polydorus  who  had  been  assassina- 
ted appears  to  his  sister  lliona,  was  greatly  admired  by  Roman  audiences.  — 
Pacuvius  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Romans  who  attained  any  eminence 
in  the  art  of  painting  (cf.  P.  I.  §  224). 

Dunlop,  i.  p.  209.  —  Scholl,  i.  p.  115.  —  Cf.  Cicero,  Brut.  64,  74.  De  Orat.  i.  58.  n.  37.  De 
Divin.  i.  57.  ii.  64.  —  Quintil.  x.  1.  97.  —  Hor.  Ep.  lib.  u.  i.  55.  —  Also,  Jlnnibal  de  Leo,  Delle 
Memorie  di  M.  Pacuvio,  antichissimo  poeta  tragico,  dissertazione.     Napl.  1736.  8. 

2.  The  fragments  of  Pacuvius  may  be  found" in  the  collections,  already  cited  (§348.  2),  of 
Stephanas,  Delrio,  Scriver,  Mattaire. 

§  354.  Lucius  Accius,  or  more  correctly  Attius,  a  native  Roman,  was  a  tragic 
poet,  a  contemporary  of  Pacuvius,  but  younger.  He  also  wrote,  in  verse,  An- 
nals of  the  Roman  History.  Of  his  tragedies  a  few  remaining  fragments  are 
found. 

1.  Attius  is  said  to  have  brought  forward  his  first  play  at  the  age  of  30,  B. 
C.  138,  the  same  year  in  which  Pacuvius  gave  to  the  public  his  last,  at  the 
age  of  80.  The  story  related  by  Valerius  Maximus  (in.  7),  of  Attius  refusing 
to  rise  on  the  entrance  of  Julius  Ceesar  into  the  College  of  poets,  is  supposed 
by  some  to  show  that  this  poet  did  not  live  so  early ;  others  suppose  that  this 
anecdote  refers  to  another  poet,  or  to  a  Julius  Caesar  earlier  than  the  conqueror, 
Attius  is  exposed  to  the  charge  of  vanity ;  "  though  a  person  of  diminutive 


300  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

size,  he  got  a  huge  statue  of  himself  placed  in  a  conspicuous  niche  in  the  tem- 
ple of  the  Muses."  He  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Romans.  He  wrote  many 
plays  ;  the  titles  of  above  fifty  have  been  collected.  Most  of  these  were  drawn 
from  Grecian  sources  ;  two,  however,  his  Brutus  and  Decius,  were  founded 
on  Roman  subjects  ;  written  probably  in  honor  of  Decius  Brutus,  consul  B. 
C.  137,  who  was  his  warm  patron  and  friend. 

Dunlop,  i,  214.  —  SrMll,  i.  116.  —  Fabricms,  (cited  <$  299.  8),  ill.  235.  —  Cf.  Cicero,  Brutus, 
28,  63.  Pro  Archia,  10.  —  Aulas  Gellius,  Noct.  Att.  xm.  2.  —  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  5.  — 
Quintil.  v.  13.  —  Hor.  Ep.  II.  i.  55. 

2.  The  fragments  of  Attius  are  contained  in  the  collection  of  Scriver,  and  others,  before 
cited. 

§  355.  Publius  Terentlus  Afer  was  born,  B.  C.  192,  in  Africa,  perhaps  at 
Carthage,  and  died  B.  C.  159.  He  was  a  freedman  of  the  senator  Terentius 
Lucanus,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Laelius  and  the  younger  Scipio  Africanus. 
As  a  dramatist  he  was  an  imitator  of  Menander  and  Apollodorus.  His  six 
iBomedies  still  remaining  are  of  remarkable  excellence,  in  respect  to  the  char- 
acters, the  truth  and  refinement  of  the  dialogue,  and  the  management  of  the 
plot.  He  professed  less  invention,  and  less  of  comic  power  than  Plautus  ;  but 
on  the  other  hand  he  had  more  taste,  a  better  style,  and  a  finer  knowledge  of 
human  nature.  We  find  no  trace  of  any  other  than  the  six  comedies  now  ex- 
tant ;  yet  it  is  related  that  he  lost  108  plays  in  a  shipwreck.  Of  the  ancient 
commentators  upon  Terence,  the  most  worthy  of  notice  are  JElius  Donatus, 
a  Grammarian  of  the  4th  century,  and  Eugrapkius,  of  the  10th  century. 

1.  It  is  not  known  how  Terence  was  brought  to  Rome,  or  became  the  slave 
of  the  Terentius  whose  name  he  has  preserved  from  oblivion.  After  giving 
to  the  Roman  stage  his  six  comedies,  he  made  a  visit  to  Greece,  whence  he 
never  returned.  According  to  one  account,  he  perished  at  sea,  on  his  voyage 
from  Greece  to  Italy,  with  the  108  comedies  he  had  translated  from  Menan- 
der ;  others  state,  that  having  sent  the  same  comedies  before  him  by  sea  to 
Rome,  and  they  being  lost  by  shipwreck,  he  died  of  grief  in  Arcadia. 

Suetonius,  Vita  Terentii.    Cf.  p.  xxiii.  1st  vol.  of  Lemaire,s  ed.  of  Terence,  cited  below. 

2.  The  titles  of  the  six  plays  are  Andria,  Eunuchus,  Heautontimorumenos 
(savTovTtuv)Qovutvoc),  Adelphi,  Hecijra,  Phormis.  An  analysis  of  these  is  giv- 
en by  Dunlop,  with  a  notice  of  the  imitations  by  Moliere  and  other  modern 
dramatists.  The  Andria  was  the  earliest  and  is  usually  called  the  best  of  the 
pieces.  In  respect  to  style  Terence  has  been  regarded  as  a  model  of  correct 
composition.  "  It  is  a  singular  circumstance,  and  without  example  in  the  lit- 
erary history  of  any  other  country,  that  the  language  should  have  received  its 
highest  perfection,  in  point  of  elegance  and  grace,  combined  with  the  most 
perfect  simplicity  from  the  hand  of  a  foreigner  and  slave.  But  it  so  happened, 
that  the  countryman  of  Hannibal  and  the  freedman  of  Terentius  Lucanus  gave 
to  the  Roman  tongue  all  those  beauties,  in  a  degree  which  ihe  courtiers  of  the 
Augustan  age  itself  did  not  surpass."  As  to  versification,  it  is  generally  al- 
lowed, that  Terence  used  very  great  liberties. 

Cf.  Dunlop,  i.  175-209.  —  Bdhr,  r.  p.  104ss.  —  Suiter's  Theorie  der  Schonen  Kunste.  iv.  522. 

—  F.   IVi'llner,  De  Terentii  Vita  et  Scriptis.     Monast.  1829.  4. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best;  A*.  K.  Lemaire.  Par.  1827.  3  vols.  8.  included  in  his  Bibliothcca  Class. 
Latina.—Z'iuiiui,  (republished  with  additions,  by  Priestley).  Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  8.  —  fVt\<ter- 
hovius.  Has.  Com.  1726.2  vols.  4.  "  In  his  account  of  the  various  editions  of  Terence  he  has 
enumerated  not  less  than  248,"  —  G.  Stallbaum.  Lips.  1830.  8.  commenced  :  Westerhovius 
with  additions.  —  Bentley.  Amst.  1727.4.  specially  valuable  in  reference  to  metre. —  Prin- 
ceps ;  an  edition  printed  at  Milan  1470.  fol.  is  generally  called  the  first ;  Dibdin  decides  for  the 

following,  .Mentelin  (pr.),  Argent,  supposed  before  1470.  fol. Valuable  editions  of  present 

century  ~,  F.  H.  Bothe.  Berl.  1800.  8.  also  in  the  4th  vol.  of  his  Poetce  Scenici  (cf.  §  348.  2).  — 
Brans.  Halle,  1811.  2  vols.  8.  —  Schmieder.  Hal.  Sax.  1819.  8.  —  A.  Rojsi.  Mil.  1820.  2  vols.  8. 

—  F.  C.  G.  PerleU  Lpz.  1821.  12  (text  highly  valued),  ed.  auctior.  1827.  8.  —  A.  J.  Valpy. 
Lond.  1823.  8.  —  The  various  editions  of  sinele  plavs  cannot  be  mentioned. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  C.  G.  Ncidr.    Lpz.  1784.  2  voh.  8. T.  J.  Roos.    Giessen. 

1794.  2  vols.  8  (most  eminent  according  to  Fdkrmann).  —  F.  H.  Von  Eindcsel  (metrical).  Lpz. 
1806.  2  vols.  8.  —  Five  other  Germ,  translations  cited  by  Lemaire.  —  There  is  another,  hy  A.  F. 
Wolper,  in  the  Prenzlav.  collection  of  translations.  —  French.  —  Mad,  Dacier.  Par.  (with  orig. 
Lat.)  1688.  3  vols.  8.  —  (metrical),  Anonymous.  Par.  1803.  2  vols.  8.  —  Six  others  named  by  Le- 
maire. —  Italian. int.  Cesari.  Veron.  2  vols.  8.  —  Lemaire  cites  three  others.  —  English.  — 

C.  Hoole  (Lat.  &  Angl.).   Lond.   1076.  8 (metrical),  G.  Colman.    Lond.  1765.  2.  vols.  8.  — 

(Lat.  &.  Anal.),  S.  Patrick.    Lond.  1767.  2  vols.  8.— Cf.  Harhn.  Prev.  Not.  Supp.  i.  p.  145. 

v5.  Illustrative.  —  E.  Burton,  in  his  Ancient  Ciaractrrs  deduced  from  Classical  Remains.  Lond. 
1763.  8.  —  L.  Echard ;  comparison  of  Terence  and  Plautus,  in  bis  translation  cited  §  352  4.  — 
£.  C  Bricglcb,  Programmata  de  lectione  Terentii,  philosopho  non  indigna.    Coburg,  1769-1778, 


POETS.      LUCILIUS.    LUCRETIUS.  301 

4>  —  L.  Schopen,  Diss.  Crit.  de  Terentio  et  Donato  ejus  interprete.  Bonnae  ad  Rhen.  1821.  8.  — 
D.  Heinsius,  Diss,  ad  Horatii  de  Plauto  et  Terentio  judicium.  Amst.  1618. 12.  given  in  Lcmaire's 
edition  above  cited.  —  Gailiere,  Apologie  de  Terence.  Par.  1728.  12.  —  J.  MP  Caul,  Remarks  on 
the  Tereutian  Metres,  with  a  sketch  of  the  History  of  anc.  Comedy.    Lond.  1828.  8. 

§  356.  Cains  Lucilius,  of  Suessa  in  Campania,  was  a  Roman  knight,  born 
B.  C.  150.  With  a  great  knowledge  of  language  he  combined  a  great  talent 
for  satire.  He  was  the  first  among  the  Romans  to  cultivate  satiric  poetry  in 
the  more  didactic  form.  He  wrote  30  books  of  poetry,  or  more  probably  30 
single  pieces,  rich  in  wit,  and  keenly  severe,  although  in  some  measure  defi- 
cient in  accuracy  of  style.     He  also  wrote  hymns,  epodes,  and  a  comedy. 

1.  Lucilius,  in  early  youth,  served  at  the  siege  of  Numantia,  in  the  same 
camp  with  Marius  and  Jugurtha,  under  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger.  He 
afterwards  resided  at  Rome  in  the  house  which  had  been  built  at  public  ex- 
pense for  the  son  of  Seleucus  king  of  Syria,  when  that  prince  was  a  hostage 
at  Rome.  Little  is  known  of  the  life  and  manners  of  this  poet.  He  died  at 
Naples,  at  the  age  of  45,  as  is  commonly  stated.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship 
and  protection  of  Scipio  Africanus  and  Laelius. 

Of  his  writings  only  detached  fragments  remain  ;  these  however  are  suffi- 
cient to  show  something  of  his  spirit  and  manner.  His  peculiarities  are  also 
frequently  mentioned  by  ancient  writers  ;  one  of  the  most  striking  was  his  ve- 
hement and  cutting  satire.  Horace  acknowledges  his  merits,  yet  censures  his 
versification  as  loose  and  prosaic.  The  third  book  of  Lucilius  contains  an 
account  of  a  journey  along  the  coast  of  Campania  to  Naples  and  thence  to 
Rhegium  and  the  straits  of  Messina,  which  Horace  seems  to  have  imitated  in 
his  description  of  a  journey  from  Rome  to  Brundusium. 

Dunlop,  i.  238-248.  —  Scltbll,  Hist.  Abreg.  de  la  Litt.  Rom.  i.  148.  —  Charaktere  der  vornehm. 
Dichter,  it.  419.—  Cf.  Quintil.  x.  1.  93.  —  Hor.  l.  Sat.  iv.  1-13.  x.  1-6.  46-49.  —  Jlul.  Ocll.  vn. 
3.  xvn.  21.  —  Juven.  i.  Sat.  i.  165. 

2.  The  fragments  of  Lucilius  were  published  by  F,  Dousa  (Douza).  Lugd.  Bat.  1597.  4.  — 
j?«t.  VuJpius.  Patav.  1735.  8.  —  Haverkamp  (annexed  to  Censorinus).  Lugd.  Bat.  1743.  8.  — 
Found  also  in  the  Bipont  edition  of  Juvenal  and  Persius.  1785. 8.  —  also  in  C.  J.  Christ.  Reuvens. 
Collectanea  literaria,  S.  Conjectural  in  Attium,  Lucilium  et  cet.    Lugd.  Bat.  1815.  8. 

§  357.  Titus  Lucretius  Carus,  a  Roman  knight,  born  about  B.  C.  95,  ended 
his  life  by  suicide.  His  philosophical  poem,  On  the  nature  of  tilings  (De  rcrum 
natura),  in  six  books,  contains  the  principles  of  the  Epicurean  school,  of  which 
he  was  a  zealous  disciple.  These  principles  are  here  combined  and  arranged 
with  much  art,  and  set  forth  in  their  most  dazzling  and  imposing  features. — 
The  work  is  not  wholly  free  from  monotony  and  dulness  ;  but  this  is  the  fault 
of  the  subject  rather  than  of  the  author,  whose  poetry  in  particular  passages  is 
very  florid  and  rich  in  imagery.  —  Cardinal  Polignac  wrote  a  poem  in  opposi- 
tion to  it,  called  Anti- Lucretius,  which,  although  more  correct  in  its  views  of 
God  and  of  providence,  is  inferior  in  poetical  merit. 

1.  Lucretius  lived  in  a  period  full  of  important  political  events,  but  seems 
to  have  kept  himself  retired  from  public  affairs.  He  was  sent,  according  to  a 
prevailing  custom  at  the  time,  with  other  young  Romans  of  rank,  to  study  at 
Athens,  where  he  attended  on  the  instructions  of  Zeno  and  Phaedrus  given  in 
the  Gardens  of  Epicurus.  Cicero  and  his  brother  Quintus,  also  Cassius  and 
Pomponius  Atticus,  and  Memmius  afterwards  governor  of  Bithynia,  are  said  to 
have  been  at  this  time  his  fellow  students.  Lucretius  was  specially  attached 
to  the  latter,  and  it  is  supposed  accompanied  him  to  Bithynia.  His  poem  is 
dedicated  to  Memmius.  He  is  said  to  have  committed  suicide,  in  the  44th 
year  of  his  age,  in  a  paroxysm  of  insanity  produced,  according  to  some,  by  a 
philtre  or  love  potion  given  him  by  Lucilia,  his  wife  or  mistress,  but  according 
to  others,  caused  by  melancholy  resulting  from  the  exile  of  Memmius  and 
other  calamities. 

Lambinus,  Life  of  Lucretius,  in  the  Bipont  Edition  cited  below  (2).  —  Good,  in  his  transla- 
tion below  cited. 

2.  Directly  opposite  judgments  have  been  passed  upon  the  poem  of  Lucre- 
tius; some  pronouncing  it  "  dry,  prosaic,  without  interest,  and  without  imag- 
ination ;  "  others  calling  it  an  elegant  and  almost  unrivaled  production.  An 
analysis  of  it  is  found  in  Dunlop,  and  copied  in  Anthons  Lempriere. 

Dunlop,  i.  250 SchiJll,  i.  246.—  Charaktere  der   Vornehm.   Dichter,  vu.   310.—  Villemain, 

Nouveaux  Melanges,  (p.  189.   Par.  1827.  8.  —  Busby,  below  cited. 

3.  Editions B.  —  Gilbert  Wakefield.  Lond.  1790.  3  vols.  4.  Censured  by  some  of  the  Re- 
views, but  highly  commended  by  some  German,  critics   (Dibdin,  n.  205).  —  Duncan.    Glasg. 

26 


302^  HISTORY    OP    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

1813.  4  vols.  8.    Chiefly  a  reprint  of  Wakefield's  ;  "  the  best  critical  edition  extant  "  (Dibdin, 

1827) Eickstddt.  Lpz.  1801.  8.     Based  upon  Wakefield's,  containing  the  text  of  the  six  books 

in  the  1st  volume  ;  but  the  2d  not  published.  —  Of  earlier  editions,  the  best  is  that  of  Haver- 
camp.  Lugd.  Bat.  1725.  2  vols.  4.  Pronounced  by  Dunlop  the  best  edition  that  has  vet  ap- 
peared  The  Bipontine,  reprinted,  Argent.  1808.  8,  is  considered  good.  —  The  Oxford",  1816, 

is  a  reprint  of  Thomas  Creech,  first  published  Oxf.  1695.  8.  —  Princeps,  Ferandus,  Brescire. 
1473.  fol.  —  The  first  Ms.  of  Lucretius  known  to  the  moderns  was  discovered  by  Poggio  Brac- 
ciolini,  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Gal,  about  20  miles  from  Constance,  in  1414. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  H.  F.  Meinecke,  metrical  with  the  original  and  notes.   Lpz. 

1795.  2  vols.  8.— .fiT.  L.  Von  Krebel,  with  the  original,  Wakefield's  text.  Lpz.  1821.  2  vols.  8. 

French.  —  D.  La  Grange,  prose.    Par.  1799.  2  vols.  12.  —  Le  Blanc  de  Guillet,  metrical,  with 

Lat.  text.    Par.  1788.  8. Italian.  —  Alex.  Marchetti.    (best  ed.)   1779.   4 English.  — 

Th.  Creech,  in  verse.  Oxf.  1683.  8.  Lond.  1776.  2  vols.  8.  —  Th.  Busby,  in  verse,  with  the  orig- 
inal. Lond.  1813.2  vols.  4.  with  "  enormous  prolegomena  on  the  Life  and  Genius  of  Lucretius, 
and  the  Philosophy  and  Morals  of  his  poem  "  (Dunlop).  cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xi.  88.  —  J.  M. 
Good,  blank  verse,  with  the  Latin  (Wakefield's  text).  Lond.  1805.  2  vols.  4.  containing  a  life 
of  Lucretius,  and  an  account  of  his  philosophy,  (cf.  Gregory's  life  of  Dr.  Good,  p.  103.   Bost. 

ed.  1829). For  further  notices  of  translations  and  editions,  see  Dunlop,  it.  Appendix,  p.  35-39, 

and  the  Bipontine  edition  of  Lucretius.  —  Cf.  Drake's  Literary  Hours.  —  Dryden's  Poetical 
Miscellanies. 

5.  The  Anti-Lucretius  (sive  de  Deo  et  Natura)  of  Polignac  was  published  at  Paris,  1747.  2 
vols.  8.  It  consists  of  nine  books,  of  about  1300  lines  each,  in  Latin  hexameter.  The  author 
studiously  imitates  Lucretius.  An  English  translation  was  published  by  G.  Canning,  Lond. 
1766.  8.  —  There  is  another  poem,  written  in  opposition  to  Lucretius,  De  animi  immortalitate,  by 
Aonius  Palearius  (Lyon,  1536.  8.),  which  is  "  almost  a  cento  made  up  from  lines  or  half  lines  of 
the  Roman  bard."  The  same  imitation  of  Lucretius  is  seen  in  various  Latin  poems  composed 
by  the  French  Jesuits  of  the  17th  century  to  illustrate  different  phenomena  of  nature. Sev- 
eral are  published  in  the  Pocmata  Didase'alica,  Paris,  1813.  3  vols.  —  Dunlop,  i.  270. 

§  358.  Caius  Valerius  Catullus  was  born  in  the  peninsula  Sirmio,  in  the 
territory  of  Verona,  B.  C.  86.  Little  is  known  of  the  circumstances  of  his 
life,  excepting  his  intimate  friendship  with  Cicero,  of  which  a  proof  is  given 
in  one  of  his  poems.  As  a  lyric  poet  he  has  much  that  is  excellent  in  the 
softer  kind  of  writing,  much  refinement  of  feeling  and  expression.  But  he 
yielded  too  much  to  the  already  corrupt  taste  of  his  age,  and  not  unfrequently 
sacrificed  both  propriety  and  morality.     Many  of  his  poems  are  lost. 

1.  Catullus  was  invited  to  Rome  in  early  youth,  and  there  wasted  much  of 
his  fortune  in  dissipation.  He  accompanied  Caius  Memmius,  the  patron  of 
Lucretius,  to  the  province  of  Bithynia;  but  did  not  derive  the  pecu- 
niary or  other  benefits  which  he  had  expected.  After  his  return  to  Italy,  his 
time  seems  to  have  been  passed  in  idleness  or  in  licentious  amours,  in  his 
costly  residence  at  Tibur,  or  his  delicious  villa  on  the  peninsula  of  Sirmio. 
He  died  when  not  far  from  the  age  of  30. — Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  I.  310. 

2.  The  numerous  small  pieces  extant,  that  are  ascribed  to  Catullus,  consist 
of  odes,  songs,  satires,  elegies,  and  epigrams.  Some  of  these  are  not  consid- 
ered as  genuine  ;  the  editions  usually  contain  116  pieces.  Although  once 
distributed  into  three  classes,  they  are  now  generally  published  without  any 
attempt  at  systematic  arrangement ;  and  their  miscellaneous  character  renders 
any  such  arrangement  almost  impossible.  The  poetry  bears  evident  marks  of 
close  imitation  of  Greek  authors,  especially  of  Callimachus  ;  yet  all  the  critics 
award  to  Catullus  the  praise  of  much  originality  and  of  great  elegance.  In 
respect  of  literary  merits,  he  has  been  ranked  above  all  the  Latin  poets  except 
Virgil  and  Horace.  —  One  of  the  most  pleasing  of  his  pieces  is  that  (xxxi)  ad- 
dressed to  Sirmio,  the  peninsula  where  his  favorite  villa  was  situated. 

Dunlop  i.  271-321.— Jl/anso  in  the  Charaktere  der  vorm.  Dichtcr  i.  158-171.  —  also  D'Arnaud's 
Essay  sur  Catulle  annexed  to  the  edition  (p.  410)  of  Naudet  cited  below.  —  Arnauld  in  the  Mem. 
Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xux.  p.  239.— Bibl.  Repos.  No.  xxii.  p.  495. 

3.  Editions.— B.—F.  W.  Daring.  Lpz.  1788-92.  Repr.  in  Lond.  1820.  (Anthon.)—C.  J.  Sillig. 
Gbtt.  1823.  8.— Especially,  J.  Naudet.  Par.  1826.  8.  forming  vol.  lxxv.  of  Lemaire's  Bibliotheque 
Classique  Latine.  —  Of  earlier  editions,  the  best  is  that  of  Vulpius.    Patav.  1737.  2  vols.  4.  — 

Princeps,  Corallus.    Parm.  1473.  fol An  excellent  edition  for  schools,  F.  M.  Hubbard.  Bost. 

1836.  containing  select  pieces,  with  notes.  —  Catullus  has  often  been  published  with  T  i - 
bullus  &  Propertius;  one  of  the  latest  editions,  A.  J.  Valpy.  Lond.  1822.  8.  —  For  fur- 
ther account  of  editions,  see  Naudet  above  cited. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  B.—K.  W.  Rainier.   Lpz.  1793.  8.   1810.  8. French.— F.  J. 

Noel.  Par.  1805.  &  1813.  2  vols.  8.  containing  thp  original  Latin,  and  a  Discours  Prcliminaire  on 
the  life,  poetry,  editions  and  translations  of  Catullus.  —  C.  L.Mollerault  (in  verse,  with  Tibul- 

lus  &  Propertius).   Par.  1816.  3  vols.  18. English.  —  Anonymous,  (supposed  Dr.  Nott)  with 

Lat.  text  and  notes.   Lond.  1795.  2  Vols.  8.  —  Lamb.  cf.  Dunlop  ii.   App.  p.  42. 

§  359.  Cornelius  Gallus,  a  native  of  Gaul,  flourished  about  the  same  time 
with  Propertius.  He  was  a  friend  of  Virgil,  who  addressed  his  10th  eclogue 
to  him.    He  was  one  of  the  most  happy  poets  in  elegy,  although  in  his  diction 


POETS.       CATULLUS.      GALLUS.      TIBULLUS.  303 

less  pleasing  than  Propertius  or  Tibullus.  His  poems,  however,  are  lost;  the 
six  elegies,  which  have  been  ascribed  to  him,  are  certainly  from  a  later  and 
inferior  poet ;  probably  from  Cornelius  Maximianus  Gallus,  who  lived  under 
Anastasius,  about  A.  D.  500. 

1.  Gallus  was  born  of  poor  parents,  probably  at  Forum  Julii,  in  Gallia  Nar- 
bonensis,  about  B.  C.  70.  He  first  came  into  notice  as  a  follower  and  partisan 
of  Octavius,  in  his  measures  to  avenge  the  assassination  of  Julius  Caesar.  He 
seems  to  have  soon  obtained  the  confidence  of  Octavius,  and  was  one  of  his 
counsellors  after  the  battle  of  Philippi.  After  the  battle  of  Actium,  Gallus 
was  entrusted  with  an  important  command  in  the  invasion  of  Egypt  against 
Antony,  and  it  was  by  an  artifice  of  Gallus  that  Cleopatra  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Augustus.  Egypt  being  reduced,  Gallus  was  appointed  prefect  or  viceroy 
over  it.  His  successes  rendered  him  vain  ;  his  government  of  the  province 
was  soon  marked  by  mismanagement  and  plunder  ;  and  in  the  fifth  year  of  his 
authority  he  was  recalled,  charged  among  other  offences  with  having  plotted 
against  the  life  of  Augustus.  His  property  was  confiscated,  and  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  perpetual  exile.  Thus  disgraced,  he  committed  suicide  in  the  43d 
year  of  his  age,  B.  C.  26. 

2.  The  elegies  of  Gallus  consisted  of  4  books.  He  is  said  to  have  translated 
several  pieces  from  the  Greek  epigrammatist  Euphorion.  He  is  by  some  con- 
sidered as  the  author  of  the  poem  called  Ciris,  falsely  ascribed  to  Virgil. 

Fuhrmann,  Handbuch,  p.  585.—  Schbll,  i.  326.— Bahr,  p.  273 Warton,  Hist,  of  Engl.  Poetry. 

Lond.  1824.  4  vols.  (4th,  p.  233.) 

3.  The  elegies  ascribed  to  Gallus  are  found  in  the  Collections  of  the  Minor  Latin  poets  by 

Mattaire,  and  by  Wernsdorf ;  also  in  Lemaire,s  Biblioth.  Poet.  Lat.  Minores,  vol.  II.  &  vi. 

The  Impotent  Lover,  accurately  described  in  six  elegies  upon  old  age.  Made  English  from  the 
Latin  of  Cornelius  Gallus,  by  H.  Walker.  Lond.  1693.  8. 

§  360.  Albius  Tibullus,  born  at  Rome,  and  belonging  to  the  order  of  knights, 
flourished  about  B.  C.  30.  He  was  a  favorite  of  Messala  Corvinus,  and 
esteemed  by  Horace,  Ovid,  and  other  poets  of  his  age.  According  to  Quin- 
tilian,  he  is  entitled  to  the  first  rank  among  the  Roman  elegiac  poets.  He 
combines  soft,  tender  feeling  with  a  noble  and  accurate  expression,  with  a 
charming  variety  of  invention,  of  images  and  turns,  without  labored,  far- 
fetched, or  unnatural  ornaments.  His  elegies  are  arranged  in  4  books ;  those 
in  the  last,  however,  are  ascribed  to  Sulpicia,  and  other  authors. 

1.  The  time  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  but  supposed  to  be  about  B.  C.  54  or 
56.  He  is  said  to  have  died  about  the  same  time  with  Virgil,  B.  C.  19,  He 
inherited  a  considerable  fortune,  which  was  greatly  impaired,  partly  by  the 
partitions  of  the  lands  in  Italy  made  to  the  soldiers  of  the  Triumvirs,  and 
partly  perhaps  by  his  own  extravagance.  He  accompanied  Messala  in  several 
military  expeditions,  in  the  last  of  which  he  suffered  a  dangerous  sickness 
that  detained  him  at  the  island  Corcyra ;  but  on  his  recovery  he  visited  Syria 
and  Egypt.  After  his  return  from  the  east,  he  lived  on  his  paternal  estate  at 
Pedum. 

2.  We  have,  in  the  4  books  under  the  name  of  Tibullus,  35  elegies  and  a 
panegyric  addressed  to  Messala.  The  genuineness  of  the  3d  book  as  well  as 
the  principal  part  of  the  4th,  has  been  doubted.  According  to  Schdll,  only  the 
first  two  books  and  the  panegyric  in  the  commencement  of  the  4th,  and  the 
two  elegies  at  its  close,  are  indisputably  the  production  of  Tibullus.  De  GoL- 
bery  denies  the  genuineness  of  the  panegyric.  The  elegies  in  the  3d  book 
are  ascribed  by  Voss,  to  a  poet  called  Lygdamus.  But  Fuhrmann  remarks  that 
Lygdamus  as  a  poet  is  unknown  in  Roman  literature,  and  is  wholly  an  imag- 
inary person.  Tibullus  evidently  had  studied  the  Grecian  elegiac  writers  * 
but  was  not  a  close  imitator.  A  melancholy  tenderness  is  a  prominent  trait 
in  his  poetry. 

Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  326. — De  Golbcry  (in  his  edition  cited  below)  De  Tibulii  vita  et  carminibus: 
— Charakt.  vorrn.  Dicht.  n.  190.  —  Dissenius,  De  vita  et  Poesi  Tib.  in  his  ed.  below  cited. 

3.  Editions.  — B.—  C.  G.  Heyne  (4th  ed.  by  F.  E.  Wanderlich).  Lpz.  1817.  2  vols,  8.  to  which 
belongs  the  Supplement  entitled  Tibulii carminum  editiouis  Heynia-Wwnderlichiance  Supplcmentujn* 
(Ed.  L.  Dissenius)  Lips.  1819.  Q.—Imm.  G.  Huschke.  Lips.  1819.  2  vols.  8.  very  valuable  (Fuhr- 
mann) ;  cf.  Harles  Supplem.  Klvgling,  p.  175.— De  Golbery.  Par.  1826.  8.  forming  the  7.8th  vol. 
of  Lemaire's  Bibliotheque  ;  containing  an  Essay  on  the  life  and  writing  of  Tibullus,  Mythologi- 
cal Excursuses,  and  an  account  of  Mss.  &  editions. Among  the  best  of  earlier  editions,  are 

Broukhusius  (with  Catullus).  Amst.  1727.  4.   and   Vulpius  (Volpi).  Patav.  (Padua)  1749.  4. 

We  can  only  mention  further,  J.  H.  Voss,  Tibullus  &  Lygdamus,  Hiede}b,i811,  8,  two  editions 


304  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

the  same  year,  one  with  a  critical  commentary.    See  enumeration  by  Golbcry,  above  cited.  — 
L.  Dissenius.   Gott.  1835.  2  vols.  8. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  Best,  by  J.  H.  Fogs.  Tubing.  1810.  8.  —  metrical,  by  F.  K.  v. 

Strombeck.  Gott.  1799.  8. French.  —  Best,  by  C.  L.  MollerauU,  metrical.   Par.  1808.  12. 

English. Tames  Grainger  (with  orig.  Lat.)    Lond.  1759. 12.  —  S.  Henley.  1792.  8.  a  specimen  of 

a  proposed  edition  ;  one  elegy,  with  Lat.  text,  and  Eng.  notes. —  G.Lamb.  Lond. 1821. 2  vols.  12. 

5.  Illustrative.  — J.  A.  Gorentz,  Tentamen  Criticum  in  loca  qutedam  carm.  Titiiillianorum. 
Zwick.  1806.  4.  —  E.  C.  Chr.  Bach,  Epistola  critica  in  Tibullum  et  Propertium.  Gothre,  1812.  8. 
—Fr.  Ji.  With.  Spohn,  De  Tibulli  vita  et  carminibus.  Lips.  1819.— Cf.  Wolps  Liter.  Analekten. 
i.  p.164.— /.  Jortin,  Tracts,  Philological  and  Critical.   Lond.  1790.  8.  vol.  2d.  p.  448. 

§  361.  Sexttts  Aurelius  Propcrtius,  a  native  of  Umbria,  was  a  favorite  of  Mae- 
cenas, and  died  in  the  year  B.  C.  15.  From  him  there  are  also  4  books  of 
elegiac  poems  yet  remaining.  Their  chief  merits  consist  in  pathetic  expres- 
sion, with  rich  poetic  feeling,  and  correctness  of  style.  But  he  often  trans- 
gresses the  limits  of  nature  and  propriety,  and  is  too  profuse  in  poetical  orna- 
ment. Philetas,  whose  Greek  elegies  are  lost,  and  Callimaehus,  were  espec- 
ially his  models. 

1.  Of  seven  towns  claiming  the  honor  of  being  the  birth-place  of  this  poet, 
Mevania  is  by  some  supposed  to  be  entitled  to  the  preference.  Others  give 
the  preference  to  Hispellum,  on  the  ground  of  an  inscription  there  found, 
which  is  inserted  in  the  edition  of  Burmann  cited  below.  The  time  of  his  birth 
is  uncertain,  probably  about  B.  C.  53.  Having  lost  much  of  his  inheritance, 
as  Tibullus  did,  by  the  distribution  of  land  made  to  the  soldiers  of  the  Trium- 
virs, he  went  to  Rome  in  early  life  to  qualify  himself  for  a  civilian.  But  poetry 
was  more  congenial  to  his  taste.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  friend  of  Cornelius 
Gallus,  Virgil,  Tibullus,  and  Ovid.  His  elegies  procured  for  him  the  patron- 
age of  Mfecenas.  He  is  supposed  to  have  gone  to  Athens  in  the  train  of  Mae- 
cenas &  Augustus  ;  after  which,  little  is  known  of  his  life. 

Gillet  de  Moivre,  La  vie  de  Properze.   Par.  1754.  8. 

2.  The  elegies  of  Propertius  are  nearly  100  in  number.  Three  of  the  four  books  he  made  pub- 
lic in  his  life  time  ;  the  fourth  is  less  occupied  with  amatory  subjects,  the  elegies  being  chiefly 
of  a  heroic  character,  more  didactic  and  moral.  Mythological  story  and  fable  are  frequently  in- 
troduced.— See  Manso's  description  in  the  Charakt.  d.  v.Dichter  iii.  1. — Souchay,  in  Mem.  Acad-. 
Inscr.  et  Belles-Lettres.  vol.  vn.  p.  386. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best,  Pet.  Burmann,  completed  by  Santenius  (Santen).  Ultraj.  (Utrecht)  1780. 
4.  "  the  best  yet  published"  (Dibdin.1827).  —  Chr.  Gotti.  (Thccrph.)  Kuiuol.  Lpz.1805.  2  vols.  8. 
commended  by  Dibdin  ;  less  approved  by  KBgling.  —  F.  Jacobs,  1827.  12.  in  Teubner's  Collec- 
tion. —  In  Lemaire's  Bibliotheca. Among  the  best  of  earlier,  Bronkhusius  (Broukhuis).   Ams. 

1727.  A.—  Vulpius.  Patav.  1755.  2  vols.  4.—F.  G.  Barth.  Lpz.  1777.  8. 

4.  Translations.  —  German. — K.  L.  von  Krebel.  Lpz.  1798.  8.  —  F.  K.  von  Strombeck.  (2d  impr. 

ed.)  Braunschw.  1822.  8.  with  original. French.— P.  B.  Baron,  metrical.  Par.1813.  12. 

English. — Anonymous ;  Lond.  1782.  8. 

§  362.  Puhlius  Virgilius  Maro,  of  Andes  near  Mantua,  lived  from  B.  C.  70 
to  B.  C.  19.  He  was  the  greatest  of  the  Roman  poets  in  pastoral,  didactic, 
and  epic  poetry.  His  10  Eclogues  are  imitations  of  Theocritus,  but  are  full  of 
peculiar  beauties.  His  Georgics,  in  4  books,  are  rich  in  instruction  and  ele- 
gance. His  JEneid,  in  12  books,  although  an  imitation  of  Homer,  is  neverthe- 
less the  production  of  nature,  genius,  and  taste  ;  its  diction  is  more  finished, 
and  better  suited  to  a  refined  age,  than  that  of  Homer,  although  the  latter  may 
be  more  original  in  itself.  Virgil's  easy  and  most  agreeable  versification 
should  especially  be  mentioned ;  and  his  remarkable  skill  in  making  every- 
thing he  borrowed  completely  his  own,  and  weaving  it  all  with  the  rest,  so 
happily  into  one  whole.  —  There  are  also  several  other  poetical  performances 
ascribed  to  him,  usually  included  under  the  name  of  Catalecta  Virgilii ;  but 
their  genuineness  is  altogether  doubtful. — Of  the  older  commentators  on  Vir- 
gil, the  grammarian  S  ervius  Honor atus  Maurus  &  Tib.  Claudius  D  o  natus 
are  the  most  worthy  of  notice. 

1.  Virgil  at  at  an  early  age  studied  at  Cremona,  but  was  chiefly  educated  at 
Naples,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been  instructed  in  Greek  letters  by  Parthe- 
nius  (§  226).  and  in  the  Epicurean  philosophy  by  Syro.  He  was  deprived  of 
a  paternal  farm  at  Mantua  by  the  Triumviral  partition  of  lands  ;  but  recovered 
his  property  by  the  favor  of  Maecenas  and  Augustus.  He  was  introduced  to 
them,  it  is  said,  by  Cornelius  Gallus.  Virgil  afterwards  resided  at  Rome,  on 
the  Esquiline  hill.  Subsequently  he  retired  to  a  villa,  owned  by  him,  near 
Nola,  about  10  miles  from  Naples.  He  visited  Athens,  intending  to  devote 
three  years  in  Greece  to  a  revision  of  the  ^Eneid,  which  he  had  not  yet  pub- 
lished.     But  ill  health  soon  compelled  him  to  return,  and  he  lived  but  a  few 


POETS.       PROPERTIUS.      VIRGIL.  305 

days  after  landing  at  Brundusium,  B.  C.  19.  —  His  tomb  is  supposed  to  lie 
about  two  miles  to  the  north  of  Naples,  on  the  hill  of  Pausilippo. 

Several  biographies  of  Virgil  are  given  in  Lemaire's  edition  (cited  below)  vol.  vn.  —  A  Life 
of  Virgil,  by  ^William  Walsh,  prefixed  to  Dryden's  Translation. — On  the  fictitious  Virgil  the  Ne- 
cromancer, cf.  Warton's  Hist,  of  Poetry,  m.  p.  62  (cited  §  359.  2). 

2.  The  title  of  Catalecta  (xaTu/.sxra)  is  given  to  a  collection  of  14  little  pieces 
ascribed  to  Virgil,  including  several  epigrams  and  an  elegy  addressed  to  Mes- 
sala.  Several  larger  pieces  are  extant,  which  are  also  ascribed  to  Virgil,  and 
sometimes  comprehended  under  the  general  name  Catalecta  Virgilii.  Their 
titles  are  Culex  (the  Gnat),  Moretum,  Dira  in  Battarum,  tttna,  Ciris  (§  359. 
2),  Copa,  Priapcia.  Some  have  endeavored  to  vindicate  the  genuineness  of 
these  pieces  by  supposing  them  to  have  been  composed  while  Virgil  was 
young. 

Cf.  Fuhrmann,  p.  584. — Lemaire's  ed.  vol.  v. — Scholl,  I.  360,  375.— Also  respecting  Virgil,  see 
Manso's  treatise  in  the  Ctiarakt.  d.  v.  Dichter,  vol.  tii.  p.  241.  —  Dunlop,  3d  vol.  Lond.  1828.  — 
Bdhr,  p.  127. 

3.  In  Virgil's  4th  Eclogue,  addressed  to  Pollio,  there  is  a  very  striking  resemblance  in  thought 
and  figures  to  certain  passages  in  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel.  This  coincidence  is 
an  interesting  fact,  and  has  excited  much  curiosity. See  S.  Henley,  Observations  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  4th  Eclogue  &c.  Lond.  1788.  8.  —  JR.  Lowth,  Lectures  on  the  Sac.  Poetry  of  the  He- 
brews, lect.  xxi.  (p.  299.  ed.  Bost.1815.)  —  Jortin's  Remarks  on  Ecclesiastical  History,  vol.  i. — 
Cudworth's  Intellectual  System,  ch.  iv.  sect.  16.— Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  i.  378.—  Class.  Journ. 
vol.  v.  55. — LaNauze,  Mem.  in  the  Histoire  de  l'Acad.  des  Inscr.  et  Belles-Lettres,  xxxi.  189. — 
On  the  Eclogues  generally,  cf.  §  331. — The  grammarian  Probus  left  scholia  on  the  Eclogues  and 
the  Georgics  (cf.  §  419). 

4.  Editions.— Best ;  Heyne,  3d  ed.  Lips.  1800.  6  vols.  8.  Repr.  Lips.  1803.  4  vols.  8.  Also  (by 
Priestley)  Lond.  1821.  4  vols.  8. — Lemairc.  Par.1820-22.  8  vols.  8.  containing  the  whole  of  Heyney 
with  the  commentary  of  Servius  and  other  additions.  —  Of  the  earlier  editions,  the  following 
may  be  named  ;  Baskerville.  Birmingh.  1757.  4to.  of  beautiful  typography.  —  Burmann.  Amst. 
1746.  4  vols.  4.  once  highly  extolled. — P.  Marmoreus  (ed.  Bottarius)  Rom. 1741,  fol.  a  fac-simile 
of  the  famous  Codex-Vaticanus  (see  P.  I.  $143),  with  plates  engraved  by  Bartoli. — Princeps.  Rom. 
1469. — Not  fewer  than  ninety  editions  have  been  enumerated,  which  were  published  before  the 

year  1500  ;  to  name  those  since  published  would  require  a  volume See  the  Notice  Raisonnee 

in  Lemaire's  Virg.  vol.  vn. — Many  school  editions  have  been  published  in  this  country  ;  that  of 
J.O.Cooper  is  among  the  best.  N.  York  (5th  ed.)  1835.  8.  ;  that  of  B.  A.  Oould.  Bost.  1834.  8.  is 
good.  —  The  Delphin  ed.  by  C.  Ruaus,  a  truly  valuable  ed.  has  been  repeatedly  reprinted  for 
schools  ;  the  reprint,  Phil.  1817.  8.  is  on  miserable  paper,  but  has  a  very  useful  Clavis  Virgiliana. 

annexed. The  Catalecta  &  Minor  poems  have  been  published  separately  ;  the  best  edition, 

by  F.  Lindcnbrogius  ( Lindenbruch )  entitled  P.  V.  Mar.  Appendix.  Lugd.  Bat.  1617.  8.  —  These 
pieces  are  given  in  Heyne. — The  separate  editions  of  the  Bucolics,  Oeorgics,  or  JEneid,  we  can- 
not notice  here. 

5.  Translations.  —  German. — J.  H.  Voss,  in  hexameter  verse.  Brunsw.  (2d  ed.)  1821.  3  vols. 
8.  highly  esteemed.  —  His  translations  of  the  Bucolics  and  Georgics  were  first  published  sepa- 
rately (Germ.  &.  Lat.)  Bucolics,  Altona,  1797.  2  vols.  8.  ;    Oeorgics,  Altona,  1800.  2  vols.  8. 

French.  —  Rene  Binet,  prose.  Par.  1804.  4  vols.  12.  "  celebrated"  (Harles).  —  Malfilatrc,  verse 
(Maradan,  printer).   Par.1810.  4  vols.  8.  the  translations  of  different  parts  by  different  authors; 

with  notes  by  S.  A.  M.  Miger,  and  Extracts  from  Lemaire's  Lectures  on  Latin  Poetry. 

Italian.  —  Fittorio  Alfieri,  verse  (iEneid).   Pisa,  1804.  2  vols.  8.  —  Gius.  Solari,  verse.  Geneva, 

1810.  3  vols.  8. English.  —  Dryden,  verse.  Lond.  1697.  fol.  often  reprinted.  —  Davidson, 

prose.  Lond.  1743.  2  vols.  8.  often  reprinted  with  the  Latin,  for  schools.  —  J.  Martyn,  Bucolics 
and  Georgics.  Lond.  1749.  2  vols.  8.  with  Latin  text,  and  notes  specially  illustrating  the  botany. 
— For  an  enumeration  of  the  various  versions  in  different  languages,  see  Lemaire's  ed.  vol.  vu. 
549-574  ;  where  are  noticed  translations  into  not  only  the  German,  French,  Italian  &  English, 
but  also  the  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Dutch,  Hungarian,  Polish,  Swedish,  Danish,  and  Greek  ;  be- 
sides numerous  travesties  or  burlesque  versions  of  the  iEneid,  or  parts  of  it.  The  number  of 
French  versions,  of  which  the  list  is  most  complete,  is  as  follows  :  of  the  whole  of  Virgil,  5  in 
verse,  and  12  in  prose  ;  of  the  Bucolics,  26  in  verse,  and  7  in  prose  ;  of  the  Oeorgics,  8  in  verse, 
and  3  in  prose ;  and  of  the  JEneid,  12  in  verse,  and  10  in  prose  j  besides  many  of  particular 
books. 

6.  We  can  name  but  a  few  of  the  vast  number  of  other  volumes  and  treatises  illustrative  of 
this  author.  —  H.  Mvller,  Homer  und  Virgil,  eine  Parallele.  Erf.  1807.  8.— J.  Martyn,  Disserta- 
tions and  critical  Remarks  upon  the  iEneid.  Lond.  1770.  8.  —  Spence,  Remarks  and  Disserta- 
tions of  Mr.  Holdsworth  on  Virgil,  with  notes  &c.  Lond.  1768.  4.  —  Helliez,  Geographie  de  Vir- 
gile.  Par.  1771.  12  ;  reprinted,  Par.  1820,  with  "  Geographie  d'  Horace  "  added,  and  4  maps.  — 
Ed.  Gibbon,  critical  observations  on  the  6th  book  of  the  iEneid.  Lond.  1770.  8.  (also  in  his 
Miscellaneous  Works.  Lond.  1796.  2  vols.  4).  —  Cf.  Warburton,  Divine  Legation  of  Moses,  vol.  i. 
B.  ii.  Sect.  4.— also  Heyne's  Excursus  x. — also  J.  Whiston,$\x  Dissertations  on  different  subjects. 
Lond.  1755.  8.  (6th  Diss).  —  C.  Lamotte,  History  of  the  works  of  the  Learned  &c.  Lond.  1737. 
8.  (on  the  question  whether  iEneas  ever  was  in  Italy.)  —  Cf.  JViebuhr's  Hist,  of  Rome,  p.  136. 
vol.  l.  ed.  Phila.  1835.—  Vicaire  (Prof,  d'  Eloq.  et  Rect.  de  1'  Univ.  de  Paris),  Plan  de  1'  Eneiden 
de  Virgile.  Par.  1788.  12.  —  Abbe  Fraguier,  Discours  sur  la  maniere  dont  Virgile  a  imite  Ho- 
mere  :  in  the  Mem.  de  I'  Acad,  des  Inscr.  vol.  n.  p.  141. —  Vatry,  La  fable  d'  Eneide,  Mem.  Acad. 

Inscr.  xix.  345. We  may  add  R.  Schomberg,  The  life  of  Maecenas.  2d  ed.  Lond.  1766.  8  — 

Some  remarks  of  JYiebuhr  on  the  iEneid  (Hist!  of  Rome,  vol.  i.  p.  149.  ed.  Phil.  1835),  and  ot 
Dunlop,  (Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  3d.    ed.  Lond.  1828)  are  given  in  Anthon's  Lempriere,  under 

26* 


306  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

§  363.  Quintus  Horatius  Flaccus  a  native  of  Venusia,  a  municipal  town  in 
Apulia,  was  born  in  the  year  B.  C.  65.  He  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
at  his  country  seat  in  the  Sabine  or  Tiburtine  territory,  and  died  B.  C.  8.  He 
was  a  particular  favorite  of  Augustus  and  Maecenas.  His  moral  character  has 
often  been  censured  ;  the  best  defence  of  him,  that  has  been  made,  is  by  Les- 
sing.  The  greatest  power  of  Horace  was  in  lyric  poety.  His  four  books  of 
Odes  and  book  of  Epodes,  now  extant,  continue  still  to  be  surpassing  models 
in  this  species  of  composition.  In  his  Satires  and  poetical  Epistles  there 
reigns  a  noble  earnestness  seasoned  with  the  most  refined  pleasantry  and  hu- 
mor. Of  the  Epistles,  that  addressed  to  the  Pisos,  on  the  Art  of  Poetry,  is  the 
most  finished  and  instructive.  —  The  most  noted  of  the  earlier  interpreters  of 
Horace  are  Acron  and  Porphyrio  (§  421). 

1.  When  Horace  was  at  the  age  of  9  or  10,  his  father,  who  was  a  freedman, 
and  in  low  circumstances,  removed  to  Rome,  in  order  to  afford  his  son  advan- 
tages for  study.  At  the  age  of  21,  Horace  was  sent  to  Athens  for  the  purpose 
of  completing  his  education.  He  was  a  pupil  at  the  Academy,  but  the  Epicu- 
rean philosophy  was  mere  congenial  to  his  feelings.  When  Brutus  and  Cas- 
sius  attempted  to  restore  the  republic,  Horace  with  others  of  the  Roman  youth, 
then  studying  at  Athens,  joined  their  standard.  He  was  at  the  Battle  of  Phi- 
lippi  and  shared  in  the  defeat  and  flight  of  the  party.  Virgil  was  a  kind  friend 
and  recommended  him  to  the  notice  of  Maecenas.  Horace  soon  was  admitted 
to  the  intimate  society  both  of  Maecenas  and  Augustus.  He  survived  the  death 
of  the  former  but  a  few  months. 

J.  Masson,  Vita  Horatii.  Lugd.  Bat.  1708.  8.  —  L.  Walch,  Horaz,  als  Mensch  und  Burger  &c. 
from  the  Dutch  of  Rich.  Fan  Ommeren.  Lips.  1802.  8.  —  G.  F.  Seiz,  Q.  Horatius  Flac.  nach 
Seinen  Leben  und  Dichtungen.  Norimb.  1815.  8.  —  J.  H.  M.  Ernesti,  Parerga  Horatiana,  qui- 
bus  continenter  vita  etc.  Hal.  Sax.  1818.  —  The  life  of  Horace  ascribed  to  Suetonius  is  found 
in  many  of  the  editions  of  Horace.  —  Respecting  the  residence  of  the  poet,  Anthon's  Inquiry 
relative  to  the  Tiburtine  Villa  and  Sabine  Farm,  p.  9  of  his  ed.  below  cited. Lessing^  de- 
fence of  Horace  (Rettungen  des  Horaz)  is  found  in  his  Vermischt.  Schriften  (Miscellaneous  Wri- 
tings). Berl.  1734.  8.  —  Cf.  M.  Aug.  Weichevt,  Commentatio  de  Q.  Hor.  Flac.  obtrectatoribus. 
Grimm.  1821.  4.  —  P.  F.  Boost,  Untersuchung  iiber  eine  Anklage  des  Q,.  Horatius  Flaccus. 
Frankft.  1807.  8.  —  Klotzius  (Klotz),  Lectiones  Venusinse.    Lips.  1770.  8. 

2.  "  The  lyric  poetry  of  Horace  displays  an  entire  command  of  all  the 
graces  and  powers  of  metre.  Elegance  and  justness  of  thought,  and  felicity 
of  expression,  rather  than  sublimity,  seem  to  be  its  general  character,  though 
the  poet  sometimes  rises  to  considerable  grandeur  of  sentiment  and  imagery. 
In  variety  and  versatility  his  lyric  genius  is  ,unrivalled  by  that  of  any  poet 
with  whom  we  are  acquainted."  Elton  (a).  —  The  odes  of  Horace  are  of  a 
very  miscellaneous  character,  and  not  capable  of  being  reduced  to  any  system- 
atic classification  ;  yet  most  of  them  may  be  included  in  a  division  into  four 
classes,  which  has  been  proposed;  viz.  Amatory,  Convivial,  Moral,  and  Polit- 
ical.   By  far  the  greatest  number  will  come  under  the  first  class.    Dunlop  (b). 

(a).  In  his  Specimens  of  the  Classic  Poets.  —  (b).  In  his  Rom.  Lit.  3d  vol.  ed.  Lond.  1828. 

Cf.  Ch.  A.  Klutz,  Defclici  audacia  Horatii.  Jens  1761,  found  also  in  ClassicalJournal,  vol.  xm. — 
On  the  lyrical  poety  of  Horace,  see  also  Manso's  remarks  in  Charakt.  d.  vorn.  Dichter,  vol.  v. 

p.  301-334.  —  Sclidll,  Hist,   de  la  Litt.  Rom.  i.  p.  322.  —  Schombcrg,  as  cited  §  302.  6. On 

his  Satires  and  Epistles,  Manso  in  the  Charaktere  &c.  vol.   iv.  p.  409-496.     Cf.  vol.  vj.  395.  — 

G.  Lud.  Konig,  1).  Satira  Romana.     Oldenb.  1796.  8 D.  C.  Morgenstern,  De  Satirre  atque 

Epistolte  Horatiana?  discrimine.  Lips.  1801.  4.  —  Boscawen,  in  his  translation  below  cited.  — 
Cf.  Sulzer's  Allg.  Theorie  &c.  iv.  142. 

3.  There  has  been  much  discussion  among  the  learned  respecting  the  real 
design  of  Horace  in  the  Letter  to  the  Pisos  which  has  borne  the  title  of  the 
"Art  of  Poetry,"  from  the  time  of  Quintilian.  One  of  the  most  celebrated 
theories  is  that  of  Hurd,  who  considers  the  whole  piece  as  referring  solely  to 
the  drama,  and  forming  a  regular  and  connected  treatise  on  the  subject.  JVie- 
land,  and  other  modern  critics,  interpret  it  as  not  being  restricted  to  the  drama 
exclusively,  and  as  chiefly  designed  to  dissuade  the  elder  son  of  Piso  from  de- 
voting himself  to  poetry. 

Cf.  SchoU,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  i.  p.  305.  —  Dr.  Hard's  Commentary  and  Notes  on  the  Art  of  Po- 
etry (with  Latin  text).  Camb.  1757.  2  vols.  8.  transl.  into  German  by  J.  J.  Hschenburg.  Lips. 
1772.  2  vols.  8.  —  Wicland,s  German  translation  of  the  Epistles,  with  Introductions  and  Notes. 
LOT.  1787.  1818.  2  vols.  8.  —  G.  Colman,  The  Art  of  Poetry,  Translated  from  Horace,  with 
Notes.     Lond.  1783.  4.— C.  G.  Schrcitcr,  De  Horatio  Platonis  remulo  (ejusque  epistohe  ad  Piso- 

nes  cum  hujus  Pheedro  comparationc).     Lips.  1789.  4. Teromc  de  Bosch,  vol.  4.  p.  139  of  his 

Greek  Antholomj  (P.  I.  §  35).  Cf.  //.  0.  A.  Eichstddt,  censura  novissimarum  obs.  in  Hor.  Epist. 
ad  Pisones.  Jena-,  1st  Pros:.  1810.  2d  Prog.  1811.  fol.  —  Hieron.  (Jcr.)  dc  Bosch,  Cura-  Secundce 
in  Hor.  Epist.  ad  Pisones.  Jena>,  1812,  fol.  —  C.  G.  Schelle,  Q.  Hor.  Flac.  de  Arte  Poetica  liber, 
praeinissa  disput.  de  consilio  etc.    Lips.  1806.  8. 


POETS.       HORACE.    OVID.  307 

4.  Editions.  —  One  of  the  best  is  T.  W.  Doring,s.  Lips.  1824.  2  vols.  8.  Reprinted  Glasgow, 
1826.  8.— That  of  C.  Fea.  Rome,  1811.  2  vols.  8.  is  highly  commended  by  some  (cf.  Klugling's 
Suppl.  p.  196)  but  less  approved  by  others  {Dibdin,  n.  121)  ;  the  reprint  by  F.  H.  Bothe.  Heidelb. 

1820.  2  vols.  8.  is  considered  preferable That  of  Baxter  (Lond.  1725)  as  improved  by  Gessner 

(Lpz.  1752)  and  Zeune  (Lpz.  1815)  and  especially  F.  H.  Bothe.  Lpz.  1822.  8.  is  well  spoken  of. — 
Among  the  editions  which  have  been  highly  celebrated,  R.  Bcntley.  Amst.  1728.  4.  (first  publ. 
Cambr.  1711). — Cuningamius  (Cunning)iam,  bitter  opponent  of  Bentley).  Lond.  1721.  2vols.  8. — 
Cruquius.  Antw.  1611.  4.  —  D.  Lambinus.  Par.  1567.  1596.  fol.  —  Geo.  Fabricius.  Bas.  1555. 
2  vols.  fol.  with  the  commentaries  of  Acron  and  Porphyrio  and  others.  —  The  supposed  Prin- 
ceps  is  a  4to  vol.  without  printer's  name,  date  or  place  of  publication.  —  Above  600  editions  ot 
Horace  have  been  printed.  —  In  our  country  there  have  been  three  impressions  of  the  Delphin. 
edition  \l.  Desprez.  Par.  1691.  4)  ;  stereotyped  Phil.  1823.8.  This  is  valuable  chiefly  for  its  In- 
dex Vocabulorum ;  the  notes,  in  Latin,  are  often  very  good  ;  the  text  is  not  approved.  —  The 
edition  of  B.  A.  Gould.  Bost.  1831.  12.  has  been  much  used  in  schools  ;  the  exceptionable 
parts  of  the  original  being  omitted.  —  That  of  C.  Anthon.  N.  York,  1830.  8.  has  been  ranked 
among  the  best  editions  of  Horace.     It  contains  full  notes,  with  valuable  prolegomena  and  ex* 

cursuses.    Cf.  Amer.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  vm.  p.  72. Valuable  editions  of  the  Odes  alone  ;  U. 

D.  Jani.  Lpz.  (ed.  Schcifcr)  1809.  2  vols.  8.  —  C.  W.  Mitscherlich.  Lpz.  1800.  2  vols.  8.  —  C. 
Vonderbounr,  Latin  and  French.    Par.  1812.  2.  vols. 

5.  Translations.  —  German.  —  Best,  of  whole  works,  J.  H.  Voss.  Brunsw.  (2d.  ed.)  1820. 
2  vols.  8.  —  Of  Odes,  Ramler.    Berl.  1800.  2  vols.  8.  —  Of  Epistles  and  Satires,  Wielcmd,  Lpz. 

1818.  1819.  4  vols.  8 French.—  whole,  Darn,  verse.    Par.  (5th  ed.)  1820.  4  vols.  8.  —  An<L 

Dacier,  prose.     Par.  1681.  10  vols.  12.  often  reprinted  ;  now  esteemed  less  than  formerly.  — 

Sanadon,  prose.    Par.  1728.  8  vols.  12.  —  Vanderbourg  above  cited. English.  —  Verse,  Rev. 

Phil.  Francis.  Lond.  (7th  ed.)  1773.  4  vols.  8.  ed.  by  Du  Bous.  1807.  —  Chr.  Smart,  prose. 
Lond.  1767.  —  Watson,  prose.  Lond.  (5th  ed.)  1792.  2  vols.  8.  containing  Dr.  Douglas's  cata- 
logue of  about  500  editions  of  Horace  ;  this  gentleman,  a  physician  in  the  lime  of  George  II., 
had  a  curious  library  consisting  wholly  of  editions  and  translations  of  Horace.  —   W.  Boscaioen, 

verse.  Stockd.  1793-97.  2  vols.  8. Some  years  ago,  a  translation  of  Horace  into  Hebrew  was 

announced  as  about  to  be  printed  in  Germany  (  Anthon' s  Hor.  p.  95). 

6.  Illustrative.  —  H.  Wagner,  Carmina  Horatii  Collatione  Scriptorum  Graecorum  illustrata. 
Halse,  1770,  71.  —  Cf.  Anthonys  Originality  of  Hor.  p.  xxxi.  of  his  ed.  above  cited.  —  /.  E.  Imnu 
Walchius,  Diss,  de  philosophia  Horatii  Stoica.  Jenae,  1764.  —  P.  F.  A.  Jfitsch,  Vorlesungen  iiber 
die  klassischen  Dichter  der  Rbmer.  Lips.  1792.  4  vols.  8.  —  Henrici  Progr.  de  Graca  dictione 
poeseos  Horatii  lyricae  ornatrice.  Witteb.  1791.  4.  —  Gaillard  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol. 
xlix.  p.  262.  —  J.  A.  Wendel,  Vorlesungen  tiber  die  Horazischen  Oden  und  Epoden.  Cob. 
1825.  8. 

$  364.  Publius  Ovidius  JVaso,  of  Sulmo  in  the  territory  of  the  Peligni,  was 
of  an  equestrian  family.  He  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  died 
A.  D.  16.  His  personal  history  is  given  by  himself  (Trist.  L.  iv.  Ed.  10). — 
The  most  remarkable  incident  is  his  banishment  from  Rome  to  Tomi  on  the 
coast  of  Thrace ;  the  real  cause  of  which  cannot  be  certainly  determined.  As 
a  poet,  he  is  distinguished  especially  by  a  very  fertile  imagination  and  a  live- 
ly blooming  wit ;  this,  however,  too  often  degenerates  into  wantonness,  and 
thus  detracts  from  the  just  expression  of  feeling.  He  also  had  the  talent  for 
easy  and  agreeable  versification.  His  largest  and  most  beautiful  poem  is  the 
Metamorphoses,  or  mythical  transformations,  in  five  books.  Besides  these,  we 
have  from  him  21  pieces  styled  tleroides  ;  3  books  on  the  Art  of  love  (de  Arte 
amandi)  ;  3  books  of  amatory  Elegies  (Amores)  ;  1  book  on  the  Remedy  for 
lore  (De  Remedio  Amoris)  ;  6  books  styled  Fasti,  a  poetical  description  of  the 
Roman  festivals  in  the  first  half  of  the  year;  5  books  of  elegiac  Complaints 
(Tristia)  ;  4  books  of  Epistles  (Epistolce  e  Ponto)  ;  and  some  doubtful  smaller 
pieces.  Of  his  lost  productions  the  tragedy  entitled  Medea  seems  to  have 
been  the  most  important. 

1.  Ovid  was  at  an  early  age  brought  to  Rome  with  an  elder  brother  to  be 
educated  for  an  orator  and  civilian.  He  had  a  preference  for  poetry,  but  by 
the  wish  of  his  father  studied  and  practiced  according  to  the  usual  methods  in 
the  rhetorical  schools  at  Rome  under  eminent  teachers.  He  afterwards  went 
to  Athens.  Subsequently  he  visited  the  chief  cities  of  Asia,  with  JEmilius 
Macer,  and  afterwards  spent  some  months  at  Syracuse  in  Sicily.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Rome  he  for  a  short  time  engaged  in  legal  and  civil  business,  but  soon 
renounced  it  for  the  service  of  the  muses.  Horace  and  Propertius  were  his  fa- 
miliar friends.  He  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Augustus  for  many  years,  until  very 
suddenly,  at  the  age  of  51,  he  was  banished.  Ovid  had  adopted  and  practical- 
ly followed  the  Epicurean  philosophy.  He  betrayed  much  weakness  of  char- 
acter under  his  banishment,  and  employed  much  adulation  to  procure  a  recal, 
but  in  vain.     He  died  at  Tomi  at  the  age  of  60. 

J.Masson,  Vita  Ovidii.    Amstel.  1708.  8 Aug.  S.  Gcrber,  Ovids  Schicksale  wiihrend  seiner 

Verbannung.  Rigre,  1809.  8.  —  Dunlop's  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  hi.  —  Rosmini,  Vita  di  Public 
Ovidio  Xasone.    Ferrane,  1789.  8. 

2,  Different  conjectures  have  been  formed  respecting  the  cause  of  Ovid's  ban- 


308  HISTORY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

ishment.  The  ostensible  reason  was  the  licentious  tendency  of  his  poetry  , 
but  the  true  reason  was  something  else.  Some  of  the  earlier  critics  imagined 
that  it  was  because  Ovid  cherished  an  illicit  attachment  for  Julia  the  daughter 
of  Augustus.  Dryden  conjectured,  that  Ovid  had  intruded  into  the  bath  of 
Livia,  the  wife  of  Augustus.  Tiraboschi  supposed  that  Ovid  had  observed  ac- 
cidentally some  instance  of  gross  immorality  in  Julia  the  emperor's  daughter. 
Schdll  adopts  the  idea  that  it  was  because  Ovid  had  witnessed  some  scene, 
which  revealed  to  him  a  state  secret  relating  to  the  domestic  jealousies  in  the 
family  of  Augustus. 

See  Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  1.240.—  R.  Ouvens,  Noctes  Haganae.  Franek.  1780.  4.  (lib.  n. 
c.  5).  —  Cf.  Harles,  Suppl.  ad  Brev.  Notil.  Litt.  Rom.  I.  P.  p.  445.  —  Bayeux,  in  his  translation, 
below  cited. 

3.  The  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid  were  chiefly  derived  from  Greek  books, 
which  are  lost;  the  work  is  highly  valuable  as  a  record  of  ancient  mythology. 
The  Fasti  may  be  viewed  as  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  Metamorphoses,  fur- 
nishing a  store  of  information  respecting  the  superstitions  of  the  Romans  and 
the  Greeks. 

J.  W.  L.  Mellman,  Comment,  de  causis  et  auctoribus  narrationum  de  mutatis  formis.    Lips. 

17*6.  8 The  Metamorphoses  ;  With  Abbe  Banier's  Explanation  of  the  History  of  Mythology, 

in  English.  Lond.  1747.  8.  —  Abbe  Banter,  Remarques  &c.  in  his  translation  below  cited.  — 
Gierig,  Diss,  on  the  Fasti  and  Metam.  in  his  editions  below  cited.  —  Edw.  Gibbon,  in  his  Mis- 
cellaneous Works,  (cited  §  362.  6) Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  I.  266 Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit. 

p.  171.  —  F.  H.  G.  Gesenius,  Symbols  observationum  in  Ovidii  Fastos.  Alton.  1806. 8.  —  Rob. 
Hooke,  Physical  Explanations  of  several  Fables  in  Ovid's  Metamorphoses  &.c.  in  his  works  ed. 
by  Rich.  Waller.     Lond.  1705.  8. 

4.  Other  pieces  ascribed  to  Ovid,  besides  those  already  named,  are  the  R>is,  the  Halicutica,  on 
Fishes,  and  the  Medicamina  Faciei,  or  means  of  preserving  beauty.  The  Ibis,  or  Dirce  in  Ibis,  is  a 
poem  of  above  600  lines,  a  sort  of  imprecation  upon  an  ungrateful  friend  (cf.  §  345),  supposed  to 
be  directed  against  Hyginus  ;  and  written  during  the  author's  exile.  The  genuineness  of  the 
Halicutica  is  doubted.  Of  the  third,  a  mere  fragment  remains.  An  Elegy  entitled  Nux  has  also 
been  ascribed  to  Ovid,  but.  its  claims  to  such  an  authorship  are  doubted.  —  There  are  several 
productions  that  have  been  falsely  ascribed  to  Ovid  (  Supjtosita  OvidioJ ;  among  them,  three  books 
entitled  de  Vetula,  fabricated  in  the  middle  ages,  and  said  to  have  been  brought  from  the  tomb 
of  Ovid  to  Constantinople.  Cf.  Fabricius,  Biblioth.  Lat.  i.  463-469.  —  Harles,  Supplem.  at 
Brev.  Not.  i.  478. 

The  name  of  Aulus  Sabinus  should  be  mentioned  here.  He  was  a  contemporary  and  friend 
of  Ovid.  He  commenced  a  work,  which  death  hindered  his  finishing,  entitled  Dies,  and  which 
perhaps  suggested  to  Ovid  the  idea  of  his  Fasti.  Sabinus  composed  three  Epistles  in  answer  to 
three  of  Ovid's  Epistolee  Heroidum;  which  are  commonly  published  with  those  of  Ovid  5  and 
some  critics  have  considered  Sabinus  as  the  author  of  six  of  the  twenty-one  in  the  collection 
commonly  ascribed  to  Ovid.  —  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  1.  345. 

5.  Editions.— Wthole  Works.— Best ;  P.  Burmann.  Amst.  1727.  4.  vols.  4.  Oxf.  1825.  5  vols.  8. 
with  selected  notes.  —  J.  A.  Amur.   Par.  1820  ss.  9  vols.  8.  in  Lemairc's  Bibl.  —  Ch.  JV.  Metscher- 

lich.  Gbtt.  1819.  2.  vols.  8. Good.  —  JV.  Heinsius.  Amst.  1661.  3  vols.  12. T.  F.  Fischer. 

Lpz.  1758.  2  vols.  8.  —  Bipontine.    Argent.  1811.  3.  vols.  8. Princeps.  —  Azoguidi.   Bonon. 

1471.  fol.  no  perfect  copy  known  to  exist. Metamorphoses.  —  G.  E.  Gierig.  Lpz.  1806. 

2  vols.  8.  3ded.  irnpr.  by  J.  C.  Jahn.  Lpz.  1821.  2  vols.  8.  —  E.  C.  Ch.  Bach.  Han.  1832-36. 
2  vols.  8.  —  Fasti.  —  G.  E.  Gierig.  Lpz.  1812-14.  2  vols.  8.  —  Tristia  and  Epistolee  e  Ponto.  — 

J.  J.  Obcrlin.  Strasb.  1778.  8.  —  Epistolae  Heroidum D.  J.  Van  Lennep,  2d  ed.    Amst.  1812, 

12.  —  Amores.  —  Ch.  G.  JVcrnsdorf.  Helmst.  1788.  2  vols.  8. Numerous   editions  of  the 

Metamorphoses  and  of  selections  from  Ovid  have  been  published  for  schools.  —  We  mention 
B.  A.  Gould,  Excerpta  exscriptis  P.  Ovidii  nasonis.    Bost.  1835.8. 

6.  Translations.  —  German.— Whole  works,  by  JV.  G.  Eichhoff.  Frankf.  1796—1823.  5  vols.  8. 

—  Metamorphoses,  by  J.  H.  Voss.  Berl.  1798.    Brunsw.   1829.  2  vols.  8. French.  —  Whole 

works,  by  Fran,  de  Pompignan.  Par.  1799.  7  vols.  8.  —  Metamorphoses,  Abbe  Banier,  (avec  des 
Remarques  et  des  explications,  &  figures  gravees).  Par.  1767— 1771.  4  vols.  4.  —  G.  Th.  Ville- 
vcuve.    Par.  1806.  4  vols.  8. — Fasti. — F.  Desaintange  (de  St.  Ange),  verse.  Par.  1804.  2.  vols.  8. — 

Bayeux,  avec  des  Recherches  d'  Histoire  &c.  Par.  1783-88.  4  vols.  8. Iialian.  —  G.  Solari. 

Gen.  1815.  3  vols.  8. English.— Fasti,  JV.  Massey,  verse.  Lond.  1757.  8.  not  highly  approved. 

—  Tristia,  J.  Sterling,  (Lat.  &  Engl).  Lond.  1752.  8.  —  Heroides,  J.  Ewen,  verse.  Lond.  1787. 
8.  —  Cf.  Sulzcr,  AUg.  Theor.  n.p.  572. — Metamorphoses,  by  Pope,  Gay,  Philips,  Sr  others.  Lond. 
1732.  12.  —  Jos.  Davidson,  prose.  Lond.  1759.  8.  —  Cf.  Sulzer,  it.  p.  123.  —  A.  Golding.  Lond. 
1575.  —  Cf.  JVarton's  Eng.  Poetry,  iv.  235,  of  ed.  cited  $359.  2.  —  JV.  Bailey,  Lat.  &  Engl,  with 

notes.  Lond.  1822.  8.  There  is  a  Greek  version  of  the  Metamorphoses,  made  by  Manuel 

Planudes,  first  published  by  Boissonade.  Par.  1822. 

7.  Illustrative Edm.  Burton,  Genius  and  writings  of  Ovid  ;  in  his  Ancient  Characters  de- 
duced from  Classical  Remains.  Cambr.  1763.  8.  —J.  Jortin,  in  Tracts  Philological  &c.  cited 
§  360.  5.  —  J.  Fr.  Pfaffius,  De  Ortibus  et  occasibus  siderum  apud  auctores  classicos.  Gbtt. 
1786.  8.  —  Manso,  on  the  poetry  of  Ovid,  in  the  Charaktcre  d.  vorn.  Dichter,  1 11.  325.  —  Gaillard, 
in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xnx.  p.  279. 

§  365.  Cornelius  Severus  was  a  poet  or  rather  a  versifier  of  the  same  period, 
who  died  very  young,  B.  C.  14.  Had  he  lived  longer,  it  is  altogether  proba- 
ble that  he  would  have  risen  to  the  rank  of  an  acknowledged  poet.  For  in 
the  poem  entitled  JEtna,  the  only  production  by  him  of  whicb  we  have  the 
whole,  there  are  various  happy  passages,  that  indicate  a  lively  fancy  ;  this 


POETS.       SEVERUS.    PEDO  ALBINOVANUS.    PUBLIUS  SYRUS.        309 

work  is  by  some,  however,  ascribed  to  the  younger  Lucilius.  The  fragment 
upon  the  death  of  Cicero  is  perhaps  a  part  of  his  poem  on  the  Sicilian  IVar,  of 
which  he  had  completed  the  first  book. 

1.  This  youth  was  a  friend  of  Ovid,  and  is  mentioned  by  Quintilian,  (x.  1.) 
as  of  very  promising  genius.  Ovid  alludes  to  a  poem  of  Severus,  which  he 
calls  carmen  regale  (Ep.  e  Pont,  iv.)  ;  of  its  character  and  design  nothing  is 
known.  —  The  JEtna  consists  of  640  verses,  on  the  eruptions  of  that  volcano. 
Sckall  assents  to  the  criticism  which  ascribes  this  poem  to  an  author  in  the 
time  of  Nero. 

Cf.  §  334,  335.  —  Schbll,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  u.  p.  306.  —  Wernsdorf,  vol.  4.  of  Poet.  Lat.  Mia. 
cited  §  348.  2.  —  Schmid,  Meinecke  &  Jacobs,  as  cited  below. 

2.  Editions.  In  Stcphani  Frag.  vet.  poet,  cited  §  348.  also  in  Wemsdorf,  above  cited,  and  in 
Lemaire's  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  vol.  in. — Separately,  Th.  CorallusfJ.  Clericus)  AmsC.  1715.  8.—  C.  A. 
Schmid,  f  with  Germ.  Trans,).  Brunsw.  1769.  8.  —  J.  H.  F.  Meinecke,  (with  Germ.  TransJ. 
Qiiedl.  1818.  8. —  F.  Jacobs.  Lips.  1826.  8.  ascribing  the  poem  to  Lucilius  Junior. 

3.  Translations.  —  French.  —  J.  Accarias  de  Serionne,  L'  Etna  de  P.  C.  S.  et  les  sentences  de 
Publ.  Syrus  traduites  etc.   Par.  1736.  12. 

§  366.  Caius  Pedo  Albinovanus,  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Ovid,  is  ranked 
among  the  elegiac  poets.  There  is  extant  a  poem  entitled  Consolatio  ad  Liv- 
iam, addressed  to  Livia  Augusta  in  condolence  upon  the  death  of  Drusus  Ne- 
ro, which  is  supposed  to  be  from  this  poet,  but  which  some  ascribe  to  Ovid  ; 
there  is  also  a  fragment  on  the  voyage  of  Drusus  Germanicus  in  the  North 
sea.  His  epigrams  are  lost.  Both  of  the  elegies  by  some  attributed  to  him, 
that  on  the  death  of  Maecenas  (De  obitu  Mcecenatis)  and  that  on  the  last  words 
of  Maecenas  {De  Mcecenate  moribundo) ,  do  not  appear  worthy  of  this  author. 

1.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  life  of  Albinovanus.  He  seems  to  have  been 
distinguished  for  his  efforts  in  heroic  verse.  Ovid  applies  to  him  the  epithet 
sidereus.  The  Consolatio  ad  Liviam,  of  64  lines,  is  preserved  in  Seneca  the 
rhetorician  (§  414),  and  is  considered  a  production  worthy  of  the  Augus- 
tan age. 

Respecting  the  pieces  ascribed  to  Pedo  Albinovanus,  cf.  Burmann,  Anthol,  Lat.  cited  §  248. 2. 
—  Beck,  as  below  cited  (2)  —Lion,  Mrecenatiana.  Gbtt.  1824.  —  Schdll,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  342.  CL 
Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  i.  376. 

2.  Jill  the  pieces  are  found  in  some  editions  of  Virgil,  among  the  Catalecta.  Also  in  Lemaire'a 
Poet.  Lat.  Min.  vol.  2d  &  3d.  —  Separately,  Th.  Corallus  (i.  e.  J.  Clericus).  Amst.  1715.  8  — 
J.  H.  F.  Meinecke,  with  Germ,  trans,  in  verse,  duedl.  1819.  8.  —  The  elegies,  by  /.  C.  Bremer, 
Helmst.  1774.  8.  —  Consolatio  ad  Liviam  by  Ch.  D.  Beck.    Lpz.  1801.  8. 

§  367.  Gratius  Faliscus,  a  Roman  poet  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  is  mentioned  by  Ovid  in  his  Epistles  from  Pontus,  but  by  no  other  an- 
cient writer.  We  have  from  him  a  didactic  poem  on  Hunting  (Cynegetica) , 
which  was  first  discovered  by  Sannazaro  in  France. 

1.  From  a  passage  in  his  poem,  Gratius  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in 
the  territory  of  the  Falisci.  The  portion  of  the  poem  now  extant  consists  of 
540  lines  in  hexameter.  It  is  not  without  merit.  There  is  also  a  fragment  on 
Fishing,  which  has  been  ascribed  to  him. 

Cf.  Schtell,  Hist  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  i.  p.  273.  —  Bdhr,  p.  204.  —  Wernsdorf  <$-  Lcmairc  as  cited 
below. 

2.  Editions.  —  Princeps,  by  O.  Logus  (apud  heredes  Aldi).  Ven.  1534.  8.  with  Nemesian  & 
Calpurnius.  —  It  is  found  in  Wernsdorf  s  Collection  f  cited  $  248  J  ;  also  in  Lemaire's  Min.  Poets, 
vol.  i.  f  cf.  $  248J.  —  See  likewise,  Poeta  Latini  rei  venuticw  Scriptores  etc.  cited  $248.  2.  —  Cf. 
$  383.  2. 

3.  Translations.  —  English  —  Christ.  Wase.  The  poem  of  Hunting  by  Grat.  Faliscus  ,•  transL 
into  English  verse.   Lond.  1654.  12. 

§  363.  Publius  Syrus,  a  Roman  slave  from  Syria,  lived  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus. He  obtained  his  liberty  on  account  of  his  peculiar  talents.  His  Mimes, 
or  mimic  plays  of  the  kind  which  Cicero  calls  etiological  or  moral,  were  highly 
valued  by>the  Romans.  We  have  only  some  detached  passages  and  sentences, 
which  are  in  general  recommended  by  their  own  moral  excellence. 

1.  Having  obtained  celebrity  by  his  representations  in  the  provincial  towns 
of  Italy,  he  was  invited  to  Rome  to  assist  in  the  public  spectacles  given  by 
Caesar.  His  popularity  was  very  great,  and  enabled  him  to  live  in  splendor 
and  luxury.  The  names  of  none  of  the  Mimes  of  Publius  have  been  preserved. 
Their  nature  and  subjects  are  not  precisely  known.  The  sentences  or  max- 
ims now  extant  are  most  of  them  brief,  seldom  exceeding  a  single  line  ;  they 
amount  to  eight  or  nine  hundred  in  number.  La  Bruyere,  in  his  Characteris- 
tics, has  made  a  free  use  of  the  maxims  of  Publius. 

Dunlop,  i.  p.  332.  —  Schall,  i.  203.  —  Bdhr,  116. 


310  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

i.  Editions.  —  Often  given  in  the  editions  of  Pfuedrus,  e.  g.  in  Bentley's  (cited  §  372.  2).  — 
Separately  ;  J.  Gruter  fas  ed.  by  S.  Havercamp)  Lugd.  Bat.  fLeydenJ  1727.  8. — T.  F.  Kremsier. 
Lpz.  1809.  8.  with  the  comm.  of  Erasmus,  and  Germ,  version."—  Probably  best,  J.  C  Orelli. 

Lpz.  1822.  8.  with  a  Supplement  Lips.  1824.  Cf.  Bohr,  p.  776. The  princeps,  Des.  Erasmus. 

Bas.  1502.  4. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  L.  Schwartz,  metrical.     Gbtt.  1813.  8. : French.  —  J.  Ac- 

carias  de  Serionne,  fwith  the  JEtna  of  P.  Corn.  Severus^.    Par.  1736.  12. English.  —  J.  El- 

phinstone,  in  his  PoettB  Sententiosi  Latini  fLat.  &.  Engl,).    Lond.  1794.  12. 

4.  There  were  two  writers  of  Mimes,  contemporary  with  Publius  Sjrus, 
who  may  be  mentioned  here,  Decimus  Laberius,  and  Cneius  Matius.  —  Labe- 
rius  was  a  Roman  knight,  who  at  the  age  of  sixty  was  requested  by  Julius 
Caesar  to  act  on  the  stage  the  Mimes,  which  he  had  written  merely  for  amuse- 
ment. Mortified  by  the  preference  given  by  Caesar  to  Publius,  he  retired  from 
Rome  to  Puteoli  where  he  died  not  long  after  the  assassination  of  Caesar.  The 
titles  and  a  few  inconsiderable  fragments  of  43  of  his  mimes  are  still  extant. 
The  principal  fragment  is  the  Prologue  to  the  first  piece  he  acted ;  it  consists 

of  29  lines,  preserved  by  Macrobius. Matius  wrote  chiefly  in  iambic  metre, 

whence  his  pieces   were  termed  Mimiambi.     Only  a  few  lines  from  them  are 
preserved.     He  is  said  to  have  translated  the  Iliad  of  Homer. 

5.  Respecting  these  writers,  cf.  Dunlop,  i.  330  ss.  —  Scholl,  i.  206.  —  W.  C.  L.  Htgler,  De 
Mimis  Romanorum.  Gbtt.  1789.  8.  containing  the  fragments  of  Laberius  fy  Matius  —  f".  L.  Be- 
cker, D.  Laberii  Mimi  Prologus.   Lips.  1787.  8. 

§  369.  Marcus  Manilius,  a  native  Roman,  probably  belongs  to  the  age  of 
Augustus,  but  little  is  known  of  his  history.  A  poem  which  has  come  down 
from  him  to  us,  is  entitled  Astronomicon  ;  treating  of  the  supposed  influence 
of  the  stars  on  human  destiny.  It  consists  of  five  books  ;  the  fifth,  however, 
is  imperfect,  and  probably  was  not  the  last  of  the  poem.  It  is  more  valuable 
for  the  history  of  astronomy  than  for  poetical  merit;  to  which  only  a  few  pas- 
sages, chiefly  the  introductions  to  the  several  books,  can  hold  a  claim.  The 
obscurity  of  many  passages  is  owing  to  the  defective  state  of  the  manuscripts. 

1.  In  two  verses  Manilius  speaks  of  Rome  as  his  own  city,  but  Bentley  the 
celebrated  English  critic,  pronounces  them  both  interpolations,  and  maintains 
that  he  was  born  in  Asia.  Some  critics  have  assigned  this  writer  to  an  age 
later  than  that  of  Augustus. 

Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  i.  276. — Pingre,  as  below  cited. — M.  Dan,  Huber,  Observ.  in  M.  Ma- 
nilii  Astronom.     Bas.  1789.  A.—Jortin's  Tracts  &c.  cited  $  360.  5. 

2.  Editions.— Best ;  A.  G.  Pingre,  Par.  1786.  2  vols.  8.— R.  Bentley.  Lond.  1739.  4.  Bent- 
ley's  criticisms  are  opposed  in  the  edition  (not  highly  approved  by  Harles)  of  E.  Barton. 
Lond.  1783.  8. — Contained  also  in  the  Bipontine  Virgil.  Bip.  1783.  8.,  and  in  Lemaire's  Poet. 
Lat.  Min.  vol.  vi. — The  Princeps  by  Jo.  Regiomontanus,  Norimb.  (probably)  1472.  4. 

3.  Translations. — French. — By  Pingre,   in   his  ed.  just  cited. English. — Ed.   Sherburne. 

(metrical.)  Lond.  1675.  fol.—  Thomas  Creech  (metrical.)    Lond.  1697.  8. 

§  370.  Ccesar  Germanicus  was  grandson  to  Augustus,  being  the  son  of  Dru- 
sus  who  was  a  son  of  Livia,  the  wife  of  Augustus.  He  was  adopted  by  Ti- 
berius, but  afterwards  by  command  of  this  emperor,  was  poisoned  at  Antioch. 
His  bodily  and  mental  endowments  are  highly  celebrated  in  history.  He  is 
known  as  a  poet,  by  his  translation  of  the  <Pat*6fitra  of  Aratus,  and  by  some 
fragments,  particularly  of  a  poem  called  Diosemeia,  or  Prognostica.  There 
are  also  some  epigrams  from  him,  included  among  the  Catalecta  of  Virgil. 

1.  The  name  Germanicus  was  derived  from  his  celebrated  victories  over 
the  Germans.  Tiberius  was  jealous  of  his  popularity,  and  on  this  account, 
after  calling  him  from  Germany  under  pretence  of  granting  him  a  triumph, 
sent  him  on  a  military  expedition  into  Syria.  Germanicus  died  at  the  age  of 
35,  A.  D.  19. — He  was  well  acquainted  with  Greek  letters,  and  was  a  good 
orator.  We  have  a  considerable  fragment  of  Aratus,  accompanied  with 
Latin  scholia  drawn  from  the  Catasterisms  of  Eratosthenes  ;  the  translation 
is  not  exact.  Of  the  Diosemeia,  four  fragments  are  extant ;  it  was  derived 
from  several  Greek  works  of  different  authors. 

Scholl,  i.  274. — Encyclop.  Americana. — L.  D.  B.  (Louis  de  Beaufort  J,  Histoire  de  Cesar  German. 
Ludg.  Bat.  1741.  8. — J.  C.  Schaubach,  De  Arati  Solensis  interpretibus  Romanis,  Cic,  Cces  Ger- 
man, et  R.  F.  Avieno,  Commentatio.     Meining.  1817.  4. 

2.  Editions. — J.  C.  Schwartz.    Coburg.  1715.  8 Given  in  Lcmaire's  Min.  Lat.  Poet.   vol.   vi. 

— Princeps,  (with  Manilius)  Bonon.  1474.  fol. 

§  371*.  JEmiliusMacer,  a  native  of  Verona,  was  a  friend  Tibullusand  Ovid. 
He  died  in  Asia,  B.  C.  17.     He  wrote  a  poem,  entitled  Theriaca,  an  imitation 


i  POETS.      PHjEDRUS.   persius.  311 

of  that  of  Nicander  (§  74)  ;  a  poem  on  birds  (Ornithogonia)  ;  and  another  on 
the  war  of  Troy,  a  completion  of  the  Iliad.  The  ancients  also  speak  of  an- 
nals written  by  him.  A  few  lines  only  are  extant  of  all  his  works. — Some 
consider  the  friend  of  Ovid,  and  author  of  the  completion  of  the  Iliad,  to 
have  been  a  different  person  from  the  author  of  the  other  pieces. 

1.  The  poem  De  Herbarum  virtutibus,  in  5  books,  by  some  ascribed  to  Macer,  is  a  production 
of  the  middle  ages.— Cf.  Bdhr,  p.  176,  202. 

2.  Editions.— The  fragments  of  Macer  are  given  in  Mattaire's  Op.  et  Fragm.  vet.  Poet.  Lat. 
vol.  n.— Cf.  Wcmsdorf,  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  vol.  rv.— The  fullest  edition  of  the  De  Herb.  Virtuti- 
bus, (cum    G.  Pictorii  expositionej.    Bas.  1581.  8. 

§  372.  Phadrus,  according  to  the  common  account  a  native  of  Thrace,  and 
a  freedman  of  Augustus,  is  celebrated  for  his  five  books  of  JEsopian  Fables. 
They  are  in  Iambic  verse  of  six  feet,  related  with  much  natural  ease  and  sim- 
plicity. Notwithstanding  the  slightness  of  the  accounts  we  have  of  him,  and 
the  silence  of  the  arxfient  authors  concerning  him,  his  existence  cannot  justly 
be  questioned,  as  has  been  done  by  some. 

1.  Phaedrus  is  not  mentioned  by  any  ancient  writer,  unless  by  Martial  (iii. 
20),  down  to  the  time  of  Avienus  ;  and  all  that  is  known  of  him  is  drawn 
from  his  own  writings.  His  fables  were  unknown  till  1595,  when  Fr.  Pithou, 
discovered  a  copy  in  the  library  of  St.  Remy  at  Rheims  and  sent  the  manu- 
script to  his  brother  Pet.  Pithou,  who  published  the  first  edition.  This  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  only  manuscript  in  existence,  another  at  Rheims  having  been 
consumed  by  fire  in  1774.  But  there  is  a  manuscript  of  Nicolas  Perotto  (who 
was  archbishop  of  Manfredonia,  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century),  con- 
taining a  collection  of  fables  for  his  nephew,  which  includes  all  those  that 
bear  the  name  of  Phaedrus.  Prof.  Christ,  of  Leipzig,  in  two  treatises,  pub- 
lished in  1746  and  1747,  questions  the  existence  of  Phaedrus,  and  ascribes  the 
fables  to  Perotto. 

Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  ii.  343-348.—/.  F.  Christ,  De  Pha?dro  ejusque  fabulis  Prolusio.  Lips. 
1746.  A.— I.  JV.  Funk,  (Funccius),  Apologia  pro  Phaedro.  Rintel.  1747.— Christ,  (in  answer  to 
Punccius)  Expositio  ad  eruditos  etc.     Lips.  1747.  8. — Schwabe,  in  his  ed.  below  cited. 

2.  Editions.— Best ;  J.  G.  S.  Schwabe.  Bruns.  1806.  2  vols.  8.  containing  also  the  fables  of 
Romulus.  This  is  the  basis  of  the  ed.  by  Valpy.  Lond.  1822.  8.— J.  B.  de  Xicrey.  Par.  1830. 
8. — That  of  P.  Burmann.  Leyd.  1727.  4.  is  celebrated. — Deserving  of  mention  also,  R.  Bentlcy. 
Lond.  1726.  4.  with  Terence  and  the  Mimes  of  Syrus.  Cf.  Fr.  Hare,  Epistola  Critica  etc. 
Lond.  1726.  A.—Dibdin,  n.  281.— A  good  school  edition,  W.  Lange.  Halle.  1823.  8.— §  C.  J. 
Hoffmann.    Berl.  1836.  8 Princeps,  by  Pithozus  (Pithou),  Augustod.     Tricass.  1596.  12. 

3.  Translations. — German C.  A.  Vogelsang,  metrical,  2d  ed.    Lpz.  1823.  8.   ('ceteris  facile 

palmam  praecipit,  KluglingJ. French. — J.  B.   Gail.       Par.   1798.  4  vols.  12.  with  ^Esop  and 

La  Fontaine. English.—  Th.  Dyche.  Lond.  1715.  8.— Stirling.  Lond.  1771.  8.— J.  P.  Salt- 
ier, iambic  verse.     Norimb.  1798.  12. 

4.  Illustrative.— J.  F.  Gruner,  Spicilecium  Observ.  ad  Pha:dri  priores  librosduo.  Jena?, 
1745.  A.—  Th.  J.  A.  Schiiti,  Obs.  crit.  in  Phaedrum.  Laub.  1770.  8.—L.  Hbrstel,  Grammatisches 
Lexicon,  iiber  den  Phcedrus.  Lips.  1808.  8.— Jacobs,  Lat.  Fabulisten,  in  Charaktere  d.  vorn. 
Dichter,  vi.  29. 

5.  In  1808,  a  supplement  to  Phaedrus  was  published  at  Naples  by  Casitto,  consisting  of  32 
fables,  found  by  him  in  the  manuscript  of  Perrotto  above  mentioned,  which  was  deposited  in 
the  Royal  library  at  that  city.  About  30  of  the  fables  however  had  been  discovered  in  the 
same  manuscript  by  J.  Ph.  Dorville,  and  by  him  transcribed  and  submitted  to  Burmann,  be- 
fore the  publication  of  his  edition  of  Phaedrus.  Burmann  viewed  them  as  spurious.  Cf.  Pref. 
to  his  ed.  below  cited.  Dorvill^s  copy  seems  to  have  been  long  forgotten,  but  at  length  it 
came  into  the  hands  of  Prof.  Eichstddt  at  Jena,  and  was  used  by  him  in  preparing  his  edition 
of  the  new  fables  in  1812.     In  1811,  the  discovery  of  the  same  fables  was   claimed   by  Janelli 

or  Gianelli,  in  an  edition  of  the  manuscript  of  Perrotto. Klvgling,  Suppl.  to  Harles,  p.  285. 

— Eichstadt,  Phaedri  qua?  feruntur  Fabulaj  xxxn.  etc.  Jen.  1812.  fol.  denying  their  genuine- 
ness ;  which  is  defended  in  the  ed.  entitled  Phcedri  Fabuhe  novae  et  veteres,  etc.  Par.  1812.  8. 
< — The  ed.  of  Janelli  is  entitled  Coder.  Perrottinus,  etc.  Naples,  1811.  8.  In  the  same  year,  Ca- 
sitto published  his  3d  edition. — Cf.  Vanderbourg,  on  the  fables  lately  ascribed  to  Phredrus  <fcc. 
jMem.  de  Plnstitut,  Classe  d'  Hist,  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  vm.  p.  21S.—A.  Mai,  Fabulae  novas  xxxn.  e 
cod.  Vaticano  redintegratae,  &c.     Zurici,  1832.  8. 

§  373.  Aulus  Persius  Flaccus,  a  native  of  Voltenae  in  Etruria  was  a  pupil 
of  the  Stoic  Annseus  Cornutus,  about  A.  D.  50.  He  died  in  the  28th  year  of 
his  age.  We  have  from  him  only  six  satires,  and  Quintilian  speaks  of  him 
only  as  author  of  one  book  of  satires,  by  which  however  he  has  acquired 
much  celebrity.  They  are  specially  remarkable  as  containing  earnest  and 
impressive  castigations  of  the  then  prevalent  corruption  of  morals,  enforced 
with  rather  more  of  Stoic  severity  than  of  true  poetic  spirit.  The  frequent 
allusions  and  references  to  peculiarities  of  his  own  age  render  many  passages 
obscure  to  us ;  and  this  difficulty  is  the  greater  because  the  style  in  general  is 
concise  and  hard. 


• 

312  HISTORY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

1.  Persius  is  said  to  have  commenced  his  studies  at  Rome  at  the  age  of  12. 
A  fine  personal  appearance  and  an  excellent  character  are  ascribed  to  him  ', 
his  health  was  delicate.  On  his  death,  A.  D.  62,  he  left  his  library  of  700 
volumes  and  a  sum  of  money,  to  his  preceptor  Cornutus  ;  who  accepted,  how- 
ever, only  the  books. — Cornutus,  from  regard  to  the  reputation  of  his  pupil, 
advised  the  mother  of  Persius  to  destroy  all  his  writings  except  the  satires, 
which  were  committed  to  Caisius  Bassus,  himself  a  lyric  poet,  for  the  purpose 
of  publication. 

Respecting  the  character  and  poetry  of  Persius,  cf.  Scli'oll,  u.  313. — Sells,  Dissertation  sur 
Perse.  Par.  1783.  8. — Fr.  Passow,  Ueber  das  Leben  und  die  Scriften  das  Persius,  in  his  ed. 
below  cited. — Manso's  Character  &c.  in  Charaktere  d.  vorn  Didder,  vi.  81. —  Gamier  in  the 
Mem.  de  VJicad.  des  Inscript.  vol.  xlv. 

2.  Editions. — Persius  is  very  commonly  printed  with  Juvenal,  Separately,  Best ;  G.  L. 
Ka>,ni'T.  Gott.  1804.  8.  (with  a  commentary  in  separate  volume). — Basis  of  that  by  A.  J.  Valpy. 
Lond.  1820.  8.— F.  Plum.  Havn.  1827.  8.— §  F.  Dubner,  Lips.  1833.  8.—Jlchaintrc.  Par.  1812. 
8. — In  Lemairt's  Coll. That  of  Casaubon,  Par.  1605.  8.  celebrated  for  Casaubon'' s  Commen- 
tary. Republ.  Lond.  1647.  8. — Princeps,  by  Ulduricus  Gallus,  probably  Rome,  1468  or  70.  small 
fol.  ( FuhrmannJ. 

3.  Translations. — German. — Franz.  Passow,  metrical,  with  Lat.   text.     Lpz.  1809.  8. — J.  Fr. 

Wagner.     Liineb.  1811.  8. French.— Sclis,  metrical.     Par.  1775.— P.  Pietrc.    Par.  1800.   8.— 

Raoul.     Par.  1812.  8. Italian. — Marc.  Aurel,   Soranus.     Ven.    1778.   8.—  English.— Drydcn. 

Lond.  1693.  fol.  with  Juvenal.— E.  Owen.     Lond.  1786.  8.—  W.   Drummond.     Lond.  1798.   8.— 
Also  by  Sheridan,  by  Gifford,  and  by  Madan.     Cf.  §  380.  4. 

§  374.  Lucius  Anrwus  Seneca,  son  of  the  rhetorician  M.  A.  Seneca  (§  414), 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  1st  century,  and  was  celebrated  as  a  philoso- 
pher. He  was  a  native  of  Corduba  in  Spain,  but  was  removed  to  Rome  while 
yet  a  child.  After  many  vicissitudes  he  became  the  instructor  of  the  emperor 
Nero,  by  whom  he  was  finally  sentenced  to  death,  under  the  charge  of  having 
participated  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso.  Seneca  was  allowed  the  privilege  of 
determining  himself  the  mode  of  his  execution,  and  chose  to  have  his  veins 
opened  ;  but  as  the  blood  did  not  readily  flow,  he  took  poison  (cf.  §  469.  1). 
That  he  was  a  poet  is  well  known  from  the  testimony  of  other  writers.  The 
ten  tragedies  which  are  ascribed  to  him,  are  certainly  in  part  the  production 
of  others,  as  their  style  is  extremely  unequal.  The  last  of  them,  entitled  Oc* 
tavia,  cannot  be  from  him,  as  is  evident  from  its  subject  and  contents.  In 
general,  these  pieces  are  far  removed  from  the  noble  simplicity  of  the  Greek 
tragedies,  and  are  defective  in  plan  and  execution,  although  by  no  means  des- 
titute of  particular  beauties. 

1.  The  tragedies  ascribed  to  Seneca  have  afforded  for  the  critics  much  mat- 
ter of  debate,  on  the  question  of  their  genuineness  and  their  merits.  Among 
the  testimonies  that  Seneca  was  a  poet,  are  Quintilian  (Inst.  Or.  x.)  and 
Tacitus  (Ann.  xiv.  52).  "Lipsius  maintained  that  the  Medea,  regarded  by  him 
as  the  best  of  the  10  tragedies,  was  the  genuine  production  of  Seneca  the  phi- 
losopher ;  but  that  the  other  9  were  from  another  Seneca  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Trajan.  The  majority  of  critics  attribute  to  the  philosopher  not  only 
the  Medea,  but  also  Hippolytus,  Agamemnon,  and  The  Trojans  (Troas  or  Tro- 
ades)  ;  and  some  consider  the  last  as  the  best  tragedy.  The  six  other  pieces, 
Hercules  Furcns,  Thyestes,  Thebais  or  Phcenissse,  (Edipus,  Hercules  OZtaius, 
and  Octavia,  they  do  not  regard  as  being  the  work  of  one  poet ;  but  think  them 
to  have  proceeded  from  several  authors,  and  to  have  been  added  to  those  of 
Seneca  by  copyists.  The  last  mentioned,  Octavia,  is  the  only  one  constructed 
of  materials  furnished  by  Roman  history,  and  is  an  instance  of  the  fabula  to- 
gata  (of.  §  316);  all  the  others  are  founded  in  Greek  traditions."  In  this 
piece  Nero  is  introduced  as  a  speaker,  and  in  one  passage  (vs. 732)  there  seems 
to  be  a  plain  allusion  to  the  mode  of  his  death. 

Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  it.  267. — H.  G.  Pilgramm,  De  vitiis  tragrediarum,  qua?  vnlgo  Seneca? 
tribuuntur.  Gbtt.  1765.  4 —  Schlegcl,  Lect.  on  Dramat.  Literature.  —  ./.  G.  C.  Klotzsch,  De  An- 
naso  Seneca,  uno  tiagcedianim  qure  supersunt  omnium  auctore.  Viteb.  1802.  8.~^Bcck,  in  Pref. 
to  his  ed.  below  cited.— F.  Jacobs,  in  the  Charakt.  d.  v.  Didder  iv.  332.  — ./.  Jortin,  Remarks  on 
Seneca,  in  Tracts  &.c.  cited  §360.5.— J.J. Scaliger,  Animadv.  crit.  in  his  Opuscula.  Par.1610.  4. 

2.  There  is  extant  a  satirical  piece  ascribed  to  Seneca,  entitled  ' Anoy.uXo- 
jtwrciiffic  ( Metamorphosis  of  a  Gourd),  or  more  properly  Ludus  de  morte  Claudii. 
It  is  a  mock  Apotheosis,  a  satire  on  the  emperor  Claudius,  partly  in  prose  and 
partly  in  verse  ;  considered  as  unworthy  of  Seneca,  and  probably  spurious. 
Several  epigrams  are  found  also  in  his  name,  but  they  are  not  received  as  gen- 
uine. —  The  Prose  writings  of  Seneca  are  noticed  in  another  place  (§  442, 


POETS.       SENECA.    LUCAN.    VALERIUS  FLACCUS.  313 

3.  Editions.  —  Whole  Works,  see  3  469.  4.  —  Tragedies.— Best,  Fr.  H.  Bothe.  Lpz.  1819. 
3  vols.  8 Torkill  Baden.  Lpz.  1821.  2  vols.  8.  —  Noted  among  the  earlier,  J.  C.  Schrceder.  Del- 
phis  (Delft),  1728.  4. L  Fr.  Gronovius.  Amst.  1682.  8.    [This  is  called  by  Dibdin  a  reprint  of 

the  3d  edit,  of  the  Variorum,  Lug.  Bat.  1651 ;  it  has  an  engraved  frontispiece  representing  the 
subjects  of  the  several  plays.  I  have  before  me  a  copy  of  it,  which  was  given  in  the  year  1694 
to  a  pupil  of  the  Gymnasium  of  Dort  (  Gymnasii  Dordraceni)  as  a  "Pramium  literarium"  ("boni 
perfectus  sui  hostimentum" )  ;  the  testimonial  is  in  a  printed  Latin  formula,  with  the  actual  sig- 
natures of  the  Examiners  and  Rector  ;  on  the  outside  of  the  cover  is  an  impression  in  gold  leaf 
representing  the  goddess  of  letters,  with  her  ancient  symbols,  in  the  act  of  presenting  a  book 
of  modern  form,  surmounted  by  the  inscription  Minerva  Dordraccna.]  —  Plantin,  Antw.  1588.8. 

— Jlldus.  Ven.1517.  8.  —  Princeps.  A.Gallus,  Ferrara,  1484.  fol. Of  single  plays  we  can  only 

mention  here  Hercules,  T.  Baden.  1798.  8.  —  Thyestes,  Fr.  Horn,  with  Germ,  version. 
Penig.  1802.  8.  —  M  e  d  e  a  ,  Charles  Beck.  (Prof.  Lat.  in  Harv.  Un.)  Bost.  1834.  18.  —  The  epi- 
grams and  the  Satire  are  found  in  some  of  the  editions  of  the  Tragedies  ;  also  in  the  editions  of 
whole  works.  —  The  Satire  (Ludus  &.C.J,  Fr.  Ch.  JVeubur,  Lat.  &  Germ.  Lpz. 1729.  8.  It  was 
first  published  about  1515  by  Rhenanus  (cf.  the  JVotitia  Literaria,  of  the  Bipont  edition  of  Seneca, 
p.  lix).  —  Fr.  E.  Guascus.  Vercell.  1787.  8.  —  Cf.  Dan.  Heinsius,  De  Senecae  Apocolocyntosi, 
in  his  Orationes.  Lugd.  Bat.  1627.8. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  W.  Rose,  in  his  Tragische  B'vhne,  cited  $312. French. 

—  L.  Coupi,  Theatre  de  Seneque.  »Par.  1796.  2  vols.  8.  —  J.  J.  Rousseau,  of  the  Ludus  de  morte 

Claudii,  in  his  Worlcs,  cited  P.  I.  §  12.  1.    vol.  14th. English.  —  Studlcy,  Heywood,  $•  others. 

Lond.  1581.  See  an  account  of  this  curious  version  in  T.  Warton's  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  p.  205, 
vol.  l v.  ed.  Lond.  1824.  —  Fr.  Sherburne.  Lond.  1708.  8.  —  Agamemnon,  Blackmore,  in  his 
Miscellaneous  Poems.  1718.  8. 

§  375.  Marcus  Annaus  Lucanus,  a  poet  of  the  1st  century,  was  a  native  of 
Corduba.  He  was  born  A.  D.  38,  and  died  A.  D.  65.  His  father  was  a  brother 
of  Seneca  the  philosopher.  Nero  was  jealous  of  his  poetical  talents  ;  and  Lu- 
can,  having  taken  part  in  a  conspiracy  against  Nero,  was  by  him  condemned 
to  die.  The  subject  of  his  poem  entitled  Pharsalia,  in  10  books,  is  the  civil 
war  between  Caesar  &  Pompey,  which  was  terminated  by  the  battle  fought  in 
the  plain  of  Pharsalia.  It  is  historical  rather  than  epic  ;  too  strictly  limited  to 
real  occurrences,  and  too  uniform  in  the  style  of  narrative.  But  it  contains 
excellent  delineations  of  character,  and  finely  wrought  speeches. 

1.  Lucan  was  educated  at  Rome  and  Athens.  At  the  early  age  of  14,  he 
was  accustomed  to  declaim  in  Greek  and  Latin  verse.  By  his  uncle  Seneca, 
the  preceptor  of  Nero,  he  was  brought  into  some  intimacy  with  that  prince. 
Nero  bestowed  on  him  the  offices  of  qurostor  and  augur.  Lucan  imprudently 
became  a  competitor  with  the  prince  in  a  poetical  contest,  and  received  the 
prize  ;  but  he  was  soon  forbidden  to  declaim  again  in  public.  This  perhaps 
instigated  him  to  join  the  party  of  Piso.  Lucan  is  charged  by  Tacitus  (Ann. 
xv.  56j  with  having  betrayed  his  mother  Anicia  as  an  accomplice  in  the  con- 
spiracy, for  the  sake  of  propitiating  the  favor  of  Nero.  But  he  did  not  thus 
secure  his  own  life  ;  Nero  only  allowed  him  to  choose  the  mode  of  his  death. 
He  left  a  widow  named  Polla  Argentaria,  highly  praised  for  her  character. 

Schiill,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  n.  286.— The  Life  of  Lucan,  ascribed  to  Suetonius,  is  found  in  several 
editions  ;  also  in  some  another  Life  drawn  from  a  very  ancient  commentary. — Cf.  Murphy,  Note 
to  Tac.  Ann.  xv.  56.  containing  an  apology  for  Lucan. 

2.  We  have  the  titles  of  several  pieces  by  Lucan,  which  have  perished  ;  among  which  are, 
Saturnalia,  Burning  of  Rome,  Medea,  an  unfinished  tragedy,  and  Combat  of  Hector  fy  Jlchilles, 
composed  at  the  age  of  12. — There  is  extant  a  poem  in  261  verses,  containing  a  Eulogy  on  Piso, 
author  of  the  conspiracy  against  Nero,  which  has  been  ascribed  by  some  to  Lucan,  by  others  to 
Ovid,  but  by  must  critics  to  Saleius  Bassus. 

Schiill,  ii.  292.— Fabricius,  vol.  It.  p.  150.—  Wernsdorf,  Poet.  Lat.  Milt.  4th  vol.— Lemaire,  Poet. 

Lat.  Min.  3d  vol. Respecting  Lncan's  works,  see  also  the  Charakt.  d.  v.  Dichter  vii.  340. — 

G.  Meusel,  Diss,  de  Lucani  Pharsaliis.    HalaD,  1768.  4. —  G.  Waddcl,  Animadvers.  critics  &c. 

Edinb.1734.  8. Tortin,  as  cited  §  360. 5.  —  Marmontel,  in  Preface  to  his  transl.  below  cited.  — 

La  Harpe,  in  his  Melanges  Litteraires.  Par.  1765.  12.-~-if.  Blair,  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  &c.  lect. 
xliii. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best,  C.  F.  Weber.  Lpz.  1821-31.  3  vols.  8.  On  the  basis  of  G.  Corte.  Lpz. 
1726.  8.  which  was  published  before  the  editor's  plan  was  completed  {Dibdin  ii.  186).—/?.  Bent- 
ley  (published  by  his  grandson  R.  Cumberland,  after  BSs  death).  Strawberry-Hill,  1760.  4.  cele- 
brated for  its  beauty  chiefly  (Dibdin).  Reimpr.  Glasg.1816.  8.  —  Noted  among  the  earlier,  P. 
Bwrmann.  Lugd.  Bat. 1740.  4.  The  text  of  Bnrmann  is  partly  followed  in  the  Bipontine.  Strassb. 
(Argent.)  1807.  8.  —  Fr.  Oudendorp.  Leyd.  1728.  4.  —  H.  Grotius.  Ant.  1614.  8.    Grotius  was  a 

great  admirer  of  Lucan,  and  is  said  to  have  carried  a  copy  always  with  him  {semper  insinu) 

The  Princrps,  by  Sweynheym  fy  Pannartz  (print.)    Rom.  1469.  fol. 

4.  Translations.  —  German Ph.  L.  Haus.    Mannh.  1792.  2  vols.  8.  —  Ch.  B.  H.  P'istorius, 

(7th  book,  describing  the  battle).    Berl.  1802.  8. French  — /.  F.  Marmontel  (aro*e).     Par. 

1766.  2  vols.  8.    also  in  his   (Euvres  Completes English  —  Nic.  Rowe  (verse).   Lond.  1718. 

fol.  1807.  3  vols.  12. 

§  376.  Caius  Valerius  Flaccus,  probably  a  native  of  Patavium  (Padua),  lived 
in  the  reign  of  Vespasian  and  Domitian,  and  died  while  young,  A.  D  88. — 
After  the  example  of  Apollonius  Rhodius  f  §  73),  he  selected  the  Argonautic 

27 


314  HISTORY    OF   ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

expedition  as  the  subject  of  an  epic  poem>  of  which  8  books  are  now  extant. 
The  conclusion  of  the  8th  book  is  wanting;  and  the  work  probably  included 
several  other  books.  The  general  tenor  of  this  poem  is  not  sufficiently  anima- 
ted and  interesting ;  and  the  style  is  also  frequently  obscure  and  abrupt. — 
Some  of  the  descriptions,  however,  are  not  destitute  of  poetic  merit;  and  it 
contains  particular  passages  that  are  beautiful. 

1.  The  idea  that  Valerius  was  born  at  Patavium  is  founded  on  passages  in 
Martial  (Ep.  i.  62,-77).  —  The  name  of  Setinus  Balbvs  is  added  to  the  other 
names  of  this  poet,  in  the  manuscripts.  Hence  some  have  supposed  his  birth- 
place to  have  been  Sctia  in  Campania.  Others  suppose  that  Setinus  Balbus 
was  a  grammarian  who  revised  the  text  of  Valerius,  or  perhaps  owned  a  re- 
markable manuscript.  —  Some  critics  rank  the  Argonautica  of  Valerius  next 
to  the  iEneid.  Quintilian  (  Inst.  Or.  x.  1)  speaks  of  his  death  as  a  great  loss 
to  letters. 

Cf.  $  73.  —  Sckdll,    Hist.   Litt.    Rom.   n.  294 Charaktere  der  vornehm.  Dichter,  vm.  296. 

The  Prefaces  of  Burmann  and  Wagner,  given  in  Lemairc's'ed.  below  cited.  —  J.  A.  IVcichert, 
Epistola  Critica  de  C.  Val.  Flac.  Argonaut.    Lpz.  1812.  8. 

2.  Editions.  — Best;  Lemaire.  Par.  1824.  2  vols.  8  fin  his  Biblioth.  Class.  Lot.).  It  contains 
the  Prefaces  of  the  most  important  previous  editions.  —  J.  A.  Weichert.  Misen.  1818.  8.  —  J.  A. 
Wagner.  Gbtt.  1805.  2  vols.  8.  —  Earlier  editions  noted,  P.  Burmann.  Leyd.  1724.  4.  —  J.  Bapt. 
Pius  (or  Pio).  Bonon.  1519.  fol.  containing  2  books,  9th  and  lUth,  fabricated  by  the  editor. 
(Schtill).  The  Prinecp,;  (print,  by)  U.  Rugcrius  <$'  D.  Bentochus.  Bonon.  1174.  fol.  —  Poggio 
first  discovered  a  Ms.  of  Valerius,  containing  the  first  three  books  only,  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Gall,  near  Constance. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —  E.  K.  F.  Wunderlich,  (verse,  with  orig.  text).    Erfurt,  1805.  8. 

Italian M.  Buziusin  the  corpus  etc.  of  Malatesta  $  Argelati,  cited  §  348. W.  A.  Pinde- 

monte.  Verona,  1776.  8. French  —  A.  Dureau  De  Lamallc,  verse,  with  Lat.  text.  Par.  1811. 

3  vols.  8.  —  J.  J.  A.  Cansin  de  Percival,  Lat.  &  Gall,  (prose).    Par.  1818.  8. 

§  377.  Caius  Sltius  Italicus,  whose  birth-place  is  not  certainly  known,  was 
a  poet  of  the  first  century.  He  seems  to  have  received  his  surname  from  the 
place  called  Italica,  in  Spain.  Under  protracted  disease,  having  become  weary 
of  life,  he  ended  it  by  voluntary  starvation,  A.  D.  100.  In  oratory  he  was  an 
imitator  of  Cicero  ;  in  poetry  of  Virgil.  But  in  his  epic  poem,  entitled  Punica, 
on  the  second  Punic  tear,  in  17  books,  he  has  fallen  far  short  of  Virgil.  It  is 
properly  a  historical  poem,  and  a  work  of  diligence  rather  than  of  genius.  On 
account  of  its  historic  fidelity,  many  circumstances  pertaining  to  the  period  to 
which  it  refers  may  be  learned  or  illustrated  from  it. 

1.  Some  suppose  Silius  to  have  been  a  native  of  Corfinium,  in  Italy,  which 
was  sometimes  called  Italica.  He  is  said  to  have  acquired  great  reputation  as 
a  speaker,  at  Rome.  He  rose  in  the  regular  course  of  offices  to  the  rank  of 
consul,  and  under  Vespasian  was  proconsul  of  Asia.  Having  received  these 
honors  and  acquired  an  ample  fortune,  he  retired  to  Campania,  where  he  com- 
posed his  poem.  He  had  purchased  the  estate  that  belonged  to  Virgil,  near 
Naples,  as  also  that  of  Cicero  at  Tusculum.     He  lived  to  the  age  of  75. 

Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  n.  296.  Bdhr,  p.  151.  —  Qenileman's  Magazine,  vol  UIL  p.  200.  — 
Ccllarius,  Heyne,  fy  Ruperti,  in  the  editions  of  Ruperti  and  Lemaire,  below  cited.  —  Ernesti,  De 
Carmine  Siliano,  in  his  edition  below  cited. —  Charaktere  d.  vorn.  Dichter,  vn.3C9 

2.  Editions.  —  Best ;  6.  A.  Ruperti.  Gbtt.  1795-S8.  2  vols.  8.  —  Lemaire.  Par.  1823.  2  vols.  8 
(in  his  Bill.  Class.  Lat.).  —  Valuable,  J.  Ernesti.  Lpz.  1791.  2  vols.  8.  —  A.  Drukenborch. 
Utrecht,  1717.  4.  The  text  of  this  is  followed  by  J.  P.  Schmid.  Mitau,  1775.  8.  and  in  the  £i- 
pont,  1784.  8.' —  The  Princeps,  by  Swcynheym  <$'  Pannartz  (printers).  Rom.  1471.  fol.  —  The  ed. 
of  D.  Hcinsiiis,  Lugd.  Bat.  1600.  8.  (republ.  Camb.  1C46.  12.  J  contains  notes  of  some  value  under 
the  title  of  Crepundia  Siliana. 

3.  Translations.  —  French. T.  B.  Lefebure  de  Villebrune,  with  the  Latin.    Par.  1781. 3  vols. 

12. English.  —  Th.  Ross.    Lond  1658.  1672.  —  Also  by  Alsop. 

4.  At  the  revival  of  letters  there  was  a  general  conviction  that  the  poem  of  Silius  was  lost. 
Under  the  idea  of  replacing  it,  the  celebrated  Petrarch  composed  his  Africa,  the  subject  of  which 
is  the  second  Punic  war  Villebrune,  however,  has  imagined,  that  Petrarch  had  a  copy  of  Sil- 
ius and  concealed  the  fact  in  order  to  add  to  the  glory  of  his  own  work.  Poggio  found  a  man- 
uscript of  Silius,  probably  in  the  convent  of  St.  Gall,  during  the  sitting  of  the  council  of  Con- 
stance. A  copy  of  this,  taken  by  himself  and  one  of  his  friends,  was  the  original  from  which 
the  first  editions  were  drawn.  About  1575,  Louis  Carrio  discovered  another  manuscript  at 
Cologne,  of  the  age  of  Charlemagne  as  he  supposed.  A  thiid,  of  less  ancient  date,  was  found 
at  Oxford.  —  Cf.  SchoU,  n.  302.  —  Respecting  the  Mss.  found  by  Poggio,  near  Constance,  see 
Fabrichts,  Biblioth.  Lat.  ii.  p.  259. 

§  378.  Publius  Papinius  §latius,  of  Neapolis,  flourished  in  the  last  half  of 
the  first  century  and  was  a  favorite  of  Domitian,  His  greatest  poem  is  an 
epic,  entitled  Thebais,  the  subject  of  which  is  the  contest  between  the  Theban 
brothers  Eteocles  and  Polynices,  and  the  capture  of  Thebes  by  Theseus.     We 


POETS.       STATIUS.    MARTIAL.  315 

do  not  find  in  it  richness  of  invention,  consistency,  or  conformity  to  nature  ; 
and  the  language  is  deficient  in  classical  excellence.  The  Achilleis,  which  is 
another  epic  poem,  on  the  adventures  of  Achilles  before  the  Trojan  war,  is  in- 
complete. Besides  these,  there  are  extant  five  books  of  miscellaneous  pieces 
under  the  title  of  Sylvce,  which  are  of  very  unequal  merit. 

1.  Statius  was  educated  at  Rome,  where  his  father  became  a  preceptor  of 
Domitian.  He  had  a  great  facility  in  composing  verses.  Three  times  he 
gained  the  prize  in  the  Alban  games.  Yet  he  is  said  to  have  been  poor,  and 
obliged  to  sell  dramatic  pieces  to  the  actors  for  means  of  subsistence.  He  re- 
tired from  Rome,  to  a  small  estate,  given  to  him  perhaps  by  the  emperor,  and 
there  died,  while  young,  A.  D.  96. 

ScMll,  ii.  303.  —  Bdhr,  p.  155.  —  L.  G.  Ghjraldus,  Life  of  Statius,  in  his  Dial,  cited  §  348, 
and  in  the  ed.  of  Lemaire  below  cited. 

2.  The  Thebaid  consists  of  12  books  :  it  is  an  imitation  of  Antimachus, 
whose  poem  in  24  books,  under  the  same  title,  is  chiefly  lost  (cf.  §  19J.  Of 
the  Achilleis  there  are  but  two  books,  although  sometimes  divided  into  more. 
The  collection  termed  Sijlvce,  includes  32  pieces,  chiefly  in  hexameter,  on  va- 
rious subjects,  composed  hastily. 

See  the  Testimonia  et  Judicia  de  Statlo,  in  Lemaire' s  edition.  —  Rollin,  Polite  Learning  or  the 
Belles  Lettres,  in  his  Anc.  Hist.  p.  491.  ed.  N.  Y.  1835.— Charaktere  der  vorn.  Dichter,  viii.  344. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best;  Whole  works. flmar   §  Lemaire  (in  Lemaire' s  Bibl.  Class. J.    Par. 

1825.  4  vols.  8.  —  The  Bipontine,  1785.  8.  and  that  of  J.  Mien.  Warrington,  1778.  2  vols.  12. 
are  considered  as  respectable.  —  Of  the  earlier  ;  most  noted,  Casp.  Barthius  (ed.by  Ch.  Damn). 
Cygnse  (Zwickau,),  1664.  3  vols.  4.  —  .7.  F.  Gronovius.  Amst.  1653.  8.    repupl.    Manheim,  1782. 

2  vols.  8 The   Princeps  ( according  to  HarlesJ-  Romae,  1475.  fol.  without  name  of  printer  ; 

f according  to  Dibdin^  Scotus.  Ven.  1483.  fol.  Separate  poems  were  printed  earlier  — Sylvffi, 
J.  Markland.    Lond.  1728.  4.  —  F.  Hand.   Lpz.  1816.  8.  —  Silliv.    Dresd.  1827.  4. 

4.  Translations.  —  French.  —  Mich,  de  Marollcs.  Par.  1658.  3  vols.  8.  —  P.  L.  Cormilliole. 
2d  ed.  Par.  1805.  4  vols.  12.  —  Rinn,  Jichaintree,  <$•  Boutteville  (Lat.  &  Gall.).  Par.  1832.  4  vols.  8, 

—  Cournard  (Achilleis).  Par.  1800.  12.  —  De  la  Tour   (Svlvre,  with  Lat.  text>  Par.  1803.8 

English.— Rob.  Howard,  Achilleis.  Lond.  1660.  8.-7'.  Stevens,  5  books  of  the  Thebaid.  Lond. 
1648.  8.  —  W.  L.  Lewis,  Thebaid.    Oxf.  2d  ed.  1773.  2  vols.  8.  in  verse,  with  a  dissertation  on 

Statius  prefixed. German.  —  J.  G.  Dollina-,  Die  erste  Svlve  ubersetz  und  erlautert.    Plau. 

1838.  8.  32pp. 

5.  Illustrative.— .7.  M.  Lochmann,  Programma  de.  P.  Statio.  Cob.  1774.  4. — Dodwell,  Annates 
Statiri  &c.  Oxf.  1698.  8.— .7.  Jorfm,  as  cited  §  360.  5.—./.  Fr.  Gronovii,  in  Statii  Sylv.  libros 
v.  Pi  a  tribe,  etc.  ed.  by  F.  Hand.  Lpz.  1812.  2  vols.  8.  This  work  contains  the  literary 
controversy  between  Gronovius  and  Cruceus,  including  the  Diatribe  (first  publ.  1637.  8),  the 
Jlntidiatribe  of  Cruceus  (1639),  the  Elenchus  Jlntidiatribes,  by  Gronovius  (1640),  and  the  Musca- 
rium,  by  Cruceus  (1640).     Cf.  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  n.  p.  335. 

§  379.  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis,  of  Bibilis  in  Celtiberia,  was  a  poet  of 
the  same  period.  He  wrote  his  Epigrams  in  the  reign  of  Titus  and  of  Do- 
mitian. These  pieces  are  arranged  in  14  books.  Prefixed  to  them  is  a  sepa. 
rate  book  on  the  public  shows  or  spectacles  ;  but  the  pieces  in  it  are  perhaps 
the  productions  of  several  authors.  Most  of  the  epigrams  are  uncommonly 
ingenious  and  appropriate  ;  their  multitude  and  excellence  cause  us  to  ad- 
mire the  ever  lively  and  almost  exhaustless  wit  of  this  poet. 

1.  Martial  was  obliged  to  obtain  subsistence  by  his  personal  exertions,  and 
preferred  to  devote  himself  to  poetry  for  the  purpose*,  rather  than  to  oratory 
and  pleading.  At  about  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  fixed  his  residence  at 
Rome.  Having  passed  there  thirty-five  years  he  returned  to  Spain,  having 
received  from  Pliny  the  younger  the  means  of  defraying  his  traveling  ex- 
penses. In  Spain  he  married  a  woman  named  Marcella,  who  had  rich  posses- 
sions on  the  river  Salon,  a  branch  of  the  Iberus.  His  birth  has  been  dated 
A.  D.  43,  his  death  A.  D.  101. — The  epigrams  in  the  14  books  amount  to  about 
1200  in  number.  The  13th  book  is  styled  Xenia  as  containing  mottos  or  de- 
vices for  presents  bestowed  on  friends  ;  and  the  14th,  Apophoreta,  containing 
mottos  for  such  presents  as  were  distributed  at  various  festivals.  There  are 
some  other  pieces  ascribed  to  this  poet.  Many  of  Martial's  epigrams  are 
very  obscene. 

Sclioll,  Rom.  Litt.  n.  349.— Bdhr,  p.  327.— Cf.  Pliny,  Epist.  lib.  ill.  e.  21. 
2.  Editions.— Best  ;  Lemaire,  (in  his  Bibl.  Lat).  Par.  1828.  3  vols.  8.— L.  Schmids,  Amst. 
1701.8.  An  ed.  publ.  at  Vienna  (Vindob),  1804.  2  vols.  8.  is  considered  good  (Klugling) ; 
another,  Lond.  1816.  12.  (FuhrmannJ.— The  more  important  of  the  earlier,  C.  Schrcvel.  Leyd. 
1670.  8.— P.  Scriver.  Leyd.  1619.  12.  Amst.  1621.  followed  in  the  Bipontine,  1784. 8 — M.  Rader, 
Moguntiacum  (Maynz).-  1627.  fol.  with  a  commentary  highly  valued.— Princeps,  Laver.  Rom. 
without  date.  4.  ( Dibdin,  n.  p.  2:26).— For  the  epigrams  not  included  in  the  15  books,  see  Bur- 
inamu    Anthol.  Lat.  vol.  i. 


316  HISTORY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

3.  Translations. — German.— C.  W.  Ramler,  (select  epigrams  with  Lat.  text).     Lpz.   1787-91. 

5  vols.  8.  with  a  supplem.  vol.  entitled  JYachlese.     Berl.  1724.  8. French. —  Costar  (selection). 

Toul.  1689.  2  vols.  12.— E.  T.  Simon,  with  orie.  Par.  1819.  3  vols.  8. English—  Tim.  Kendal. 

Lond.  1577.  12.     Cf.  Warton,  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry  iv.  259.-7%.  May,  1629.  12.—  Th.  Seolt.     1773. 
8. — J.  FJphinston.     Lond.  1782.  4. 

4.  Illustrative.— P.  Zornius,  Diss,  de  Scholis  publicis  antiq.  Judaeorum.  Plcenre.  1716.  con- 
taining a  notice  of  various  explanations  of  the  term  Anchialus  in  Martial  ii.  94. — R.  M.  r. 
Ooens,  Epist.  Crit.  de  locis  quibusdarn  M.  V.  Martialis.  Traject.  1764.  8.  (also  in  Harles,  Brev. 
IVot.  Suppl.  ii.  p.  126). — Qnt.  de  Rooy,  Andimadv.  Crit.  in  M.  V.  Martialis  Epigram.  Harder- 
ovici,  1788.  8.— JVic.  Perotti,  Coinu  Copiae  (a  commentary  on  Martial),  first  publ.  Ven.  1489. 
fol. 

§  380.  Deeimus  Junius  Juvenalis,  a  native  of  Aquinum,  applied  himself 
first  to  eloquence,  and  afterwards  to  poetry.  He  lived  from  A.  D.  38  to  A.  D. 
119.  He  published  his  satires  but  one  year  before  his  death,  in  the  reign  of 
Hadrian.  Sixteen  of  these  are  now  extant,  which  are  sometimes  unnecessa- 
rily divided  into  five  books.  With  a  noble  and  animated  spirit  he  inveighs 
against  the  vices  and  follies  of  his  times,  but  he  paints  them  with  too  great 
freedom.  His  style  is  less  elegant  than  that  of  Horace,  and  less  difficult  and 
obscure  than  that  of  Persius. 

1.  Our  knowledge  of  Juvenal's  history  is  derived  from  a  short  biography 
ascribed  to  Suetonius.  He  is  supposed  to  have  employed  his  talent  for  satire 
first,  at  about  the  age  of  40,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  Most  of  his  satires 
were  composed  in  the  reign  of  Trajan.  Two  of  them,  the  13th  and  loth, 
were  written  after  Hadrian  received  the  empire,  w7hen  Juvenal  was  in  his 
79th  year.  On  reciting  his  satires  publicly,  which  he  did  now  for  the  first 
time,  he  excited  great  admiration.  His  7th  satire,  which  was  the  first  compos- 
ed by  him  and  which  was  directed  against  a  favorite  of  Domitian,  awakened 
the  jealousy  of  Hadrian.  Under  pretext  of  bestowing  an  honor,  the  emperor 
appointed  him  to  a  military  command  at  Syene  in  Egypt,  according  to  some, 
or  according  to  others  at  the  great  Oasis  (cf.  P.  V.  §  176),  which  was  a  resi- 
dence for  exiles  ;  here  Juvenal  died  a  few  years  after. 

J.  V.  Franke,  Exam.  crit.  D.  J.  Juvenalis  vita?.  Lpz.  1820.  8. — Also  same.  Brief  an  Cra- 
mer, iiber  ein  Einschiebel  Tribonians  bevm  Ulpian  die  Verbannung  nach  der  grossen  Oase 
betreffend.  Kill.  1819.  S.—  SchUll,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  n.  329.—  Q.  A.  Rupert,  in  Prolegomena  to 
his  ed.  below  cited. — Manso's  Character  of  Juvenal,  in  the  Charaktere  d.  vorn.  Dichtcr,  vi.  294. 

2.  Horace,  Persius  and  Juvenal  form  the  illustrious  trio  of  Roman  satirists. 
Most  of  the  critics  and  translators  of  either  have  made  comparisons,  in  which 
each  writer  has  labored  apparently  to  show  the  superiority  of  his  favorite. 
Heinsius  and  Dacier  exalt  Horace  ;  Scaliger  and  Rigaltius  plead  the  cause  of 
Juvenal  ;  while  Persius  finds  a  defender  in  Casaubon.  Dryden  has  attempted 
a  comparison  with  these  various  opinions  in  view  ;  and  Gilford,  with  the  Ded- 
ication of  Dryden,  the  preface  of  Dussaulx,  and  the  prolegomena  of  Rupert 
before  him,  has  endeavored  to  exhibit  in  a  complete  manner  the  characteris- 
tics of  each  poet. 

Burgess,  Tractatus  var.  Lat.  (containing  Rigaltius  de  sat.  x.  Juv.)  Lond.  1788.  8. — Heinsius, 
De  Sat.  Horatiana,  first  published  in  his  ed.  of  Horace.  Lug.  Bat.  1612.  8. — Dussaulx,  Sur  les 
Satyriques  Latins,  in  his  ed.  and  version  below  cited. — T.  F.  Laharpe,  Lycee,  ou  Cours  de 
Litterature  ( torn.  2.  $  9).  Par.  1799.  ("An.  7 J. — Dryden  and  Gifford,  in  translations  below 
cited. 

3.  Editions.— Best ;  G.  A.  Rupert.    Lps.  1820.  2  vols.   8.  (first  ed.   1801).— That  of  JV.   L. 

Achaintree.    Par.  1810.  2  vols.  8.  is   highly  commended. — In  Lemaire's  Bibl. Among  earlier 

editions  noted,  Henninius.  Traject.  1685.  4.— Pithwus.  Lutet.  1585.  8.— Aldus,  Ven.  1501.  8. — 
There  were  many  editions  before  1500,  usually  including  Persius. — The  Princeps,  by  V.  dc 
Spira.  Ven.  1470.  fol.  (Fuhrmann) — The  Delphined.  by  L.  Pratcus,  1st  ed.  Par.  1684.  4. 
has  been  reprinted  in  this  country.  Phil.  1814.  8.  containing  Persius. — Some  of  the  approved 
editions  as  containing  both  Juvenal  and  Persius  ;  Bipontine,  Zweibruch.  (Bip).  1785.  8. — Sandby. 
Cambr.  1763.  3.  with  plates.—  Th.  Marshall.  Lond.  1723.  8—  C.  W.  Stacker.  Oxf.  1837. 8.  with 
English  notes. 

4.  Translations.— German.—  C.  F.  Bahrdt.  Niirnb.  3d  (ed).  1821.  8. — T.  J.  C.  Domer.  Tu- 
bing. 1821.  8. French.— J.  Dussaulx,  with  orig.  text.     Par.  1796.  2  vols.  4.      Reprinted   (JV*. 

L.  Achaintree  ed;.     Par.  1820.  2  vols.  8.— L.  V.  Raoul.    Tournav,  1818.  2  vols.  8. English.— 

R.  Staplcton.     Oxf.  1644.  fol. W.  Gifford,  in  verse.     Lond.  1802.  4.  improved  ed.  Lond.  1817. 

2  vols.  8.—  Ch.  Badham.  Lond.  1814.  8.  Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xi.  377.—  Sinclair.  Lond.  1815. 
12.— Dryden,  cf.  §373.  3.—  T.  Sheridan.  Lond.  1739.  S.—Madan.  Oxf.  1807.  2  vols.  8.  with 
Persius. 

5.  Illustrative. —  C.  Fr.  Heinrich,  in  his  three  Commentations,  printed  successively,  Kilon, 
1806,  ItSlO,  1811.  4.— J.  C.  Fr.  Manso,  Observ.  in  loca  aliquot  dirhcil.  D.J.  Juvenalis.  1812. 
4.— A.  O.  Cramer,  in  Juvenalis  satiras  Commentarii  vetusti.  Hamb.  1823.  8.— Cf.  Moss,  Man- 
ual of  Bibliogr.  ii.  165. 

§  381.  Flavius  Avianus  lived  probably  in  the  2d  century,  in  the  reign  of  the 
Antonines.     We  have,  under  his  name,  42  fables  in  elegiac  verse.     The  text 


POETS.       JUVENAL.    AVIANUS.    CATO.    NEMESIAN.  317 

is  in  a  very  imperfect  state  ;  and,  in  natural  ease  of  expression,  the  fables  are 
far  inferior  to  those  of  Phaedrus. 

1.  Avianus,  from  his  censure  of  idolatry  in  one  of  the  fables,  is  by  some 
supposed  to  have  been  a  Christian.  Respecting  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  the 
critics  are  not  agreed  ;  some  assign  him  to  the  4th  century. 

See  Cannegieter,  Diss,  de  astate  F.  Aviani,  in  his  ed.  below  cited. — Sckoll,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  67. 

Harles,  Brev.  Not.  Suppl.  ii.  333. — i*V,  Hvlsemann,  De  codice  Fabularum  Aviani  Lunensi  &c. 

Gott.1807.  8.— Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  61ss.— F.A.Ukert,  Geograph.  der  Griech.  und  Rom.  Weim. 
1821.  8.—  Wernsdorf,  Comment,  de  R.  F.  Avieno,  in  his  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  vol.  \.—Buhle,  in  Pref. 
to  his  ed.  of  Aratus  (cf.  §  71).  —  Schaubach,  cited  $  370. 

2.  Editions.— Best,  J.  A.  Nodcll,  Amst.  1787.  8.— H.  Cannegieter.  Amst.  1731.  8.— Found  also 
in  the  Bipontirte  ed.  of  Phcedrus.  1785.  8.— and  in  Mattaire's  Phnedrus.  Lond.  1773.  12. 

3.  Translations.  —  Italian.— G.  C.  Trotnbelli  (with  the  fables  of  Oabrias,  cf.  $184).  Ven.1735. 
8. English.— J^.  Caxton.  1484.  fol. 

4.  The  fables  have  sometimes  been  published  under  the  name  of  Rufus  Fes- 
tus  Avienus,  who  was  a  different  person  from  Avianus,  although  often  con- 
founded with  him.  Avienus  probably  flourished  about  A.  D.  400;  most  that 
is  known  respecting  him  is  drawn  from  his  writings,  especially  an  inscription 
found  at  Rome,  and  contained  in  Burmann  s  Latin  Anthology,  consisting  of 
eight  verses  addressed  by  Avienus  to  Arortia,  an  Etruscan  deity. — The  princi- 
pal work  of  Avienus  was  a  translation  of  the  tpaivouira  of  Aratus  (§  71)  ', 
sometimes  entitled  Carmen  de  Astris.  He  also  translated  the  nsQi^yijatg  of 
Dionysius  of  Charax  (§  217),  in  a  poem  of  1394  hexameter  lines,  entitled  De- 
scriptio  orbis  terra.  Another  production  was  called  Ora  Maritime/,,  a  poetical 
description  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  from  Cadiz  to  the  Black  sea ;  a  frag- 
ment only  remains,  of  about  700  lines.  There  remains  also  three  other  short 
pieces  by  Avienus.  He  is  said  likewise  to  have  reduced  the  History  of  Livy 
to  Iambic  verse.  — There  is  a  poem  in  about  1100  hexameters,  called  Epitome 
llia.dos  Homeri,  which  some  have  ascribed  to  Avienus. 

5.  Editions  of  Avienus.  The  Princeps,  O.  Valla.  Ven.1488.  4. — A  more  complete  ed.  P.  Me- 
lian.  Madrit.  1634.  4. — Best,  in  Lemaire,  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  vol.  v.  (Par.  1826.)  and  in  Wcrnsdorf, 
above  cited.     The  smaller  pieces  are  found  in  Burmann,  Anthol.  Lat. 

§  382.  Dionysius  Cato,  a  writer  of  whose  history  nothing  is  known  with 
certainty,  belonged,  as  some  suppose,  to  the  same  age  with  Avianus.  He  was 
the  author  of  moral  maxims  or  sentences,  which  are  composed  in  Distichs, 
and  are  chiefly  valuable  for  their  instructive  character.  It  is  not  impossible, 
however,  that  they  were  of  a  much  later  origin,  and  were  marked  with  the 
name  of  the  Roman  moralist  Cato,  on  account  of  the  sentiments  contained  in 
them. 

1.  The  chief  authority  for  assigning  D.  Cato  to  the  age  of  the  Antonines  is 
a  passage,  in  which  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  (cf.§196)  appears  to  speak  of  him. 
Some  have  supposed  the  Distichs  (Disticha  de  moribus,  in  4  books)  to  be  that 
work  of  Cato  the  censor  which  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  &  Aulus  Gellius.  The 
work  was  held  in  very  high  estimation  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries. 

Sckall,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  m.  31.—  Bernhold,  in  Pref.  to  his  ed.  below  cited.  —  Dissertations  of 
Boxhorn,  Cannegieter,  &  Wttliof,  in  the  ed.  of  Arntien  below  cited. —  fVarton,  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry 
iii.  2. 

2.  Editions.  —  Most  complete,  Kami*  <fc  Koenigsfeld.  Amst.  1759.  2  vols.  8. — T.  M.  Bernhold. 
Schweinfurt  (Alarcbr.)  1784.  2  vols.  8.— O.  Arntien.  Amst.  1754.  8.  —  The  Princeps,  Sermonea 
super.  Catonis  Ethica  &c»  Augusts,  1475.  (Harles,  Brev.  Not.  p.  697). 

3.  Translations.  —  GerWn.—  C-  B.  H.  Pistorius  (metrical).   Stralsund,  1816.  8. French.— 

Maturinus  Cordcrius  (Corderoy),  dedicated  to  Rob.  Stephens,  Lat.  et  Gall.  Par.1561.  8. — A.  M. 
H.  Boulard  (ed.)  Lat.  French,  &c  Greek.  Par.  1802.  8.  The  Distichs  were  translated  into  Greek 
by  Maximus  Planudes  at  Constantinople  ;  his  version  was  printed  with  the  orig.  Antw.  1568. 

English.—  W.  Caxton.  Lond.  1483.  ;   in  the  preface,  he  pronounces  Cato's  Morals  "  the  best 

boke  for  to  be  taught  to  yonge  children  in  schole"  (  Warton). 

§  383.  Marcus  Aurelius  Ohjmpius  Nemcsianus,  a  native  of  Carthage,  lived 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  3d  century.  He  strove  successfully  for  the  prize  in  a 
poetical  contest  with  the  emperor  Numerianus.  We  have  from  him  a  poem 
on  Hunting  (  Cynegetica),  which  in  point  of  style  and  skill  in  execution  ap- 
pears to  great  advantage  among  the  works  of  that  age.  There  also  remain  two 
fragments  of  a  poem  by  him  on  Folding  (De  Aucupio).  The  four  pastorals 
ascribed  to  him  were  probably  written  by  Calpurnius. 

1.  Little  is  known  respecting  the  life  of  Nemesian ;  the  chief  notices  are 
found  in  the  life  of  Numerian  by  Vopiscus  (cf.  §  542.6).  Vopiscus  states  that 
he  composed  poems  entitled  Cynegetica,  Halieutica,  and  JYautica,  and  that  he 
27* 


318  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE, 

gained  various  prizes.  —  There  is  a  small  poem  in  honor  of  Hercules,  De  lau* 
dibus  Hercuiis,  which  some  ascribe  to  Nemesian. 

Schwll,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  34. Respecting  the  Pastorals  (Bucolica,  Ecloga);  cf.  Wernsdorf,  in 

his  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  and  Midler,  in  his  Einleitung  &c.  cited  §  299.  8.     They  were  first  ascribed 
to  Nemesian,  in  the  ed.  of  Angelus  Ugoletus.   Parm.  withoutdate  (about  14ii3),  fol. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best ;  whole  remains,  Lemaire,  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  1st  vol.  —  Wernsdorf,  Poet. 
Lat.  Min.  —  The  Cynegetica  ;  often  printed  with  Gratius  Faliscus,  as  in  the  Princeps  ed.  by 
Logus.  Ven.  1534.  8.  (cf.  §  367) ;  this  contained  also  the  Bucolics,  first  printed  by  Schweynheim 
#  Pannartz.  Rom.  1471.  4."  —  K.  A.  Kvttner.  Rlittau,  1775.  8.  with  Gratius.  —  Bucolica,  with 
notes  of  P.  Burmann  &.  others.    Mitt,  1774.  8.  including  also  Calpurnius. 

3.  Translations.  —  French.  —  Of  the  whole  Remains,  by  S.  M,  de  la  Tour.  Par.  1799.  8. 

Italian.  —  J.  G.  Farsctti,  in  his  Discorso  sopra  il  Trattato  della  Natura  dell'  Egloga  di   Fonte- 
nelle.   Ven.  1752.  8. 

§  384.  Titus  Julius  Calpurnius,  born  in  Sicily,  was  a  contemporary  of  Ne- 
mesian. There  are  extant  seven  Eclogues  by  this  poet,  composed  in  the 
manner  of  Virgil,  and  distinguished  by  an  easy  versification.  They  are  dedi- 
cated, as  some  suppose,  to  Nemesian. 

1.  The  Eclogues  themselves  furnish  what  we  know  respecting  Calpurnius. 
The  protector  and  friend  to  whose  honor  he  seems  to  have  dedicated  his  poems 
was  not,  probably,  the  poet  Nemesian  ;  as  this  protector  was  a  man  in  high  rank 
at  the  emperor's  court  (magister  officiorum,  Eel.  iv.  150,159).  —  The  four  Ec- 
logues, sometimes  ascribed  to  Nemesian,  there  is  little  doubt,  belong  to  Cal- 
purnius, making  the  whole  number  eleven;  which  were  all  published  as  his, 
in  the  editions  preceding  that  of  Ugoletus  (cf.  §  383.  1). 
Scha-ll,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  36.— Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit,  p.  302. 

2.  Editions.— Best;  C.D.Beck.  Lpz.1803. 8.— Lemaire,  Poet.  Lat. Min.  1st  vol.— Contained  also 

in  Wernsdorf,  Poet.  Lat.  Min. Princeps.    Schweynheim  fy  Pannartz  (ox.)   Rom.  1741.  4.    Cf. 

§  383.  2. 

3.  Translations.  —  German. — Best  f  according  to  Fuhrmann)  by  G.  E.  Klausen,  Altona,1807. 
8.  with  original.— Fr.  Adelunv.  Petersb.  1804.  4.— Ch.  G.  Wiss.  Lpz.  1805.  8. French.— Mai- 
Taut.   Bruxelles,  1744.  12. Italian.—  G.  Farsetti.   Ven.  1761.  8. 

§  385.  Decimus  Magnus  Ausonius,  a  native  of  Burdigala  (Bourdeauz),  and 
probably  a  Christiany  was  a  grammarian,  rhetorician,  and  poet,  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury. He  was  preceptor  to  the  emperor  Gratian,  under  whom  he  afterwards 
held  the  office  of  consul  at  Rome.  Subsequently,  he  lived  in  literary  ease  in 
his  native  city.  Some  of  the  smaller  poems,  which  we  have  under  his  name, 
belong  to  the  general  class  of  epigrams  ;  others  are  mere  epitaphs  and  memo- 
rial  verses  ;  the  20  Idyls  may  be  entitled  to  the  name,  because  they  are  truly 
little  pictures,  short  pieces  of  a  descriptive  character  >  but  they  are  not,  prop- 
erly speaking,  pastoral  poems. 

1.  The  evidence  that  Jhisanius  waa  a  Christian  is  drawn  from  his  poems, 
particularly  the  first  Idyl.  Yet  some  have  questioned  whether  he  really  was, 
on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  pagan  mythology  is  employed  in  some  of 
his  pieces,  and  especially  on  account  of  their  licentious  character.  —  The  me- 
morial verses,  in  honor  of  the  Professors  of  Burdigala  (commemoratio  profes- 
sorum  Burdigalensium) ,  are  of  considerable  interest  to  literary  history  ;  they 
celebrate  teachers  of  rhetoric  and  grammar  otherwise  unknown. — Among  the 
epitaphs  are  some  upon  Grecian  heroes,  which  are  supposed  to  have  beers 
drawn  from  the  Ilinloc  of  Aristotle  (cf.  §191.  2).  After  these,  are  epitaphs 
upon  the  Roman  emperors.  We  find  some  valuable  information  in  the  poem, 
or  poems,  entitled  Ordo  nobilium  urbium,  giving  a  description  of  17  principal 
cities  of  the  Roman  empire.  —  The  10th  Idyl,  on  the  river  Moselle,  is  consid- 
ered one  of  the  best  pieces  of  Ausonius.  The  I3th,  cento  nuptialis,  is  com- 
posed of  verses  or  hemistichs  taken  from  Virgil ;  it  does  no  honor  to  the  pu- 
rity of  the  author's  imagination. 

Schall,  m.  45.  —  J.L.E.  Pvttmunn,  De  Epocha  Ausoniana  &c.  Diatribe.  Lips.  1776.  8.  ( con- 
taining also  E.  Corsinus,  De  Ausonii  Consuratu  Epistola.  Pis.  1764.)  —  Ch.  G.  Heijne,  Censurai 
ingenii  et  morum  D.  M.  Ausonii  Sec.  GStt.  1802.  fcl.  Also  in  his  Qpusc.  Acad,  vol.  vi.  Gott. 
1812.— De  Labastide  &  J9'  Ussicux,  Historre  de  la  Litterature  Francoise.  Par.  1770. 

2.  Editions.  —  Among  the  best ;  .LB.  Souchay,  fin  usum  Delph.;  Pasr.1730.4.—  Valpy,  in  his 
Delphin  $  Variorum  Classics.  —  The  Biponthie.  Bip.  1785.  8.  is  correct,  and  its  JVoiitia  Litcraria 
valuable.— J.  Tollius.  Amst.  1671.  8.  the  Variorum  ;  valued  highly  —The  Princeps,  B.  Girardi- 
nus.  Ven.  1472.  fol.  containing  also  Calpurnius  &.  Proba  Falconiu^-Some  of  the  poems  are  given 
in  Lemaire''s  Poet.  Lat.  Min. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.— Of  the  10th  Idyl,  by  L.  Tross,  metrical,  with  orig.  Lat.  Hamm. 

1824.  8. French.— Of  whole  works,  by  Joubert.    Par.  1769.  4  vols.  12. English.— Of  some 

of  the  epigrams,  by  T.Kendall,  Flowers  of  Epigrammes  out  of  sundrie  the  most  singular  authors 
&.c.   Lond.  1577.  . 

4.  Proba  Falconia  was  a  native  of  Horta,  and  lived  at  the  close  of  the  4th  century.    She  is 


POETS.       AUSONIUS.    CLAUDIAN.    PRUDENTIUS.  319 

mentioned  here  on  account  of  her  Biblical  History,  composed  (like  the  13th  Idyl  of  Ausonius) 
by  uniting  centos  of  Virgil,  employed  so  as  to  designate  events  related  in  the  Old  &  Xevv  Testa- 
ment. —  The  Centos  were  published  by  L.  H.  Toucher.  Lpz.  1793.  8.  with  a  Greek  work  styled 
1  Ou  ijuixirr^a  f  cf.  §  78.  5).  —  Cf.  J.  Fontaninus,  De  Antiquitatibus  Hortte.  Rom.  1708.  4.  con- 
taining a  Dissertation  on  Proba. — J.  Chr.Wolf,  Mulierum  Graecarum,  qua  orat.  prosa  usee  sunt, 

fragmenta.   Lond.  1739.  4.  containing  a  catalogue  of  ancient  distinguished  women. Several 

works  of  similar  device,  i.  e.  composed  of  lines  or  clauses  taken  from  Virgil,  have  been  pre- 
served.   Cf.  Schcell,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  53.  —  P.  Burmann,  Anthol.  Lat.  cited  §  348. 

§  386.  Claudius  Claudianus,  of  Egypt,  was  an  author  of  Greek  and  Latin 
poetry,  under  Honorius  and  Arcadius,  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries.  Besides 
several  panegyrical  poems,  we  have  from  him  two  small  epic  productions  ; 
one  entitled  De  Raptu  Proserpina,  in  7  books  ;  the  other,  Gigantomachia,  or 
the  War  of  the  Giants,  not  completed  ;  and  also  two  historical  poems,  De  hello 
Gildonico  and  De  hello  Getico.  There  are  likewise  two  satires,  each  divided 
into  two  books,  written  by  Claudian  against  Rufinus  and  Eutropius,  rivals 
of  Stilicho.  Among  his  epigrams  and  other  smaller  pieces,  some  are  happy 
performances.  In  general,  however,  his  thoughts,  images,  and  expressions, 
bear  the  marks  of  the  unnatural  and  artificial  taste  belonging  to  the  age, 
although  his  own  genius  and  poetical  ability  shine  through  them. 

1.  Claudian  was  born  probably  about  A.  D.  365,  at  Alexandria,  where  he 
was  educated.  Subsequently  he  lived  for  a  time  at  Rome,  and  at  Mediolanum, 
which  was  then  the  residence  of  Honorius,  the  emperor  of  the  West.  He  en- 
joyed the  patronage  of  Stilicho,  the  guardian  and  minister  of  Honorius;  and 
was  elevated  to  important  civil  offices.  His  wife  was  a  rich  heiress  from  Al- 
exandria. He  continued  in  favor  at  court  until  the  ruin  of  Stilicho,  who  was 
accused,  perhaps  unjustly,  of  a  design  to  place  his  own  son  on  the  throne, 
and  was  put  to  death  A.  D.  408.  How  far  the  poet  suffered  from  this  catas- 
trophe is  not  certainly  known  ;  but  he  did  not  long  survive  it. 

Cf.  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  Roman  Emp.  ch.  30. A  statue  was  erected  to  Claudian 

during  the  time  of  his  prosperity,  in  the  forum  of  Trajan,  on  the  request  of  the  senate,  by  Ar- 
cadius and  Honorius.  The  pedestal,  with  an  inscription,  was  discovered  at  Rome  in  the  15th 
century  ;  there  are,  however,  doubts  respecting  the  authenticity  of  the  monument.  The  in- 
scription is  given  by  Schccll,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  m.  p.  82. 

2  The  first  compositions  of  Claudian  are  said  to  have  been  in  Greek;  the 
Gigantomachia  was  originally  written  in  that  language  ;  a  few  verses  of  this 
poem  and  two  epigrams,  with  some  other  trifling  fragments,  are  now  extant  in 
Greek.  Besides  the  poems  named  above,  we  may  mention  two  Epithalamia, 
one  on  the  marriage  of  Honorius  with  Maria,  daughter  of  Stilicho ;  five  poeti- 
cal epistles,  and  seven  descriptive  pieces  termed  Idyls.  Several  of  the  epi- 
grams under  his  name  are  considered  as  the  productions  of  some  Christian  au- 
thor ;  from  the  contents  of  these,  it  has  sometimes  been  imagined  that  Clau- 
dian was  a  Christian  ;  but  Augustine  and  Orosius  state  with  regret  that  he 
was  a  Pagan. 

For  a  view  of  his  writings  and  character,  see  Gibbon  <$'  Schall,  as  just  cited  above.  —  Also, 
Classical  Journal,  vol.  xxni.  —  B.  G.  Walch,  Comment,  de  Claudiani  carmine  etc.  specimen. 
Gb'tt.  1773.  4.  —  Gessner,  Merian,  <$"  K'onig,  as  cited  below. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best ;  P.  Burmann.  Amst.  1760.  4.  the  text  of  this  followed  by  A.  J.  Valpy. 
Lond.  1821.  3  vols.  8.  —  In  Lemairc's  Bibl.  —  R.  Heber  (finished  by  H.  Drury).  Lond.  1836. 
2  vols.  12.  also  on  large  paper.  —  J.  M.  Gessner.  Lpz.  1759.  8.  2  vols.  —  G.  L.  K'onig.  Gott. 
1808.  8.  1st  vol.  only  published  ;  containing  valuable  prolegomena.  —  More  celebrated  of  the 

earlier  editions,  C.  Barthius.    Frankf.  1650.  4.  with  a  distinguished  commentary. Mc.  Hein- 

sins.  Amst.  1665.  8.  "the  best  variorum  edition"  (Dibdin).  —Princeps,  B  Celsanus.  Vincentias, 
1482.  fol.  not  containing  the  epigrams  ;  which  were  first  published  by  Tkad.  Ugoletus.  Parm. 
1494.  4. 

4.  Translations. —  German.  —  Ch.   H.   Schvtze,  Raub  der  Proserpine,  ('metrical;.    Hamb. 

1784.  8.  —  J.  F.  Ratschky,  Gedicht  wider  Rufin   f  with  Lat.  text).  Vien.  1603.  8. Italian.  — 

JV*.  Berengani.    Ven.  1716.  2.  vols.  8.  also  in  the  Corpus  of  Malatesta  $  Argelati  cited  §  348. 

French.  —  H.  B.  Merian,  L'  enlevement  de  Proserpine,  avec  un  Discours  &c.  Berl.  1767.  8.  — 
A.  M.  Delteil,  CEuvr.  diverses  de  Claudian,  Lat.  &  Franc.    Par.  1818.  2  vols.  8.  —  De  la  Tour. 

Par.  1798.  8. Enslish.  —  J.  G.  Strutt  (De  rapt.  Pros.).  Lond.  1814.  8.  —  A.  Hawkins  (verse). 

Lond.  1817.  2  vols.  8.  —  Wm.  King  (Sat.  in  Rutinumj.  Lond.  1730.8. 

5.  The  Anti-Claudianus  is  a  Latin  poem  of  9  books,  by  Alanus  (Alain)  of  Lille,  who  died  A.  D. 
1202  ;  it  was  written  in  defence  of  divine  providence,  in  reply  to  a  passage  in  Claudian's  sat- 
ire on  Rufinus,  and  was  a  famous  book  in  the  middle  ages.—  Warton,  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  i.  169. 
ii.  227.    ed.  Lond.  1824. 

§  387.  Aurelius  Prudentius,  surnamed  Clemens,  was  a  Christian  poet  of  the 
4th  century,  a  native  of  Spain.  His  Hymns  are  not  destitute  of  good  poetical 
expression,  but  are  more  distinguished  for  their  pious  and  devotional  contents. 

1.  He  was  born  A.  D.  348,  at  Calagurris,  now   Culahorra,  or  according  to 


320  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

some  at  Csesaraugusta,  Saragossa.  After  practicing  as  a  lawyer,  and  holding 
some  civil  offices,  he  obtained  a  military  rank,  which  brought  him  near  the 
person  of  the  emperor.  When  above  fifty  years  old,  he  retired  from  the  world 
and  passed  the  rest  of  his  days  in  habits  of  piety. 

The  Hymns  or  lyric  pieces  of  Prudentius  form  two  collections ;  one  enti- 
tled Ka6r{fteqivav  liber,  containing  12  hymns  on  certain  days  of  festival  or  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  day  ;  the  other,  IltoL  aracftcrvn1,  De  coronis,  containing  14 
hymns  in  honor  of  as  many  martyrs.  —  Besides  these,  we  have  from  him  the 
following  poems  ;  Apotheosis ,  written  against  the  Sabellians  and  other  here- 
tics ;  Hamartigenia  (uuuQriyivia),  on  the  origin  of  sin  ;  Psychomachia,  on  the 
conflict  between  virtue  and  vice  in  the  human  soul ;  Adversus  Symmachum,  in 
2  books,  occasioned  by  the  controversy  between  the  Pagans  and  the  Chris- 
tians respecting  the  altar  dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  Victory  (cf.  §  444.  1). 
To  this  author  is  also  commonly  ascribed  the  work  entitled  Diptychon  seu  En- 
chiridium  utriusque  Testamenti,  a  metrical  abridgment  of  the  sacred  history ; 
although  some  have  referred  it  to  a  Spanish  writer  of  the  5th  century  by  the 
name  of  Prudentius. 

Schcell,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  72.  —  J.  P.  Ludovicus,  Diss,  de  vita  Prudentii.  Viteb.  1692.  4.  also 
found  in  his  Opusc.  Misc.  Hal.  1720.  —  Teoli,  fy  Arevalli,  in  Proleg.  to  their  editions  below 
cited.  —  Rollin,  Polite  Learning,  Art.  ii.  Sect.  3.  —  Bcihr,  Die  christlich-romische  Literatur. 
Carlsr.  1836.  8.  p.  41. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best ;  F.  Arevalli  (Arevalus).  Rom.  1789.  2  vols.  4.  These  two  volumes  in 
connection  with  three  others  in  the  same  form  and  by  the  same  editor  contain  the  works  of  the 
Ancient  Christian  Poets. —  Variorum  in  Falpifs  Latin  Classics.  —  The  Parma  ed.  is  splendid  and 
valuable,  by  Teoli.  Parm.  1788.  2  vols.  4.  —  Noted  among  the  earlier,  Ch.  Cellarius.  Hal.  1703. 
8.  — JV.  Heinsius.  Amst.  1667.  12.  the  Elzevir.  — Aldus.  Ven.  1501.  4.  forming  the  1st  vol.  of 
his  Poet®  Christ.  Veteres.  This  has  been  called  the  Princeps ;  but  those  of  R.  Langius  were 
earlier,  the  2d,  Davent.  1495.  the  1st,  ib.  about  1490.  4.  (  Dibdin  «$•  Harles  comp.J 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  P.  Siibert,  the  Hymns  ( Feiergesdnge  und  Siegeskroncn). 
Wien.  1820.  8. 

§  388.  Ccdius  Sedulius,  who  lived  in  the  5th  century,  was  probably  a  na- 
tive of  Scotland,  or  rather  of  Ireland  which  at  that  time  was  included  under 
the  same  name.  He  was  an  elder  or  presbyter  in  the  church.  His  poems  are 
ranked  higher  in  respect  to  religious  and  moral  worth  than  in  respect  to  poet- 
cal  merit. 

1.  The  principal  work  of  Sedulius  is  entitled  Mirabilia  divina,  or  Carmen 
paschale,  a  poem  of  5  cantos  in  hexameter.  It  is  preceded  by  a  letter  in  prose 
addressed  to  the  Abbe  Macedonius,  in  which  Sedulius  explains  his  design. — 
There  is  also  a  piece  in  elegiac  verse  entitled  Collatio  veteris  et  novi  Testamenti, 
marked  by  the  structure  called  epanalepsis,  in  which  the  first  words  of  the 
hexameter  lines  are  repeated  at  the  end  of  the  pentameters.  There  is  like- 
wise a  hymn  to  Christ  in  23  strophes,  each  of  which  begins  with  one  letter  of 
the  alphabet.  —  Another  piece,  a  fragment  in  12  lines,  under  the  name  of  this 
poet,  is  preserved  by  Dicuil,  a  monk  of  Ireland  in  the  9th  century ;  the  frag- 
ment is  interesting  only  as  it  refers  to  a  map  of  the  world  derived  from  materi- 
als furnished  by  officers  employed  by  Theodosius  2d. 

Schall,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  in.  103,248.  —  Arevalli,  Preface  to  ed.  below  cited.  —  Bdhr  (as  cited 
$  387.  I),  p.  54. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best ;  F.  Arevalli.  Rom.  1794.  4.  Cf.  §  387.  2.  —  H.  F.  Arntzen.  Leuwarden, 
1761.  8.  —  Contained  also  in  the  Poet.  Christ,  of  Aldus.  Ven.  1501.  —  The  Hymn  fin  natalem 
Christi)  is  contained  also  in  M.  J.  fVeitzius,  Heortologium,  s.  hymni  festivales.  Francof. 
1643.  8.  —  The  writings  of  Sedulius  are  supposed  to  have  been  given  to  the  public  after  his 
death,  by  Turcius  Rufius  Apronianus  Asterius,  who  was  consul  A.  D.  494  ;  there  was  formerly 
in  the  library  of  Rheims  a  manuscript  of  Sedulius  corrected  by  Asterius.  —  Cf.  Schmll,  i.  365. 
Arevalli,  p.  71. 

§  389.  Claudius  Rutilius  JYumatianus,  a  poet  of  the  5th  century,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Gaul,  and  a  consul  at  Rome  under  Honorius.  He  at  length  returned 
from  that  city  to  his  own  country.  This  return,  by  a  voyage  along  the  coasts 
of  the  Mediterranean,  he  described  in  a  poem,  entitled  Itinerarium,  or  De  Red- 
itu, consisting  of  2  books  in  elegiac  verse.  It  has  come  to  us  in  a  defective 
state,  but  is  not  without  intrinsic  value. 

1.  Tolosa  (Toulouse)  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  birth-place  of  Rutilius. 
His  Itinerary  confessedly  entitles  him  to  a  high  rank  among  the  later  Roman 
poets.  Gibbon  honors  him  with  the  designation  of  "  an  ingenious  traveler  ;  " 
but  the  infidel  historian  seems  always  ready  to  praise  an  author  who  affords 
him  an  opportunity  for  a  thrust  at  religion ;  and  he  quotes,  with  manifest 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE.  321 

pleasure,  this  poet's  "hideous  portrait"  of  the  monks  of  Capraria.  Rutilius 
is  also  violent  against  the  Jews. 

Schcp.ll,  Hist.  Lit*.  Rom.  in.  93.  —  Gibbon,  Dec.  &  F.  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xxiv.  cf.  his  Miscell. 
Works,  vol  iv.  p.  345.  —  J.  Jortin,  Tracts,  Philological  &c.  Lond.  1790.  2  vols.  8.  —  Lemaire,  as 
below  (.2)  cited. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best  ;   Wernsdorf,  in  vol  v.  of  his  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  —  Lemaire,  in  vol.  iv.  of  his 

Poet.  Lat.  Min. The  poem  has  been  published  separately  often  ;  one  of  the  latest  and  best, 

J.  G.  Gruber.    Niirmb.  1804.  8.  —  The  Princeps,  fprobablyj  J.  Bapt.  Pius.    Bonon.  1520.  4. 


17. — Orators. 

§  390.  In  the  earliest  ages  of  the  republic,  the  Romans  had  many  occasions 
for  the  exercise  of  eloquence.  The  Antiquities  of  Dionysius  (cf.  §  247),  and 
the  History  of  Livy,  present  us  with  debates  and  harangues  of  many  speakers; 
but  we  cannot  consider  them  as  accurate  specimens  of  the  early  oratory  of 
the  Romans  ;  they  are  chiefly  the  productions,  so  far  at  least  as  respects  style 
and  manner,  of  those  historians  themselves.  Whatever  eloquence  was  ex- 
hibited in  these  ages  was  the  gift  of  nature,  and  not  acquired  by  study  or 
practice  in  schools. 

We  find  no  speaker  mentioned  as  having  any  peculiar  charms  of  oratory 
until  the  second  period  of  Roman  literature  (§  301),  beginning  with  the  close 
of  the  first  Punic  war,  B.  C.  240.  One  of  the  earliest  thus  celebrated  was 
Cornelius  Cethegus,  who  flourished  during  the  second  Punic  Avar,  and  was 
consul  about  B.  C.  224  ;  he  is  lauded  by  the  poet  Ennius  his  contemporary  as 
a  speaker  of  great  sweetness  of  elocution  (orator  suaviloquenti  ore).  Cato 
the  elder  is  said  to  have  been  an  energetic,  although  unpolished  orator  ;  many 
of  his  orations  were  extant  in  the  time  of  Cicero  who  valued  them  highly, 
although  they  were  not  much  read  by  others. 

§  391.  In  the  time  of  Cato,  the  Roman  youth  were  first  specially  drawn  to 
study  the  art  of  speaking,  under  the  influence  of  the  philosophers  and  rhetori- 
cians connected  with  the  famous  embassy  of  Carneades,  about  B.  C.  155. 
Cato  and  others  anticipated  fatal  results  from  the  introduction  of  Grecian 
principles  and  manners  ;  and  in  a  short  time  the  schools  of  the  Greek  teach- 
ers were  prohibited  (Jiul.  Gell.  xv.  11).  The  prohibition  was  renewed  subse- 
quently in  the  year  B.  C.  92,  in  consequence,  it  is  stated,  of  the  abuse  of  elo- 
quence on  the  part  of  the  sophists.  It  was  however  impossible  to  check  the 
ardor  awakened  among  the  young  Romans  to  imitate  the  Grecian  speakers  ; 
and  before  the  close  of  the  period  now  under  notice  (the  second,  ending  with 
the  war  of  Sylla  and  Marius  B.  C.  87),  we  find  a  number  of  eminent  speak- 
ers who  had  availed  themselves  of  the  Grecian  models  and  whose  oratory 
and  rhetoric  were  modified  by  the  Grecian  systems  and  rules. 

§  302.  Sergius  Galba  and  Lielius  are  named  as  the  first,  who  made  impor- 
tant advances  upon  the  style  and  manner  of  previous  orators  in  respect  to 
embellishment  and  elegance.  Scipio  iEmilianus,  called  also  Africanus  the 
younger,  and  M.  iEmilius  Lepidus  (who  was  consul  B.  C.  137),  departed  still 
farther  from  the  ancient  diction,  and  more  sedulously  cultivated  smoothness 
and  harmony  of  language  and  the  graces  of  style.  In  the  same  age  with  Le- 
pidus were  other  eminent  men  whom  Cicero  represents  as  distinguished  ora- 
tors, particularly    Scipio    Nasica   and   Mutius     Scsevola. In   Rome  as   at 

Athens,  eloquence  was  a  means  of  gaining  preferment,  and  we  find  that 
scarcely  an  orator  is  named,  who  did  not  rise  to  the  highest  offices  of  the 
state. 

§  393.  The  incessant  struggles  between  the  patrician  and  the  plebeian 
parties  gave  frequent  occasions  for  the  efforts  of  popular  oratory.  The  two 
Gracchi  acted  a  very  important  part  in  this  controversy  and  theirs  are  the 
names  next  to  be  noticed  in  a  glance  at  the  history  of  Roman  oratory.  They 
were  both  speakers  of  extraordinary  power.  Tiberius,  the  elder,  in  boyhood, 
was  instructed  carefully  in  elocution  by  his  mother  Cornelia ;  afterwards,  he 
had  the  instruction  of  the  best  Grecian  masters,  and  diligently  practiced  exer- 
cises of  declamation.     His  manner  was  bold,  decided,  and  composed;  a  slight 


3*2*2  HISTORY    OP    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

specimen  is  given  by  Plutarch  (in  Tib.  Grace).  Caius  was  more  vehement 
and  full  of  action  ;  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  of  the  Romans,  who  in- 
dulged in  such  freedom  as  to  walk  to  and  fro  in  the  rostrum  while  speaking. 
Cicero  (De  Orat.  iii.  56. )  cites  a  passage  of  great  pathos  from  a  speech  ut- 
tered by  him  after  the  death  of  his  brother.  But  Aulus  Gellius  (Noct.  Att. 
x.  3.)  quotes  a  passage  from  him,  which  he  censures  as  cold  and  tame.  Caius 
is  said  to  have  always  kept  a  slave  behind  him  with  a  flute,  to  give  him  no- 
tice when  to  raise  or  lower  his  voice. 

§  394.  The  names  of  a  great  number  of  public  speakers  belonging  to  this 
age  are  recorded  ;  but  it  is  not  important  to  repeat  them  here.  The  two  most 
illustrious,  who  fall  within  the  period  now  before  us,  were  Marcus  Antonius, 
the  grandfather  of  Antony  the  triumvir,  and  Lucius  Licinius  Crassus.  The 
latter  commenced  his  oratorical  career  at  the  age  of  19  or  20,  about  the  time 
of  the  death  of  Caius  Gracchus,  B.  C.  121,  by  a  speech  highly  celebrated 
against  C.  P.  Carbo  ;  he  closed  it,  B.  C.  92,  by  his  speech  in  the  senate 
against  Philippus,  which  was  still  more  celebrated,  but  which,  from  the  great 
excitement  attending  it,  threw  him  into  a  fever  that  in  a  few  days  termi- 
nated his  life.  Antonius,  surnamed  Orator,  was  the  contemporary  and  rival 
of  Crassus,  and  survived  him  only  to  be  a  victim  in  the  proscription  of  Marius, 
who  (B.  C.  87.)  affixed  his  head  to  the  rostrum,  where  he  had  eloquently  de- 
fended the  republic  and  the  lives  of  many  of  his  fellow  citizens  (Cic.  de  Orat. 
iii.  3).  These  orators  are  commemorated  as  having  first  raised  the  glory  of 
Roman  eloquence  to  an  equality  with  that  of  Greece. 

§  395.  The  repeated  interdiction  of  the  schools  taught  by  Greek  masters 
has  been  mentioned  (§  391).  Crassus,  the  orator  just  noticed,  is  said  in  one 
instance  to  have  used  his  authority  as  censor  against  them.  But  the  art  of 
speaking  had  come  to  be  universally  regarded  as  an  essential  requisite  in 
preparation  for  public  life  and  civil  office.  It  was  already  a  custom,  that  if  a 
youth  had  public  life  in  view,  he  was  committed,  at  the  age  of  17,  to  the  special 
care  of  some  eminent  orator,  on  whose  performances  at  the  bar  and  in  the 
assemblies,  he  constantly  attended.  Other  means  of  improvement  were  also 
employed  (cf.  P.  I.  §  125).  Schools  for  instruction  in  rhetoric  were  opened  by 
Roman  freedmen,  in  the  place  of  Grecian  masters,  towards  the  close  of  the  pe- 
riod now  before  us  (cf.  §  400).  The  study  of  rhetoric  and  eloquence  soon  be- 
came a  partof  regular  education,  and  continued  to  be  so  in  subsequent  times. 

Of  the  oratory  of  this  period  we  have  no  remains,  except  a  few  scattered  passages  quoted  hy 
later  authors.  A  fragment  of  a  speech  of  Caius  Gracchus  ( De  legibus promul \gatiu )  is  said,  how- 
ever, to  have  heen  found,  at  a  recent  period,  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan. 

§  396.  There  were  two  younger  orators  who  rose  to  distinction  before  the 
death  of  those  just  named  ;  these  were  Publius  Sulpitius  and  Caius  A.  Cotta. 
Sulpitius  was  a  violent  partisan  of  Marius  and  is  charged  with  having  greatly 
abused  his  political  power.  He  lost  his  life  when  comparatively  young,  on 
the  ascendancy  of  Sylla,  the  same  year  in  which  Antonius  was  beheaded  by 
the  opposite  party.  Cotta  was  banished  at  the  same  time  but  was  recalled, 
after  Sylla  assumed  (B.  C.  84)  the  province  of  dictator,  and  subsequently  held 
the  office  of  consul ;  he  lived,  it  is  said,  to  an  advanced  age.  Cicero,  in  his 
Brutus,  describes  the  oratory  of  these  speakers.  Sulpitius  was  vehement,  yet 
dignified  and  lofty,  with  a  voice  powerful  and  sonorous,  a  rapid  elocution,  and 
action  earnest  and  impressive.  Cotta  had  a  feebler  voice,  and  in  his  manner 
was  mild  and  calm,  with  an  invention  remarkably  acute,  a  diction  pure  and 
flowing,  and  a  peculiar  power  of  persuasion. 

§  397.  In  our  next  period,  we  have  to  notice  the  speakers,  who  eclipsed 
the  fame  of  all  preceding  orators  of  Rome.  Cotta  continued  to  shine  in  this 
period  ;  but  the  palm  was  soon  taken  from  him  by  Hortensius.  His  first  ap-. 
pearance  in  the  Forum  was  at  the  age  of  19,  in  an  important  case,  in  which 
Scaevola  and  Crassus  were  judges,  a  few  years  before  the  close  of  the  period 
at  which  we  have  just  taken  our  glance.  He  gained  immediate  celebrity, 
soon  rose  to  the  head  of  the  Roman  bar,  and  continued  the  acknowledged 
master  of  the  Forum  for  13  or  14  years.  He  is  said  to  have  possessed  almost 
every  quality  essential  to  a  distinguished  speaker.  His  imagination  was  fer- 
tile, and  his  language  rich  even  to  exuberance  ;  his  industry  and  application 
in  the  former  part  of  his  life  intense,  his  acquaintance  with  literature  extern 


ORATORY.  323 

sive,  his  memory  powerful  and  ready.  He  indulged  in  a  showy  species  of 
rhetoric,  and  in  artificial  and  studied  gesture.  He  acquired  immense  wealth, 
and  lived  in  great  extravagance  and  luxury,  being  peculiarly  fond  of  ostenta- 
tious display.  None  of  his  speeches  are  preserved  ;  and  were  they  extant, 
they  would  give  but  an  imperfect  idea  of  his  eloquence,  as  much  of  his  excel- 
lence consisted  in  action  and  delivery. 

Hortensius  (a)  was  for  many  years  without  a  rival  at  Rome.  Licinius 
Calvus,  already  mentioned  as  an  author  of  satirical  epigrams  (§  339),  was  an 
orator  of  some  distinction,  but  died  at  the  age  of  30;  had  he  lived  longer,  it  is 
not  probable  that  he  could  have  surpassed  Hortensius  ;  he  left  a  number  of 
orations  (b),  which  were  studied  as  models  by  the  younger  Pliny.  Julius  Cae- 
sar exhibited  talents  for  speaking  (c),  which  probably  would  have  secured  to 
him  very  high  celebrity  as  an  orator  had  he  pursued  the  profession.  Other 
individuals,  of  the  same  times,  are  mentioned  as  eminent  speakers  ;  and  some 
years  later  were  Messala,  Brutus,  and  others,  who  are  said  to  have  displayed 
great  oratorical  powers. 

(a)  Sallier,  La  vie  de  Q,.  Hortensius,  in  the  Mem.  de  1'  Acad.  des.  Tnscr.  vol.  vi.  p.  500. ■ 

(b)  Cic.  Brut.  82.  —  Dial,  de  Cans.  corr.  eloq.  21.  —  Weichert,  De  Liciuio  Calvo,  oralore,  et  po- 
eta.    Ginim.  1825.  4. — Burig-ny,Be  Calvus,  in  the  Mem.  de  V  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxi.  p.  122. • 

(c)  Qnint.  Inst.  Or.  x.  1.  —  Cic.  Brut.  72. 

But  Cicero  alone  was  able  to  emulate  Hortensius  with  success.  The  first 
oration  pronounced  by  him,  (the  first  at  least  of  those  now  extant  cf.  §  404), 
was  in  a  case,  in  which  Hortensius  was  his  opponent.  It  was  in  the  year  B.  C. 
72,  when  Cicero  was  about  26  years  old.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  Cicero 
and  Hortensius,  although  rivals,  seem  to  have  been  always  on  terms  of  mutual 
friendship.  Cicero  was  several  years  younger  than  Hortensius,  and  ultimately 
bore  away  from  him  the  honor  of  being  the  greatest  orator  of  Rome  ;  yet  Hor- 
tensius generously  used  all  his  influence  in  procuring  Cicero's  recal  from  ban- 
ishment. It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  name  of  Cicero  is  always  coupled  with 
that  of  Demosthenes  as  synonymous  with  eloquence,  or  that  his  orations  and 
other  works  are  imperishable  monuments  of  genius,  learning  and  refinement. 
With  him,  Roman  eloquence  and  oratory  gained  the  highest  degree  of  cultiva- 
tion and  power;  the  age  of  Cicero  was  emphatically  the  golden  age  of  the  art 
of  speaking. 

§  3(J8.  It  may  be  remarked,  that  the  Grecian  division  of  oratory  into  three 
kinds  (cf.  §  98)  was  recognized  among  the  Romans;  Cicero  (De  Orat.  i.  31. 
ii.  10)  specifies  distinctly  that  of  trials  (judicia),  that  of  deliberations  (deliber' 
ationes),  and  that  of  panegyric  (laudationes) .  It  is  in  the  two  former  kinds, 
that  the  Roman  orators  in  the  period  now  under  notice  had  most  frequent  oc- 
casion to  display  their  ability.  The  constitution  of  the  Roman  courts  of  justice 
and  their  method  of  judicial  procedure  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  261)  were  better  adapted 
to  exercise  the  powers  of  eloquence  than  to  secure  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice ;  they  were  such,  that  law,  truth,  and  equity,  might  be  too  easily  over- 
come by  the  skill,  wit,  or  pathos  of  the  orator.  The  questions  brought  into 
trial  also  were  often  of  a  character  that  furnished  grand  opportunities  for  the 
display  of  oratory;  such  especially  were  the  accusations  against  high  civil  and 
provincial  officers  for  mal-administration.  Highly  exciting  occasions  for  the 
deliberative  argument  or  harangue  were  constantly  presented  in  the  Senate, 
and  the  comitia.  The  circumstances  of  Cicero's  life  brought  him  fully  under 
these  and  other  influences  calculated  to  stimulate  his  efforts,  and  he  has  left 
splendid  performances  in  both  judicial  and  deliberative  eloquence. 

§  399.  The  history  of  Roman  eloquence  may  be  said  to  have  ended  with 
Cicero,  or  at  least  with  the  Augustan  age.  The  decline  of  liberty  was  unfa- 
vorable to  the  art.  The  theatre  for  eloquence  hitherto  furnished  by  the  as- 
semblies of  the  people,  was  chiefly  closed.  The  debates  of  the  senate  degene- 
rated, in  a  sad  degree,  into  mere  eulogies  of  the  reigning  emperor.  Even  in 
the  courts  of  justice,  the  pleader  felt  the  restraints  of  arbitrary  power.  The 
custom  of  reciting  literary  productions  in  meetings  of  select  friends,  had  been 
previously  established.  It  now  became  common  for  orators  to  declaim  on 
imaginary  subjects  at  such  meetings,  a  practice  calculated  to  cultivate  a  fond- 
ness for  showy  ornament  rather  than  to  foster  the  spirit  of  genuine  eloquence. 
Schools  of  rhetoric  were  still  sustained,  but  they  produced  declaimers  rather 
than  great  orators,  and  contributed,  it  is  said,  to  deprave  the  general  taste  and 
corrupt  the  language,   (cf.  P.  I.  §128.  3.  5.) 


324  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

§  400.  The  principal  persons,  who  are  commonly  named  among  the  speakers 
of  this  period,  are  Seneca,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny  the  younger.  But  the  two 
former  may  be  more  properly  considered  as  rhetoricians  ;  as  their  chief  em- 
ployment was  that  of  teaching.  The  oratorical  performances  extant  under 
their  names  are  merely  a  sort  of  school-exercises,  of  the  class  called  declama,' 
tions.  Pliny  was  a  pupil  of  Quintilian.  Before  the  age  of  20,  he  appeared  at 
the  bar  and  soon  acquired  great  distinction,  confessedly  surpassing  every 
other  speaker  of  the  age.  Multitudes  crowded  to  hear  him;  and  he  is  said  to 
have  spoken  sometimes  seven  hours  without  tiring  any  one  in  the  assembly 
but  himself.  All  his  orations  are  lost  excepting  the  Panegyric  (cf.  §  405).  — 
The  only  speaker  who  seems  to  have  been  in  any  degree  a  rival  to  Pliny,  was 
Tacitus,  more  generally  known  as  a  historian.  While  quite  young,  he  ob- 
tained a  high  reputation  by  his  eloquence  at  the  bar.  He  continued  to  plead 
in  the  forum  from  the  first  years  of  Vespasian's  reign  until  the  accession  of 
Trajan,  shortly  afer  which  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the  work  of  writing 
history.  Pliny  and  Tacitus  were  intimate  friends;  and  the  former,  in  one  of 
his  letters  (Ep.  ii.  11),  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  trial  of  a  provincial 
officer  before  the  senate,  in  which  Tacitus  and  himself  were  employed  to  advo- 
cate the  cause  of  the  people  of  Africa  against  their  proconsul  Marius  Priscus; 
Tacitus  replied  to  his  opponent  Salvius  Liberalis,  a  subtle  and  vehement  ora- 
tor, says  Pliny,  most  eloquently,  and  with  that  majesty  which  is  an  illustrious 
trait  in  his  speaking  (cloquentissime,  et}  quod  ezimium  orationi  ejus  inest, 
aiuv(og.) 

There  is  another  name  which  ought  to  be  here  introduced,  that  of  Cornelius 
Fronto  or  Phronto,  who  flourished  at  the  very  close  of  the  period  under  notice. 
He  was  a  preceptor  to  Marcus  Aur.  Antoninus,  and  was  honored,  probably 
after  his  death,  with  a  statue  erected  by  that  emperor.  He  seems  to  have  en- 
joyed some  distinction  as  an  advocate  and  orator,  and  is  mentioned  with  com- 
mendation by  his  contemporary  Aulus  Gellius  (Noct.  Att.  xix.8).  He  is  said 
to  have  been  the  chief  of  a  sect  of  orators  or  rhetoricians  called  Frontonians, 
who  wished  to  revive  the  simple  style  of  eloquence  which  prevailed  in  Rome 
before  the  time  of  Cicero. 

The  only  remains  of  the  oratory  of  this  period  now  extant  consist  of  the  Panegyric  of  Pliny 
already  named  ;  a  number  of  passages  which  Seneca  has  introduced  into  his  declamations, 
from  other  speakers  of  comparatively  little  celebrity  ;  and  a  few  fragments  of  Fronto.  The 
chief  remains  which  we  have  of  Fronto  belong  to  the  class  of  Letters  fcf.  $  443,1. 

§  401.  In  the  last  period  of  our  glance,  we  find  no  orator  of  any  distin- 
guished eminence.  Apuleius,  who  was  a  pleader  of  some  reputation,  has  left 
a  singular  specimen  of  his  talents  in  his  apology,  delivered  in  self-defence  on 
his  own  trial  under  the  accusation  of  having  employed  magical  arts  to  gain  the 
affections  of  a  rich  widow  whom  he  had  married.  Of  Calpurnius  Flaccus,  be- 
longing to  the  same  age  (the  latter  part  of  the  2d  century),  and  called  an  ora- 
tor, nothing  is  known  except  from  a  collection  in  his  name  of  Declamations, 
composed  by  different  authors.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  3d  century  lived  Me- 
lius Falconius,  or  Voconius,  who  has  received  the  title  of  Orator,  and  seems 
to  have  been  a  speaker  of  considerable  ability  and  address.  An  oration  uttered 
by  him  in  the  senate,  on  the  election  of  Tacitus  as  emperor,  is  preserved. — 
After  this  orator,  if  we  may  allow  him  the  appellation,  the  history  of  Latin 
oratory  furnishes  nothing  important  to  be  noticed,  except  the  performances  of 
the  later  Panegyrists. 

The  oration  of  Falconius  is  given  by  Vopiscus  (cf.  §  542.  6)  in  his  life  of  Tacitus  ;  also  found 
in  Chr.  Theoph.  (Gotti.)  Schwartz,  Miscellanea  politioris  humaniutis.  Norimb.  1721.  4.— — 
The  work  of  Calpurnius  is  entitled,  Ex-cerpUs  rhetor  urn  minor  urn  declamationes ;  and  contains 
51  pieces  from  ten  orators  ;  it  was  first  published  with  the  minor  declamations  of  Quintilian,  by 
P.  PitJia-us,  (cited  §  415.  4)  ;  and  is  found  in  P.  Burmann's  ed.  of  Cluintilian,  and  in  others.  — 
The  apology  of  Apuleius  is  included  in  the  editions  of  his  works  (cf.  $  471.  4). 

§  402.  Of  the  Panegyrists  just  mentioned,  a  slight  account  will  be  given 
below  •(§  406).  Here  we  will  merely  advert  to  the  "nature  and  occasions  of 
panegyrical  oratory.  It  was  the  same  with  what  the  Greeks  called  demonstra- 
tive CffrtStiy.Tlxoc),  a  term  which  was  applied  to  discourses  that  were  designed 
to  be  delivered  before  assemblies  either  of  friends  specially  invited  for  the  pur- 
pose of  literary  recitals  and  hearings  (uzyouaac),  or  of  people  promiscuously 
gathered  for  entertainment.  The  subjects  were  often  imaginary,  and  seldom 
could  the  subject  or  the  occasion  highly  excite  the  passions  or  emotions.     In 


ORATORS.      CICERO,  325 

order  to  remedy  this  deficiency  and  awaken  admiration  in  the  hearers,  it  was 
natural  to  resort  to  rhetorical  ornaments  and  a  studied  and  artificial  style. — 
Such  declamations  were  pronounced  before  large  assemblies,  sometimes  be- 
fore the  crowds  collected  at  those  public  games  which  brought  together  all 
the  Greeks  ;  and  it  is  from  this  circumstance,  that  they  seem  first  to  have  re- 
ceived the  name  of  panegyrics,  a  term  derived  from  nav  and  ayooa.  As  the 
orators,  with  the  desire  of  pleasing  the  multitude,  very  frequently  took  for 
their  theme  the  praise  of  some  god,  hero,  or  city,  the  term  panegyric  gradu- 
ally came  to  be  synonymous  with  eulogy.  Hence  Cicero  in  specifying  this 
kind  of  oratory  designates  it  by  the  Latin  word  luudatio. 

Among  the  Romans  this  kind  does  not  appear  to  have  been  very  much  dis- 
tinguished before  the  time  of  the  emperors.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however, 
that  the  custom  of  delivering  funeral  eulogies  in  the  Forum  must  have  pre- 
sented many  fine  occasions  for  its  exercise.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  that  Cic- 
ero would  have  excelled  in  any  attempt  in  panegyric  ;  indeed,  it  has  been 
with  much  propriety  remarked  that  his  oration  for  the  Manilian  law  is  a  fin- 
ished masterpiece  of  demonstrative  eloquence,  being  but  a  splendid  panegyric 
on  Pompey.  The  oration  for  the  poet  Archias  is  of  a  similar  cast.  Under  the 
emperors,  as  has  been  before  observed,  the  loss  of  freedom  occasioned  the  de- 
cline of  genuine  eloquence.  But  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  the  practice  of 
speaking  could  not  be  renounced  ;  the  schools  were  continued,  and  the  decla- 
mations, which  had  in  earlier  times  usually  been  upon  such  subjects  as  might 
be  brought  into  the  actual  business  of  the  forum  or  the  senate,  were  now  more 
frequently  on  imaginary  themes.  This  would  naturally  lead  to  the  panegyri- 
cal style  and  manner  of  the  Greeks.  How  soon  the  praise  of  some  emperor 
was  made  a  formal  theme  is  not  known ;  perhaps  the  panegyric  on  Trajan  by 
Pliny  was  the  first  of  the  kind.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  themes 
were  frequently  taken  ;  although  we  have  no  specimens  from  the  time  of  Pliny 
down  to  the  authors  of  the  twelve  panegyrics,  a  space  of  nearly  two  centuries. 
§  403.  We  give  here  a  few  additional  references  on  the  general  subject. 
On  Roman  oralory,  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  u  166.  II.  65,  395.  —  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Litt.  ii.  109. 
ed.  Phil.  1827.  —  Rollin,  Polite  Learning,  ch.  iii.  art.  2.  —  Cfi.  Au<r.  Clodius,  De  Prcssidiis  Ro- 
man. Eloquentiae,  in  his  Dissertat.  Lpz.  1787.  8.  —  Burigmj,  L'eloquence  chez  les  Romains. 
Mem.  Acad.  laser,  xxxvi.  34.  —  Cicero  De  Claris  oratoribus  (cf.  $  413).  —  Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit. 

p.  478. On  panegyrical  oratory,  J.  G.  Walch,  Diss,  de  Orat.  panegyr.  veter.    Jen.  1721.  4, 

§  404.  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero  was  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Roman  or- 
ators. He  studied  closely  the  Grecian  models,  and  combined  in  himself  the 
strength  of  Demosthenes,  the  copiousness  of  Plato  and  the  suavity  of  Isocra- 
tes.  He  was  born  at  Arpinum,  B.  C.  106,  and  was  put  to  death  B.  C.  43. — 
The  poet  Archias  was  his  first  teacher;  he  was  instructed  in  oratory  by  Apol- 
lonius  Molo  of  Rhodes;  he  also  visited  Athens.  After  his  return,  he  was  ap- 
pointed Quaestor,  and  at  last  Consul ;  in  the  latter  office  he  rendered  the  state 
the  greatest  service  by  suppressing  the  conspiracy  of  Cataline.  Yet  he  was 
subsequently  banished  through  the  influence  of  P.  Clodius  the  tribune  ;  he 
•voluntarily  retired  to  Greece  and  was  soon  recalled  in  the  most  honorable 
manner.  He  afterwards  undertook  the  prastorship  of  Cilicia.  In  the  civil  war 
between  Cassar  and  Pompey,  he  followed  the  party  of  the  latter,  but  after  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  was  reconciled  to  Caesar.  Not  long  after  this,  he  was  in- 
cluded in  Antony's  proscription,  and  was  beheaded  by  an  emissary  of  that  tri- 
umvir. —  The  works  of  Cicero,  which  remain  to  us,  have  been  distributed  in- 
to four  classes  ;  Orations,  Letters,  Rhetorical  treatises,  and  Philosophical  trea- 
tises. We  consider  him  here  merely  as  an  orator,  and  certainly  in  this  capa- 
city, his  merit  was  the  most  splendid.  We  have  59  orations  from  him,  mostly 
judicial,  some  accusatory,  and  some  defensive  ;  they  are  the  finest  models  of 
Roman  composition  and  eloquence. 

1 .  Cicero  was  too  easily  affected  by  outward  circumstances  ;  elated  by  pros- 
perity, and  depressed  by  adversity  ;  his  disposition  was  amiable  and  his  con- 
duct generally  praiseworthy,  yet  he  was  wanting  in  firmness  of  purpose  and 
consistency. 

Convers  Mtddlcton,  Life  of  M.  T.  Cicero.  Lond.  1741.  2  vol?.  4.  Bost.  1818.  3  vols.  8.  the  best 
and  fullest  hiogranhv  of  Cicero.—  Tr.  into  Germ,  by  G.  K.  F.  Snidel.  Dantz.  1791.  4  vols.  8.— 
JHorabin,  Histoire'de  Cicero  &c.  Par.  1748.  2  vols.  4.  —  /.  //.  Meierotto,  M.  T.  Cic.  vita  (drawn 
from  C's  writings,  in  his  own  words).    Berl.  1783. 8.  —  E.  Burton,  Account  of  the  life  and  wri- 

28  ' 


326  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

tings  of  Tully,  in  his  Ancient  Characters  deduced  from  Classical  Remains.  Camb.  1763.  8.  —  Cf* 
also  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  68.  —  Btihr,  p.  489. 

2.  Scholl  and  Dunlop  enumerate  only  56  orations ;  Fabricius  enumerates 
59,  but  includes  three,  of  which  there  remain  merely  fragments  with  the  scho- 
lia of  Asconius  Pedianus.  Some  fragments  of  six  different  orations  were  dis- 
covered in  or  about  the  year  1814,  by  Mai  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan 
(see  Mai's  ed.  below  cited.  Besides  these,  Cicero  delivered  many  orations 
which  are  wholly  lost.)  —  Of  the  56  complete  orations  extant,  14  are  called 
Philippics,  being  directed  against  Antony,  and  deriving  their  name  from  that 
applied  to  the  orations  of  Demosthenes  against  Philip  ;  the  epithet  is  said  to 
have  been  first  applied  by  Cicero  himself  in  a  jocose  manner.  —  There  are  6 
which  are  termed  Verrine,  being  all  intended  for  delivery  against  Verres,  al- 
though only  the  first  of  them  was  pronounced  ;  for  Verres  fled  into  voluntary 
exile. — The  4  Catalinarian  orations,  against  the  conspirator  Cataline,  are  well 
known.  —  There  are  3  orations  in  opposition  to  the  Agrarianlaw,  the  success 
of  which,  in  turning  the  inclinations  of  the  people  oft  from  a  darling  object, 
has  been  considered  as  among  the  strongest  examples  of  the  power  of  elo- 
quence. 

Some  of  Cicero's  orations  were  studied  and  written  before  delivery  ;  but  most  of  them  were 
first  spoken  and  afterwards  written  out,  with  such  additions  and  corrections,  retrenchments 

and  embellishments,  as  seemed  proper,    cf.  Pliny,  Ep.  i.  20. A  brief  account  of  each  of  the 

orations  is  given  by  Scfmll,  Litt.  Rom.  ii.  97ss.,  and  hy  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  ii.  152ss.  — 
See  also  Bdhr,  p.  511.  — A  minute  analysis  of  that  fur  Cluentius  is  offered  by  Blair,  Lect.  on 
Rhet.  vol  ii.  lect.  28. 

3.  There  are  extant  several  orations,  which  have  been  falsely  ascribed  to 
Cicero,  as  is  now  generally  believed.  And  of  those  still  commonly  ascribed 
to  him  there  are^e  whose  genuineness  has  been  questioned  by  some  writers. 

Among  the  former  are  the  orations  styled,  In  Sallustium  responsio,  In  pace,  Antequam  iret  in 

exilium,  and  Contra  Valerium.  —  Schall,  n.  23.  114.  cf.  Harles,  Brev.  Not.  p.  157. The  latter 

are  the  oration  Pro  Marcello,  and  the  four  orations  supposed  to  have  been  delivered  soon  after 
Cicero's  recall  from  banishment,  entitled  Post  reditum  in  Senatu,  Post  reditum  ad  Quirites,  Pro 
domo  sua  ad  Pontificies,  t)e  Haruspicium  responsis.  —  Respecting  the  last  four,  Markland  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  to  start  the  doubts,  in  a  Dissertation  which  was  published  in  1745,  in  his 
"  Remarks  on  the  Epistles  of  Cicero  to  Brutus  "  (see  §  440.  2).  A  discussion  ensued,  in  which 
Ross  in  England  and  Oessner  in  Germany  took  part  against  Markland  ;  and  the  orations  were 
still  generally  received  as  genuine.  But  in  1801,  Wolf  published  an  edition  (cited  below)  of 
these  4  orations,  to  which  he  prefixed  an  account  of  the  controversy,  advocating  the  views  of 
Markland.  The  notions  of  Wolf  are  adopted  by  Schiitz  and  by  Beck  in  their  respective  edi- 
tions of  Cicero.  —  Wolf  also  questioned  the  genuineness  of  the  oration  for  Marcellus  in  an  edi- 
tion of  it  published  in  1802.  The  opinions  of  Wolf  were  controverted  by  Weiske,  in  a  com- 
mentary on  that  oration  (in  his  edition  below  cited),  and  advocated  by  Spalding  in  an  essay 
which  is  contained  in  WolPs  Museum  Antiquitatis  Studiorum  (vol.  i.).  In  1813,  Aug.  L.  Jacob 
published  a  dissertation  in  which  he  maintained  that  the  oration  Was  partly  genuine  and  partly 
composed  of  interpolations  by  some  rhetorician.  —  Cf.  Klugling,  Suppl.  ad^Brev.  Not.  &.c.  p. 
88-91.  —  Dunlop,  ii.  185-190. 

4.  Cicero  and  Demosthenes  have  often  been  compared  as  orators  ;  by  Plutarch,  Ouintilian, 
and  Longinus  among  the  ancients  ;  and  by  numerous  critics  and  writers  on  rhetoric  and  orato- 
ry among  the  moderns.  —  See  Jenisch,  Parallel  der  beiden  grb'sten  Redner  des  Alterthum.  Berl. 
1821.  8. 

5.  Editions.  —  We  shall  notice  here  editions  of  the  works  of  Cicero,  and  of  his  Orations. — 
■whole  works.  —  The  following  are  ranked  amongst  the  best.  Verburg,  Ams.  1724.  4  vols.  4. 
Repr.  Ven.  1731.  12  vols.  8.—  Jos.  Olivet.  Par.  1740.  9  vols.  4.  Repr.  Oxf.  1783.  10  vols.  4.  the' 
10th  vol.  contains  Ernesti's  Clavis  ;  an  11th  vol.  was  subsequently  published  containing  notes. 
—  J.  Aug.  Ernesti.  Lpz.  first,  1737. 5  vols.  8.  1776.  8  vols.  8.  containing  the  valuable  Clavis  Cic- 
eroniana.  Repr.  Oxf.  1810.8  vols.  8.  Lond.  1819.  8  vols.  8.  Bost.  1816.  20  vols.  12.  very  neat. 
Berl.  1820.  10  vols.  8.  This  Berlin  ed.  contains  the  fragments  discovered  by  Mai.  The  Prefa- 
ces of  Ernesti  have  been  published  separately  ;  J.  A.  Ernesti,  Prasfationes  et  Notse  in  M.  T.  Cic- 
eronis  Opera.  Hal.  1806.  2  vols.  8  —  Ch.  D.  Beck.  Lpz.  1795-1807.  4  vols.  8.  not  complete, 
these  volumes  including  only  the  orations.  —  Chr.  G.  Schiitz.  Lpz.  1814—21.  20  vols.  8.  con- 
taining the  fragments  discovered  by  Mai,  summaries  prefixed  to  each  oration  and  treatise,  with 
a  few  notes  subjoined  to  the  text,  and  a  useful  Lexicon  Ciceronianum  ;  this  edition  is  much  com- 
mended by  Klugling  (Supp.  ad  Brev.  Not.  &.c.  p.  82;.  —  J.  C.  Orelli.    Turici,   1826-36.  vols,  i- 

vi.  8.     This  is  said  to  contain  the  best  text, .as  far  as  published. The  earliest  or  Princeps 

edition  was  by  Alex.  Minueianus.  Mil.  1498,  99.  4  vols.  fol.  a  work  executed  with  great  toil  and 
expense  (cf.  Dibdin,  Introd.  i.  390.  —  Among  the  celebrated  editions  ;  Victorius.    Ven.  1534-37. 

4  vols.  fol.  —  Paul.  Manutius.    Ven.  1540-44.  10  vols.  8.  —  Lambinus.    Par.  1566.  4  vols,  fol 

Elzevir.    Lug.  Bat.  1642.  10  vols.  12. orations.  —  The  best ;  Gravius,  Amst.  1699.  6  vols. 

8.  —  C.  D.  Beck.    Lpz.   1795,  1807.  4  vols.  8.  the  part  finished  of  his  designed  ed.  of  C's  whole 

Works-.  —  R.  Klotz.    Lpz.  1835-37. 2  vols.  8.  "  excellent  text." The  Princeps  by  Swcynheym 

^  Pannartz.  Rom.  1471.  fol.  containing  all Of  select  orations  there  have  been  a  vast  mul- 
titude of  editions.  We  notice  here  the  following;  G.  Ch.  Charles  (The  Verrine  orations). 
Erlangi  1764.  2  vols.  8.  —  G.  G.  Wcmsdorf  (The  Philippics).  Lpz.  1821.  2  vols.  8.  —  L.  Mbller 
(the  orations  against  Cataline).  Hafn.  1803.  8.  —  A.  Mazbins  (Orat.  12  Select.;.  Hannov.  1822. 
2  vols.  8.  —  Fr.  Aug.   Wolf  (the  4  suspected  orations).    Berl.  1801.  8.  —  By  same  ( Oration   for 


ORATORS.       CICERO.    PLINY.  327 

Marcellus).  Berl.  1802.  8.  —  B.  Wciske  (Orat.  for  Marcellus,  with  a  Commentary).  Lpz.  1805. 
8.  —  Aug.  Mai,  M.  T.  Cic.  trium  orat.  pro  Scauro,  Tullio  et  Flacco  partes  &c.  Milan,  1814.  — 
By  same,  M.  T.  Cic.  trium  orat.  in  Clodium,  de  aere  alieno  Milonis,  de  Rege  Alexandrino  Frag- 
menta  &c.  Milan.  1814.  8.  —  By  same,  M.  T.  C.  sex  orationum  partes  &c.  fa  2d  ed.  of  the  two 
publications  just  cited).  Mil.  1817.8.  Respecting  these  fragments,  cf.  Klhlgling,  Suppl.  Brev. 
Not.  p.  94,  355.  Dibdin,  Introd.-to  Class,  i.  443.  Dunlop,  Rom.  Lit.  ii.  182.  —  B.  G.  JYiebuhr, 
Cic.  orat.  pro  Fontei.  etRabir.  fragm.  Berl.  1820.8 — J.  C.  Or ellius,  Select  Orations,  edited  from 
Mss.  now  first  collated.  Zurich,  1837. Several  editions  of  Select  Orations  have  been  pub- 
lished for  use  in  our  classical  schools  ;  that  of  C.  Anthon,  (N.  York  1836.  12,)  is  good. 

6.  Translations.  —  Of  whole  works.  —  French. — 6nonymous.   Par.  1818.  26  vols.  8. Of 

Orations. — German. — J.  B.  Schmitt  (all).  Wirceb.  1787-94.  8  vols.  8.  ("  nee  fide  nee  cleganter." 
Kluglinir. )— F.C.  Wolff X select).  Altona,1805-19.  5  vols.  8.  with  a  continuation,  Alt.  1823.  2  vols. 

8 French.— De  Villefore  (all).   Par.  1731.  8  vols.  12.— Auger  (select).  Par   1787.  3  vols.  12. 

—  Olivet  (against  Cataline).   Par.  1771.  12 English.— W.  Guthrie  (all).   Lond.  2d  ed.  1745. 

3  vols.  8.  1806.  2  vols.  8.  —  J.  Rutherford,  The  principal  orations  of  Cicero,  with  notes  &c. 
Lond.  1781.  4.— J.  White  (against  Verres).  Lond.  1787.  4. — Duncan  (select).  Lond.  1771.  8.  ed. 
by  C.  Whitworth.  Lond.  1777.  2  vols.  8. 

7.  It  would  require  a  volume  to  name  the  various  works  illustrative  of  the  writings  of  Cicero. 
Among  those  illustrating  the  Orations,  we  advert  to  the  Commentaries  (enarrationes,  scholia)  of 
Q.  Asconius  Pedianus,  a  Roman  grammarian  of  the  1st  century  (cf.  §  424).  —  The  commentary 
of  Paulus  Manutius  is  also  worthy  of  notice  ;  a  new  edition  was  given  by  Ch.  G.  Richter.  Lpz. 

1783.  8. M.  Anton.  Ferratius,  Epist.  in  Orat.  Cic.  Libri  Sex.   Ven.  1738.  4.  "  in  quibus  omnia 

fere,  qua;  in  orationibus  M.  Tullii  dubia  occurrunt,  polemica  illustrantur."  (Harles,  Suppl.  Brev. 
Not.  i.  200.  cf.  Fabricius,  i.  170.— S.  C.  Schirliti,  Vorschule  zum  Cicero  &c.  Wetzl.  1836.  8.  con- 
taining biographical  and  other  notices,  and  designed  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  Cicero. 

8.  A  singular  literary  controversy  arose  in  the  16th  century,  out  of  the  extravagant  venera- 
tion for  Cicero  which  was  then  cherished.  It  began  at  Rome,  where  Leo  X.  was  one  of  the 
most  zealous  admirers  of  the  Roman  orator,  and  exerted  all  his  influence  to  proscribe  every 
other  model  of  Latin  style.  But  the  great  champions  in  the  war  were  Erasmus  and  Julius 
Caesar  Scaliger.  The  former  commenced  his  attack  upon  the  admirers  of  Cicero  in  a  book 
styled  Ciceronianus.  He  charged  them  with  exalting  paganism  over  Christianity,  and  deifying 
a  heathen  lawyer;  asserting  that  they  preferred  Jupiter  Optimus  Maximus  to  Christ  the  Re- 
deemer of  the  world,  and  held  conscript  Fathers  in  higher  estimation  than  inspired  Apostles. 
His  book  was  filled  with  that  lively  wit  and  pungent  irony,  which  Erasmus  knew  so  well  how 
to  employ.  A  defence  was  made  by  Scaliger  in  two  Satires,  characterized  by  the  grossest  se- 
verity and  bitterness.  Scaliger  was  a  more  profound  scholar  than  Erasmus,  but  a  much  less 
brilliant  writer.  The  wit  of  his  adversary  he  found  it  easiest  to  repay  with  abuse  ;  and  he 
most  unsparingly  heaped  upon  the  author  of  Ciceronianus  hard  names  and  reproachful  epithets, 
calling  him  a  monster,  a  parricide,  a  second  Porphyry.  —  Burigny,  De  la  question  &c.  par  rap- 
port a  l'estime  due  a  Cicero,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxvn.  195. 

§  405.  Caius  Plinius  Cacilius  Secundus,  a  native  of  Coraura,  not  far  from 
Mediolanum,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  first  century  and  the  beginning  of 
the  second.  He  was  a  nephew  of  the  elder  Pliny,  and  adopted  by  him.  He 
studied  eloquence  under  Quintilian  ;  and  acquired  great  celebrity  and  influ- 
ence at  Rome  as  a  judicial  orator.  Under  Domitian  he  held  the  office  of  prae- 
tor, and  under  Trajan  that  of  consul.  His  eulogy  on  Trajan  is  a  tribute  of 
thanks  for  the  latter  dignity.  It  is  the  only  specimen  of  his  eloquence  that 
has  come  down  to  us ;  it  exhibits  many  undeniable  beauties,  but  is  too  lavish 
both  in  praise  and  in  rhetorical  ornament. 

1.  He  was  a  son  of  L.  Cheilitis  by  the  sister  of  the  elder  Pliny ;  he  assumed 
his  uncle's  name  and  inherited  his  estate.  At  the  age  of  41  or  42  he  was  sent 
to  govern  the  provinces  of  Bithynia  and  Pontus,  whence  he  wrote  his  inter- 
esting epistle  respecting  the  persecution  of  Christians.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
52,  about  A.  D.  110,  and  left  the  reputation  of  a  liberal  and  amiable  man. 
There  is  a  groundless  legend  that  he  was  converted  to  Christianity  by  Titus 
in  Crete,  and  suffered  martyrdom. 

G.  E.  Gierig,  Leben,  charakter  &c.  des  jungeren  Plinius.  Dortm.  1798.  8.  — J.  A.  Schafer, 
Progr.  iiber  den  char,  des  jiing.  Plinius.  Onolzbach  (Ansbach,  Onoldi).  1786.  4.  —  On  the  story 
of  Pliny's  conversion,  cf.  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  ii.  419. 

2.  Pliny  published  many  of  his  orations  and  harangues,  and  wrote  other 
works,  the  loss  of  which  is  matter  of  regret.  The  Panegyric  (Panegyricus 
Trajano  dictus)  and  the  Letters  (cf.  §  441)  are  the  only  genuine  remains  ;  al- 
though other  works  extant  have  been  ascribed  to  him,  as  the  dialogue  decausis 
corruptee  eloquejitice  (§415.  3),  and  the  book  de  viris  illvstribus. — The  Panegyric 
was  addressed  to  Trajan  on  his  naming  the  author  for  consul  A.  D.  100,  and  was 
afterwards  publicly  recited  ;  he  refers  to  it  in  two  of  his  letters  (Ep.  iii.  13. 18). 
In  another  letter  (Ep.  vii.  17)  he  speaks  of  his  great  labor  and  care  in  compo- 
sition (cf.  P.  I.  §125). 

Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  411. — Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  ii,  421,  Fabricius  is  copied  in  Lemaire's  ed. 
of  Pliny,  2d  vol.  p.  394  ss. 

3.  Editions.  —  The  Panegyric  is  given  in  many  editions  of  the  Letters  (§  441).  Separately, 
the  best ;  C.  G.  Schwartz.  Niirnb.  (Norimb.)  1746.  4.  with  a  learned  and  useful  commentary. — 


328  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

O.  E.  Gicrig.  Lpz.  1796.  8.  "  with  notes  copious  and  instructive  ;"  subsequently  united  to  Iris 
edition  of  the  Letters,  with  some  alterations.  Lpz. 1806.  2  vols.  8.— The  Princeps,  by  Puteolanus, 
cited  ^  406.  3. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.— J.  A.  Schafcr,  Ansbach  (Onoldi).  1784.  8.—D.  L.  Wigand.  Lpz. 

1796.  8 French — Louis  de  Sacy  (Ludovicus  Sarins).    Par.  1709.  8. English.—  G.  Smith. 

Lond.  1702.  8.— With  the  Epistles  (by  "  several  hands")  and  a  Life  of  Pliny  by  Mr.  Henley. 
Lond.  2  vols.  8. 

§  406.  Besides  the  oratorical  works  above  noticed,  there  are  the  twelve  eulo- 
gies ( Panegyrici)  on  the  Roman  emperors  in  the  3d  and  4th  centuries.  They 
are  worthy  of  notice  chiefly  as  literary  monuments  of  the  times,  and  as  sub- 
servient to  historical  research,  and  not  as  specimens  of  oratory  ;  since  in  that 
period  there  was  an  almost  total  loss  of  pure  taste,  of  good  style,  and  of  the 
free  and  noble  spirit  of  genuine  eloquence.  The  principal  authors  are  Clau- 
dius Mamertinus ,  Eumcnius,  Nazarius,  and  Latinus  Pacatus. 

1.  "  These  panegyrics  are  melancholy  monuments  of  the  decline  which  ora- 
tory had  suffered  since  the  time  of  Pliny.  They  consist  of  eulogies  upon  dif- 
ferent Roman  emperors  and  princes,  which  were  pronounced  on  various  pub- 
lic occasions,  and  not  unfrequently  delivered  as  complimentary  addresses  in 
the  actual  presence  of  the  imperial  sovereigns.  The  cities  in  different  parts 
of  the  empire  seem  to  have  employed  this  adulation  as  a  means  of  securing  the 
favor  of  the  reigning  prince  ;  for  which  purpose  they  selected  their  most  elo- 
quent and  insinuating  speakers  to  prepare  and  utter  such  panegyrical  dis- 
courses. The  cities  of  Gaul  appear  to  have  gone  beyond  all  others  in  this 
sort  of  flattery  ;  since  all  the  eulogfes  of  the  collection  here  described  were 
composed  by  Gallic  orators.  These  performances  are  but  poor  imitations  of 
the  panegyric  of  Pliny.  They  contain  revolting  flatteries  and  frigid  declama- 
tion mingled  with  exaggerations  and  subtleties,  and  are  wanting  in  genius, 
delicacy,  and  regard  to  truth.  But,  although  they  can  scarcely  fail  to  produce 
disgust  in  the  reader,  they  are  highly  valuable  as  historic  monuments  illus- 
trating the  customs  and  spirit  of  the  times."  (Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  ill.  191.) 
Nor  are  they  utterly  worthless  in  rhetorical  character.  "There  is  considerable 
talent  in  these  discourses,  with  very  fine  thoughts,  happy  turns,  lively  de- 
scriptions, and  just  commendations."  (Rollin,  Fol.  Learn.) 

Cf.  C.  G.  Heyne,  Censura  duodecim  Panegyricoruin  veterum.  Gbtt.  1805.  fol.  ;  also  in  his 
Opusc.  Academ.  p.  80.  vol.  VI. 

2.  Claudius  Mamertinus  was  the  author  of  two  of  the  discourses  ;  one  of  them,  eulogizing  the 
emperor  Maximian,  was  pronounced  at  Treves,  on  the  20th  of  April,  A.  D.  292'  at  a  celebration 
of  the  founding  of  Rome  ;  the  other,  perhaps  of  an  earlier  date,  was  pronounced  on  the  birth- 
day of  Maximian.  Another  of  the  panegyrics,  delivered  about  70  years  later,  is  ascribed  to  a 
Claudius  Mamertinus,  supposed  to  be  a  son  of  the  former.  —  Eumenius  was  a  professor  of  rheto- 
ric in  the  school  of  Augustodunum,  where  he  enjoyed  a  very  liberal  stipend  from  the  emperor 
Constantius  Chlorus,  whom  he  had  previously  served  as  secretary.  Four  panegyrics  are  from 
him  ;  the  last  of  them  was  delivered  at  Treves,  A.D.  311,  to  Constantine,  by  appointment  of  tha 
citizens  of  Augustodunum,  as  an  address  of  thanks  for  favors  bestowed  on  them  by  that  empe- 
ror.— Nazarius  was  a  professor  at  Burdigala  (cf.  §  385) ;  his  panegyric  was  pronounced  at  Rome, 
A.  D.  321,  and  eulogizes  Constantine  the  Great. — Latinus  Pacatus  Drcpanius,  author  of  another 
of  the  discourses,  was  a  professor  of  the  same  place,  who  was  sent  to  Rome  A.  D.  391,  to  con- 
gratulate the  emperor  Theodosius.  Optatianus  Porphyrias  (cf.  §  341)  is  included  by  Fuhrmann 
(Klein.  Handb.  p.  745)  among  the  authors  of  what  are  called  the  twelve  Panegyrics  ;  and  also 
Ausonius,  among  whose  works  is  found  a  eulogy  in  prose  on  the  emperor  Gratian.  —  Scholl, 
iii.  188.  —  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  ii.  424. 

3.  Editions. — The  best,  by  C.  G.  Schwartz,  completed  by  W.  Jdger  (Jagerus).  Norimb.  1779. 
2  vols.  8.  with  an  Appendix  (Appendix  observationum  &c. )  Norimb.  1790.  8.— In  Valpifs  Var.  £c 
Delph.  Classics,  No.  120-124. — The  Princeps,  Franc.  Puteolanus,  without  name  of  place,  1476.  4. 
containing  the  Panegyric  of  Pliny  and  eleven  others.  Those  now  commonly  called  the  twelve 
do  not  include  Pliny's.— Cf.  Harles,  Brev.  Not.  p.  40,  413.     Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  ii.  428. 

4.  Several  Panegyrics  were  composed  by  Symmachus,  an  orator  of  some  renown  in  his  times, 
whose  letters  will  be  noticed  below  (§  444).  Fragments  of  eight  orations  by  him  were  drawn 
by  Mai  from  the  palimpsest  manuscript  of  Fronto  (cf.  $443)  ;  three  of  them  are  imperial  pane- 
gyrics (orationes  AugustalcsJ.  Mai  published  the  same  under  the  title  Q.  Aur.  Symmachi  octo- 
orationum  partes  &c.   Mil.  1815.  8.  with  a  specimen  of  the  chirography  of  the  Ms. 


17/. — Rhetoricians. 


§  407m.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  Roman  Rhetoricians  had  reference 
chiefly  to  the  art  of  the  orator,  and  not  of  the  prose  writer  in  general.  The 
beauties  of  style  in  other  species  of  composition,  except  orations  properly  so 


RH  ETORIC.  329 

called,  were  investigated  by  the  Grammarians  and  taught  both  orally  and  by 
written  works. 

§  408.  It  has  already  been  mentioned,  that  the  attention  of  the  young  Ro- 
mans was  first  specially  drawn  to  the  art  of  speaking  as  such,  by  the  Greek 
rhetoricians  who  came  to  Rome  with  the  embassy  of  Carneades,  about  B.  C. 
155.  Lectures  on  rhetoric  and  grammar  had  been  given  somewhat  earlier  by 
one  Crates,  who  had  come  to  Rome  in  the  suite  of  Attalus  an  ambassador  from 
Eumenes  2d,  king  of  Pergamus.  Crates,  being  detained  by  the  breaking  of  a 
]eg,  employed  himself  for  amusement  in  giving  lectures  (ay.Qoaosig)  which  at- 
tracted considerable  attention.  But  much  greater  interest  seems  to  have  been 
awakened  by  the  embassy  from  Athens.  The  three  men  (Carneades,  Dioge- 
nes, and  Critolaus)  who  composed  this  embassy,  were  teachers  of  rhetoric  and 
philosophy.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §120.)  They  introduced  among  the  Romans  schools, 
in  which  instruction  in  rhetoric  was  given  after  the  manner  taught  in  the 
Greek  books.  Some  of  the  Roman  Fathers  apprehended  danger  to  the  state 
from  the  new  schools,  and  at  length  the  following  edict  against  the  rhetoricians 
was  given  by  the  Censors  :  "  Whereas  we  have  been  informed  that  certain 
men  who  call  themselves  Latin  rhetoricians  have  instituted  a  new  kind  of 
learning,  and  opened  schools  in  which  young  men  trifle  away  their  time  day 
after  day ;  we,  judging  this  innovation  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  purpose  for 
which  our  ancestors  established  schools,  contrary  to  ancient  custom,  and  inju- 
rious to  our  youth,  do  hereby  warn  both  those  who  keep  these  schools  and 
those  who  frequent  them,  that  they  are  herein  acting  contrary  to  our  pleasure." 

Cf.  Suetonius,  De  Rhetoribus. 

§  409.  But  the  art  of  speaking  was  so  highly  valued  at  Rome,  that  instruc- 
tion in  rhetoric  could  not  be  wholly  interdicted.  Schools  were  opened,  as 
has  been  mentioned  (§  395),  by  Roman  freedmen,  when  the  Grecian  masters 
were  excluded.  The  earliest  of  this  description,  in  which  rhetoric  was  taught 
in  the  Latin  language,  is  said  to  have  been  commenced  about  B.  C.  90,  by  L. 
Plotius  Gallus,  who  was  afterwards  the  teacher  of  Cicero.  L.  Otacilius  Pi- 
litus  is  mentioned  as  another  noted  teacher.  Theoretical  instruction  in  rhet- 
oric became  more  and  more  valuable  in  the  general  estimation,  and  the  em- 
ployment of  rhetorician,  it  is  stated,  became  highly  lucrative. 

§  410.  The  earliest  works  which  we  have  in  Latin,  belonging  strictly  to  the 
class  here  denominated  rhetorical,  are  from  the  pen  of  Cicero;  who,  although 
his  professional  employment  was  that  of  the  orator  and  not  the  rhetorician, 
devoted  himself,  with  the  greatest  assiduity,  to  study  and  explain  everything 
belonging  to  the  theory  of  his  art.  The  merit  of  his  several  treatises  (cf.  §  413) 
is  universally  acknowledged  ;  they  are  the  only  rhetorical  works  that  we  can 
refer  properly  to  the  Augustan  age. — The  next  important  name  in  this  depart- 
ment is  that  of  Marcus  Seneca,  the  father  of  the  philosopher.  He  was  em- 
ployed at  Rome  as  an  actual  teacher  of  rhetoric  and  oratory,  and  left  some 
works  which  have  come  down  to  us  (cf.  §  414).  We  refer  them  to  the  4th 
period  of  our  division,  although  Seneca  was  born  many  years  before  the  death 
of  Augustus,  because  they  were  chiefly  written  in  the  author's  old  age.  M. 
Porcius  Latro  was  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Seneca,  and  also  a  professed 
rhetorician  at  Rome;  two  or  three  declamations  ascribed  to  him  (cf.  §  414.  3) 
are  extant.  —  Rutilius  Lupus  is  another  rhetorical  writer  belonging  probably 
to  the  same  age,  although  by  some  assigned  to  a  later  time  ;  we  have  from 
him  a  treatise  on  figures  (cf.  §  414.  4). 

§  411.  The  schools  of  rhetoric  were  sustained  in  the  period  following  the 
time  of  Augustus,  although  genuine  eloquence  declined.  Many  teachers  of 
rhetoric  are  mentioned  ;  as  Hermagoras,  and  Gabinianus,  celebrated  both  at 
Rome  and  in  Gaul ;  Virginius  Rufus,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  rhetoric  ;  and 
others,  whose  names  it  is  of  little  importance  to  repeat.  They  are  all  entirely 
eclipsed  by  Quintilian,  whose  reputation  was  deservedly  very  high  as  a  living 
teacher,  and  whose  treatise  on  the  art  of  the  orator  ($  415)  has  secured  him 
lasting  honor. 

After  Quintilian,  we  find  no  author  of  any  eminence  in  this  branch  of  lite- 
rature.— In  our  last  period,  subsequent  to  the  Antonines,  there  were  still  nu- 
merous teachers  of  rhetoric,  both  at  Rome  and  elsewhere  (P.  I.  §128.  5) ;  but 
28* 


330  HISTORY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

if  they  produced  anything  of  great  importance,  it  is  buried  in  oblivion.    From 
several  of  them,  however,  something  is  preserved. 

We  barely  note  the  following  remains  of  rhetoricians  belonging  to  the  latest  period.  Cwrius 
Fortunatianvs,  about  A.  D.  240 ;  a  work  entitled  Ars  rhctorica  scholica,  in  3  books,  by  question 
and  answer  ;  found  in  Pithcrus,  as  cited  $  412.  —  Aquila  Romanus,  about  A.  D.  260  ;  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  Greek  treatise  of  Numenius  ($112)  Dcfiguris  sententiarum  &c.  found  in  Ruhn- 
ken,s  ed.  of  R.  Lupus,  cited  $  414.  4. — Julius  Rufinianus,  about  A.  D.  330  ;  a  continuation  of  the 
work  of  Aquila  ;  also  given  in  Ruhnken's  edition  just  named — Victorinus,  a  teacher  of  rhetoric 
at  Rome,  driven  from  his  school  on  account  of  his  being  a  Christian,  by  Julian  (cf.  P.I.  $128.2), 
A.  D.  362  :  a  commentary  (eipositio)  on  Cicero's  treatise  de  inventione  ;  found  in  the  collection 
of  Pithaus,  above  cited.— Cf.  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  197. 

§  412.  We  insert  the  following  for  references  on  the  subject  of  the  Roman 
rhetoricians. 

Franc.  Pithcrus,  Antiquirhetores  Latini.  Par. 1594.  4. — Claudius  Cappcronius,  Antiqui  Rhetores 
Latini.  Argent.  1756.4.  an  improved  ed.  of  the  preceding;  a  collection  containing  the  later 
rhetoricians  mentioned  above  ($411)  and  several  others. — F.  A.  Wicdeburg,  Prnecepta  rhetorics. 
Brunsw.  1786.  8.  ('cf.  $113;. — J.Ch.  Theoph.  Ernesti,  Lexicon  technologiae  Latinorum  rhetorics. 
Lpz.  1797.  8.  containing  explanations  of  the  technical  language  of  the  Latin  Rhetoricians  and 
Grammarians. — Cf.  also  Suiter,  Allg.  Theorie  &.c.  iv.  47. — Rollin,  Polite  Learning,  ch.  iv.art.2. ; 
in  his  Anc.  History,  p.  543-554.  vol.  2d.  ed.  N.  York,  1836.  —  Suetonius,  De  Claris  rhetoribus 
(cf.  $  537.  2;. —  Quintilian,  Inst.  Orat.  lib.  ii.  respecting  the  Roman  schools  of  Rhetoric. — Juve- 
nal, Sat.  vii.  illustrating  the  state  of  learning,  and  particularly  the  rhetorical  schools  in  the  time 
of  Domitian. 

§  413.  M.  T.  Cicero,  already  named  as  a  practical  orator  (§  404),  was  like- 
wise a  most  thorough,  copious,  and  instructive  writer  on  his  art.  The  follow- 
ing are  included  in  his  rhetorical  works:  1.  Rhctorica,  ad  Herennium,  in  4  books, 
which  is  now  thought  to  be  the  work  of  another  rhetorician,  perhaps  of  Gni- 
pho,  one  of  Cicero's  teachers  ;  2.  De  inventione  rhctorica,  in  2  books,  a  work 
said  to  have  been  written  in  his  18th  year  in  4  books,  of  which  only  2  remain; 
Dc  Oratore,  in  3  books,  addressed  to  his  brother,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  ; 
4.  Brutus,  or  De  Claris  Oratoribus,  being  an  account  of  the  most  distinguished 
orators  ;  5.  Orator,  an  ideal  picture  of  a  complete  speaker,  addressed  to  M. 
Brutus;  6.  Topica,  or  the  doctrine  of  evidence,  addressed  to  the  lawyer  Tre- 
batius  ;  7.  De  partitione  rhctorica,  a  dialogue  between  himself  and  son  on 
rhetorical  analysis  and  division;  8.  Dc  optimo  genere  oratorum,  designed  as  a 
preface  to  his  translation  of  the  rival  orations  of  iEschines  and  Demosthenes 
in  the  case  of  Ctesiphon  (cf.  §  106.  3.  §  107.  2).  The  most  valuable  of  these 
works  are  the  3d,  4th,  and  5th. 

1.  Various  conjectures  have  been  made  by  the  learned  respecting  the  real  author  of  the  booka 
addressed  to  Herennius.  That  which  ascribes  the  work  to  Cicero's  master,  Gnipho,  was  first 
advanced  by  Schiitz,  one  of  the  best  editors  of  Cicero.  —  The  treatise  de  Claris  oratoribus  is  a 
most  valuable  help  in  learning  the  history  of  Roman  eloquence — In  the  book  entitled  Topica, 
Cicero  treats  of  the  method  of  finding  proper  arguments.  The  sources  from  which  arguments 
may  be  drawn  are  called  loci  communes,  common  places.  The  work  is  based  on  that  of  Aris- 
totle by  the  same  title.  Cf.  .7.  Q.  Adams's  Lectures  on  Oratory. — For  a  further  notice  of  the  seve- 
ral works  above  named,  see  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  ii.  194  ss. — Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  501ss. 

2.  Editions. — rhetorical  works  collectively,  the  best ;  C.  G.  Schiitz.  Lpz.  1804-8.  3  vols.  8. 
— Princeps,  by  Aldus  ('the  elder,).  Ven.1514.  8. — rhet.  ad  herennium,  best ;  P.  Biirmann  (]m\.) 
Leyd.  1761.  8.  —  de  oeatore,  best ;  G.  Ch.  Harles  ('first  published  1776  ;  but  a  new  impr.  ed. 
just  before  his  death;.  Lpz.  1816.  8.  with  notes  of  Z.  Pearce.— O.  H.  Midler.  Lpz.  1819.  8.  pro- 
nounced by  Dibdin  (1827;  the  best  extant. — brutus  (de  Claris  oratoribus)  J.Ch.  F.  Wet'zel.  Hal. 
1793.  8.  and  (for  scholars)  Brunsw.  1796.  8. —  Charles  Beck.  Camb.  1837.  "  well  worthy  of  its  au- 
thor, one  of  the  most  accurate  Latin  scholars  in  our  countrv."  Bibl.  Rep.  No.  xxvm.  p.  498.  — 
orator,  J.  G.JJ.  Richtcr.  Hal. 1816.  8.— J.  C.  Orcllius,  Turici,  1831.  8.  with  Brutus  &.  Topica.— 
topica.  J.  Ch.  F.Wetiel,  M.  T.  Cic.  opera  rhetor,  minora,  impr'd  ed.  Lpz.  1823.  8.  containing 
the  Rhetorica  ad  Herennium,  dc,  inventione,  de  partitione,  and  de  optimo  genere  oratorum. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.— F.  C.  Wolff  {De  oratore).  Alton.  1801.— J.  L.  H.  Wollcr  (Brutus;. 

Hamb.  1787.  8. French.— Abbe  Colin  (De  oratore,  with  Latin;.   Par.  1805.  12.— De  Villcfore 

(Brutus;.    Par.  1726.  12. English.—  W.  Guthrie  (De  Oratore;.   Lond.  1742:  8.  often  repr.  — 

E.  Jones  (Brutus  1776.  8.) 

§  414.  Marcus  Annans  Seneca,  of  Corduba  in  Spain,  father  of  Seneca  the 
poet  (§  374)  and  philosopher  (§  469),  was  a  celebrated  rhetorician  under  Au- 
gustus and  Tiberius.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  Controversial,  or  civil  pro- 
cesses, or  law-suits,  in  10  books,  of  which  we  have  only  a  part ;  viz.  the  1st, 
2d,  7th,  9th,  and  10th;  and  these  not  in  a  perfect  state.  It  was  a  sort  of 
Chrestomathy,  and  is  properlyranked  in  the  class  of  rhetorical  works,  as  it  con- 
tains a  review  and  comparison  of  Greek  and  Roman  orators  with  regard  to 
invention,  application,  and  style.  We  have  also  another  work  by  him,  enti- 
tled Suasorice,  consisting  of  declamations  and  discourses  on  imaginary  themes. 
It  is  an  appendix  to  the  former  work,  and  also  incomplete.  The  style  in  both 
is  concise,  sometimes  even  to  constraint. 


RHETORICIANS.       SENECA.     QUINTILIAN.  331 

1.  Seneca  was  born  B.  C.  58.  and  died  A.  D.  32.  Under  Augustus,  he  lived 
at  Rome  and  taught  rhetoric.  At  the  age  of  52,  he  returned  to  his  native 
country,  and  married  Helvia,  a  woman  of  distinguished  beauty  and  talents. — 
By  her  he  had  three  sons ;  Lucius,  the  philosopher  ;  Mela,  father  of  the  poet 
Lucan;    and  Novatus,  who  afterwards  took  the  name  of  Junius    Gallio,  and 

was  the  Gallio  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Paul  (Acts  xviii.  12). In  both 

the  works  of  Seneca,  we  find  questions  which  were  discussed  in  the  rhetori- 
cal schools  for  the  sake  of  exercising  the  talents  of  the  speakers. 

Schcill,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  395.  —  Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  551. 

2.  Editions.  —  Both  works  are  commonly  given  in  the  editions  of  his  son  L.  Ann.  Seneca 
(§  469.  5).  Separately,  M.  Ann.  Seneca;  rhet.  Opera.  Bip.  1763.  8.  Repr.  Bip.  1810.  8.  The 
Controversies  were  first  printed,  Ven.  1490.  The  Suasoria:  added,  Ven.  1492.  fol.  Harles.  Brev. 
Not.  p.  320. 

3.  Besides  the  declamations  of  Seneca,  we  have  some  other  specimens  of 
the  declamations  or  discourses  which  the  rhetoricians  required  of  their  pupils 
in  order  to  train  their  minds  for  argument  and  debate ;  and  which  were  prac- 
ticed by  the  most  eminent  orators  long  after  leaving  the  schools  (cf.  P.  T. 
§  125J.  Of  this  kind,  are  a  declamation  in  Ciceronem,  and  another  in  Catali- 
nam,  ascribed  to  M.  Porcius  Latron  who  was  a  professed  rhetorician  of  some 
celebrity  (Quint.  Inst.  Or.  x.  5). 

4.  Rxitilius  Lupus  probably  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  and 
was,  perhaps,  the  son  of  the  tribune  and  prsetor  of  that  name  mentioned  by 
Cicero.  His  treatise,  in  2  books,  De  figuris  sententiarum  et  elocutionis  is  an 
extract  and  translation  from  a  Greek  work  composed  by  one  Gorgias  ;  not  the 
celebrated  sophist  of  L'eontium  (§  114),  but  probably  the  teacher  at  Athens, 
whom  the  son  of  Cicero  left  at  the  command  of  his  father.  The  work  con- 
tains passages  drawn  from  Greek  orators,  and  some  which  are  not  elsewhere 
preserved. 

The  first  edition  was  by  R.  Stephanus.  Par.  1530.  4.  —  The  best ;  D.  Ruhnken.  Lugd.  Bat, 
1768.  8. 

§  415.  Marcus  Fabius  Quintilianus ,  a  contemporary  of  the  younger  Pliny 
C§  405j,  was  a  native  of  Calagurris  in  Spain,  but  was  brought  to  Rome  in  his 
infancy.  He  was  for  20  years  an  eminent  teacher  of  rhetoric.  The  most  no- 
ble of  the  Romans  were  among  his  pupils.  He  instructed  them  by  example  as 
well  as  by  precept,  being  himself  a  speaker,  although  his  chief  merit  as  an 
author  is  founded  on  his  attention  to  the  theory  of  eloquence.  His  work,  en- 
titled De  Institutione  Oratoria,  in  12  books,  is  exceedingly  valuable ;  highly 
conducive  to  the  formation  of  good  taste  ;  comprising  at  the  same  time  the 
best  rules  and  a  specification  and  critical  notice  of  the  best  models.  The  10th 
is  one  of  the  most  instructive  books  in  the  work.  —  There  is  a  collection  of 
oratorical  exercises,  Declamationes,  consisting  of  19  termed  smaller  declama- 
tions, and  145  called  larger,  which  have  been  generally  ascribed  to  Quintil- 
ian.  They  are  very  unequal  in  respect  of  style  and  value,  and  are  chiefly  un- 
worthy of  this  author.  They  are  probably  the  productions  of  several  different 
writers,  mostly  of  a  later  period.  —  The  dialogue,  De  causis  corrupts  eloquen- 
tia,  by  some  ascribed  to  Tacitus,  and  by  some  to  Pliny  (§  405.  2),  is  by  others 
referred  to  Quintilian. 

1.  Quintilian  opened  his  school  at  Rome  under  Vespasian  ;  he  was  the  first 
rhetorician  who  received  a  salary  from  the  imperial  treasury.  His  Institutes 
were  written  about  B^r-C.  92,  after  he  retired  from  the  business  of  public  in- 
struction. •* 

Cf.  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  ii7398f  —  A  fuller  account  of  his  life,  in  Rollin,  as  cited  above  §  412.  — 
Cf.  Preface  to  Spalding's  edition  below  cited  (4).  —  Dodwell,  Annates  Q.uintiliani  &c.  Oxon. 
1693.  8. 

2.  The  Institutes  of  Oratory  are  designed  to  form  a  complete  orator.  The 
author  therefor^  begins  with  him  in  his" infancy,  and  goes  on  with  him  through 
his  preparatory  education,  his  professional  practice,  and  his  retirement  from 
active  life.  The  1st  book  is  of  special  value  as  informing  us  respecting  the 
manner  in  which  children  and  youth  were  instructed  before  entering  the 
schools  of  rhetoric.  The  2d  book  gives  rules  to  be  observed  in  these  rhetor- 
ical schools.  The  10th  book,  mentioned  above  as  very  instructive,  contains  a 
notice  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  classic  authors. 

The  only  complete  manuscript  of  this  work  preserved  to  modern  times  was  one  found  by  Pog- 
gio  of  Florence,  at  the  time  of  the  council  of  Constance,  A.  D.  1417,  in  a  tower  of  the  Abbey  of 


332  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

St.  Gall ;  what  has  become  of  this  Ms.  is  not  known  ;  but  a  copy  of  it,  taken  by  Poggio,  is  now 
in  England.     Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  u.  400. 

3.  Gtuintilian  says  expressly  (Inst.  Or.  vi.  procem.  viii.  6),  that  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
causes  of  the  corruption  of  eloquence.  This  is  one  of  the  grounds,  on  which  some  of  the  critics 
have  ascribed  to  him  the  dialogue  now  extant  on  that  subject,  as  Grcevius,  Henry  Stephens,  Sax- 
ius  and  others,  have  done.  The  title  of  the  dialogue,  however,  in  the  manuscripts  and  early 
editions,  is  simply  de  claris  oratoribus :  the  other  part,  stu  de  causis  corrupta tloquentice,  was 
added  by  Lipsius.  Spalding-  (in  his  edition  named  below,  4J  has  cited  passages  which  he  thinks 
prove  that  the  dialogue  was  not  the  work  of  Quintilian.  —  The  principal  writers  who  ascribe 
the  dialogue  to  Pliny  are  JYast  4"  Melmoth,  authors  of  the  translations  cited  below  (b).  —  The 
early  editions  and  the  manuscripts  ascribe  the  dialogue  to  Tacitus.  Brotier  and  other  critics  fol- 
low this  authority. Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  404.  —  Murphy,  Trans,  of  Tacitus  f  cited  §  534. bj, 

p.  258.  vol.  vi.  ed.  Bost.  1322.  —  Fitzosbornc's  Letters. 

4.  Editions.  —  De  I.nstit.  Or.  —  Best  ;  G.  L.  Spalding.  Lpz.  1798-1816.  4  vols.  8.  The  4th 
vol.  prepared  by  Buttmann  after  Spalding's  death.  These  vols,  contain  the  text.  A  5th  vol. 
containing  notes  and  index  by  C.  F.  Zumpt,  and  a  Lexicon  Quintilianeum  forming  a  6th  vol.  by 
E.  Bonnelli,  have  been  since  added.  —  6.  H.  Lvnemann.    Han.  1826.  2  vols.  8.  —  Q.'s  works 

are  eiven  in  Lemairt's  Bihl.  Class. Earlier  celebiated  editions  ;  P.  Bunnann.    Lugd.  Bat.  2 

vols.  4.  —  Capperonius.    Par.  1725.  fol. T.  M.  Gessner.  Gott.  1738. 4.  Oxf.  1806.  2  vols.  8. 

C.  Rollin,  (De  Inst.  OrJ  2d  ed.  Par.  1734.  2  vols.  8.  Altenb.  (Harles  ed.)  1772.  Oxf.  (In- 
gram ed.)  1809.  valued  for  the  preface  of  Rollin. P.  Pithmis  fDeclam.  Min.J.    Par.  1580.  8. 

De  causis  corr.  eloq.  —  Good  ;  J.  H.  A.  Schul-.e.    Lpz.  1788.  8.  —  J.  Seebode.  Gbtt.  1815.  8.— 

G.  Bbtticher.  Berl.  1832.  8.  —  §  F.  Rittcr.  Bon.  1836.  8.— It  is  given  in  most  editions  of  Tacitus, 
and  of  Qnintilian.  In  Brotier's  ed.  ('cited  $  534.  A)  a  chasm  in  the  dialogue  is  elegantly  sup- 
plied bv  that  editor. 

5.  Translations.  —  French  —  Abbe  Gedoyn.  f  Instit.  Orat.;    Par.  1718.  4.  1803.  4  vols.  12. 

English.—  TV.  G.  Guthrie.  (Instit.  Orat.J  1756.  2  vols.  8.  —  W.  Melmoth.  (De  caus.  corr.  eloq.,) 
Lond.  1754.  8.  —  Arthur  Murphy  (De  caus.  corr.  el.  with  valuable  notes  J  in  his  transl.  of  Taci- 
tus, cited  $  534.  5. German.  —  J.  J.  H.  Nast.  (dialogue  de  causis  &c.)  Halle  1787.  8. 


IV. — Grammarians. 


§  416u.  The  language  of  the  Romans  gained  in  copiousness,  refinement  and 
excellence,  as  the  arts  and  sciences  began  to  find  patronage  among  them  (cf. 
P.  I.  §  114).  Patriotic  and  acute  men,  who  had  studied  and  admired  the 
Greek  language,  now  applied  themselves  to  a  more  particular  investigation 
and  improvement  of  their  native  tongue.  These  were  the  Grammarians,  who 
made  the  study  of  language  their  principal  business,  and  gave  the  Roman 
youth  instruction  in  respect  both  to  accuracy  and  to  beauty  of  style.  And 
subsequently,  when  Roman  taste  was  declining,  these  men  endeavored  to  sus- 
tain the  classical  reputation  and  influence  of  the  older  writers,  especially  the 
poets  and  orators,  by  exhibiting  them  as  models,  and  illustrating  their  beau- 
ties. In  the  later  periods  the  grammarians  and  philologists  were  almost  the 
sole  possessors  of  the  literature.  Their  industry,  however,  did  not  always  take 
the  best  direction.  They  often  deviated  into  useless  speculations,  prolix  dis- 
cussions, and  arbitrary  technicalities,  which  gave  to  their  pursuits  a  dry  and 
forbidding  aspect.  Some  of  them  put  their  researches  into  a  written  form, 
and  various  essays  from  them  have  come  down  to  us. 

§  417.  It  has  been  before  remarked  ($  408),  that  the  grammarian  gave  in- 
struction respecting  language  and  style  generally,  while  the  rhetorician  con- 
fined himself  to  the  style  and  other  qualifications  of  the  orator.  The  Romans 
at  first  applied  the  term  literatus  to  the  grammarian,  meaning  just  what  the 
Greeks  did  by  yQaiiuarixbc  (cf.  P.  I.  §  71),  one  who  was  well  instructed  in 
letters.  Afterwards  the  term  grammaticus  was  introduced  by  the  Romans  in 
the  same  sense.  We  translate  it  by  the  word  grammarian,  but  the  term  ■phi- 
lologist would  be  more  appropriate ;  because  the  studies  and  instructions  of 
the  grammaticus  were  not  limited  to  the  mere  forms  and  syntax  of  language  in 
accordance  with  the  modern  limitation  of  the  term  grammar,  but  were  extend- 
ed over  the  whole  field  of  interpretation  and  literary  criticism. 

§  418.  It  is  commonly  stated,  that  the  first  who  awakened  any  interest  at 
Rome  in  the  studies  of  the  grammarian  was  Crates  of  Mallos,  who  came  to 
Rome  in  the  embassy  of  Attalus,  B.  C.  168.  His  lectures  probably  were  in 
reference  to  Greek  authors,  but  served  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  Romans 
to  productions  in  their  own  language.  Latin  grammarians  soon  appeared ; 
among  the  earliest  Suetonius  mentions  two  Roman  knights.    They  were,  how- 


GRAMMARIANS.  333 

,ever,  generally  slaves  or  freedmen,  and  probably  of  Greek  origin.  Some  of 
the  more  eminent  of  the  early  grammarians  were  the  following  ;  Aurelius 
Opilius,  who  composed  a  commentary  in  9  books  on  different  authors ;  Vale- 
rius Cato,  author  of  a  poem  before  mentioned  (§  344)  anti  of  various  other 
works  ;  Antonius  Gnipho,  who  left  a  treatise  on  the  Latin  tongue.  These 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Sylla;  Gnipho  continued  to  teach  for  a  long  period 
and  seems  to  have  finally  opened  a  rhetorical  school,  where  Cicero  attended  on 
his  lectures  (§  413).     Nothing  of  their  grammatical  works  now  remains. 

In  the  opening  of  the  next  period,  which  extended  from  the  war  of  Sylla 
B.  C.  88,  to  the  death  of  Augustus,  we  find  one  author  of  special  value  and 
celebrity  in  this  department,  M.  Terentius  Varro  (§  423),  who  was  celebrated 
as  the  "  most  learned  of  the  Romans  ;  "  he  made  most  extensive  researches  in 
grammar  and  philology,  of  which  some  valuable  remains  are  preserved  to  us. 
—  Another  grammarian  of  some  note  was  Verrius  Flaccus,  who  was  employed 
by  Augustus  to  teach  in  the  imperial  palace;  of  his  principal  work  we  have 
an  abridgment  (cf.  §  428).  —  Julius  Hyginus,  a  freedman  of  Augustus,  and 
keeper  of  the  Palatine  Library  (P.  I.  §  126),  was  also  a  professed  grammarian, 
and  left  a  commentary  on  Virgil  with  other  writings ;  his  philological  works 
are,  however,  all  lost. 

§  419.  In  the  next  period,  extending  from  the  death  of  Augustus  A.  D.  14 
to  the  Antonines,  there  were  many  writers  belonging  to  the  class  now  under  no- 
tice. In  the  preceding  period,  a  chief  object  of  attention  among  the  gramma- 
rians was  to  inquire  into  the  origin  and  structure  of  the  Latin  language.  But 
in  this,  their  attention  was  directed  to  the  interpretation  and  criticism  of  au- 
thors, especially  of  the  works,  which  appeared  in  the  age  of  Augustus;  as  the 
grammarians  of  Alexandria  employed  themselves  much  in  commenting  on  the 
classic  authors  of  Greece.  Asconius  Pedianus  in  the  1st  century  (§  424) 
gained  some  celebrity  by  commentaries  on  Virgil,  Sallust  and  Cicero.  There 
were  two  grammarians  by  the  name  of  Valerius  Probus,  one  under  Nero  and 
Vespasian,  and  the  other  under  Adrian.  Rhemnius  Palaemon  was  a  celebra- 
ted teacher  of  grammar  in  the  reigns  of  Claudius  and  Nero.  Annseus  Cornu- 
tus,  who  has  been  mentioned  as  author  of  a  treatise  in  Greek  (§  227),  is  sup- 
posed to  have  exerted  a  considerable  influence  on  the  literature  of  his  age  by 
his  instructions  at  Rome,  and  by  his  writings,  among  which  was  a  lost  com- 
mentary on  Terence  ;  he  taught  philosophy  as  well  as  grammar,  and  was  final- 
ly banished  by  Nero.  Velius  Longus  is  the  name  of  another  grammarian  of 
this  period,  who  left  a  treatise  on  orthography  still  extant,  and  a  commentary 
on  the  JEneid  which  is  lost.  We  have  likewise  a  treatise  on  orthography  ascri- 
bed to  Terentius  Scaurus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Adrian,  and  was  preceptor 
to  the  emperor  L.  Verus  ;  he  wrote  also  a  grammar  and  a  commentary  on 
Horace's  Art  of  Poetry.  Cornelius  Fronto,  named  among  the  epistolizers 
(§  443),  should  also  be  mentioned  here,  as  he  was  an  eminent  grammarian  and 
teacher,  and  left  a  treatise,  still  extant,  on  the  different  meanings  of  words 
commonly  called  synonymous. 

But  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  interesting  authors  in  the  department  be- 
fore us  is  Aulus  Gellius,  who  flourished  at  the  very  close  of  this  period;  hia 
miscellaneous  production,  entitled  Nodes  Attica,  will  be  noticed  below  ($  425). 

The  extant  treatises  ascribed  to  Valerius  Probus  are,  (1)  a  grammar,  grammaticarum,  instit. 
lib.  duo  ;  (2)  an  account  of  Roman  stenograhy,  de  votis  Romanorum ;  (3)  Scholia  on  the  Georgics 
and  Bucolics  of  Virgil,  found  in  the  collection  of  Putsch  cited  below  ($422,) ;  separately,  H. 
Ernst.  Sone,  1647.  8.  The  scholia  on  Virgil  f  with  other  commentaries^,  by  A.  Mai.  Mil. 
1818.  8.  —  The  only  work  of  Palsemon  extant  is  his  Summa  Grammatices,  or  sketch  of  gram- 
mar;  given  also  by  Putsch.  The  grammatical  pieces  remaining  from  Longus,  Scaurus  and 
Fronto,  are  given  by  the  same  ;  that  of  Fronto  likewise  by  Mai  (§  443.  2). 

§  420.  In  the  last  period  included  in  our  glance,  the  studies  of  the  gramma-^ 
rian  and  philologer  continued  to  be  held  in  honor.  In  the  eastern  empire  an 
imperial  ordinance  in  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  contained  the  provis- 
ion that  all  Greek  and  Latin  grammarians,  who  had  been  employed  in  teach- 
ing their  science  for  twenty  years,  should  hold  the  rank  of  Vicars  (vicarii). 
The  Vicars  were  governors  of  extensive  provinces,  and  belonged  to  the  class 
of  dignitaries  who  were  styled  Spectabiles,  and  were  addressed  in  the  words 
Vestra  Spectabilitas  or  Vestra  Claritas. 

§  421.  Of  the  numerous  grammarians  of  this  period,  the  following  may  be 


334  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

named  as  the  principal ;  Nonius  Marcellus,  Censorinus,  and  Pomponius  Fes- 
tus  of  the  3d  century  ;  iElius  Donatus  of  the  4th  century  ;  Macrobius,  Dio- 
medes,  and  Charisius  of  the  5th  century  ;  whose  works  are  mentioned  in  the 
following  sections  *(§  423 — 432).  Marcianus  Capella  may  properly  be  named 
here,  although  the  peculiar  character  of  the  work  left  by  him  to  posterity  is 
such  as  may  justify  our  placing  him  among  the  philosophical  writers  (cf.  §473). 
There  were  others,  of  whom  some  remains  are  preserved ;  as  Flavius  Caper, 
Victorinus,  already  mentioned  as  a  rhetorician,  Lucius  Ampelius,  Mallius 
Theodorus,  Pompeius,  Servius  the  commentator  on  Virgil,  and  Acron  and  Por- 
phyrio,  commentators  on  Horace. 

Priscian  of  Caesarea  (§  433)  does  not  fall  chronologically  within  our  glance, 
as  he  lived  after  the  overthrow  of  Rome  A.  D.  476;  but  he  must  not  be  omit- 
ted, being  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  Latin  grammarians.  Isidore 
of  Seville,  who  lived  still  later,  is  also  deserving  of  mention  here  on  account 
of  his  labors  in  grammar  and  philology  (§  434). 

The  remains  of  Caper,  and  the  grammatical  pieces  of  Victorinus  are  given  in  the  collection  of 
Putsch  (cf.  Q  422).— From  Ampelius  we  have  a  work  entitled  Liber  memorialis,  in  50  chapters,  on 
various  topics,  many  of  them  historical  ;  it  is  commonly  given  in  the  editions  of  Florus  (cf.  §  536. 
A).  —  Mallius  Theodorus,  at  the  close  of  the  4th  century,  left  a  work  De  Metris ;  published  first 
by  J.  F.  Heusingcr.  1755.  Repr.  Lusd.  Bat.  1766.  8.  —  The  works  of  Pompeius  are  two  pieces 
which  are  commentaries  on  Donatus  (cf.  §  429) ;  first  published  by  Fr.  Lindemann.  Lpz.  1820.  8. 
—  The  purely  grammatical  pieces  of  Servius  are  given  by  Putsch  f  cf.  §  422;.  The  commentary 
on  Virgil  is  given  in  Lemaire's  Virgil  (cf.  §  362.  4)  and  other  editions.  —  The  comments  of  Ac- 
ron and  Porphyrio  are  given  in  some  of  the  editions  of  Horace  fcf.  363.  4) ;  these  grammarians 
are  placed  by  some  as  early  as  the  2d  century.  —  See  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  lit.  311  ss. 

§  422.  We  give  here  references  on  the  subject  of  the  Latin  grammarians 
collectively. 

1.  Collections.  —  J.  Theod.  Bellovacus,  Grammatici  illustres  xn.  Par.  1516.  fol.  —  Dionys- 
Oothofred,  Auctores  Latins  Lingus  in  unum  redacti  corpus.  Genev.  1595,  1622.  4.  —  H.  Puts- 
ches ('Putsch),  Grammatics  Latins  auctores  antiqui.  Han.  1605.  4.  including  the  remains  of 
about  30  writers.  —  An  account  of  the  contents  of  these  collections  is  given  by  Fabricius,  BibL 
Lat.  iii.  318  ss.  cf.  also  F.  A.  Erbert,  Allg.  bibliograph.  Lexicon,  i.  700  ss.  —  F.  Lindemann,  cor- 
pus Grammaticorum  Latinorum.  1831.  4.  (commenced  and  to  be  continued  ;  1st  vol.  said  to  be 
well  executed).  —  We  may  add  here,  T.  Oaisford,  Scriptores  Latini  rei  metrics.    Oxf.  1837.  8. 

2.  Respecting  the  grammarians ;  Suetonius,  De  illustr.  grammaticis  f  cf.  §  537; Quintilian, 

Inst.  Or.  lib.  i.  —  Rollin,  Of  Grammarians  and  Philologers,  in  Anc.  Hist.  p.  457  ss.  vol  n.  ed. 
N.  Y.  1835.—  Sclwll,  Litt.  Rom.  l.  184.  n.  237,  485.  til.  307.— J.  E.  Im.  Walchius,  Diss,  de  ortu 
et  progressu  artis  crit.  apud  veteres  Romanos,  Jen.  1747.  4.  —  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  it.  35. — 
Bdhr,  p.  709. 

§  423.  Marcus  Terentius  Varro,  who  was  born  B.  C.  117  and  died  B.  C.  27, 
was  an  uncommonly  fruitful  writer.  In  his  youth  he  followed  the  profession 
of  war  and  was  on  the  side  of  Pompey  ;  he  afterwards  went  over  to  the  par- 
ty of  Caesar,  who  gave  him  the  charge  of  his  library.  By  Antony  he  was  ban- 
ished ;  but  under  Augustus  he  returned  with  the  other  exiles.  He  closed  his 
life  in  literary  ease,  at  the  age  of  90.  His  work  on  the  Latin  tongue  consisted 
originally  of  24  books;  but  we  have  now  only  the  4th,  5th  and  6th,  which  treat 
of  etymology,  and  the  7th,  8th  and  9th,  which  treat  of  the  analogy  of  language ; 
of  the  other  books  merely  detached  fragments  remain.  On  account  of  the  an- 
tiquity and  the  accuracy  of  these  writings,  they  doubtless  are  worthy  of  the 
first  rank  among  the  grammatical  productions  of  the  Romans.  Varro,  how- 
ever, often  went  too  far  in  his  etymological  speculations,  and  was  too  partial  to 
the  domestic  derivation  of  Latin  words. 

1.  Varro  was  a  historian,  poet  (§  345)  and  philosopher,  as  well  as  grammari- 
an. His  works  are  said  to  have  amounted  to  nearly  500  in  number.  Of  these 
nothing  remains  but  the  parts  of  the  work  already  named  de  Lingua  Latina,  a 
treatise  on  husbandry  (§  499),  and  some  slight  fragments  of  other  performan- 
ces. — The  titles  of  many  of  the  lost  treatises  indicate  that  they  belonged  to 
the  class  properly  denominated  critical,  or  philological. 

Others  were  on  mythological  subjects  ;  e.  g.  the  treatise  De  cult*  Deonim  C§  503).  —  Others 
were  biographical  and  historical ;  among  which  were  a  work  entitled  Annates,  and  another  De 
initiis  urbis  Romm  ;  also  a  work  entitled  Hebdomadum  or  De  imaginibus,  containing  notices  of 
seven  hundred  eminent  men.  Cf.  Aul.  Gell.  Noct.  Att.  iii.  10.  xvl  9.—Plin.  Hist.  N.  xxxv.  2. — 
A  few  were  philosophical;  that  de  Philosophia  contained  a  comprehensive  view  of  all  the  an- 
cient sects  with  their  subordinate  schools  and  parties.  He  wrote  many  satirical  pieces  (§  345). 
There  is  a  collection  of  maxims  extant,  which  is  said  to  have  been  drawn  from  the  works  of 
Varro  ;  they  are  given  in  Schneider's  collection  cited  §  489.  3.  —  Augustine  in  his  work  De  civ- 
itate  Dei,  often  refers  to  the  work  of  Varro  ;  and  there  was  a  groundless  story  that  Pope  Gregory 
caused  the  writings  of  Varro  to  be  burned  in  order  to  shield  Augustine  from  the  disgrace  of 
having  borrowed  too  freely  from  them. For  a  view  of  the  life  and  writings  of  Varro,  see 


GRAMMARIANS.       ASCONIUS.    GELLIUS.    CENSORINUS.        335 

Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  ii.  23-53.  —  Schneider,  De  vita  T.  Varronis  &c.  in  his  Collection  just 
named.  —  V.  Maurus,  De  vita  Varronis  &x.    Lugd.  1563.  8. 

2.  Editions.  —  Whole  works.  —  Princeps,  by  H.  Stephanus.  Par.  1569.  8.  —  Most  complete, 

Dordrecht  (Dort,  Dordracum),  1619.     Repr.  Amst.  1623.  8 De  Latina  Lingua. —  Best ;  Bi- 

pont,  1788.  2  vols.  8.  —  Cf.  G.  D.  Kozler,  Liters  Crit.  in  Varron.  de  L.  L.  (ad  V.  C.  Heyne). 
Duisb.  1790.  8. 

§  424.  Asconius  Pedianus,  a  native  of  Padua,  was  a  grammarian  of  the  1st 
century.  He  wrote  annotations  on  some  of  the  orations  of  Cicero  ;  fragments 
of  which  are  still  extant. 

1.  These  fragments  or  extracts  were  found  by  Poggio  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Gall  near  Constance ;  they  are  styled  Enarrationes  in  M.  T.  Cic.  Orationes. 
Some  additional  notes  were  discovered  by  Mai  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at 
Milan.  The  commentaries  of  Asconius  on  Virgil  and  Sallust  are  entirely  lost. 
There  is  a  historical  work  entitled  Origo.gentis  Romance,  which  has  by  some 
been  ascribed  to  him;  but  is  usually  admitted  to  belong  to  SextusAurelius(§539). 

Cf.  Schcell,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  485.  in.  160.  —  Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom  Lit.  p.  539. 

2.  Editions.  —  Princeps  fcura  PoggiiJ.  Ven.  1477.  fol.  —  Latest  named  by  B'ahr  (cum  not. 
CreniiJ.  Leyd.  1698.  12.  —  Given  with  C's  orations  in  the  ed.  of  Gratvius  (cited  §  404. 5).  — The 
fragments  discovered  by  Mai  were  published  by  him  in  1814  (cf.  §  404.  5). 

§  425.  Aulus  Gellius,  born  at  Rome,  lived  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Anto- 
ninus Pius.  His  work  entitled  JYoctes  Attica;,  is  a  collection  of  various  observ- 
ations, which  he  had  gathered  from  the  best  Greek  and  Latin  authors  for  the 
improvement  and  entertainment  of  his  children.  The  collection  was  made  in 
the  winter  nights,  during  his  residence  at  Athens.  It  consists  of  miscellane- 
ous remarks  chiefly  on  grammatical,  historical  and  antiquarian  topics,  and  con- 
tains much  valuable  matter  for  the  philologer  and  critic.  There  were  origin- 
ally 20  books  ;  the  8th  and  the  beginning  of  the  6th  are  lost. 

1.  He  is  called  Agellius  in  some  manuscripts,  and  the  French  write  his  name 
Aulugelle.  Cornelius  Fronto  (§  443)  was  one  of  his  early  teachers  before  he 
went  to  study  at  Athens.  After  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  Centumviri  (P.  IV.  §  262).     His  death  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  before 

A.  D.  164. The  JYoctes  Attica  contain  a  number  of  extracts  from  lost 

works.  The  arrangement  of  the  contents  is  not  methodical,  and  the  style  is 
not  free  from  impurities. 

Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  309.  —  Prefaces  and  Excurs.  in  the  editions  of  Longolius  <$•  Conradi  be- 
low cited.  —  On  the  age  of  Gellius,  Hen.  Dodwcll,  in  the  Diss,  de  (state  Peripli  maris  Euxini,  giv- 
en in  Hudsoji's  Minor  Greek  geographers,  cited  $  208«.  2. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best ;  A.  Lion.  Gbtt.  1824.  2  vols.  8.  —  Gronovius.  Lug.  Bat.  1706.  4.  —  J.  L. 
Conradi.  Lpz.  1762.  2  vols.  8.  a  reimpression  of  Gronov's.  —  The  Bipont  ed.  1784.  is  based  on 
the  same  ;  as  is  that  of  P.  D.  Longolius.  Curiae  Regnit.  1741.  8.  —  Princeps,  by  Sweynheym  fy 
Pannartz  (printers).  Rom.  1469.  fol.  ed.  J.  Andreas  Aleriensis,  bishop  of  Aleria  ;  "  esteemed 
among  the  rarest  of  the  Editiones  Principes." — An  improved  ed.  of  Aul.  Gell.  seems  to  be  a  de- 
sideratum. Cf.  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  iii.  1Q.—Dibdin,  lntr.  Gr.  &  Lat.  Class,  i.  342.— Phil.  Caro- 
lus,  Animadversiones  in  Agellium  &c.  (Ch.  Arnold  e&.)  Noriberg.  1663.  8. 

3.  Translations. — German. — H.  W.  von  fVallenstern.   Lemgo,  1785.  8. French. — Jos.  Dome 

de  VertevU.   Par.  1789.  3  vols.  12 English W.  Beloe.    Lond.  1795.  3  vols.  8. 

§  426.  Censorinus,  a  grammarian  of  the  3d  century,  is  known  by  his  work 
entitled  De  die  natali.  It  was  addressed  to  his  friend  Quintus  Cerellius  on 
the  occasion  of  his  birth-day,  and  contains  much  learning.  It  treats  of  the 
different  periods  of  human  life,  of  the  divisions  of  time,  days,  nights,  months, 
years,  &c.  mostly  in  a  philological  manner.  He  wrote  also  a  work  on  accents, 
which  is  lost  excepting  a  few  passages  quoted  by  Priscian. 

1.  The  work  of  Censorinus  treats  also  of  music,  astronomy,  of  periodical 
games  and  celebrations,  and  other  topics.  It  consists  of  25  chapters  ;  and  is 
of  considerable  value  in  determining  various  questions  in  chronology  and  an- 
tiquities.— The  early  editions  of  Censorinus  contained  15  additional  chapters, 
which  Louis  Carrio  j  in  his  edition,  first  separated  from  the  rest  as  forming  a 
separate  work,  entitled  De  naturali  institutione,  and  probably  not  belonging  to 
the  same  author.  They  treat  of  geometry  and  versification. 
Scltbll,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  312.  —  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  iii.  417.— Bdhr,  p.  661. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  most  complete  ;   S.  Havercamp.   Leyd.  1743  (with  new  title  1767).  8 

The  latest,  J.  S.  Griiber.  Niirnb.  (Norimb.)  1805.  repr.  1810.  8.  —  The  edition  of  L.  Carrio, 
mentioned  above,  was  printed  Par.  1583.  8.  repr.  Levd.  1603.— The  Princeps,  with  the  Tabula 
Cebetis  (cf.  §  188). (Bened.  Hector  printer;.   Bonon.  1497.  fol. 

§  427.  Nonius  Marcellus,  a  native  of  Tivoli,  lived  probably  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury, but  is  placed  by  some  at  the  close  of  the  2d.  We  have  from  him  a  work 
styled  Compendiosa  doctrina  de  proprietate  sermonum,  in  19  chapters,  written 


336  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

for  the  use  of  his  son.     They  are  valuable  on  account  of  the  subjects  treated, 
and  the  fragments  of  ancient  writers  which  they  contain. 

1.  He  is  surnamed  in  some  manuscripts  Peripateticus  Tiburiensis.  The 
critics  have  passed  very  different  opinions  respecting  the  merits  of  his  work. 
"It  is  certain,  however,"  says  Scholl  (a)  '-that  no  ancient  grammarian  is  more 
rich  in  his  citations  from  previous  writers." 

(a)  Lit*.  Rom.  in.  312.  —  Cf.  Btihr,  p.  720.— G.  /.  Fossius,  De  Philolog.  cap.  5. —  J.  Lipsius,, 
Antiq.    lect.  ii.   c.  4. 

2.  Editions* — J.  Mercerus,  (Josias  le  Mercier)  Par.1614.  8.  with  Fulgentius  de  prisco  sermone. 
Repr.  Lips.  1826.  8. — Princeps  (according  to  some)  Pomphnius  ed.  Rom.  1471.  (others)  JV.  Jen- 
son  printer.  Ven.  1471.— It  is  found  in  some  editions  of  Varro.  —  Illustrations  of  the  dramatic 
fragments  found  in  Nonius,  by  Reuvens,  as  cited  §  312. 

§  428.  Seztus  Pomponius  Festus,  who  lived  probably  in  the  middle  of  the  4th 
century,  left  a  work  entitled  De  verborum  significatione,  in  20  books.  It  is, 
properly  speaking,  an  abridgment  of  a  larger  grammatical  treatise  of  Verrius 
Flaccus  ($  418.)  From  this  abridgment  another  was  made  by  Paulus  Diaconus 
or  Winifrid,  in  the  Sth  century,  which  is  the  only  one  that  has  come  down  to  us. 

1.  The  words  are  arranged  alphabetically,  and  each  book  of  the  abridgment 
contains  a  letter.  "  The  abridgment  of  Festus  is  a  work  very  useful  in  ac- 
quiring a  knowledge  of  the  Latin  tongue,  but  it  has  experienced  an  unhappy 
lot.  It  existed  entire  until  the  8th  century,  when  Paul  Winifrid  formed  from 
it  a  meager  compilation,  which  from  that  time  supplanted  in  the  libraries  the 
work  of  Festus.  The  latter  is  indeed  lost,  excepting  that  in  the  16th  century 
a  single  imperfect  manuscript  was  found  in  Illyria.  This  manuscript,  com- 
mencing with  the  letter  M,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Aldus  Manutius,  who  incor- 
porated it  with  the  compilation  of  Winifrid,  and  made  of  them  one  work ; 
which  he  printed,  in  1513,  at  the  end  of  the  Cornucopia  of  P err otto." 

Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  315.— Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p. 721.— Respecting  Perrotto,  cf.  §372. 1.5. 

2.  Editions.— The  best,  A.  Dacier  fin  us.  Delph.  Par.  1681;  impr.  by  J.  Clerc.  Amst.1699.  4. 
'—Princeps,  by  Zarotti  f  printer,).   Mil.  1471.  fol. 

§  429.  JElius  Donatus,  a  celebrated  philologer  of  Rome,  in  the  4th  century, 
is  also  known  as  the  instructor  of  Jerome.  We  have  from  him  several  gram- 
matical essays,  which  have  served  as  the  basis,  in  some  respects,  for  modern 
authors  on  Latin  Grammar.  They  treat  partly  of  the  elements  of  language 
and  of  prosody,  and  partly  of  syntax  and  diction.  He  left  also  a  valuable 
commentary  on  five  comedies  of  Terence,  in  which  he  not  only  illustrates  the 
meaning  of  the  words,  but  comments  upon  the  plan  and  the  dramatic  charac- 
ter of  the  pieces. 

1.  The  two  principal  grammatical  treatises  are  styled  E ditto  prima  de  Uteris^ 
xyllabisque,  pedibus,  et  tonis,  and  Editio  secunda  de  octo  partibus  orationis ; 
they  are  sometimes  termed  Ars  Donati.  They  form,  when  united,  something 
like  a  complete  grammar,  being  the  earliest  systematic  Latin  grammar  known 
to  have  existed.  —  There  is  another  treatise  by  him,  De  barbarismo,  solcccismo, 
schematibus,  et  tropis. 

A  brief  life  and  description  of  Donatus  which  Peter  Daniel  copied  from  a  manuscript  in  the 
Royal  Library  of  Paris  is  given  by  Fabricius  ;  it  represents  him  as  of  a  mean  and  disgusting 
personal  appearance  ;  but  it  is  an  absurd  document  of  no  authority.  —  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  iii. 
406.— Sclwll,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  317. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  Grammatical  essays,  by  Rob.  Stephanus.  Par.  1543.  8.  containing  the  com- 
mentaries on  them  by  Sergius  and  Servius.  Also  given  in  the  Collection  of  Putsch,  cited  §  422. 
—  For  the  comments  of  Pompeius  on  Donatus,  see  §  421.  —  The  commentary  on  Terence  is 
given  in  the  more  complete  editions  of  that  author  (cf.  §  355.  3).  A  German  translation  of  a 
part  of  it,  Peter^b.  1782.  8.  —  See  L.  Schopen,  Diss.  &c.  cited  $  355.  4. 

3.  There  is  extant  a  commentary  on  Virgil  ascribed  to  Donatus  ;  but  it  is  generally  consid- 
ered to  be  the  production  not  of  JElius,  but  of  Tiberius  Claudius  Donatus,  who  lived  perhaps  in 
the  same  period.— Printed  JVeapol.  1535.  with  Probas  on  thj  Bucolics  ($  419). 

§  430.  Macrobius  Ambrosius  Aureiius  Tkcodosivs,  of  uncertain  origin,  lived 
probably  in  the  first  part  of  the  5th  century.  His  commentary  on  Cicero's 
Dream  of  Scipio,  in  2  books,  contains  much  that  is  useful  in  reference  to  phi- 
losophy and  to  mythology.  His  seven  books  of  Saturnalia,  or  Table-talks,  are 
specially  valuable  in  philology,  although  they  consist  chiefly  of  compilations 
from  other  authors,  Greek  and  Latin.  Much  is  taken  from  Gellius,  and  the 
7th  book  is  almost  entirely  from  Plutarch.  Of  another  work  by  him,  strictly 
grammatical,  on  the  difference  and  affinity  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  verb,  we  have 
an  extract  made  by  an  imkown  Johannes,  perhaps  the  celebrated  Scottish 
John  Erio-ena. 


GRAMMARIANS.       MACROBIUS.    CHARISIUS.    PRISCIAN.         337 

1.  Some  have  supposed  that  Macrobius  was  born  in  Greece  ;  in  the  manu- 
scripts he  is  styled  Vir  consularis  et  iliustris.  Some  have  also  thought  him 
to  have  been  a  Christian. — The  full  titles  of  the  three  known  works  are  given 
as  follows  :  Commenta  riorum  in  Somnium  Scipionis  a  Cicerone  descriptum 
Lib.  II ; — Saturnaliorum  conviviorum  Lib.  VII ; — De  differ entiis  et  societatibus 
Grceci  et  Latini  verbi. — The  second,  the  Saturnalia,  is  in  the  form  of  dialogue, 
purporting  to  be  the  transcript  of  conversations  held  at  table  during  the  festi- 
val of  the°Saturnalia  (P.  IV.  §  230)  ;  it  includes  discussions  of  historical  and 
mythological  topics,  explanations  of  various  passages  in  ancient  authors,  and 
remarks  on  Roman  manners  and  customs. 

Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  iii.  323.  —  Mahul,  Diss,  sur  la  vie  de  Macrobe,  in  the  Class.  Jovrn.  vol.  xx, 
p.  105.— On  the  plagiarism  by  some  charged  on  Macrobius,  J.  Thomasius,  Diss,  de  Plagio  liter. 
Lips.  1679.  4. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  Variorum  ed.  by  J.  Gronovius.  Ludg.  Bat.  1670.  8.  is  said  to  be  still  the 
best.  Repr.  Loud.  1694.  —  That  of  J.  C.  Zeune.  Lpz.  1774.  8.  is  valued  only  for  the  notes.  — 
The  Bipont,  1788.  2  vols.  8.  has  no  notes,  but  a  correct  text,  and  a  useful  Notitia  Literaria.  — 
Princeps,  according  to  Dibdin,  Jenson  (pr.)  Ven.  1472.  fol.  —  The  tract  on  the  Greek  and  Latin 
verb  is  given  in  the  collection  of  Putsch  (§  422). 

§  43l£.  Flavins  Sosipater  Charisius,  who  flourished  probably  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  5th  century,  was  a  native  of  Campania,  a  Christian,  and  a 
professed  grammarian  at  Rome.  He  compiled  for  the  use  of  his  son  a  work 
entitled  Institutiones  Grammatical,  in  5  books  :  it  is  still  extant,  but  the  1st  &. 
5th  books  are  in  a  defective  state. 

1.  Charisius  is  by  some  placed  in  the  6th  century. — Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  326. 

2.  Editions.  —  Contained  in  the  grammatical  collection  of  Putsch,  cited  $422. —  Also  by  G. 
Fabricius.  Bas.  1551.  8. — Princeps,  Neapol.  1532.  fol. 

§  432«.  Diomedes,  although  the  time  when  he  flourished  is  not  certain,  was 
probably  of  the  5th  century  ;  he  is  quoted  by  Priscian.  He  left  a  grammatical 
work,  in  3  books,  De  oratione,  de  partibus  orationis,  et  de  vario  rhetorum  genere. 
Nothing  is  known  respecting  him  ;  but  his  Greek  name  may  perhaps  be  con- 
sidered as  indicating  that  he  was  a  slave. 

Editions.—  J.  CcEsarius.  Haganoa?,  1526.  8.  Par.  1526.  8.— First  printed,  by  Nic.  Jenson.  Ven. 
fol.  without  date.— Given  in  the  collection  of  Putsch  (cf.  §  422). 

§  433.  Priscianus,  a  Latin  grammarian  of  Constantinople,  was  a  native  of 
Csesarea,  or  according  to  others  a  native  of  Rome  educated  at  Coesarea.  He 
flourished  probably  in  the  first  half  of  the  6th  century.  His  Grammatical 
Commentaries,  in  18  books  (  Commentariorum  grammaticorum  libri  xviiij,  form 
the  most  extensive  ancient  work  we  have  on  the  grammar  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage ;  and  are  considered  as  holding  a  classical  authority  on  that  subject. 
The  first  16  books,  treating  of  the  several  parts  of  speech,  are  commonly  called 
the  Larger  Priscian,  and  the  2  last,  which  treat  of  syntax,  are  called  the 
Smaller  Priscian. 

1.  The  Commentaries  are  addressed,  or  dedicated,  to  Julian,  not  the  Apos- 
tate (cf.  §127),  but  a  man  of  consular  and  patrician  rank. 

Fabricius  mentions  a  Hamburg  manuscript  containing  this  work  (codex  vctustus  membranaceusj, 
which  professes  to  have  been  written  at  Constantinople  during  the  consulship  of  Olibrius  ;  the 
copyist,  one  Theodorus,  calls  himself  a  disciple  of  Priscian.  The  consulship  of  Olibrius,  which 
is  given  for  the  date  of  this  manuscript,  was  A.  D.  526. — See  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  iii.  398,  £r- 
ncsti's  ed.  —  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  III.  329. 

2.  We  have  other  grammatical  works  from  Priscian  ;  among  which  are  trea- 
tises with  the  following  titles,  De  accentibus,  De  versibus  comicis,  De  declina- 
tione  nominum,  De  praexercitamentis  rhetorical.  —  Priscian  was  also  probably 
the  author  of  three  poems,  which  have  sometimes  been  ascribed  to  Rhemnius 
Fannius  ;  viz.  one  entitled  Periegesis  e  Dionysio,  a  version  or  rather  imitation 
of  the  Greek  of  Dionysius  (cf.  §  217  ),  in  1087  verses  ;  another  entitled 
De  Sideribus,  in  200  verses,  little  else  than  a  dry  nomenclature  ;  and  the  poem 
De  ponderibus  et  mensuris,  of  which  we  have  only  162  verses. 

Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  ill.  113.— Bohr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  181,  188,  575,  731. 

3.  Editions.  —  The  Commentaries Best,  by  A.  Krehl.  Lpz.  1819.  2  vols.  8.  containing  also 

all  the  other  works.— The  other  grammatical  treatises,  Fr.  Lindemann,  Prisciani  Opera  minora. 
Leyd.  Sc  Lpz.  1818.  8.— All  the  grammatical  works  are  in  Putick  (§422).— The  poems  are  given 
in  Wernsdorps  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  cited  <$  348.  2.— The  poem  on  Weights  &.c.  by  Endlicher.  Vien. 
1828. 

§  434*.  Isidorvs  Hispalensis,  commonly  called  Isidore  of  Seville,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Carthago  Nova  (Carthagena),  and  held  the  office  of  bishop  of  Seville. 
He  died  A.  D.  636.     His  princiml  work  is  usually  cited  by  the  title  Origines  ; 

29 


338  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

it  consists  of  20  books,  and  contains  a  great  variety  of  matter,  being  indeed  a 
sort  of  Encyclopaedia.  The  last  10  books  are  chiefly  occupied  with  the  ety- 
mology and  explanation  of  words. 

1.  He  wrote  also  several  treatises  on  grammatical  subjects  ;  a  chronicle,  or 
history  of  the  world,  from  the  Creation  to  A.  D.  615  ;  and  brief  histories  of  the 
Goths  and  Visigoths.  Besides  the  works  already  named,  on  account  of  which 
he  is  mentioned  in  this  place,  he  likewise  composed  various  treatises  on  sacred 
and  ecclesiastical  subjects. 

J.  A.  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  mediae  et  infimse  retatis  &c.  vol.  it.  p.  183.  ed.  of  Mansi  (Patavii, 

1754.   6  vols.  4) Schiill,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  334.—  Clarke,  Succ.  of  Sac.  Lit.  vol.  n.  p.  364.  as  cited 

$293. 

2.  Editions.— Whole  Works.— Best,  Arivali.  Rome,  1797.  2  vols,  fol.— The  Origines  were 
first  published  separately,  by  O.  Zanner.  August.  Vindel.  1472.  fol.— With  notes  by  B.  Vulca- 
nius.   Bas.  1577.  fol. 


V. — Epistolizers  and  Romancers. 

§  435.  A  large  number  of  Letters  or  Epistles  is  presented  to  the  student  in 
Roman  Literature  ;  and  in  this  department  the  language  is  justly  said  to  be 
rich.  We  find  two  classes  of  letters  ;  those  which  were  actually  sent  to  indi- 
viduals in  the  real  intercourse  of  life,  and  those  which  were  merely  put  into 
the  form  of  letters  on  account  of  a  preference  in  the  authors  to  express  in  such 
a  form,  what  they  originally  designed  for  publication.  The  earliest  letters  in 
Latin,  of  which  we  have  any  notice,  were  of  the  former  class,  and  belong  to 
the  third  period  of  our  division,  extending  from  the  civil  war,  B.  C.  88,  to  the 
death  of  Augustus,  A.  D.   14. 

The  principal  and  most  important  are  those  of  Cicero,  particularly  noticed 
below  (§  440).  But  in  the  collection  of  Cicero's  letters  are  preserved  letters 
from  many  others,  one  or  more  from  about  30  different  writers.  Among  these 
writers  are  the  following;  Quintus,  the  brother  of  Cicero;  Marc  Antony,  the 
triumvir;  Julius  Caesar;  Brutus  and  Cassius,  his  murderers  ;  Marcus  Ccelius 
Rufus;  Cneius  Pompey  ;  Marcellus,  for  whom  Cicero  pronounced  the  cele- 
brated oration  ;  and  Munatius  Plancus,  who  obtained  a  disgraceful  celebrity 
at  the  court  of  Cleopatra  in  Egypt. 

§  436.  Julius  Caesar  was  the  author  of  many  letters.  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist, 
vii.  25)  relates  that  he  was  able  to  dictate  to  his  amanuenses  as  many  as  four 
and  sometimes  even  seven  letters  at  a  time.  A  considerable  number  of  Cae- 
sar's letters  were  published.  Suetonius  (Vit.  Cces.  56)  speaks  of  three  collec- 
tions ;  one  of  letters  to  the  senate,  another  of  letters  to  Cicero,  and  a  third  of 
letters  to  various  friends.  But  none  remain  to  us  excepting  the  few  included 
among  those  of  Cicero.  One  book  in  the  collection  of  Cicero's  letters  is  com- 
posed of  letters  from  M.  Ccelius,  who,  at  the  age  of  16,  had  been  committed  to 
the  care  of  Cicero,  in  order  to  be  trained  for  the  business  of  the  Forum  (cf. 
P.  I.  §  125).  His  licentiousness  exposed  him  to  a  prosecution,  and  Cicero  ut- 
tered an  oration  in  his  defence.  He  obtained  much  reputation  as  an  orator, 
and  rose  to  the  office  of  praetor.  His  letters  were  written  from  Rome  to  Cicero 
while  the  latter  was  governor  of  Cilicia. 

§  437.  In  the  period  from  Augustus  to  the  Antonines,  we  meet  with  two 
important  authors  in  this  species  of  composition,  Pliny  the  younger  and  Sen- 
eca. Most  of  Pliny's  letters  (cf.  §  441)  were  probably  not  designed  for  publi- 
cation, but  written  merely  for  the  persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed  ;  a  few 
of  them  perhaps  were  composed  with  reference  to  their  being  ultimately  made 
public.  The  letters  of  Seneca  ($  442)  were  evidently  composed  on  purpose  for 
publication,  and  it  is  even  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  they  were  ever  sent  to 
the  persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed. — A  third  writer  belongs  to  the  close 
of  the  saiAe  period,  Cornelius  Fronto  ($  443),  whose  letters  seem  to  have  had 
place  in  an  actual  correspondence. 

§  438.  In  the  last  period  included  in  our  glance,  Symmachus  ($444)  of  the 
4th  century,  is  the  only  pagan  writer  who  is  worthy  of  notice  as  an  author  of 
letters.      Sidonius,  who  was  later  still  (cf.  $445),  was  a  Christian. 


EPISTOLIZERS.       CICERO.  339 

Other  Christian  authors  composed  epistles  in  the  Latin  language.  We  ought,  perhaps,  to 
mention  particularly,  as  belonging  to  this  late  period,  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola,  and  Cassiodo- 
rus,  who  held  high  civil  offices  under  Theodoric,  A.  D. 490,  and  afterwards  retired  to  a  monas- 
tery founded  by  himself  in  Calabria.  —  Cf.  Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  601.  —  The  Supplement 
to  the  same,  p.  51,  107,  129.  —  Clarke,  as  cited  §  293,  vol.  n.  p.  116,  328. 

§  439.  In  treating  of  Greek  literature  we  spoke  of  romancers  and  epistoli- 
zers  in  connection.  In  the  Roman  literature  we  find  little  that  can  very  prop- 
erly be  ranked  under  the  denomination  of  romance.  There  are,  however,  two 
works  which  have  very  much  of  the  character  of  romance,  although  they  are 
at  the  same  time  of  such  a  turn  and  aim  as  may  justify  the  placing  of  their 
authors  where  we  shall  notice  them,  in  the  list  of  philosophers.  The  works 
we  mean  are  the  Satyricon  of  Petronius  Arbiter  ($  472),  and  the  Asinus  aureus 
or  Golden  Ass  of  Apuleius  (§  471) ;  and  the  latter  is  considered  as  belonging 
properly  to  the  variety  of  fiction  or  romance  termed  the  Milesian  tale  (cf. 
§  150). 

On  Epistolography  and  Romance,  see  references  given  §  152.  —  On  the  Romance  and  Epis- 
tles of  the  Romans,  Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  577,  585.—  Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  n.  123,  413. 
in.  200. 

§  440.  M.  Tullius  Cicero,  whose  history  has  been  noticed  in  a  preceding  sec- 
tion ($  ),  left  a  large  number  of  letters.  They  consist  of  1.  sixteen  books 
partly  of  epistles  from  him  to  relatives  and  friends,  ad  familiares  or  ad  diver- 
sos,  and  partly  of  epistles  from  them  to  him  (cf.  §  435) ;  2.  sixteen  books  to 
Atticus,  ad  T.  Pompon.  Mticum,  replete  with  instructive  anecdotes  from  the 
history  of  the  times,  yet  often  obscure  in  expression  ;  3.  three  books  to  his 
brother,  ad  Quintumfratrem,  chiefly  imparting  advice  and  counsel  respecting 
his  conduct  in  the  Quoestorship  with  which  he  was  entrusted  ;  4.  one  book  to 
Brutus,  of  which  the  genuineness  has  been  brought  into  doubt. 

1.  It  has  been  supposed  that  after  Cicero's  death,  his  freedman  Tyro  collec- 
ted the  letters,  and  formed  them  into  three  or  four  collections,  as  above  desig- 
nated. The  first  collection  comprises  421  letters  ;  the  second  396;  and  the 
third  29.  This  arrangement  has  been  disapproved  by  many,  as  breaking  up 
the  chronological  order  of  the  letters,  and  rendering  some  passages  more  diffi- 
cult to  be  understood.  In  the  edition  of  Schiitz  (cited  below)  the  letters  of 
these  three  parts  are  placed  in  the  order  of  time. 

2.  The  4th  collection  consists  of  letters  of  Cicero  to  Brutus  and  of  Brutus 
to  Cicero.  It  is  ascertained  that  a  collection  of  such  letters,  extending  to  not 
less  than  eight  books,  existed  for  many  years  after  Cicero's  death.  Yet  from 
about  the  5th  century,  all  trace  of  it  is  lost  until  the  14th  century,  when  some 
of  the  letters  now  extant  came  into  the  possession  of  Petrarch.  In  1470  at 
Rome,  18  of  these  letters  were  published,  being  all  that  were  then  known. — 
Several  others  were  afterwards  discovered  in  Germany  and  are  now  included 
in  the  collection.  Erasmus  suspected  the  whole  to  be  the  composition  of 
some  sophist,  but  they  were  universally  received  as  genuine  remains  of  the 
ancient  collection,  until  they  were  attacked  in  the  famous  letter  of  Tunstall  to 
Middleton.  Since  that  there  has  been  doubt;  several  of  the  German  critics 
decidedly  reject  them. 

Middleton,  in  his  Life  of  Cicero,  had  used  the  letters  in  question  as  genuine ;  Tunstall  in  a 
Latin  epistle  to  him  (Ep.  ad  Middleton.    Camb.  1741.  8)  alleges  that  they  are  wholly  spurious. 

Middleton  vindicated  their  genuineness  in  a  Dissertation  prefixed  to  his  Translation  of  them 

cited  below.  —  Tunstall  replied  in  his  Observations  &c.  Lond.  1744.  8.  —  Jer.  Markland,  in  his 
Remarks  on  the  Epistles  of  Cicero  to  Brutus  Sfc.  Lond.  1745.  8.  took  side  against  their  genuine- 
ness. Ruhnken  was  of  the  same  opinion.  Schvti  rejected  them,  in  his  edition  of  C.'s  Letters 
f  below  cited;.  —  Cf.  Dunlop,  ii.  284.  —  Scholl,  ii.  138. 

3.  Editions. — Ch.  O.  Schvtz.  Halle,  1809-12.  6  vols.  8.  (including  the  Ep.  ad  diversos,  ad  At- 

ticum,  and  ad  Quhitum. 9.  Thospann,  Ciceronis  et  Virorum  clarorum  Epistolae,     Lips.  1833. 

1  vol.  8.  commenced. The  Epist.  ad  diversos  only  ;  J.  Chr.  Fr.  Wetzel.    Lignitz.  1794.  8.  one 

of  the  best. —  T.  F.  Benedict.  Lpz.  1790-95.  2  vols.  8.  —  Princeps,  by  Sweynheym  fy  Pannartx. 
Rom.  1467.  fol. —  The  valuable  Commentary  of  Paulas  Manutius  on  these  letters  was  repub- 
lished by  Ch.  O.  Richter.  Lpz.  1779,  '80.  2  vols.  8.  —  The  letters  written  by  Cicero's   friends 

are  given  separately  by  Bevj.  Weiske.  Lpz.  1792.  8. Ep.  ad  Atticum  ;  /.  O.  Orcevius.  Amst. 

1684.  2  vols.    8.  —  J.  Verburg.    Amst.   2  vols.  8 Princeps,  ex  recog.  /.  Andrea.    Rom,   1470. 

fol.  containing  the  letters  to  Brutus  and  to  Quintus. Ep.  ad  Q,uintum  ;  (cum  notis  Vario- 
rum.) Hagae  Comitum,  1725.  8.  containing  also  those  to  Brutus,  and  likewise  that  of  Q.uintus 

to  Cicero,  entitled  De  Pet.itione  Consulates. Ep.  ad  Brutum  ;    C.  Middleton,  with  English 

translation,  notes,  &c.    Lond.  1743.  8. Selections  from  all  the  letters  ;    F.  A.  Stroth.  Berl. 

1784.  8.  —  A.  Matthice.  Lpz.  1816.  8.  Repr.  1829. 

4.  Translations.—  German.—  C.  M.  Wieland.  Ziirick,  1809-12.  5  vols.  8.  completed  by  F.  D. 
Grater*  Zur,  1818-22,  2  vols.  8.  all  the  letters  collectively,  and  in  chronological  order.  —  A. 


340  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

G.  Borheck.  Frankf.  1782-89.  5  vols.   8.   the  letters  ad  diversos.  —  E.  C.  Reichard.   Halle,  1783- 

85.  4  vols.  8.  the   letters  ad  Atticum. French.  —  Prer.ost  <$-  Montgault   (ed.   Goiijon).    Par. 

1801-3.  12  vols.   8.  including  all  the  letters. English. —  William  Melmoth.    Lond.  1573.  3 

vols.  8.  whole.  Repr.  Lond.  1814.  —  W.  Guthrie.  Lond.  1752.  2  vols.  8;  1806.  3  vols.  8.  letters 
ad  Mticum.  —  C.  Middleton.  Lond.  1743.  8.  ad  Brutum. 

§  441.  C.  Plinius  Secundus,  already  mentioned  as  an  orator  (§  405),  is  the 
author  of  the  greatest  part  of  a  collection  of  letters,  consisting  of  10  books. 
Many  of  them  appear  not  to  have  been  elicited  by  any  actual  occasion,  but  to 
have  been  written  only  with  a  view  to  their  publication  and  addressed  to  his 
friends.  Although  they  have  not  so  much  of  naturalness  and  simplicity,  as 
the  letters  of  Cicero,  yet  they  possess  great  merit  in  respect  both  of  matter 
and  style  ;  the  noblest  feelings  are  expressed  in  elegant  language,  and  they 
may  be  considered  as  furnishing  a  model  in  epistolary  writing.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  books  is  the  tenth,  which  includes  also  letters  of  Trajan  to 
Pliny. 

1.  The  first  nine  books  contain  about  250  letters;  the  tenth  contains  122. 
They  furnish  much  valuable  information  respecting  the  age  to  which  they 
belong.  Among  the  more  interesting  letters  are  the  two  which  refer  to  the 
life  and  death  of  his  uncle,  the  elder  Pliny  (iii.  5,  vi.  16) ;  two  others  in 
which  he  describes  his  villas  (ii.  17,  v.  6)  ;  and  that  in  which  he  addresses 
the  Emperor  respecting  the  Christians  (x.  97). 

The  letter  to  Trajan  respecting  the  Christians  has  justly  attracted  much  attention.  Tertul- 
lian,  in  his  Apology  (cap.  2),  alludes  to  it.  This  letter  and  Trajan's  answer  were  published 
separately,  with  a  commentary,  by  Gerh.  Vossius.  Amst.  1655.  12.  Other  authors  have  illus- 
trated the  letter  ;  J.  H.  B<rhmer,  Dissertationes  Juris  eccles.  antiqui.  Lpz.  1711.  8.  —  Chr.  A. 
Hcumann,  Disp.de  persecutione  Christianorum  Pliniana.  Gcitt.  1731.  4. —  William,  Melmoth.  The 
translator  of  Pliny's  Epistles  vindicated  from  the  objections  to  his  Remarks  respecting  Tra- 
jan's Persecution  &c.  Lond.  1794.  8. — A  vain  attack  upon  the  genuineness  of  this  epislle  was 
made  by  Sender,  Historire  eccles.  Selecta  Capita.    Halle,  1767.  3  vols.  8. 

Respecting  Pliny's  villas  ;  J.  F.  Felibenius  (Felibien),  Les  Plans  et  Descriptions  de  deux  des 
plus  belles  maisons  de  compagne  de  Pline.  Lond.  1707.  12.  —  Delle  Ville  di  Plinio  il  giovane 
&x.  di  D.  Pietro  Masquet  Massicano.  Rom.  1796.  8.  —  A  German  version  of  the  two  epistles 
ii.  17,  v.  6)  with  explanations,  by  Rode,  in  his  Trans,  of  Vitruvius  (cf.  §  490.  4).  —  An  English 
version  with  notes  and  plates,  in  CastelPs  Villas  of  the  ancients  illustrated.  Lond.  1728.  fol. 
—  Cf.  Stuart's  Diet,  of  Architecture. 

On  the  epistolary  style  of  Pliny  and  Cicero  ;  Erasm.  Mb'llcr,  De  eo,  quod  interest  inter  dicen- 
di  genus  epist.  Cic.  et  Plinii.  Havn.  1790.  8.  — Cf.  J.  Held,  Ueber  den  Werth  der  Briefsamml. 
d.  Plin.  Berl.  1833.  8. 

2.  Editions.  Best,  G.  E.  Gierig.  Lpz.  1800-2.  2  vols.  8.  Afterwards  abridged  somewhat  and 
united  with  the  Panegyric  (cf.  §405.3). —  G.  H.  Schdfer.  Lpz.  1805.  2  vols.  8.  containing  Pane- 
gyric also. — N.  E.  Lemairc.  Par.  1823.  2  vols.  8.  containing  Panegyric  ;  with  a  full  Notitia  Lit- 
eraria. —  Princeps,  by  Ludov.  Carlo,  without  name  of  place,  1471.  fol. — Among  the  celebrated 
editions,  P.  D.  Longolius,  (begun  by  G.  Corte.)  Amst.  1734.  4.  —  /.  M.  Gessner.  Lpz.  1770.  8. 
Schafer's  above  cited  is  based  on  this.—  The  ed.  of  F.  J\T.  Titie.  Prag.  1820 ;  Lpz.  1823.  8.  was 
founded  on  a  Ms.  recently  discovered  at  Prague,  and  is  said  by  Dibdin  to  be  important. — School 
editions  ;  G.  H.  IMnemann.  Gbtt.  1819.  8.—  Select  Letters,  with  Notes  &c.  Bost.  1835.  12.  good. 

3.  Translations.  — German.— /.  A.  Schdfer.   2d  ed.  Erlang.  1824.  2  vols.  8.  —  F.  A.  Schott,\n 

the  Coll.  of  Osiander  &c. French.— Louis  de  Sacy.  3d  ed.  Par.  1711.  3  vols.  12.  —  This  and 

his  trans,  of  the  Panegyric  given  with  the  Latin  text,  by ./.  F.  Ad-nf.  Par.  1808.  3  vols.  12.  and 
bv  J  Pierrot.  Par.  1833.  3  vols.  8. English.  —JohnEail  of  Orrery.  Lond.  1751.  8.—  Wil- 
liam Melmoth.  Repr.  from  Eng.  ed.  Bost.  1809.  2  vols.  12. 

§  442.  Lucius  Annaus  Seneca,  named  among  the  poets  (§  374),  is  here  in- 
troduced on  account  of  his  epistles.  They  are  124  in  number,  addressed  to 
Lucilius,  who  was  Proetor  in  Sicily,  and  was  himself  an  author  (cf.  §  335). 
These  letters  are  very  instructive  ;  they  refer  chiefly  to  practical  philosophy 
according  to  the  Stoical  principles.  The  88th  epistle  especially  deserves  the 
attention  of  young  students.  They  are  less  valuable  in  point  of  style,  being 
composed  with  a  tiresome  and  artificial  beauty,  and  abounding  with  senten- 
tious antithesis.  It  is  probable  that  these  letters  were  composed,  at  least  in 
great  part,  with  the  design  of  making  them  public. 

1.  The  letters  of  Seneca  were  written  in  the  last  years  of  his  life.  Many 
are  supposed  to  have  been  lost  (Aid.  Gell.  Noct.  Att.  xii.  2).  The  88th  letter 
is  entitled  de  studils  LlbcralUnis.  They  are  all  of  them  philosophical  or  moral 
treatises  or  declamations,  rather  than  actual  letters.  But  some  of  the  pieces 
usually  placed  among  his  philosophical  writings  seem  to  have  been  letters  ad- 
dressed to  relatives  or  friends  (cf.  §  469.  2).' 

2.  There  are  extant  14  letters  purporting  to  be  a  correspondence  of  the 
Apostle  Paul,  which  were  once  considered  as  genuine.  There  was  a  tradition 
that  an  acquaintance  and  intimacy  existed  between  the  Apostle  and  the  phi- 
losopher. Some  writers  have  pointed  out  what  they  consider  as  remarkable 
coincidences  of  thought  and  expression  in  the  writings  of  Paul  and  Seneca, 


EPISTOLIZERS.       SENECA.      FItONTO.      SYMMACHUS.        341 

Certain  words  are  also  said  to  be  used  by  Seneca  in  their  Biblical  rather  than 
their  classic^  sense. 

Cf.  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  445.— Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  lib.  ii.  c.  9.  vol.  II.  p.  120.  —  Fr.  Ch.  Gelp- 
ke,  Tractatiuncula  de  Familiaritate  qua;  Paulo  cum  Seneca  intercessisse  traditur.  Lpz.  1813.  4. 

3.  Editions.  Given  in  the  editions  df  Seneca's  works,  (cf.  $  469.  5.)  —  Separately,  F.  Ch. 
Matthice.  Frankf.  1308.  8.  —  /.  Schwcighduser.  Strassb.  1809.  2  vols.  8.  the  best.  —  The  spuri- 
ous epistles  ( Epist.  (8)  Seneca  ad  Paulum  et  (6)  Pauli  ad  SenecamJ  are  given  in  Fabricius,  Cod. 
Apocryph.  Nov.  Test. ;   also  in  the  ed.  of  Seneca's  works  by  Erasimis  (§  469.  5),  and  in  others. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  W.  Olshausen.  Kiel,  1811.  2  vols.  8.  —  C.  G.  W.  Lehmann, 
(the  88th  letter.)  Quedl.  1816.  8. French.— P.  Sablier.  Par.  1770.  12. English.— Thom- 
as JMorell,  (  "  with  large  annotations.")    Lond.  1786.  2  vols.  4. 

§  443.*  Marcus  Cornelius  Fronto,  a  native  of  Corta,  in  Numidia,  was  born 
probably  in  the  reign  of  Domitian  or  Nerva.  He  is  supposed  to  have  studied 
at  Alexandria  before  he  commenced  business  as  a  pleader  and  teacher  at 
Rome,  in  which  character  he  has  been  already  mentioned  (§  400).  By  a  re- 
markable discovery  of  Mai,  in  the  present  century,  considerable  parts  of  a 
collection  of  letters  by  Fronto  were  brought  to  light. 

1.  Some  of  them  were  found  by  Mai  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan,  in 
1815,  on  a  palimpsest  or  rescript  manuscript,  which  contained  the  acts  of  the 
first  council  of  Chalcedony.  Among  these  are  letters  of  Fronto  to  the  Anto- 
nines  and  several  other  persons,  and  also  letters  of  Marcus  Aurelius  to  Fron- 
to. Most  of  them  are  in  Latin,  but  several  of  them  are  in  Greek.  The  state  of 
the  manuscript  was  such  that  there  are  many  chasms  in  the  letters.  Mai, 
having  subsequently  the  charge  of  the  library  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  dis- 
covered in  that  another  part  of  the  effaced  manuscript  of  Fronto,  containing 
above  a  hundred  additional  letters.  —  Some  fragments  of  orations  were  also 
found  by  Mai.  The  grammatical  treatise,  de  differentiis  vocabulorum,  was 
previously  known. 

2.  Editions.  —  Angelas  Mai,  M.  Corn.  Frontonis  Opera  &c.  Mil.  1815.  2  vols.  8.  containing 
the  letters  found  in  the  Ambrosian  palimpsest,  parts  of  a  few  orations,  the  treatise  de  diff.  vo- 
cabulorum,  and  various  fragments.  Reprinted  Frankf.  1816.  —  B.  G.  Neibuhr,  M.  C.  Front. 
Reliquiae  &.c.  Berl.  1816.  8.  containing  also  fragments  of  the  orations  of  Symmachus,  (cf. 
$406.  4).— After  his  discovery  of  the  Vatican  Ms.,  Mai  published  another  edition  of  Fronto. 
Rom.  1823.  8.  — Cf.  Klvgling,  Suppl.  to  Harles,  p.  320.—  Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Grecque,  vol.  iv. 

p.  259. A.  Cassan,  Lettres  de  M.  Aurele  et  de  Fronton  traduites,  &c.  Par.  1830.  2  vols.  8. 

with  the  Latin  text  and  notes. 

§  444.  Quintus  Aurelius  Symmachus,  a  native  of  Rome,  lived  at  the  close 
of  the  4th  century.  He  held  the  office  of  Proconsul  for  Africa  A.  D.  370, 
of  Praefect  of  Rome  A.  D.  384,  and  of  Consul  A.  D.  391.  He  was  a  warm 
opposer  of  Christianity.  His  remaining  epistles  were  collected  by  his  son  in 
10  books.  We  observe  in  them  an  imitation  not  altogether  unsuccessful  of  the 
younger  Pliny,  but  discover  also  many  traces  of  the  more  degenerate  taste  of 
the  age  in  which  the  author  flourished.  The  61st  letter  of  the  10th  book  is 
the  most  worthy  of  notice. 

1.  Symmachus  was  a  speaker  of  some  reputation,  and  fragments  of  several 
of  his  orations  were  discovered  by  Mai  along  with  the  letters  of  Fronto 
{§  443.  1).  —  The  letters  of  Symmachus  are  nearly  1000  in  number.  Gibbon 
remarks  that  "the  luxuriance  of  Symmachus  consists  of  barren  leaves  with- 
out fruit  and  even  without  flowers  J  few  facts  and  few  sentiments  can  be  ex- 
tracted from  his  verbose  correspondence." 

Symmachus  witnessed  the  downfall  of  Paganism,  notwithstanding  his  very 
zealous  efforts  to  sustain  the  sinking  cause.  The  61st  letter  of  the  10th  book 
(relatio  pro  ara  Victoria:)  has  special  reference  to  this  subject ;  it  is  a  sort  of 
argument  or  petition  to  the  emperor  Valentinian,  urging  that  he  would  allow 
the  statue  and  altar  of  Victory  to  stand  in  the  hall  of  the  senate.  Ambrose, 
bishop  of  Milan  was  a  successful  antagonist  of  Symmachus,  and  one  of  his 
epistles  (a)  is  a  formal  reply  to  the  petition.  The  poet  Prudentius  also  wrote 
against  him  (cf.  §  387). 

(a)  Cf.  Ambrose,  Epist.  17,  18,  in  &  Ambrosii  Opera,  cura  Mon.  Benedict.  Par.  1690.  2  vol?, 
fol.  —  B.  Fr.  Schmiedcr,  Des  Symmachus  Grunde  furs  Heidenthum  and  des  Ambrosius  Gegen- 
griiude.  Hal.  Sax.  1790.  8.  —Lardner,  Heathen  Testimonies,  vol.  iv.  p.  372  ss. On  Sym- 
machus, cf.  SchiHl,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  201.  —  Bd'i.r,  p.  599.  —  E.  Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall  of  Roman 
Emp.  ch.  xxviii  (vol.  in.  p.  214.  ed.  N.  Y.  1822.)  —  C.  G.  Heyue,  Censura  in<renii  et  morunt 
O.  Aur.  Symmachi  &c.  Gbtt.  1801.  fol.   also  in  his  Opus.  Acad.  Gott.  1812.  8.  6th  vol. 

2.  Editions. —  The  best;  J.  P.  Parens.  Frankf.  1651.  8.  first  published  at  Neustadt,  on  the 
Hart  (JYeapoli  Ncmctum),  li>17.  —  Princeps,  according  to  Fabricius,  ex  officina  J.  Schotti.  Ar- 
gentor.  1510.   4.    Others  mention  as  earlier,  a  dateless  ed..  printed  at  Venice. 

2<J* 


342  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

§  445.  Sideniiis  Apollinaris.  born  at  Lugdunum  in  Gaul,  flourished  after 
the  middle  of  the  5th  century.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  aperies  of  let- 
ters, and  also  as  a  poet,  and  is  worthy  of  notice,  especially  considering  the 
age  in  which  he  lived.  In  his  poems,  among  which  are  four  eulogies,  there  is 
much  animation  and  spirit,  although  there  is  also  much  that  is  unnatural  and 
overstrained.  We  have  from  him  9  books  of  letters,  which  are  more  valuable 
for  their  historical  matter  than  for  their  style.  We  find  in  the  collection  an 
address  by  him  on  the  occasion  of  the  election  of  a  bishop  of  Bourges. 

1.  His  full  name  was  Caius  Sollius  Apollinaris  Modestus  Sidonius.  He 
married  the  daughter  of  Avitus  who  was  named  emperor  A.  D.  455.  Amid 
the  changes  of  the  times  he  repeatedly  rose  to  office  and  rank  at  Rome,  and 
again  repeatedly  retired  to  Gaul.  At  length,  A.  D.  472,  he  became  bishop  of 
Clermont  (Augustunometum),  and  died  in  that  station  A.  D.  484. 

Sclibll,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  96.  —  Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xxx-vi.  p.  378.  vol.  m- 
N.  Y.  1822.  —  Clarke,  as  cited  §  293.  vol.  u.  p.  256. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  best,  J.  Sir/nond.  Par.  1652.  4.  containing  the  letters  and  the  poems.  — 
The  poems  are  also  given  in  Maltaireys  Corp.  Poet.  Lat.  cited  §  348. 2. 


VI. — Philosophers. 

§  446m.  The  Roman  philosophy  was  derived  from  the  Grecian.  Antece- 
dently to  Greeian  influence,  the  traces  of  philosophical  speculation  among  the 
Romans  are  of  no  great  importance.  During  the  first  five  centuries,  such  pur- 
suits in  general  were  not  regarded  with  favor,  being  considered  as  at  variance 
with  the  prevailing  desire  of  conquest  and  destructive  to  military  zeal  and 
prowess. 

§  447.  During  the  first  of  the  periods,  which  we  have  regarded  in  our  glance 
at  Roman  Literature,  the  only  name  which  can  have  the  least  claim  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  list  of  philosophers  is  that  of  Numa,  the  second  king  of  Rome. 
He  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  borrowed  the  wisdom  displayed  in  his  civil  insti- 
tutions from  Grecian  sources  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  202).  He  seems  to  have  cultivated 
a  sort  of  religious  and  political  philosophy,  like  Lycurgus  and  Solon  among 
the  Greeks  (§167)  ;  but  like  each  of  them  must  be  considered  as  a  lawgiver 
of  practical  sense  and  wisdom,  rather  than  a  philosopher  in  the  strict  meaning 
of  the  word. — There  may  have  been  other  men  in  this  period,  who  were  (not 
unlike  the  seven  sages  of  Greece)  distinguished  for  their  prudence,  and  able 
to  propound  useful  maxims  for  the  conduct  of  others. 

On  the  institutions  of  Numa,  Plutarch,  Vit.  Num.  —  Niebuhr's  Rome  (cf.  §  299.  7),  vol.  I, 
p.  181.  of  Am.  ed.  Phil.  1835.  2  vols.  8 — Dionys.  Hal.  fi.  59. 

§  448.  The  first  distinct  intimations  of  any  considerable  inclination  to  philo- 
sophical studies  at  Rome,  we  find  shortly  after  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by 
Paulus  ^Emilias,  B.  C.  167.  This  conqueror  took  with  him  to  Rome  the  phi- 
losopher Metrodorns,  to  aid  in  the  instruction  of  his  children  ;  and  other  phi- 
losophers, who  had  been  patronized  at  the  Macedonian  court  by  king  Perseus, 
are  said  to  have  followed  Metrodorns  into  Italy.  The  Stoic  philosopher  Pa- 
neetius,  from  Rhodes,  was  also  introduced  to  Rome  by  Scipio  Afrieanus.  Yet 
a  few  years  after  the  arrival  of  the  philosophers  from  Greece  and  the  east, 
they  were  banished  from  Rome  by  a  formal  decree  of  the  senate,  B.  C.  162. 

§  449.  The  rise  of  philosophy  at  Rome  is,  however,  commonly  dated  from 
the  embassy  of  the  Athenians,  already  mentioned  in  our  remarks  on  the  Ro- 
man orators  and  rhetoricians  ($  4(8).  This  embassy  was  sent  by  the  Athe- 
nians to  deprecate  a  fine  of  500  talents  which  had  been  inflicted  on  them  for 
laying  waste  Oropii,  a  town  of  Sicyonia.  The  three  envoys  employed  on  this 
occasion  were  at  the  time  the  heads  of  the  three  leading  sects  of  Greek  phi- 
losophers ;  viz.  Diogenes,  the  Stoic  ;  Critolaus,  the  Peripatetic;  and  Carnea- 
des,  the  Academic,  considered  as  the  founder  of  what  is  called  the  JVcw  Acade- 
my ($  175).  The  display  of  eloquence  and  wisdom  made  by  these  men  served 
to  excite  in  the  Roman  youth  of  all  classes  an  ardent  thirst  for  knowledge, 
and  turn  their  minds  to  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy.     Cato  and  others 


PHILOSOPHY.  343 

were  alarmed  at  the  influence  exerted  by  these  philosophers  ;  and  insisted  that 
they  should  depart  from  Rome.  But  the  love  for  such  studies  now  awakened 
could  not  be  destroyed,  and  philosophy  began  to  make  progress  in  the  city  ; 
and  ere  long  most  of  the  Grecian  sects  found  followers  or  patrons  among  the 
higher  class  of  Romans.  The  library  of  Aristotle,  which  was  brought  to  Rome 
by  Sylla  on  the  capture  of  Athens,  B.  C.  147,  contributed  to  promote  the 
study  of  philosophy. 

§  450.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  Romans  seem  never  to  have  made 
philosophy  the  business  of  life,  as  did  many  of  the  Greeks;  but  they  pursued 
it  either  as  a  part  of  elegant  and  refined  culture,  or  as  adapted  to  promote  their 
advancement  in  the  state.  Hence,  although  they  applied  themselves  to  Gre- 
cian philosophy,  and  transferred  into  their  own  language  some  of  the  Grecian 
treatises,  and  improved  by  this  means  both  their  jurisprudence,  their  rhetoric, 
and  their  general  literature,  they  yet  made  no  advances  in  discovery.  They 
cherished  no  ambition  to  start  new  sects,  or  theories,  but  willingly  adopted 
those  already  formed  by  the  Greeks. 

§  451.  The  number  of  Roman  authors  in  the  department  of  philosophy  is  also 
comparatively  small,  for  the  same  reason.  The  names  of  the  principal  vota- 
ries of  philosophy,  in  the  time  which  forms  our  second  period  of  Roman  Lite- 
rature, were  the  following  :  Scipio  Africanus,  Caius  Laelius,  L.  Furius,  P. 
Rutilius  Rufus,  Sextus  Pompeius,  uncle  to  Pompey  the  Great,  Quintus  Tu- 
bero,  and  Q.  Mucius  Scoevola.  The  last  four  were  distinguished  jurisconsults. 
We  have  no  written  remains  of  the  philosophy  of  this  period. 

§  452.  Early  in  the  next  period,  beginning  B.  C.  88,  we  find  the  celebrated 
Lucullus  patronizing  and  encouraging  very  zealously  the  study  of  philosophy. 
"Whilst  he  was  Qutestor  in  Macedonia,  and  afterwards  while  conducting  the 
war  against  Mithridates,  he  became  acquainted  with  some  of  the  Greek  phi- 
losophers, and  acquired  a  strong  relish  for  their  speculations.  On  his  return 
to  Rome  B.  C.  67,  he  established  a  celebrated  library  (cf.  P.  I.  §126),  with 
galleries  and  schools  adjoining,  and  made  it  a  place  of  free  resort  to  all  men 
of  letters,  where  they  could  enjoy  the  benefits  of  reading  and  conversation  ; 
and  here,  as  well  as  at  the  house  of  the  philosopher  Antiochus,  he  frequently 
engaged  with  ardor  in  philosophical  discussions.  Among  those  who  culti- 
vated philosophy  in  this  period,  we  find  the  names  of  Marcus  Junius  Brutus, 
M.  Terentius  Varro,  Piso  Calpurnianus,  Lucretius,  and  Pomponius  Atticus. 
To  this  place  belongs  also  the  name  of  Cicero,  who  must  be  considered  as 
altogether  the  most  eminent  of  the  Romans  in  philosophy. 

§  453.  In  the  period  following  the  reign  of  Augustus,  from  A.  D.  14  to  A.  D. 
160,  philosophy  was  still  considered  an  important  study  as  a  part  of  liberal 
culture.  But  the  progress  of  despotism  under  the  emperors  was  not  propitious 
to  any  branch  of  learning,  and  philosophy  of  course  did  not  escape  the  blight- 
ing influence.  In  the  reign  of  Domitian,  the  philosophers  were  actually  ban- 
ished from  Italy,  under  a  mock  decree  of  the  senate.  The  principal  Roman 
philosopher  of  this  period  was  Seneca;  Pliny  the  elder  is  also  worthy  of  par- 
ticular notice  ;  and  the  younger  Pliny  and  Tacitus  may  properly  be  mentioned 
in  the  list  of  philosophers.  Pliny  in  one  of  his  letters  (Ep.  i.  10)  mentions  in 
terms  of  high  commendation  a  philosopher  by  the  name  of  Euphrates,  who 
gave  public  instruction  at  Rome. 

In  this  period  Oriental  notions  obtained  currency  at  Rome.  "  The  vain  su- 
perstitions of  the  east,  the  magic  and  the  occult  sciences  which  have  such 
charms  for  the  ignorant,  found  at  Rome  more  zealous  friends  than  did  the  ab- 
stractions of  speculative  philosophy,  or  those  principles  of  morality  which  are 
the  proper  end  of  all  true  philosophy.  Every  religion  that  existed  on  the  globe, 
found  a  residence  at  the  imperial  capital  ;  the  mysteries  of  Egypt  and  of  Syria 
were  introduced,  and  the  titles  of  Mystagogi  and  Magi  were  in  higher  estima- 
tion than  that  of  philosopher."  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  427. 

§  454.  At  the  commencement  of  the  last  period,  A.  D.  160,  Marcus  Aurelius 
received  the  imperial  throne,  and  was  himself  a  zealous  philosopher  of  the 
Stoic  school  fcf.  §  1G6J,  a  circumstance  which  might  give  a  new  impulse  to 
philosophical  studies  as  well  as  impart  a  temporary  importance  to  that  school. 
After  his  reign  philosophy  was  still  cultivated,  and  new  sects  began  to  be 
formed,  by  philosophers  who  professed  to  make  improvements  by  rejecting 


344  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

the  errors  and  retaining  the  valuable  truths  and  principles  of  others  ;  such 

were  the  New-Platonists  and  the  Eclectics. The  progress  of  the  Christian 

religion,  in  the  3d  and  4th  centuries,  exerted  a  considerable  influence  on  the 
character  of  Roman  philosophy  ;  and  the  Latin  fatners  employed  themselves 
in  studying  the  pagan  philosophy  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the  pagan  re- 
ligion and  supporting  Christianity.  This  occasioned  a  singular  admixture  of 
notions,  drawn  partly  from  the  pagan  sects  and  partly  from  the  sacred  writings. 

The  principal  Latin  authors,  who  may  be  classed  among  the  philosophers 

of  this  period  are  Apuleius  (§  471)  and  Boethius  (§  474).  The  Latin  father 
Augustine,  bishop  of  Hippo,  who  died  A.  D.  430,  at  the  age  of  76,  may  also 
with  propriety  be  named  here.  Petronius  Arbiter  (§  472)  and  Marcianus  Ca- 
pella  ($  473)  are  sometimes  ranked  among  the  philosophers.  —  Scholl,  in. 
211. 

$  455.  It  seems  desirable,  in  addition  to  the  rapid  sketch  above  given  of  the 
progress  of  philosophy  among  the  Romans,  to  glance  separately,  although 
slightly,  at  the  principal  sects,  which  found  advocates  and  followers  at  Rome. 

It  has  been  mentioned  (§  449)  that  Roman  philosophy,  as  the  subject  is 
commonly  viewed,  had  its  origin  in  the  embassy  of  the  three  philosophers  from 
Athens,  who  were  at  the  time  leaders  in  three  of  the  Greek  sects,  the  Stoic, 
Peripatetic,  and  Academic. 

$  456.  The  Academic  was  represented  and  advocated  by  Carneades,  who  was 
the  most  able  man  and  the  most  popular  speaker  of  the  trio  ;  and  of  course 
awakened  a  partiality  for  the  doctrines  of  his  sect. — The  immediate  successor 
of  Carneades  in  the  Academy  at  Athens,  Clitomachus  (who,  according  to  Cic- 
ero, wrote  400  treatises  on  philosophical  subjects),  is  said  also  to  have  given 
personal  instruction  at  Rome.  Clitomachus  was  succeeded  by  Philo,  who  in 
the  Mithridatic  war  fled  from  Athens  to  Rome.  Here  Cicero  attended  on  his 
lectures,  and  imbibed  the  principles  of  the  New  Academy,  which  were  main- 
tained by  the  followers  of  Carneades.  The  doctrines  of  the  New  Academy 
had  been  favorably  received  at  Rome  from  their  first  introduction  ;  the  ex- 
ample and  choice  of  Cicero  no  doubt  gave  them  greater  vogue  among  those 
who  cultivated  oratory.  —  But  the  peculiar  tenets  of  the  Old  Academy  had 
their  advocates,  among  whom  were  Brutus,  Varro,  and  Lucullus. 

Duiilop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  u.  211ss.  ed.  Phil.  1827— Enfield,  Hist.  Philosophy,  bk.  hi.  ch.  1. 
—Middleton,  Life  of  Cicero,  vol.  in.  p.  328.  ed.  Bost.  1818. 

$  457.  The  Stoic  school  had  many  disciples  at  Rome.  Its  rigid  doctrines 
were  suited  to  the  stern  civil  policy  of  the  Romans,  and  the  most  distinguished 
jurisconsults  and  magistrates  of  the  republic  were  generally  inclined  to  this 
sect;  thus  Rutilius  Rufus,  Q.  Tubero,  and  M.  Sceevola  (cf.  §  562J,  were  Sto- 
ics; as  were  also  Laelius  and  Scipio  Africanus.  Especially  must  we  mention 
Cato  of  Utica  as  a  zealous  Stoic  ;  he  carried  his  principles  into  full  practice, 
and  finally,  after  the  defeat  of  Pompey  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  despairing  of 
the  liberties  of  his  country,  he  put  an  end  to  his  life  with  his  own  hand. — The 
ardent  patriotism  manifested  by  many  who  were  professedly  of  the  Stoic  sect, 
tended  to  promote  its  popularity.  Some  of  the  poets,  particularly  Lucan  and 
Persius,  embraced  and  commended  its  doctrines.  The  prevalence  of  Chris- 
tianity is  also  supposed  to  have  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  Stoic  philos- 
ophy, as  the  views  of  the  later  advocates  of  Stoicism  agreed  better  than  the 
doctrines  of  the  other  pagan  sects  with  the  high  morality  of  the  gospel. 

One  of  the  most  distinguished  philosophers  of  the  Stoic  sect  at  Rome,  and 
the  only  one  who  has  left  any  philosophical  writings  in  the  Latin  tongue,  was 
Seneca  (cf.  $  469).  But  there  were  other  eminent  teachers  and  advocates  of 
the  system;  as,  Musonius  Rufus,  Annseus  Cornutus  (cf.  $227),  Choeremon,a 
preceptor  of  Nero,  Dion  Chrysostom  (§118),  Epictetus  (§193),  and  Sextus  a 
native  of  Chaeronea,  who  became  preceptor  to  Marcus  Antoninus.  The  name 
of  Antoninus  is  the  last  which  is  specially  worthy  of  notice  ;  at  the  early  age 
of  12,  he  manifested  a  partiality  for  the  Stoic  philosophy,  and  when  emperor 
he  zealously  patronized  it.  He  wrote  in  Greek  (cf.  §11)6),  as  did  the  others 
just  named.  Public  schools  of  the  Stoic  sect  were  continued  from  his  time 
until  that  of  Alexander  Severus,  A.  D.  230  ;  but  they  greatly  declined  under 
the  increasing  prevalence  of  the  Eclectic  system. 

Enfield,  Hist,  of  Phil.  bk.  iii.  ch.  1.  &  ch.  2.   sect.  7.—  Tcnnemann's  Manual  of  Hist,  of  Phil. 


PHILOSOPHY.  345 

trails],  by  Jl.  Johnson  fOxf.  1832.  8).  $  182.— Bdhr,  Geschiclite  der  Rom.  Lit.  §  306,  307.— O.  P. 
Hollenbcnj,  De  pnecipuis  Stoicae  Philosophise  Docioribus  et  Patron  is  apud  Romanos.  Lpz.1793.  4. 
§  458.  The  Peripatetic  philosophy  does  not  appear  to  have  found  very  warm 
admirers  among  the  Romans.  The  writings  of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus 
were  brought  to  Rome  from  Athens  by  Sylla  ;  they  were,  however,  very  dif- 
ficult for  the  Romans  to  understand.  Yet  this  sect  had  its  advocates;  and  its 
doctrines  were  taught  in  the  public  schools  under  the  emperors,  and  numerous 
commentaries  and  treatises  were  written  upon  the  works  of  its  original  foun- 
der. These  writings,  however,  seem  to  have  been  entirely  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage. The  most  eminent  Peripatetics  after  the  Christian  era,  did  not  reside 
at  Rome  ;  Themistius,  who  illustrated  several  of  the  treatises  of  Aristotle, 
gave  instruction  at  Constantinople  (cf.  §  125)  ;  Alexander  Aphrodiseus,  au> 
thor  of  several  works  still  extant,  and  called  by  distinction  the  Commentator, 
taught  at  Athens  or  Alexandria,  about  A.  D.  200. 

Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  1.  ch.  2.  sect.  5.  —  Johnson's  Tennemann,  $  183. 
§  459.  The  Cynics  seem  never  to  have  enjoyed  any  reputation  at  Rome. 
The  opinion  of  Cicero  respecting  them,  was,  that  the  whole  body  ought  to  be 
banished  from  the  state.  Julian  (§127)  pronounces  the  Cynics  of  his  day  to 
be  troublesome  and  mischievous.  In  the  reign  of  the  Antonines  philosophers 
of  this  sect  were  forbidden  to  maintain  any  public  schools.  Lucian  treats 
them  with  great  severity,  particularly  in  the  piece  on  Peregrinus  (cf.  $  121). 

Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  2.  §  6. 

§  460.  The  Epicurean  philosophy  had  sunk  into  great  discredit  on  account 
of  the  improprieties  indulged  by  its  advocates,  before  its  introduction  to  Rome. 
Notwithstanding  this  disadvantage,  it  soon  obtained  admirers.  The  free  in- 
dulgence of  the  inclinations  which  it  allowed,  greatly  conduced  to  its  popu- 
larity. Cicero  condemned  and  opposed  it ;  but  Atticus,  his  intimate  friend 
and  correspondent,  embraced  it.  Horace,  if  not  an  Epicurean  entirely,  yet 
found  the  lightness  and  gaiety  which  it  cherished  very  congenial  to  his  feel- 
ings. The  poet  Lucretius  (cf.  §  357J  was  the  first  who  gave  the  Romans,  in 
their  own  language,  a  full  account  of  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus  ;  and  the  repu- 
tation of  his  poetry  no  doubt  contributed  in  an  eminent  degree  to  give  cur- 
rency to  these  doctrines.  Pliny  the  elder  (cf.  470)  is  sometimes  ranked  among 
the  Epicureans,  but  he  did  not  rigidly  adhere  to  any  sect.  Lucian  the  satirist, 
and  Celsus  the  early  adversary  of  Christianity,  are  also  included  by  some. 
Diogenes  Laertius  (cf.  §  255a)  likewise  is  thought  to  manifest  plainly  his  pre- 
dilection for  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus. 

Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  ii.  sect.  8.  —  Johnson's  Tennemann,  §  181. —  Account  of  the  philosophy  of 
Lucretius  in  the  translations  of  Busby  <fc.  Good,  cited  §  357.  4.  —  Scfwll,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  155. 

§  461.  The  school  of  Sceptics  or  Pyrrhonists  gained  no  celebrity  among  the 
Romans.  The  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Sceptics  corresponded,  in  some  degree, 
with  those  of  the  Academy.  Pyrrhonism,  however,  had  avowed  abettors  and 
supporters  ;  among  them  were  particularly  several  physicians. — We  have  no 
written  remains  from  any  of  them  in  the  Latin  language  ;  and  the  only  au- 
thor that  specially  deserves  notice  here,  as  an  advocate  of  Scepticism  under 
the  Roman  empire,  is  Sextus  Empiricus.  who  flourished  about  A.  D.  200,  and 
wrote  in  Greek  (cf.  $  197). 

Enfield,  Hist.  Phil.  bk.  iii.  ch.  ii.  sect.  9.  —Johnson's  Tennemann,  $180-193.  —  Thorbecke,  Do 
discrimine  inter  Acad,  et  Sceptic.    Lug.  Bat.  1820. 

§  462.  It  will  be  recollected  that  the  four  sects,  which  we  have  here  men- 
tioned first,  the  Academic  and  Peripatetic,  Stoic  and  Cynic,  were  derived 
through  Socrates  from  the  old  Ionic  school  (cf.  §  171-173)  ;  and  that  the  two 
last  mentioned,  the  Epicurean  and  Sceptic,  descended  from  the  old  Italic  or 
Pythagorean  school  (§  170,  177). 

As  the  Pythagorean  school  in  Magna  Grsecia  was  so  celebrated  among  the 
Greeks,  we  might  suppose  that  it  would  have  attracted  great  attention  among 
the  Romans,  as  soon  as  they  learned  any  thing  of  the  literature  and  philoso- 
phy of  the  Greeks.  This  however  does  not  appear  to  have  been  the  fact,  al- 
though the  name  of  Pythagoras  was  ever  regarded  with  great  reverence 
(Cic.  de  Senect.  c.  21).  The  poet  Ennius  is  said  to  have  embraced  the  doc- 
trine of  metempsychosis,  and  a  friend  of  Cicero,  by  the  name  of  Publius  Nigi- 
dius  Figulus,  is  mentioned  as  an  advocate  of  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras. 
But  after  the  establishment  at  Crotona  (§  170)  was  broken  up,  no  school  was 


346  HISTORY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

formed  in  Greece  or  Italy  that  adopted  the  principles  and  institutions  of  Py- 
thagoras. 

Sckbll,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  187.  — Burigny,  Vie  et  ouvrages  de  Publ.  Nigid.  Figulus,  in  the  Mem^ 
Acad.  Imcr.  xxix.  190. 

§  463.  There  were  however  a  number  of  philosophers,  who  are  sometimes 
termed  the  JYeio  Pythagoreans,  and  who  professed  to  be  supporters  of  the  real 
Pythagorean  doctrines,  although  they  in  fact  blended  with  them  many  notions 
derived  from  other  sources.  A  leader  in  this  class  of  philosophers  was  Q. 
Sextius,  a  Roman  of  the  time  of  Augustus,  who  wrote  in  Greek.  To  the 
same  class  belonged  Sotion,  of  Alexandria,  who  was  preceptor  to  Seneca  at 
Rome;  and  also  the  famous  impostor  Apolloniusof  Tyana,  whose  life  is  given 
by  Philostratus  (cf.  255b).  Moderatus  of  Gades  was  another;  he  flourished 
in  the  first  century;  and  in  several  different  treatises  he  collected  and  illus- 
trated the  remains  of  the  Pythagorean  doctrines. 

Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  ii.  sect.  2.  —  Johnson's  Tennemann,  §  184.  —  Pridcaux,  Life  of  Apol- 
lonius. 

Some  of  these  philosophers  endeavored  to  discover  a  sublime  and  occult  science  in  the  Py- 
thagorean doctrine  of  Numbers.  They  seem  to  have  supposed  that  an  explanation  of  the 
system  of  the  physical  world  was  to  be  found  in  the  mysterious  properties  of  mathematical 
figures  and  numbers.  An  essay  on  this  occult  science  is  found  in  the  works  of  Sextus  Empir- 
icus  against  the  mathematicians  (x.  248).  —  Cf.  §  197.  —  The  celebrated  Kepler  is  supposed  to 
have  been  influenced  by  such  speculations,  when  he  wrote  his  treatise  entitled  Mysterium  Cos- 
mographicum,  1598.  —  Cf.  Maclaurin,  Account  of  the  Discoveries  of  Newton. 

$  464.  A  school  of  New  Platonists  also  appeared  under  the  Roman  emper- 
ors (cf.  $  181).  Most  of  them  wrote  in  Greek,  in  which  language  we  have 
fragments  from  a  few  of  the  number.  The  principal  Latin  writer  commonly 
referred  to  this  school  was  Lucius  Apuleius,  who  flourished,  as  is  supposed, 
about  the  time  of  the  latter  Antoninus,  and  whose  work  entitled  the  Golden 
Ass  has  been  mentioned  under  the  head  of  Romance.  These  philosophers 
blended  with  their  Platonic  notions  many  derived  from  the  Pythagoreans  and 
the  followers  of  Aristotle,  and  were  therefore  in  reality  Eclectics. 

Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  ii.  sect.  3. — Johnson's  Tennemann,  $  185. 

§  465.  The  Eclectics,  however,  although  often  mentioned  under  the  name 
of  the  later  Platonists,  are  usually  distinguished  from  the  last  mentioned 
school.  Their  founder  (cf.  £  181)  is  said  to  have  been  Ammonius  of  Alexan- 
dria. He  was  a  man  of  low  birth,  obliged  to  gain  his  livelihood  as  a  porter, 
from  which  circumstance  he  derived  his  surname  Saccas.  With  much  enthu- 
siasm he  and  his  followers  labored  to  reconcile  the  doctrines  of  Plato  and  Ar- 
istotle. We  have  in  the  Greek  language  the  writings  of  several  of  the  most 
eminent  philosophers  of  this  school ;  but  nothing  is  preserved  in  the  Latin, 
unless  we  except  the  commentary  on  Cicero's  Dream  of  Scipio,  by  Macrobius 
(§430.  1),  who  seems  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  the  Eclectics.  The  emperor 
Julian  was  a  warm  patron  of  this  sect,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  hostility  of 
its  principal  advocates  towards  the  Christian  religion. 

Cf.  $  182.  —  Enfield,  bk.  iii.  ch.  ii.  sect.  4 Tohnson's  Tennemann,  $203-221. 

§  466.  A  species  of  philosophy  also  grew  up  gradually  among  the  Christian 
Fathers,  although  the  study  of  philosophy  was  at  first  deemed  superfluous 
and  even  dangerous  by  some  of  them  (P.  I.  $83),  especially  some  of  the  Lat- 
in church.  The  chief  Latin  writers  illustrating  this  Christian  Philosophy  are 
Tertullian,  Arnobius,  Lactantius,  Ambrose,  and  Augustine. 

Cf.  $  182.—  Johnson's  Tennemann,  $  222-235.— On  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  above  named, 
cf.  Clarke,  Murdoch,  &c.  as  cited  $  293. 

$  467.  In  acccordance  with  the  method  followed  in  this  w7ork,  some  general 
sources  of  information  respecting  the  Roman  philosophy  should  be  mentioned 
before  noticing  the  individual  authors. 

The  principal  original  sources  are  the  same  as  those  from  which  is  learned  the  philosophy  of 

the  Greeks,  cf.  $  183. To  the  modern  works  on  the  history  of  philosophy  there  cited  we  also, 

refer. 

More  particularly  on  the  Roman,  we  add  the  following.  — K.  F.  Renner,  De  impedimentis 
quae  apud  veteres  Romanos  Philosophic  negaverint  successum.  Hal.  1825.  —  Puganinus  Oau~ 
dentins,  De  Philosophise  apud  Romanos  origine  et  progressu.  Pisa,  1643.  4.  Reprinted  in  the 
Nova  rariorum  Collectio,  Hal.  1717.  —  J.  L.  Blessig,  Diss,  de  Origine  Philosophise  apud  Roma 
nos.  Strasb.  1770.  4 Bohr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  604-664,  as  cited  §299.  8. 

§  468  t.  M,  T.  Cicero,  chief  among  the  orators  of  Rome,  was  also  eminent 
in  philosophy.     He  was  a  Platonist,  and  is  commonly  considered  as  a  disciple- 


PHILOSOPHERS.       CICERO.  347 

of  the  New  Academy,  although  in  questions  of  morality  he  preferred  the  more 
rigid  principles  of  the  Stoics.  In  his  philosophical  writings  he  sets  forth  the 
notions  of  all  the  various  sects,  and  seems  to  be  favorable  to  them  all  except- 
ing the  Epicurean.  These  writings  are  a  most  valuable  collection,  and  have 
proved  a  mine  of  information  to  succeeding  ages. 

1.  "  The  general  purpose  of  Cicero's  philosophical  works  was  rather  to 
give  a  history  of  ancient  philosophy  than  dogmatically  inculcate  opinions  of 
his  own.  It  was  his  great  aim  to  explain  to  his  fellow-citizens  in  their  own 
language  whatever  the  sages  of  Greece  had  taught  on  the  most  important  sub- 
jects, in  order  to  enlarge  their  minds  and  reform  their  morals.  —  He  was  in 
many  respects  well  qualified  for  the  arduous  and  noble  task  which  he  had 
undertaken  of  naturalizing  philosophy  in  Rome,  and  exhibiting  her,  according 
to  the  expression  of  Erasmus,  on  the  stage  of  life.  —  Never  was  a  philosopher 
placed  in  a  situation  more  favorable  for  gathering  the  fruits  of  an  experience 
employed  on  human  nature  and  civil  society,  or  for  observing  the  effect  of 
various  qualities  of  the  mind  on  public  opinion  and  on  the  actions  of  men.  — 
But  he  appears  to  have  been  destitute  of  that  speculative  disposition  which 
leads  us  to  penetrate  into  the  more  recondite  and  original  principles  of  knowl- 
edge. He  had  cultivated  eloquence  as  clearing  the  path  to  political  honors, 
and  had  studied  philosophy  as  the  best  auxiliary  to  eloquence.  But  the  con- 
templative sciences  only  attracted  his  attention,  in  so  far  as  they  tended  to 
elucidate  ethical,  practical,  and  political  subjects,  to  which  he  applied  a  phi- 
losophy which  was  rather  that  of  life,  than  of  speculation.  —  His  philosophic 
dialogues  are  rather  to  be  considered  as  popular  treatises,  adapted  to  the  ordi- 
nary comprehension  of  well  informed  men,  than  profound  disquisitions,  suited 
only  to  a  Portico  or  Lyceum.  They  bespeak  the  orator  even  in  the  most  se- 
rious inquiries.  Elegance  and  fine  writing  he  appears  to  have  considered  as 
essential  to  philosophy.  —  Although  it  may  be  honoring  Cicero  too  highly  to 
term  his  works,  with  Gibbon,  a  Repository  of  Reason,  they  are  at  least  a  Mis- 
cellany of  Information,  which  has  become  doubly  dear  from  the  loss  of  the 
writings  of  many  of  those  philosophers  whose  opinions  he  records." — The 
greater  part  of  the  philosophical  writings  of  Cicero  were  composed  during  a 
single  year;  and  this  rapidity  of  execution  has  led  many  to  suppose  that  they 
must  have  been  chiefly  translations  from  Greek  works,  an  idea  that  is  thought 
to  be  sanctioned  by  a  passage  in  a  letter  to  Atticus  (Ep.  Lib.  xii.  Ep.  52), 
"  ctnoyQaya  sunt." 

Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  n.  218.  ed.  Phil.  1827.  —  On  C.'s  philosophical  writings,  see  also 
BcUir,  as  cited  §  299.  8.  —  Also  references  given  below  (3  &  4). 

2.  The  following  may  be  properly  ranked  among  the  philosophical  works  of 
Cicero.  —  (a)  Academica,  or  Qucestiones  Academics ,  in  two  books  ;  so  called 
probably,  because  the  work  relates  chiefly  to  the  Academic  philosophy.  These 
two  books  are  supposed  by  many  critics  to  be  parts  of  two  different  works  of 
Cicero,  or  rather  of  two  different  editions  of  the  Jlcademica.  The  first  edition 
is  said  to  have  consisted  of  two  books,  inscribed  Catulus  and  Lucullus  ;  the 
former  of  which  is  lost ;  the  latter  is  one  of  the  books  now  extant.  The  sec- 
ond edition  is  said  to  have  consisted  of  four  books,  the  first  of  which  is  one 
of  the  two  books  now  extant,  while  the  other  three  are  lost ;  in  the  extant 
book,  Varro  is  the  chief  speaker  and  gives  an  account  of  the  origin  and  pro- 
gress of  the  Academy. (b)  De  Finibus  bonorum  et  malorum,  in  five  books; 

an  account  of  the  various  opinions  entertained  by  the  Greeks  respecting  the 
supreme  good  and  extreme  evil ;  and  considered   one  of  the  most  subtle  and 

difficult  of  Cicero's  philosophical  writings. (c)    Tusculancc  Disputationes, 

in  five  books;  they  are  so  named  by  Cicero  from  having  been  held  at  his  fa- 
vorite seat  near  Tusculum.  On  a  certain  occasion,  Cicero  spent  five  days  at 
this  villa  in  company  with  friends  taken  with  him  from  Rome,  and  on  the  af- 
ternoon of  each  day,  held  a  conference,  or  rather  gave  a  sort  of  discourse  on 
some  topic  suggested  by  them  ;  these  were  afterwards  committed  to  writing, 
and  formed  the  Tusculan  Disputations.  The  first  book  or  dialogue  is  enti- 
tled, De  con temnenda  morte;  the  second,  De  tolerando  dolor e  ;  the  third,  De 
cegritudine  lenienda  ,*    the  fourth,  De  reliquiis  animi  ptrturbationibus  ;    in  the 

fifth  Cicero  maintains  that  virtue  alone  is  sufficient  for  perfect  happiness. 

(d)  De  JVatura  Deorum,  in  three  books  ;    containing  an  exposition  of  the  doc- 


348  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

trines  of  three  of  the  celebrated  sects  of  philosophers,  viz.  the  Epicureans', 
the  Stoics,  and  the  Academics,  respecting  the  Essence  of  the  Divine  Being, 
and  his  government  and  providence.  Tn  this  work  Cicero  betrays  a  melan- 
choly degree  of  uncertainty  and  doubt  in  reference  to  the   administration  of 

God  in  guiding  and  controlling  human  affairs. (e)  De  Divinatione,  in  two 

books  ;  forming  a  sort  of  supplement  to  the  treatise  on  the  nature  of  the 
gods.  In  the  first  book,  Quintus,  the  brother  of  Cicero,  states  the  considera- 
tions urged  by  the  various  philosophers  in  defence  of  the  art  of  divination  ; 
in  the  second,  Cicero  refutes  all  the  arguments,  and  shows  the  complete  ab- 
surdity of  the  pretended  science. (f )  De  Fato,  one  book,  or  rather  a  frag- 
ment.    The  part  now  extant  contains  a  refutation  of  the  doctrine  of  Chrysip- 

pus  the  Stoic,  which  was  that  of  fatality. (g)  De  Legibus,  in  three  books. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  work  originally  consisted  of  six  books  ;  Macro- 
bius  quotes  a  fifth  (Saturnal.  vi.  4) ;  in  the  three  now  extant  considerable 
chasms  occur.  In  the  first  book,  Cicero  speaks  of  the  origin  of  laws  and  the 
source  of  obligation  ;  and  in  the  others,  sets  forth  a  body  of  laws  conformable 
to  his  plan  of  a  well  ordered  state.  The  work  seems  to  have  been  intended 
for  a  supplement  to  that  entitled  De  Republica. (h)  De  Republica,  consist- 
ing originally  of  six  books,  of  which  considerable  fragments  are  now  extant. 
[See  below  under  3  (h).]  This  work  was  begun  by  Cicero  in  the  fifty-second 
year  of  his  age,  before  any  of  his  other  philosophical  writings;  it  was  made 
public  previously  to  his  departure  for  the  government  of  Cilicia,  and  appears 
to  have  met  with  very  flattering  success  at  Rome  (cf.  Cic.  Epist.  Famil.  viii. 
1.  Ep.  ad  Att.  vi).  In  this  work  Cicero  presents  a  discussion  supposed  to 
have  been  held  between  Scipio  Africanus,  Quintus  Tubero,  P.  Rutilius  Ru- 
fus,  and  others,  "  in  which,"  says  he,  "  nothing  important  to  the  right  consti- 
tution of  a  commonwealth  appears  to  have  been  omitted."  According  to  Mr. 
Dunlop,  the  chief  scope  of  Cicero  was  a  eulogy  on  the  Roman  government, 
such  as  it  was,  or  as  Cicero  supposed  it  to  have  been,  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
commonwealth ;  the  same  writer  remarks,  "  although  the  work  will  disap- 
point those  who  expect  to  find  in  it  much  political  information,  still,  as  in  Ci- 
cero's other  productions,  every  page  exhibits  a  rich  and  glowing  magnificence 
of  style,  ever  subjected  to  the  control  of  a  taste  the  most  correct  and  pure." 
—  In  this  work  was  inserted  the  beautiful  fiction  entitled  Somnium  Scipionis, 
which  implies,  and  seems  indeed  to  have  been  intended  by  Cicero  expressly 

to  teach,  the  doctrine  of  the  soul's  immortality. (i)  De  OJficiis,  in  three 

books,  addressed  to  his  son.  In  this  Cicero  treats  of  moral  obligations  and 
duties ;  and  in  some  parts  of  it  he  is  supposed  to  have  closely  followed  a 
treatise  entitled  JIiqI  /vu^'xovtoc,  written  by  a  Greek  philosopher  named  Pa- 
ncetius,  who  resided  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Scipio. (j)  De  Senectute,  en- 
titled also  Cato,  because  Cato  the  Censor  is  represented  as  delivering  the  dis- 
course. It  was  written  in  Cicero's  63d  year,  and  is  addressed  to  his  friend  At- 
ticus.  The  supposed  evils  of  old  age  are  considered  under  four  heads  ;  and 
the  refined  pleasures,  which  may  be  secured  notwithstanding  all  the  losses 
and  deprivations  resulting  from  advanced  years,  are  pointed  out.  It  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly interesting  piece,  containing  examples  of  eminent  Romans,  who 
passed  a  respectable  and  happy  old  age.  —  It  is  the  model  of  the  dialogue  by 
Sir  Thomas  Bernard,  entitled  Spurinna  or  the  Comforts  of  Old  Age,  in  which 

illustrations  are   drawn   chiefly  from  British   history. (k)    De  Amicitia, 

called  also  Lcelius,  who  is  represented  as  holding  a  conference  with  Fannius 
and  Scaevola  his  sons-in-law,  shortly  after  the  death  of  his  very  intimate  friend 
Scipio  Africanus.  (1)  Paradoxa,  a  piece  containing  a  defence  of  six  pe- 
culiar opinions  or  paradoxes  of  the  Stoics  ;  designed  perhaps  rr.erely  as  a  hu- 
morous effusion,  rather  than  a  serious  philosophical  essay. (in)  Cicero 

composed  several  other  works  that  would  fall  under  the  head  of  philosophical, 
which  are  lost;  as,  De  Consolatione,  written  on  the  death  of  his  daughter 
Tullia;  De  Gloria,  in  two  books,  written  while  sailing  along  the  coast  of 
Campania  on  a  voyage  to  Greece  ;  De  Phllosophia,  or  Hortcnsius,  on  the  com- 
parative value  of  eloquence  and  philosophy,  a  piece  often  cited  and  highly 
commended  by  Augustine.  —  Some  of  the  works  falsely  ascribed  to  Cicero 
might  also  be  named  among  the  philosophical ;  e.  g.  Orpheus,  or  De  adolesccn- 
te  studioso,  purporting  to  have  been  addressed  to  his  son  while  at  Athens. 


PHILOSOPHERS.       CICERO,      SENECA.  349 

3.  Editions.  —  For  Whole  Works,  see  §  404.  5.  —  Here  we  notice  only  the  Philosophical 
Works.  —  (A)  Collectively.— Bi-tt,  R.  G.  Rath  (<fc  Ch.G.Schutz).  Halle, 1804-11.  6  vols.  8.  based 
on  the  editions  of  separatetracts  by  Davies,  and  containing  the  text  and  commentary  of  Davies, 
with  additional  notes. — f.A.Garenz.  Lpz. 1809-13.  3  vols,  designed  to  be  completed  in  6  vols.  8. 
The  first  3  vols,  (containing  the  pieces  noticed  under  the  letters  a,  b,  e,  &.  g,)  are  highly  com- 
mended.   The  Princrps,  by  Swrynhcym.  fy  Pannartz.   Rom.  1471.  2  vols.  fol. 1  here  is  a 

French  translation  of  the  Phil.  Works  by  Rarett,  Rouhicr  &  others.     Par.  1796.  10  vols.  12. 

(B)  Separately;  we  must  not  omit  to  notice  some  of  the  works  singly  ;  but  to  avoid  repeating 
the  titles,  thev  will  be  desienated  merely  by  the  letters  used  in  the  descriptive  paragraphs  above. 
(a)  J.  Davies  (Davislus).  Camb.  1736.  8. T.  C.  Orellius.  Turici,  1827.  8. Transla- 
tions  French  ;  D.  Durand.  Par.  17P'.  2  vols.  12 — English  ;   W.  Guthrie  fThe  Morals  of  Cice- 

roj.   Lond.  1744,  8. Illustrative.  —  A.  C.  Ranitz,  De  libr.  Cic  Academicis  Commentatio. 

Lpz.  1809.  4.—S.  Parker,  Disputationes  de  Deo  et  providentia.    Ox.  1703.  4.  ^ (b)  J.  Davies. 

Camb.  3d  ed.  1741.  8.  Repr.  Oxf.  1809,  8.— Fr.  G.  Otto.  Lpz.  1831.  8. Translations.— Eng- 
lish ;  9.  Parker.   Lond.  1702.    1812.  8. (c)  J.  Davies.   Camb.  4th  ed.  1738.  8.   Repr.  Oxf. 

1805.  8.  —  *  G.  H.  Moser.   Han.  1836-38.  3  vols.  8. Translations.  —  English  ;  J.  D  llmann. 

Lond.  1501.  8. Anonymous.  Lond.  1758.  8.  —  A  new  translation,  by  G.  A.  Otis,  is  announced, 

Bost. 1839.  prepared  on  the  suggestion  of  J.  Q,.  Adams. (A)  J. Davies.  Cantab.1718.  8.  Repr. 

Oxf.  1807.  8.— L.  F.  Hehidorf.   Lpz.  1815.  8.  critical  and  good. Translations.— German  ;  J.  F. 

von  Meyer.    Frankf.  1806.  8.  —  English  ;    Thorn.  Franklin  (with  notesj.   Londi  1741.    1775.8. 

< Illustrative. —  Ch.  V.  Kindervater,  Ammerkungen  und  Abhandlungen  &c  iiber  Cic.  Bti- 

cher  von  der  Natur  der  Gbtter.  Lpz.  1790-92.  2  vols.  8.  commended  by  Harles,  Suppl.  to  Brev. 
Not.  i.  287.  partly  incorporated,  in  Latin,  in  Kindervaler's  edition  of  these  Books.  Lpz.  1796.  8. 
— G.  S.  Franke,  G<eist  una  Gehalt.  der  Cic.  Buch.  von  der  Nat.  der  Gbtter.  Alt.  1806.  8.  —  Per- 
haps here  ought  to  be  named  a  fabrication,  purporting  to  be  a  fourth  Book  of  Cicero's  De  Nat. 
Dcorum.  It  was  published  by  an  unknown  author  (IV.  M.  L.  de  Wette  has  been  conjectured), 
under  a  fictitious  name,  with  the  following  title  :  M.  T.  Cic.  de  nat.  Deor.  liber  quartus  ;  e  per- 
vetusto  codice  ms.  membranaceo  nunc  primum  edidit  P.  Seraphinus.  Bononke,  1811.  8.  Republ. 
Oxf.  1813.     The  real  design  of  the  author  is  not  apparent ;  the  purity  and  elegance  of  Cicero 

are  not  preserved  in  the  stvie.— Cf.  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom,  Lit.  ii.  250. - — ( s.J  J.  Davies.  Camb. 

2d  ed.  1745.  8.  —  I.  F.  Wagner,  Gbtt.  1804.  2  vols.  8.   The  2d  vol.  a  commentary .—G.  H.  Moser 

&  F.  Creuzer.   Francf.  1824.  8 (h)  A.  Mai.  Rom.  1822.  8.  also  in  fol.  and  in  quarto.     It 

•contains  a  simile  of  the  palimpsest  in  which  the  work  was  found.  Repr.  Stuttg.  1822.  Lond. 
1823.  8.  (Also  Bos*.  1823.  but  without  the  introductory  matter.)  It  is  also  in  the  1st  vol.  of  the 
work  entitled  Classic.  Auctor.  e  codd.  Vat.  edit.  Coll.  (curante  A.  Maio.)  Rom.  1828.4.  —  G.  H. 
Moser  &.  F.  Creuzer.  Frankf.  182ii*  8. Translations.— French  ;  Villemain,  with  original  Lat- 
in, and  Notes  &.  Dissertations.  Par.  1823.  3  vols.  12.  •*-  English  ;  G.W.  Featherstonhaugh.  New 
York,  1829.  much  censured  in  South.  Review,  as  below  cited. The  whole  work  De  Repub- 
lics was  extant,  it  is  said,  as  late  as  the  11th  century,  after  which  it  disappeared,  and  the  loss 
became  a  theme  of  constant  lamentation  among  the  admirers  of  Cicero  and  all  lovers  of  clas- 
sical literature*  About  the  year  1821,  Angelo  Mai»  in  examining  the  Palimpsests  (cf.  P.  I.  $84) 
of  the  Vatican,  discovered  a  considerable  portion  of  it,  which  had  been  expunged  (in  the  10th 
century,  it  is  supposed)  and  crossed  by  a  new  writing,  that  contained  Augustine's  commentary 
on  the  Psalms.  Mai  published  the  portion  thus  recovered,  in  the  ed.  just  cited.  —  Of  the  first 
book,  we  now  have  about  two  thirds  in  the  part  recovered  by  Mai  and  two  fragments  preserved 
in  Lactantiiis  and  Nonius  ;  we  have  about  the  same  proportion  of  the  second,  drawn  horn  the 
palimpsest;  of  the  third,  the  part  obtained  is  interrupted  by  many  chasms;  only  slight  frag- 
ments were  found  of  the  fourth  and  fifth;  and  of  the  sixth,  the  palimpsest  presented  nothing; 
but  this  book  contained  the  Somnium  Scipionis,  which  is  preserved  by  Macrobius  (§  430) ;  we 
have  also  a  Greek  version  of  it,  which  has  been  ascribed  to  Theodore  Gaza,  and  with  more 

propriety  to  Planudes. For  an  analysis  of  the  Republic,  see  Southern  Review,  No.  Til.  —  Cf. 

also,  JV\  Am.  Rev.  No.  xl.  —  For  the  Greek  version  of  Scipio's  Dream,  see  the  ed.  of  Cato  by 
Gotz,  cited  below.  —  Cf.  The  Theology  and  Philosophy  in  Cicero's  Somnium  Scipionis  explained  5 
or  a  brief  attempt  to  demonstrate  that  the  Newtonian  System  is  agreeable  to  the  Notions  of  the 

wisest  Ancients.     Lond.  1751.  8. (\)   C.  Beicr.   Lpz.  1820.  2  vols.  8.  —  There  have  been 

many  school  editions. — Johnson,  Lat.  &  Engl.  Lond.  1828.  8.— C.  K.  Dillaway.  Bost.  1837*  12. 
Cf.  Bibl.  Repos.  No.  xxvm.  p.  4y?v  —  Translations  :  German  ;  Ch.  Garve.  Bresl.  6th  ed.  1819. 
4  vols.  8.  With  a  commentary  ;  commended  by  Stlioll,  Litt.  Rom.  11.  174.— English  ;   W.  M.Cart* 

ney.   Londv  1798.  8.—  W.  Guthrie.  Lond.  1755.  &  < fj  &  *)  ./.  A.  Gotz.   Lpz.  1816.  8.  with 

Somn.  Scipionis.  —  C.  K.  Dillaway*  Bost.  1837.  12,  «-^  Translations.  —  English  ;  W.  Guthrie,  as 
just  cited  (i).  —  W.  Melmoth.  Lond.  1777.  1807.  8.   including  also   Paradoxa  (1)   and   Scipio's 

Dream.  —  J.  Denham,  Cato  (j),  a  Poem,  in  4  parts.  Lond.  1648. 12. Cm)  Attempts  were 

made,  after  the  revival  of  letters,  to  collect  the  scattered  fragments  of  the  lost  works.— C.  Sigo- 
nius,  Fragmenta  Ciceronis.  Ven.  1559.  8.  Han.  1606.  12.  —  The  same  Sigonius  published  the 
fragments  of  De  Consolatione  connected  together  by  sentences  interpolated  by  himself.  Bon. 
1583.  8.— An  English  tran-lation,  in  the  work  entitled  Paraclesis,  or  Consolations  deduced  from 
Natural  and  Revealed  Religion  ;  two  dissertations,  the  first  supposed  to  have  been  composed 
by  Cicero  ;  the  last  originally  written  by  Thos.  Blacklock,  DD.  Lond.  1767.  8.— Cf.  C.  F.JYobbe, 
Programm.  de  fragment,  libror.  Cic.  incertorum.  Lpz.  1827. — The  work  entitled  Orpheus  was 
first  published,  Ven. 1593.  8.  republished  by  ./.  A,  Folierini.  Ven. 1793.  4.— Respecting  Id&t  works 
of  Cicero,  and  works  falselv  ascribed  to  him,  cf,  Ba.hr,  p.  630.  —  Harles,  Brev.  Not.  Suppl.  i. 
247.— Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  1.  212-216. 

4.  There  are  works  (besides  those  already  mentioned)  illustrative  of  Cicero's  philosophical 
writings,  too  numerous  to  be  cited  here  ;  we  name  a  few.  — J.  Ch.  Brieglieb,  De  philosoph. 

Ciceronis.   Cob.  1784.  4.—  Ch.  F.  HHsemann,  De  indole  phi!.  Ciceronis.   Luneb.  1799.  4 R. 

Kvhner,  Cicer.  in  philos.  ejusq.  partes  merita.  Ilamb.  1825.  8.  —  77.  Dodwell,  Apology  &c.  in 
Parkers  translation,  cited  ahove  (b).  —  Gautier  dz  Stbert,  Examen  de  la  Philos.  de  Ciceron,  in 
the  Mem,.  Acad.  Inscr.  xlI.  466.    xliii.  101. 

§  469.    L.   Annmis  Seneca  was  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  Stoic  philosophy, 
although  he  had  previously  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  all 

30 


350  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

the  schools.  In  his  philosophical  writings  there  is  much  acumen,  and  much 
matter  to  nourish  a  reflecting  mind.  The  style,  however,  like  that  of  his 
epistles  (§  442),  is  too  elaborate,  and  on  account  of  the  frequent  antitheses, 
is  tiresome. 

1.  Seneca  was  born  at  Corduba  in  Spain,  A.  D.  2  or  3.  In  the  reign  of 
Claudius  he  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Corsica,  where  he  remained  eight 
years.  After  he  became  the  instructor  of  Nero,  he  obtained  great  wealth  (cf. 
Tac.  Ann.  xiii.  42),  and  was  charged  with  practicing  exorbitant  usury  (Dio 
Cass.  lxi.  10).  His  death,  by  the  sentence  of  Nero  (cf.  §  374.  Tac.  Ann.  xv. 
60-64 j,  occurred  A.  D.  65. 

J.  Lipsius,  Vita  Senecae,  in  his  Opera  Omnia.  Antv.  1637.  4  vols.  M.— Diderot,  Ess.  sur  la  vie 
et  les  ecrits  de  Seneque.  Par.  1779. 12.  given  in  La  Grange's  transl.— C.  P.  Com,  iiber  Seneca's 
Leben  &c.  in  his  translation  below  (5)  cited.  —  Th.  F.  G.  Reinhard,  de  Seneca?  vita  et  Script. 
Jen.  1817.  8.  —  Enfield's  Hist.  Phil.  bk.  iii.  ch.  ii.  sect.  l.—Mongez,  Iconographie  Rom.  I.  p.  419. 
(Cf.  P.  I.  $  187.) 

2.  The  following  are  his  philosophical  works:  De  Ira,  in  3  books;  De 
consolatione,  in  3  books;  the  1st  addressed  to  his  mother  Helvia,  during  his 
own  banishment  to  Corsica  ;  the  2d  addressed  to  one  Polybius,  who  had  lost 
a  young  brother;  the  3d  addressed  to  Marcia,  a  friend  who  had  lost  her  son  ; 
the  genuineness  of  the  2d  has  been  questioned  :  De  Providentia,  discussing 
the  question,  why  evil  happens  to  the  good  :  De  animi  tranquilitate,  in  reply 
to  a  letter  from  AnnaBUs  Serenus  respecting  the  trials  of  life  ;  it  has  been  com- 
pared with  Plutarch's  treatise  7Z>ot  ivdvftlas  :  De  Constantla  sapientis,  sup- 
porting the  stoical  paradox,  that  the  wise  man  can  suffer  no  ill :  De  dementia, 
addressed  to  Nero,  in  3  books,  of  which  the  3d  and  a  great  part  of  the  2d  are 
lost :  De  brevitate  Vita:  De  Vita,  beata,  on  the  manner  of  living  happily,  in 
which  Seneca  takes  occasion  to  notice  the  reproaches  cast  on  him  by  his  ene- 
mies on  account  of  his  wealth  :  De  Otio  sapientis,  of  which  the  first  27  chap- 
ters are  wanting  :  De  Beneficiis,  in  7  books,  composed  in  the  last  years  of  his 
life  and  considered  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  his  performances;  it  treats  of 
the  manner  of  conferring  benefits  and  of  the  duties  of  those  who  receive  them. 

On  the  philosophical  writings  and  opinions  of  Seneca,  we  may  mention,  besides  the  works 
named  above,  the  following:  J.  Lipsius,  Manuductio  ad  Stoicam  Philosophiam.  Lugd.  Bat. 
1644.  12.  —  E.  J.  Werner,  De  Senecae  Philosophia.  Berl.  1825.  8.  Vratislav.  1826.  8.  —  Bohr, 
Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  645. — J.  G.  Heineccius,  De  philosophis  semi-christianis.    Halre  Sax.  1714.  4. 

3.  There  is  another  work  of  Seneca  which  should  be  named  here,  entitled 
Quastionum  naturalium  libri  VII,  and  treating  of  various  subjects  of  physical 
philosophy.  In  the  1st  book  he  treats  of  fire ;  in  the  2d,  of  lightning  and 
thunder  ;  in  the  3d,  of  xcater  ;  in  the  4th,  of  hail,  snow,  and  ice;  in  the  5th,  of 
winds  ;  in  the  6th,  of  earthquakes ;  in  the  7th,  of  comets.  This  work  is  valu- 
able as  furnishing  means  to  judge  of  the  attainments  of  the  ancients  in  physi- 
cal science  ;  it  exerted  an  important  influence  in  the  middle  ages,  holding  a 
rank  and  authority  second  only  to  the  treatises  of  Aristotle  on  physical  sub- 
jects, even  down  to  the  16th  century. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  a  modern  writer,  that  Seneca's  theory  of  earthquakes  "  contains  the 
germ  of  all  that  has  been  stated  in  our  own  times  concerning  the  action  of  elastic  vapors  en- 
closed in  the  interior  of  the  globe."  (Cf  Humboldt  &  Bonpland,  Voyage  aux  contrees  equinoct. 
Par.  1814.  4.  vol.  i.  p.  313. — See  Kwler's  Disquis.  de  Senecae  Quaes.  Nat.  given  in  his  edition  be- 
low cited. 

Several  other  works,  not  now  extant,  were  ascribed  to  Seneca  (cf.  Quint.  Inst.  Orat.  x.  1. 
j9«/.  Gell.  xii.  2).  Some  fragments  of  a  treatise  on  friendship  were  found  in  the  Vatican,  and 
published  (Rom.  1820)  by  B.  G.  JVubuhr.  Several  works  also  have  been  falsely  ascribed  to 
him  ;  as  e.  g.  De  virtu tib us  eardinalibus,  De  paupertate,  Proverbia,  and  others,  besides  the  letters 
to  Paul,  which  have  been  before  noticed  (§  412.  2).— Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  n.  p.118, 123.— Bahr, 
Geschichte  Rom.  Lit.  p.  C48. 

4.  Editions.  —  The  Philosophical  Works  (opera  philosophica),  by  E.  F.  Vogel.  Lpz.  1830.  8. 
Jf.  Bouillet.    Par.  1829.  in  Lemaire's  Bibl.  Lat.  —  The    Quastiunes  Natural™,  by    G.  D.  Kbler. 

Gdtt.  1818.  8. We  notice  here  editions  of  the  Whole  Works  of  Seneca.  —  F.  E.  Kuhkopf. 

Lpz.  1797—1811.  5  vols.  8.  considered  excellent ;  but  it  was  not  completed.  Among  the  best  of 
preceding  editions  were  the  latest  Bipont  edition.  Argentor.  1809.  5  vols.  3.  —  the  edition  cum 
notis  variorum.  Amst.  1672.  3  vols.  8.— that  of  J.  Gnitcr.(Commelin  pr.;  Ileidelb.  1604.  fol.  con- 
taining the  note  used  by  the  Roman  short-hand  writers.  Cf.  P.  I.  <5i  117.  —  and  that  ofLipmiu. 
Antw.  1652.  fol.— The  ed.  of  Erasmus.  Bas.  1529.  fol.  was  celebrated.  —  The  Princeps,  Naples, 
1475;  cf.  Harlem,  Brev.  Not.  Supp.  i.  5J6. 

5.  Translations.  —  French  ;  La  Grange  (whole  works;.  Par.  1777.  1795.  6  vols.  8. Ger- 
man.—AT.  Ph.  Com  (philosophical  pieces;.  Stuttg.  1790-92.  3  vols.  3.— F.  E.  Rulikopf,  ("  ques- 
tions on  nature";    Lpz.  1794.  8. English.—  Thoin.  Lodge.   Lond.  1620.  fol. 

§  470.  Caius  Plinius  Secundus,  surnamed  the  elder  (major)  to  distinguish 
him  from  his  nephew,  who  was  commonly  called  Pliny  the  younger  (cf.  $  441), 


PHILOSOPHERS.       PLINY    THE    ELDER.  351 

lived  in  the  first  century,  from  A.  D.  23  to  A.  D.  79.  He  was  a  native  of  Ve- 
rona, or  according  to  others  of'Comum,  and  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men 
among  the  Romans.  His  Natural  History  is  rather  a  sort  of  encyclopaedia,  a 
work  full  of  erudition,  and  one  of  the  most  considerable  monuments  of  ancient 
literature.  It  is  important  to  the  geographer  and  the  amateur  in  art,  no  less 
than  to  the  naturalist ;  although  it  may  not  be  throughout  entirely  consistent 
or  entitled  to  implicit  reliance.  According  to  his  own  account,  it  is  a  compi- 
lation drawn  from  nearly  2500  authors ;  of  which  the  greatest  number  are  now 
lost.  The  younger  Pliny  justly  calls  it  a  work  ample,  learned,  and  scarcely 
less  various  than  nature  herself  ('opus  diffusum,  eruditum,  nee  minus  varium 
quam  ipsa  natura). 

1.  At  an  early  age  he  went  to  Rome.  About  his  22d  year,  he  resided  for  a 
time  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  He  also  served  in  the  Roman  army  in  Germany, 
and  held  a  command  in  the  cavalry  (Prafectus  ala)  under  Lucius  Pomponius. 
Afterwards  at  Rome  he  practiced  the  pleading  of  causes.  Some  time  also  he 
passed  at  Comum,  where  he  attended  to  the  education  of  his  nephew.  He 
subsequently  held  the  office  of  Procurator  of  Spain,  where  it  is  supposed  he 
remained  during  the  wars  of  Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius.  Returning  to  Rome 
he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Vespasian,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death,  under  Titus, 
was  commander  of  the  Roman  fleet  at  Misenum.  He  lost  his  life  by  the  cele- 
brated eruption  of  Vesuvius,  A.  D.  79;  the  particulars  are  described  by  his 
nephew  in  a  letter  to  the  historian  Tacitus.  He  maintained  through  life  habits 
of  unremitted  application  to  study. 

Cf.  Life  of  Pliny  ascribed  to  Suetonius  (cf.  §  537.  9).— Ptm.  Min.  Ep.  iii.  5.  vi.  16.  20.— Ajas- 
sondc  Grandsagne,  De  la  vie  et  des  ouvrages  de  Pline,  in  his  trans,  cited  below. —  Unicers.  Biog. 
vol.  XXXV. 

2.  His  principal  work,  the  Historia  JYaturalis,  was  finished  only  a  short  time 
before  his  death,  and  dedicated  to  Titus.  It  consists  of  37  books.  The  first 
is  a  sort  of  index  or  table  giving  a  general  view  of  the  contents  of  the  whole 
work  ;  its  genuineness  has  been  questioned  by  some,  but  without  sufficient 
reason.  The  2d  treats  of  subjects  belonging  to  cosmography  and  astronomy; 
the  3d,  4th,  5th  and  6th  contain  a  description  of  the  earth,  its  countries  and 
inhabitants,  forming  a  sort  of  universal  geography  ;  the  next  5  (from  7th  to  11th 
inclusive)  relate  particularly  to  animals  or  zoology  ;  the  following  9  (from  12th 
to  19th)  treat  of  plants  or  botany  ;  with  the  20th  begins  a  description  of  medi- 
cines, which  is  continued  through  13  books,  treating  first  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom (from  20th  to  27th),  and  then  of  the  animal  (from  28th  to  32d)  ;  the  re- 
maining 5  books  (from  33d  to  37th)  are  devoted  to  the  mineral  kingdom,  com- 
prising notices  of  the  medicinal  properties  of  metals  and  stones,  and  to  the 
fine  arts,  painting,  sculpture,  &c.  with  notices  of  the  principal  ancient  artists 
and  their  productions. 

Respecting  the  value  and  character  of  this  work,  cf.  Bahr,  Rom.  Litt.  p.  653.  —  Scholl,  Litt. 
Rom.  ii.  463. —  Caylus,  Memoir  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Instr.  et  Belles-Lettres,  vol.  xxv.  —  Heyne, 
Antiquar.  AufsAtze.  Lpz.  1779.  8.—Ajasson  de  Grandsagne,  as  below  cited.— For  a  very  ample 
commentary  on  the  works,  see  {Ant.  Joseph,  comes  a  Tune)  Rezzonico,  Disquisitiones  Pliniana?. 
Parma,  1763.  2  vols.  fol.  containing  a  view  of  the  question  respecting  Pliny's  birth-place,  with 
notices  of  manuscripts,  editions,  &c.  —  A.  L.  A.  Fee,  Commentaires  sur  la  Botanique  &.c.  de 
Pline.   Par.  1833.  3  vols.  8. 

3.  Several  other  works  were  written  by  the  elder  Pliny,  which  are  lost.  The  following  are 
mentioned  :  Dejaculatione  equestri ;  Studiosus,  in  3  books,  treating  of  the  studies  and  discipline 
requisite  to  form  a  perfect  orator  ;  Dubii  sermonis,  in  8  books,  a  grammatical  work  ;  Vita  Pom- 
ponii,  in  2  books  ;  also  a  History  of  his  own  times,  in  31  books  (cf.  $  518).  Besides  these  he 
wrote  160  volumes  of  Ezcerpta  or  Commentarii,  which  were  left  to  his  nephew.— Bahr,  p.  650. 

4.  Editions.  —  Best ;  Ansard.  Par.  1829.  in  Lemaire's  Bibl.  Class.  —  J.  Sillig.  Lpz.  1831-36. 
5  vols.  12.  in  Tcubner's  Classics. — Under  the  care  of  Sillig-  (of  Dresden),  who  has  devoted  many 
years  to  the  study  of  P.'s  Nat.  Hist,  a  large  and  splendid'edition  is  in  progress,  by  the  Deutsche 

JVaturforschungsrersarniuluiiir T.  G.  Franzius.  Lpz.  1778-91.  10  vols.  8.  ;  inaccurately  printed, 

yet  pronounced  by  Dibdiu  :'  excellent  and  critical."  —  The  Bipont,  1783.  6  vols.  8.  is  good.  — 

Dalccamp.  Lugd.  1787.  fol.  and  especially  Harduin.  Par.  1723.  3  vols.  fol.  had  celebrity The 

Princeps,  by  John  de  Spira  (printer).  Ven.  1469.  fol.  lauded  by  Dibdin  as  a  beautiful  specimen 
of  ancient  typography. — That  of  Feyerabendt,  Francof.  1582.  fol.  is  ornamented  with  wood-cuts 

"  as  bold  and  spirited  as  they  are  singular." Select  portions  have  been  published  ;  Ch.  G. 

Heyne,  Ex.  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  excerpta  &c.  Gbtt.  1793.  8.  with  another  volume  (de  pictura). 
Gbtt.  1810.  8.  —  /.  M.  Gessner,  Chrestomathia  Pliniana.  Lpz.  1723.  1776.  8.  —J.  Aikin,  Selecta 
quaedam  ex  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  &c.   Lond.  1776.  12. 

5.  Translations.  —  German.— G.  Grosse.   Francf.  1781-88.  12  vols.  8. French.— L.  Pohv- 

sinett  de  Sivry  (with  the  orig.  Latin).  Par.  1771-82.  12  vols.  4.—  C.  B.  Guerolt.  Par.  1802.  3  vols. 
8.     Better,  but  containing  only  the  part  of  Pliny  pertaining  to  zoology. — Ajassonde  Grandsagne, 

with  the  Latin,  and  notes  of  various  authors.   Par.  1829.  8  vols.  8. English. —  Phil.  Holland. 

Lond.  1611.  1634.  2  vols.  fol.  a  copy  of  this  is  valued  at  £1.  10s.  on  the  Catalogue  of  O.  Rich 
(London)  for  1837. 


352  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

§  471.  Lucius  Apuleius,  a  native  of  Madaura,  a  Roman  colony  in  Africa, 
lived  about  the  close  of  the  2d  century.  He  was  a  lawyer  at  Rome,  and  a 
philosopher  of  the  Platonic  school.  From  circumstances  connected  with  his 
extensive  travels,  he  obtained  the  reputation  of  a  magician  and  performer  of* 
miracles.  His  writings,  although  characterized  by  a  style  deficient  in  accuracy 
and  often  unnatural,  contain  frequent  turns  of  wit,  and  are  on  the  whole  very 
entertaining.  The  principal  work  is  the  Golden  Ass,  in  11  books,  a  sort  of 
satirical  romance,  of  the  class  called  Milesian  Tales  (cf.  $150).  His  other 
productions  relate  chiefly  to  the  Platonic  philosophy. 

1.  Little  is  known  of  the  life  of  Apuleius  besides  what  is  drawn  from  his 
own  writings.  He  married  a  rich  elderly  widow,  of  Oea  (TripolisJ,  where 
he  was  taken  sick  on  a  journey  from  Carthage  to  Alexandria.  He  was  after- 
wards prosecuted  by  a  brother  of  her  former  husband,  on  the  charge  of  having 
employed  magical  arts  to  obtain  her  affections.  His  defence  or  apology  on  the 
trial  is  extant. 

Scholl,  Lit.  Rom.  m.  p.  2Q2.—Bahr,  p.  581.— D.  G.  Matter,  Diss,  de  L.  Apuleio.   Alt.  1691.  4. 

—  A.  Rode,  Leben  des  Apuleius,  ia  his  traaslation  below  (5)  cited.  -^  Mongci  &  Visconti,  Icono- 
graph.  Anc.  cited  P.,  I.  $137. 

2.  The  fall  title  of  the  romance  of  th,e  Ass  is  as  follows:  Metamorphosedn 
seu  de  Asino  aureo  libri  XL  Apuleius  paints,  in  this  work,  with  great  spirit 
and  keen  satire,  the  vices  and  crimes,  and  the  wide-spread  superstition  and 
delusions  of  the  age.  Respecting  his  real  design,  there  has  been,  a  difference 
of  opinion.  "  The  hero  of  the  tale  is  a  youth  named  Lucius,  who  wishes  to 
learn  the  magic  arts  of  Thessaly,  but  in  punishment  for  his  curiosity  and  lusts 
is  changed  into  an  ass.  Sunk  in  vice,  he  passes  through  various  adventures,, 
until  at  length,  discovering  the  deep  degradation  of  his  state,  he  resorts  to  the 
Mysteries  for  relief,  and  again  becomes  a  man,  renewed  and  improved.  The 
work  is  rich  in  episodes,  and  closes  with  a  description  of  the  Mysteries  of  Isis.'* 

—  One  of  the  episodes  is  the  beautiful  allegory  of  Amor  &  Psyche.  Cf.  P.  1. 
§  198.  —  Warburton  conceives  the  work  to  have  been  written  in  opposition  to. 
Christianity  and  intended  to  represent  the  pagan  Mysteries  as  a  remedy  for 
vice.  Bayle  and  others  have  considered  it  as  merely  a  satire  upon  the  frauds 
and  tricks  practiced  by  the  priests  and  other  pretenders  to  supernatural  power. 
Those  who  hunted  after  the  philosopher's  stone  imagined  this  work  to  contain 
valuable  secrets. 

See  Le  Beau,  sur  Pane  d'Apulee,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Iiiscr.  xxxiv.  48.. —  Ziegler,  Disp.  de  L. 
Apuleio  iEgyptiorum  mysteriis  ter  initiate.  Argentor.  1786.  4.~Warburton,  Divine  Legation  of 
Moses,  ii.  117.- -Bayle,  Dictionn.  histor.  et  cijit,  article  Apulee. 

3.  The  works  of  Apuleius,  which  are  more  strictly  philosophical,  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  De  Deo  for  dtz-monio)  Socradis,  treating  on  the  question,  to  which  of 
the  various  classes  of  dcemons  or  genii  that  of  Socrates  belonged  :  De  dogmate 
Platonis,  or,  as  sometimes  given,  De  habitudine,  doctrina,  et  nativitate  Plato- 
nis,  in  three  books,  a  sor,t  of  introduction  to  the  Platonic  philosophy  :  De  mun- 
do}  a  translation  or  paraphrase  of  the  book  tvbqi  y.Louov,  ascribed  to  Aristotle. 

Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.   in.  211.  —  Bdhr,  p.  660.   cf.  p.  569,  582. There  are  two  works  which 

might  properly  be  called  rhetorical ;  Apologia  seu  Oratio  de  Magia,  spoken  in  his  own  defence 
when  prosecuted  for  using  magical  arts  ;   Florida,  a  sort  of  anthology,  consisting  of  selections 

from  his  speeches  and  declamations,  in-  4  books .  We  have  the  titles  of  many  other  works  by 

him,  now  wholly  lost. — The  treatise  De  herbis  and  the  piece  entitled  Hermetis  trismegisti  Ancle- 
pius  are  not  accounted  genuine. 

4.  Editions,  —  whole  works.;  the  best,  FrK  Oudendorp  8,'  J.  Boscha.  Leidae  (Leyden),  1786- 
1823.  3  vols.  4.  Oudendorp  died  just  after  completing  the  first  volume,  which  contains  the 
Metamorphoses  with  the  notes  of  various  critics,  and  a  preface  by  Ruhnken.  The  2d  and  3d 
volumes  were  edited  by  Bosch.a  ;  they  include  the  other  works  of  Apuleius  and  a  valuable  Ap- 
pendix Apulciana,  —  The  more  important  of  preceding  editions  ;  the  Bipont,  1768.  2  vols.  8. — 
J.  Floridus  (Fleury),  in  usum  Delphjni.  Par.  1688.  2  yols.  A.—  Varorum.  Goudae,  1659.  8. — The 

Princeps,  by  S'.ccynheym  $  Pannartz,  fprint.  J.,  Andrea  ed..)  Rom..  1469.  fol. The  treatise  De 

herbis,  by  J.  C.  G.  Ackermann.  Altorf.  1768.  8.  —  Cupid  &  Psyche,  by  J.  C.  Orcllius.  Turici, 
1833.  8. 

5.  Translations.— German.— A.  Rode,  (the  Golden  Ass).  Bert.  1790.  2  vols.  8.— J.  J.  v.  Lin- 
ker (the  fable  of  Psyche,  in  verse).  Jen.  1805..  4. French.— Abbe  Compain  de  St.  Martin,  the 

Ass  (retouchee  par  Bastimj.  Par.  L787.  8.  — ./.  F.  C.  Blanvillain  (Psyche).  Par.  1797.  with  the 
original  and  notes. English.  — C.  Monde.  Lond.  1724.  8.  —  Taylor.  Lond.  1795.  8. anon- 
ymous, Cupid  and  Psyche,  in  verse.  Lond.  1799.  8. 

§  472.  Titus  Petronius  Arbiter,  a  native  of  Massilia,  might  be  classed  with 
the  entertaining  writers  (cf.  $439)  perhaps  more  properly  than  with  the  pht-. 
losophers.     He  received  the  surname  of  Arbiter,  as  director  of  public  amuse*. 


PHILOSOPHERS.       PETRONIUS    ARBITER.       CAPELLA.         353 

ments.  His  Satyricon  is  a  representation  of  the  prevailing  licentiousness  of 
his  age  ;  often  offensive  in  its  pictures,  but  not  destitute  of  wit  and  anima- 
tion. It  is  interspersed  with  metrical  passages,  of  which  the  most  remarka- 
ble is  a  poem  on  the  civil  war. 

1.  The  author  of  the  Satyricon  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  Petronius, 
who  is  described  so  graphically  by  Tacitus  (Jinn.  xvi.  18).  Tacitus  gives  him 
the  prsenomen  of  Caius,  while  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist,  xxxvii.  7)  calls  the  same  per- 
son Titus.  Although  born,  according  to  some,  at  Marseilles,  he  was  educated 
at  Rome.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  consul  and  held  the  office  of  governor  of 
Bithynia.  He/  was  a  favorite  of  Nero,  who,  according  to  Tacitus,  cherished 
him  as  a  chief  and  leader  among  his  chosen  companions  (inter  paucos  familia- 
rum  assumptus,  elegantice  arbiter).  This  exposed  him  to  the  envy 
of  Tigellinus,  who  accused  him  of  treachery,  and  thus  Petronius  was  con- 
strained to  destroy  Itis  own  life,  which  he  did  by  a  gradual  letting  of  blood, 
A.  D.  66.  —  Some  writers  have  thought  the  author  of  the  Satyricon  to  be  a 
different  person,  who  is  by  some  placed  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  but  by  oth- 
ers in  the  time  of  the  Antonines. 

Gyraldus,  De  Petr.  Vita.— Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  416-427.  The  account  of  Scholl  is  given  in 
Ant/Ion's  Lempriere.  —  Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  577. 

2.  The  Satyricon  (or  Satyricdn  liber)  belongs  to  the  class  of  writings  called 
Menippean  or  Varronian  Satire  (cf.  §  345).  The  work  purports  to  be  an  ac- 
count of  the  love-adventures  of  a  certain  Encolpius,a,  young  freedman  whose 
story  enables  the  author  to  portray  the  character  of  the  times.  We  have  only 
some  fragments  which  formed  episodes  of  the  work,  although  itis  said  to  have 
existed  entire  in  the  12th  century.  The  poem  on  the  Civil  War  consists  of 
295  verses,  describing  the  fall  of  the  Roman  republic.  The  other  most  noted 
parts  are  the  Matron  of  Ephcsus,  and  the  Banquet  of  Trimalcion. 

The  latter  was  found  in  1662  at  Trau  in  Dalmatia,  in  a  private  library,  and  was  first  pub- 
lished at  Padua  in  1G64.  The  manuscript,  after  being  sent  to  Rome,  was  conveyed  to  the  Royal  . 
Libnry  at  Paris.  The  genuineness  of  the  piece  was  at  first  denied  by  some  critics,  but  is 
now  universally  admitted.  —  Cf.  Bahr,  p.  579.  —  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  yol.  n.  157. 

3.  Editions. —  Best;  P.  Burmann.  Utr.  1709.  4.  (ed.  by  his  son  Casp.  B.)  Leyd.  1743.  4. 
It  contains  the  dissertations  of  fVagcvseil  «$•  De  Valsis,  of  P.  Petit  (under  the  assumed  name 
of  StatileiusJ,  &.  Schcffcr,  respecting  the  authenticity  of  the  fragment  discovered  at  Trau  Cfrag- 
mentum  Tragurice  invent.),  besides  the  notes  and  comments  of  several  editors.  —  K.  G.  Anton, 
Lpz.  1781.  8.  considered  best  by  Dibdin.—  That  of  Renouard,  Par.  1797.  2  vols.  12.  is  said  to  be 
accurately    printed.  —  Earlier  ;    Gonsalis  de  Solas.     Francof.   1629.  4.  —  Goldast'.     Helenop. 

(Francof.")  1610.  8.— the  Princeps,  1476,  after  Pliny's  Panegyric,  as  cited  <S  405.  3. The  poem 

on  the  Civil  War  ( De  Mutatione  Rcpubliue),  given  in  the  2d  vol.  of  the  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  of  Le- 

inaire  (cited  §348.2). Fr.  JVudot,  a  French  officer,  published  a  volume  (Par.   1693.   12.   it. 

1694.  8.)  which  purported  to  be  a  complete  and  perfect  copy  of  Petronius,  said  to  have  been 
found  at  Belgrade  in  1688;  the  fraud  was,  however,  soon  detected.  Cf.  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat. 
n.  160. — In  1800,  a  Spaniard,  by  the  name  of  Marchena,  published  a  pretended  fragment  said 
to  have  been  found  in  the  library  at  St.  Gall.     Cf.  ScMlPs  Repertoire  de  Litt.  Anc.  i.  239. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  A.  Groninger  (including  the  interpolations  of  JVodotJ.  Lpz. 

1804.  8. French.  —  Cit.  D.  (followed  by  "  considerations  sur  la  Matrone  d'Ephese  et  un 

conte  Chinois  sur  le  merne  sujet").  Par.  18U3.  2  vols.  8.  —Lavaur,  (Banquet  of  Trimalcion.) 
Par.  1726.  2  vols.  12. 

§  473.  Marcianus  Capella,  of  Madaura  or  Carthage,  lived  in  the  5th  centu- 
ry, and  was  a  grammarian  rather  than  a  philosopher  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word.  In  advanced  age,  probably  in  the  reign  of  Leo  the  Thracian,  he  wrote 
the  work  entitled  Satyra  or  Satyricon,  consisting  of  nine  books,  of  miscella- 
neous contents.  The  first  two  books  contain  an  amusing  allegory,  in  mingled 
prose  and  verse,  describing  the  marriage  of  Mercury  with  Philology.  The  re- 
maining seven  contain  a  view  of  the  principles  and  the  value  of  Grammar, 
Logic,  Rhetoric,  Geometry,  Arithmetic,  Astronomy,  and  Music.  The  lan- 
guage is  unpolished  and  inaccurate  ;  yet  this  author  is  not  to  be  altogether 
condemned  in  regard  to  the  ornaments  of  taste  and  wit. 

1.  He  was  probably  educated  at  Carthage,  thence  styling  himself  the  "fos- 
ter-child of  the  city  of  Elissa."  He  is  said  to  have  composed  his  work  at 
Rome.  He  held  the  rank  of  proconsul  (vir  proconsularis)  ;  and  by  some  he 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Christian. 

Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  98.— Bahr,  p.  728.—  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  in.  215.  —Life  of  Capella  in 
Barth,  Adversaria,  L.  cxx.  c.  13. 

2.  The  title  of  Satyra.  may  have  been  given  to  his  work  on  account  of  the 
variety  of  its  subject  matter,  rather  than  because  the  two  first  books  which 
form  the  introduction  to  it,  are  in  the  form  of  the  Menippean  Satire  (cf.  §345). 

30* 


3*54  HISTORY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

The  seven  sciences  or  liberal  arts  treated  in  the  other  books:  constituted 
the  whole  course  of  education  for  a  considerable  period  in  the  middle  ages. 
This  work  was  used  in  the  schools  as  a  classic,  was  often  transcribed,  and 
made  a  subject  of  expositions  and  commentaries.  It  i<?  supposed  to  have  ex- 
erted no  small  influence  on  the  state  of  science  and  learning.  Copernicus  is 
said  to  have  gathered  from  it  some  hints  of  his  system  of  astronomy. 

3.  Editions.  —  The  best ;  II.  Orotius  fin  the  15th  year  of  his  age).  Levden,  15C9.  8.—  U.  F, 
Kopp.  Franc,  ad  M.  1837.  4.  pp.  835.  with  a  commentary  and  notes  of  various  eds. The  ear- 
liest, by  Fr.  Pit.  Bodianus.  Vicent.  1491).  fol. The  first  two  books  (the  Allegory,,  de  nuptiis 

PhMolcgke  et  MercurU)  ,•  L.  Walthavd.  Bern.  1763.8 I..J1.  Gotz.  ,  Norimb.  1794..  8.  —  The  ninth 

book  Cile-  Musica)  is  given  also  by  Meibomian,  cited  §  208£.  1 Manuscript  copies  of  some  of 

the  commentaries  above  alluded  to  are  preserved  ;  one  of  the  11th  century,  by  Duncant  an 
Irish  bishop,  is  in  the  British  Museum.     Cf.  Warton,  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  u.  p.  384. 

§  474.  Aricius  Manlius  Torqttatus  Scverinus  Boethius,  a  native  of  Rome 
or  Milan,  flourished  at  the  close  of  the  5th  century.  His  education  was  fin- 
ished at  Athens,  and  he  became  highly  celebrated  for  his  learning  and  integ- 
rity. He  was  a  poet,  a  philosopher,  and  a  theologian.  Of  his  numerous  the- 
ological and  philosophical  works,  that  wThich  has  gained  him  the  greatest  ce- 
lebrity, is  the  one  entitled  De  consolatione  philosophies,  in  5  books,  partly  in 
prose  and  partly  in  verse  ;  composed  while  he  was  in  prison.  His  style  is 
not  perfectly  pure,  but  far  better  than  that  of  his  contemporaries. 

1.  Boethius  was  born  A.  D.  470,  and  lived  until  A.  D.  526,  considerably 
beyond  the  time  which  we  have  included  in  our  glance  at  Roman  Literature.. 
He  was  raised  to  the  highest  honors  and  offices  of  the  empire,  by  Theodoric, 
king  of  the  Ostrogoths  ;  but  finally  through  the  artifices  of  enemies  who  en- 
vied his  reputation  find  hated  his  virtues,  he  lost  the  favor  of  this  monarch, 
and  was  imprisoned  in  the  tower  of  Pavia,  and  at  length  beheaded  by  the 
king's  order. 

E.  Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xxxix.  on  the  character,  studies,  and  honor* 
of  Boethius.—  Cf.  Lc  Clerc,  Bibliot.  Choisie,  tome  xvi.  p.  168-275.— Clarke,  as  cited  §  293,  vol:. 
ii.  p.  284. 

2.  The  work  on  the  Consolation  of  Philosophy  is  a  dialogue  between  the 
author  and  Philosophy,  who  appears  to  him  in  prison.  In  the  1st  book,  Boe- 
thius utters  his  lamentations,  comparing  his  former  with  his  present  state  ;  in 
the  2d,  Philosophy  portrays  the  folly  of  complaining  of  Fortune,  who  has  no 
valuable  or  durable  blessings  to  bestow  ;  in  the  3d,  she  shows  in  what  true 
honor  and  happiness  consist;  in  the  4th,  it  is  proved  that  virtue  alone  can 
make  happy  ;  the  5th  treats  of  the  subject  of  an  overruling  Providence,  and 
the  agreement  of  God's  omniscience  with  man's  free-agency. — The  work  was 
held  in  great  estimation  in  the  middle  ages.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
14th  century,  there  were  but  four  classics  in  the  royal  library  at  Paris;  viz. 
one  copy  of  Cicero,  Ovid,  Lucan,  and  Boethius.  It  was  early  translated  into 
French,  German,  and  English;  the  earliest  was  the  Saxon  translation  by 
king  Alfred,  who  died  A.  D.  900.  A  Greek  translation  exists,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  made  by  Maximus  Planudes,  a  monk  of  Constantinople,  in  the 
14th  century. 

Scltiill,  Litt.  Rom.  nt.  223.  —  Warton,  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  i.  cxiii.  exxvi.    n.  342.   ed.  Lond. 

1824.  —  Cf.  CetOe's  Alfred. Heyne,  Censura  Boeih.  de  Consol.  Philosophise.  Gott.  1805.  8. 

also  in  his  Opusc.  Acad.  (Cth  vol.  p.  143.)  Gott.  1812.  8. 

3.  The  other  works  of  Boethius,  which  belonged  strictly  to  the  class  of  phi- 
losophical, were  principally  commentaries  or  translations  ;  illustrating  the 
works  of  Aristotle,  Cicero,  and  Porphyry.  He  composed,  however,  several 
original  works  pertaining  to  the  subject  of  logic  and  rhetoric.  The  piece  en- 
titled De  Discipline  Scholarvm,  commonly  ascribed  to  him,  is  the  production 
of  Thomas  of  Brabant,  a  monk  of  the  13th  century.  —  Boethius  left  some 
mathematical  works,  chiefly  translations  or  imitations  of  Greek  originals  ;  as, 
Jlrithmet/.ca,  in  2  books  ;  De  Musica,  in  5  books;  and  De  Gcomctria,  in  2 
books,  the  first  o'*  which  is  a  mere  translation  of  Euclid;  the  second  treats 
of  the  utility  and  applications  of  the  science. 

Cf.  Bahr,  (reach.  Rom.  Lit.  p  664,  675. Boethius  was  not  without  celebrity  as  a  Christian 

author,  having  composed  several  controversial  worksj  ainonir  which  were  treatises  on  the 
Triii'.ty  and  the  t wo -f.ild  nature  of  Christ.  It  lias  been  sa:d,  tint  lie  led  the  way  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Aristottlean  method  of  reasoning  in  controversial  theology, —  Clarke,  as  just  cited 
above. 

4.  Editions—  whole  v.  irks.  Bet  ;  (ex  n  cons.  Glareavi).  Pas'l,  1570.  fol.  —  De  Cons.  Phi- 
losophic; of  the  very  numerous  editions  we  mention  only  the  following;  Gruningcr.  Argent. 


MATHEMATICS.  355 

1501.  fol.  "  full  of  cuts,  and  therefore  mav  be  looked  upon  as  a  great  curiosity."— P.  Bertius. 
Leyri.  ItiTI ;  Lpz.  1753.  8.  considered  very  good.-  Th.  B.  Heifrecht.  Hof.  1797.'  8.—  B.  Varchi. 

fBodoni,  pr.)  Parma,  1798.  2  vols.  4.  Lat.  &  Ital.  — In  P'alpifs  Delphin  Classics Aug.  Mai 

discovered  in  a  Vatican  Ms.  a  sort  of  commentary  on  some  of  the  metrical  passages  of  the 
Consol.  Phil,  .—also  two  previously  unknown  treat  ses  of  Boethius  ;  they  are  given  in  the  work 
entitled  Classic.  Auctor.  a  Vatic,  codicibus  edit.  (vol.  3d).  Rom.  1831.  8. 

5.  Translations.— Of  the  Consol.  of  Philosophy.—  German.  —  Fr.  K.  Freytag.  Rig.  1794.  8.— 
A.  Kubargcr  or  Coburger  (printer),  Lat.  &  Germ.  Norimb.  1473.  fol.  with  a  commentary  as- 
cribed to  Thomas  Aquinas French.— John  of  Mean  (metrical).  Lyons,  1483.  Tliis  and  two 

others  are  mentioned  as  existing  before  A.  D.  1350  ;  one  by  De  Cis  or  Thri,  an  old  French  poet; 
the  other,  in  prose,  by  John  de  Langret.     Cf.  Warton,  Hist.  Eng.  Poetry,  u.  204,  293,  343,  417. 

English.  —  King  Alfred,  "  Anglo-Saxonice."    Printed  (ed.  Ck.  Rawlinson)  Oxf.  Ui98.  8.  — 

Geoff.  Chaucer.  Printed  by  Cotton,  at  Westminster,  without  date;  the  Latin  and  English  art' 
given  alternately  ;  a  period  or  part  of  a  period  in  Latin  being  followed  by  the  corresponding 
period  in  English,  in  smaller  type.  —  Johannes  Capellanus,  or  John  the  Chaplain  (Jolin  Walton), 
"  The  Boke  of  Comfort,  called  in  Laten,  Boecius  de  Cons.  Philos.,  translated  into  Englesse 
Tonge  ;  in  Verse,"  &c.  translated  in  1410.  printed  in  1525.  4.  —  Richard,  Lord  Viscount  Pres- 
ton. Load.  1G95.  Repr.  Lond.  1712.  8.  — <  Phil.  Ridpath,  (with  notes  and  illust.)  Lond.  1785.  8. 
—  Many  curious  editions  and  translations  are  named  by  Leyser,  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  cited  §  348.  1. 


VII — Mathematicians,  Geographers,  and  (Economists. 

§  475  u.  In  regard  to  mathematical  science  the  Romans  cannot  be  said  to 
have  had  any  peculiar  merit,  although  when  they  began  to  patronize  and  cul- 
tivate the  sciences  generally,  this  was  not  entirely  neglected.  The  practical 
applications  of  the  science,  especially  in  architecture  and  the  military  art, 
were  very  favorably  received  and  encouraged  by  them,  because  thereby  their 
love  of  splendor  and  their  desire  for  conquest  were  cherished  and  strength- 
ened. 

§  476.  It  was  not  until  B.  C.  262,  that  a  sun-dial  or  gnomon  was  introduced 
at  Rome,  being  brought  from  Catana ;  and  this  very  dial,  although  not 
adapted  to  the  latitude  of  Rome,  was  the  only  guide  they  had  in  determining 
the  time  of  day,  for  nearly  100  years  subsequently  (Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  vii.  60). 
About  the  year  B.  C.  164,  the  first  dial  for  the  meridian  of  Rome  was  con- 
structed. And  it  was  several  years  later  that  the  Romans  received  their  first 
instrument  for  measuring  the  hours  of  night,  which  was  the  clepsydra,  im- 
ported by  Scipio  Nasica,  B.  C.  159.  (Cf.  P.  V.  &  138.)  In  the  year  B.  C.  168, 
a  military  tribune,  C.  Sulpitius  Gallus,  announced  to  his  army  an  eclipse  of 
the  moon;  this  occurring  as  it  was  predicted,  Gallus  was  regarded  by  his  sol- 
diers as  a  man  inspired  by  the  gods  {Livy,  xliv.  37).  —  These  facts  are  men- 
tioned to  show  how  little  progress  had  been  made  in  sciences  and  arts  con- 
nected with  mathematics. 

§  477.  The  Romans  derived  all  their  knowledge  of  mathematics  from  the 
Greeks  ;  and  it  was  but  shortly  before  the  time  of  Augustus  that  the  exact 
sciences  seem  to  have  been  much  cultivated  among  them,  although  they  must 
have  known  something  of  the  discoveries  of  Archimedes  and  of  the  mathe- 
maticians at  Alexandria  (cf.  $204).  In  the  period  designated  as  the  fourth  in 
our  glance  (from  the  war  of  Marius  and  Sylla,  B.  C.  88,  to  the  death  of  Au- 
gustus, cf.  §301),  we  meet  with  the  first  name  specially  noticeable.  Publius 
Nigidius  Figulus,  who  joined  the  party  of  Pompey  against  Caesar,  and  was 
afterwards  exiled  by  the  latter,  is  mentioned  as  an  eminent  mathematician 
and  astr  loger,  and  a  man  of  great  learning. — Marcus  Manlius  is  known  to  us 
merely  by  his  poem  on  astronomy,  or  rather  astrology  (cf  §369).  — The  three 
geometers  commissioned  under  Julius  Csesar  to  survey  the  Roman  Empire 
(cf.  §  480)  must  have  had  some  reputation  in  practical  geometry.  —  But  the 
most  distinguished  name  is  that  of  Vitruvius,  whose  writings  we  shall  more 
particularly  notice  (090).  His  celebrity,  however,  was  the  fruit  of  his 
skill  and  success  in  architecture  rather  than  from  any  contributions  made  by 
him  to  mathematical  science. 

Nigidius  was  a  friend  of  Cicero  (cf.  Ep.  iv.  13),  and  is  said  to  have  composed  a  ereat  num- 
ber xif  works,  ;ill  of  which  are  lost.  (Cf.  Aul.  Gell.  Noct.  Att.  iv.  9;  xix.  14.)  The  following 
are  among  the  titles  preserved :   De  Sahara  barbarica  it  gracamca  ;  De  ventis  }  De  Dii*  ;  De  aw 


356  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

gurus.  Hois  said  to  have  predicted  future  events.  {Suet,  in  August.  24,  94. — Dion  Cass.  xlv.  I.) 
—Bakr,  Geseh.  llbm.  Lit.  p.  666. —  Burigny,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inter,  xxix.  where  all  that  is 
known  of  him  is  collected.  —  Fragments  of  his  writings  are  given  in  J.  Ratgersius,  Var.  Lecti- 
ones,  Ludg.  Bat.  1618.  4. 

§  478.  In  the  period  following  the  death  of  Augustus,  mathematical  science 
did  not  flourish  with  any  new  vigor.  The  principal  writer  that  is  placed  in 
this  department  is  Frontinus  (cf  §  491),  who  appears  to  have  been  interested 
in  mathematics  chiefly  as  applicable  to  architecture  and  military  science. 
Mention  is  also  made  of  Hyginus,  surnamed  Gromaticus,  and  of  Siculus  Fla- 
cus  ;  the  former  of  whom  left  a  book  on  castramctation,  and  the  latter  some 
treatises  pertaining  to  the  survey  of  lands. 

The  hook  Hyginus  is  given  in  Greevius,  Thesaur.  Antiq.  Rom.  (cited  P.  IV.  $  179),  vol.  x.  — 
The  treat,  of  FLaccus,  by  J.  C.  Schwartz,  Cob.  1711.  4.  —  The  works  of  both  by  Goenz,  cited 
j  489.  4. 

§  479.  In  looking  over  the  last  period,  which  is  included  in  our  view  of  Ro- 
man letters  we  find  but  scanty  gleanings  in  the  department  of  mathematical 
science.  The  works  of  Firmicus  Maternus  (cf.  §  493}  and  of.  Boethius 
($474.  3)  are  the  chief  productions ;  but  the  treatise  of  the  former  is  filled 
with  the  reveries  of  astrology,  and  those  of  the  latter  are,  as  has  been  noticed, 
principally  translations  from  Greek  authors.  Some  writers  on  military  affairs 
belong  to  this  period,  of  whom  the  most  important  is  Vegetius  (cf.  $  492). 
There  is  a  treatise,  entitled  De  vocabutis  rei  militaris,  composed  by  one  Mo- 
destus  ;  and  another,  from  an  unknown  author,  entitled  De  rebus  bellicis, 
which  contains  also  something  on  financial  matters,  and  other  subjects. 

The  piece  of  Modestus  is  said  to  have  been  composed  by  order  of  the  emperor  Tacitus  A.  D. 
275  ;  Harles  says  of  it,  "  stilus  estputidms3' ;  it  is  given  in  the  collection  Vet.  de  re  mil.  Script. 
cited  Q  489.  1. — The  work  de  rebus  bell,  is  found  in  Sigism.  Gelenius,  Notitia  utriusque  imperii. 
Bas.  1552.  fol. 

§  480.  In  Geography ,  the  knowledge  of  the  Romans  was  extended  by  their 
conquests;  yet  they  accomplished  in  this  science  little  compared  with  what 
we  might  have  expected.  We  find  no  Latin  writer  on  geography  until  the 
time  of  the  Emperors.  Julius  Caesar  conceived  the  idea  of  a  complete  survey 
of  the  whole  empire.  For  this  purpose  three  geometers  were  employed  ; 
Theodotus,  entrusted  with  the  survey  of  the  northern  provinces;  Zenodox- 
us,  with  the  survey  of  the  eastern  ;  and  Polycletus,  of  the  southern.  It  is 
stated,  that  this  survey  was  finished  B.  C.  19 ;  and  that  the  results  were  laid 
down  upon  a  sort  of  map  or  chart,  by  the  care  of  M.  Vipsanius  Agripya, 
who  was  hindered  by  death  from  publishing  a  great  work  from  the  materials 
collected. 

The  survey  of  the  eastern  part  is  said  to  have  occupied  over  14  years  ;  that  of  the  northern, 
above  20  years  ;  and  that  of  the  southern,  above  25  years.  Sclioll  (Litt.  Rom.  u.  221)  gives  the 
numbers  still  higher.  —  The  materials  collected  by  Agrippa  were  lodged  in  the  public  archives 
and  there  consulted  by  Pliny  i,cf.  Nat.  Hist.  iii.  2,  3,  29,  126  ;  iv.  24,  26).  The  chart  or  table  is 
said  to  have  been  preserved,  and  to  have  received  from  time  to  time  marks  and  notes  to  desig- 
nate the  various  changes  in  the  provinces.  The  numerous  changes  at  length  required  the  con- 
struction of  another  chart  with  corrected  measurements,  which  was  effected  about  A.  D.  230, 
under  Alexander  Severus.  Of  this  chart  the  celebrated  document  called  Tabula  Pcutingeriana 
($497.  1)  is  supposed  by  some  modern  critics  to  be  an  imperfect  copy. 

§  481.  How  much  the  want  of  some  comprehensive  work  on  geography 
was  felt  at  Rome  may  be  conjectured  from  the  fact  that  Cicero,  as  appears  by 
a  letter  to  Atticus,  once  contemplated  such  a  work  himself.  He  had  a  deep 
sense  of  the  magnitude  and  difficulty  of  the  task,  and  on  that  account  shrunk 
from  it.  No  Latin  writer  seems  to  have  attempted  a  work  of  such  a  charac- 
ter;  but  we  have  something  like  it  in  the  geography  of  Strabo  in  Greek  (cf. 
§  216).  The  first  writer  in  Latin  on  this  subject  was  Pomponius  Mela  (cf. 
§  494)  in  the  reign  of  Claudius;  unless  we  except  Juba  the  younger,  who 
composed  a  geographical  account  of  Libya  and  Mauretania,  which  is  quoted 
by  Pliny  in  his  Natural  History.  Pliny  may  be  mentioned  as  the  next  author 
in  this  department,  as  four  booksof  the  work  just  named  (cf.  $  470.  2)  treat 
of  geographical  subjects.  Tacitus,  who  falls  within  the  same  period,  should 
also  be  mentioned  here,  as  his  treatise  on  the  Germans  (cf.  §534)  may  be 
placed  under  the  head  of  geography  perhaps  as  properly  as  under  that  of 
history. 

The  Juba  here  noticed,  who  was  king  of  Mauretania,  wrote  also  a  history  of  Rome,  in  Greek. 

See  Sevin,  Recherches  sur  la  vie  et  tea  ouvrages  de  Juba  le  leune,  in  the  Mem.  Acad,  biscr. 
vol.  iv.  p.  457.  —  Cf.  O.  J.  Fossius,  de  histor.  Groec.  (ii.  4)  cited  §231. 


GEOGRAPHY.       AGRICULTURE.  357 

§  4S2.  We  find  no  other  geographical  works  to  notice  until  after  the  time 
of  the  Antonines.  In  our  fifth  and  last  period  (cf.  $  301)  occurs  the  name  of 
Julianus  Titianus,  who  at  the  commencement  of  the  3d  century  composed  a 
description  of  the  Roman  provinces,  which  is  lost.  Solinus  probably  belongs 
to  the  same  century  a  considerable  part  of  whose  Poiyhistor  (cf.  $  495)  con- 
sists of  geographical  notices.  In  the  3d  or  4th  century,  it  is  supposed  the 
extant  works  called  Roman  Itineraries  ( Romanorum  Itineraria)  were  con- 
structed (cf.  $497) ;  those  designated  as  Itineraries  of  Antonine  being  ascribed 
by  some  critics  to  a  writer  named  ^Ethicus  Ister,  the  author  of  a  work  enti- 
tled Cosmographia.  Sextus  Rufus  and  Vibius  Sequester  ($  496),  of  the  4th 
century,  should  also  be  noticed,  having  left  some  geographical  or  chorograph- 
ical  writings  ;  which  are  the  latest  that  fall  within  the  period  included  in  our 
present  sketch  of  Roman  Literature,  except  the  poetical  performances  of 
Avienus  (§381.  4)  and  Rutilius  ($  389).  —  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  there 
existed  in  the  Latin  language  no  general  system  of  geography  except  that  of 
Mela,  unless  the  treatise  of  Pliny  may  be  considered  as  entitled  to  the  same 
rank.  The  earliest  modern  system  appears  to  have  been  that  of  Dicuil,  an 
Irish  monk  of  the  9th  century. 

1.  Titianus  is  sometimes  named  among  the  historians  ;  see  G.  J.  Vossius,  de  hist.  Lat.  (ii.  1) 
cited  $527. 1.  Sextus  Rufus,  or  Fcstus  Rufus  as  he  is  sometimes  called,  is  also  placed  among 
the  historians  ;  we  have  two  works  by  him  ;  one  styled  Brcviarium  rerum  gestarum  pop.  Ro- 
inani,  or  otherwise  Brcviarium  de  victoriis  et  provinciis  pop.  Romaui,  composed,  it  is  said,  by  or- 
der of  the  emperor  Valentinian  ;  the  other,  De  regionibus  urbis  Romm,  a  topographical  de- 
scription of  Rome.  —  The  former  of  these  works  is  given  in  some  editions  of  Eutropius ;  e.  g. 
in  Verheyk's  cited  §  54U.  3.  Both  separately,  by  C.  Mvnnich,  Hannav.  1815.  8.  with  a  map  of 
Rome,  and  forming  the  15th  vol.  of  the  Corpus.  Histor.  Lat.  by  Ruhkopf  and  Scebode  (cf.  $527, 
2).  The  description  of  Rome  is  commonly  joined  with  a  piece  under  the  same  title  by  Publim 
Victor,  De  regionibus  Romm,  and  another,  entitled  Libellus  provinciarum  Romanarum,by  som« 
writer  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  ;  given  in  Grmvius,  Thesaur.  Antiq.  Rom. 

2.  The  work  of  Dicuil,  entitled  De  Mensura  orbis  terra,  was  published  by  A.  Letronne,  Par, 
1814.  8.  considered  better  than  the  ed.  of  Walkenar,  Par.  1807 In  the  same  century  with  Di- 
cuil (the  9th)  probably  lived  the  writer  called  Geographies  Ravenna;,  author  of  a  work  of  little 
value,  with  the  title  De  Geographia  seu  Chorographia  ,•  it  is  appended  to  the  ed.  of  Mela  by 
Gronov,  cited  $494.  2. 

§  483.  Under  the  name  of  (Economists  are  included  a  class  of  writers,  who 
treated  particularly  of  the  subject  of  Husbandry  or  Agriculture.  Agriculture 
was  from  the  beginning  an  honorable  employment  among  the  Romans.  Pa- 
tricians and  the  most  distinguished  citizens  engaged  in  it.  Cincinnatus  was 
laboring  in  his  fields  when  informed  of  his  election  to  the  dictatorship.  Reg- 
ulus  asked  leave  to  retire  from  the  senate  to  cultivate  a  little  farm  suffering 
from  neglect.  The  names  of  some  illustrious  families  are  said  to  have  origin- 
ated from  the  agricultural  employments  of  their  founders  ;    e.  g.  the   Fahii, 

Lentuli,  Asinii,  &c. This  attention  to  the   actual  cultivation  of  the  lands 

by  the  ablest  and  best  informed  men  occasioned  an  advancement  in  the  art  of 
agriculture  such  as  the  Greeks  never  attained.  It  is  indeed  stated  that  there 
were  numerous  works  written  in  Greek  on  the  subject ;  Varro  mentions 
about  fifty  authors  ;  although  of  the  Greek  works  composed  before  his  time, 
we  have  now  only  the  {Economics  of  Xenophon  (cf.  §  186.  2),  and  the  Works 
and  Days  of  Hesiod  ($  51J  ;  the  pieces  in  the  collection  of  Greek  Geoponics 
(cf.  $268)  were  of  later  origin.  But  whatever  might  have  been  written  by 
the  Greeks,  the  Romans  were  not  in  this  branch  mere  imitators  or  borrowers. 
The  maxims  and  precepts  which  are  given  by  the  Roman  economical  writers 
were  drawn  from  the  experiments  and  observations  of  the  Romans  them- 
selves. The  principles  are  not  extensively  applicable  in  modern  agriculture; 
yet  the  writings  abound  in  useful  hints  and  remarks,  and  have  always  been 
regarded  as  curious  and  interesting  compositions. 

§  484.  The  earliest  Roman  writer  on  husbandry,  so  far  as  we  know,  was 
Cato  the  Censor  ($498j,  whose  history  belongs  to  the  first  part  of  the  second 
period  in  the  division  adopted  for  our  present  glance  ($301).  The  next  au- 
thor in  this  department  was  Varro  ($  499) ;  he  was  born  many  years  before 
the  close  of  our  second  period,  but  his  treatise  on  agriculture  was  not  written 
until  after  the  middle  of  the  following  period,  when  he  was  above  eighty 
years  old. 

§  485.  Columella,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Seneca,  in  our  third  period, 
seems  to  have  been  less  regarded  among  the  ancients  than  his  two  predeces- 


358  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

sors ;  but  he  has  so  adorned  his  subject  by  the  purity  and  elegance  of  his 
style,  that  his  work  (§500a)  is  still  agreeable  to  the  man  of  letters.  One  of 
the  books  is  a  hexameter  poem  on  gardening,  a  topic  which  was  purposely 
omitted  by  Virgil  ($362),  whose  Gcorglcs  may  properly  be  adverted  to  as  il- 
lustrating the  agriculture  of  the  Romans.  —  Martialis  Gargilius  was  a  writer 
on  agriculture  and  gardening,  who  probably  belonged  to  the  same  period  ; 
only  slight  fragments  of  his  works  remain  (cf.  $  500b.  2.  &  $  548).  —  The  last 
author  we  have  to  name  is  Palladius,  whose  treatise,  although  consisting  of 
14  books,  is  chiefly  drawn  from  previous  writers.  The  time  when  he  lived  is 
differently  stated  by  the  critics. 

§  486.  The  modern  writers  on  Roman  Literature  have  usually  placed  in  the 
class  of  oeconomists  an  author  called  Callus  Apicius  of  whom  little  is  known 
($501),  but  to  whom  is  ascribed  a  curious  work  on  the  culinary  art,  or  what 
may  perhaps  be  termed  the  oeconomy  of  the  kitchen.  It  is  perhaps  worthy 
of  remark  here,  that  directions  as  to  domestic  affairs  are  not  unfrequently  in- 
troduced by  the  writers  on  agriculture.  Cato  gives  recipes  for  making  cakes 
and  puddings ;  and  indeed  a  considerable  part  of  his  work  is  chiefly  appropri- 
ate to  the  housewife. 

§  487.  There  is  another  class  of  writings,  which  may  be  spoken  of  in  this 
place  perhaps  as  properly  as  elsewhere  ;  although  from  their  peculiar  charac- 
ter, it  may  perhaps  be  a  question,  whether  they  should  be  noticed  under  the 
head  of  agriculture,  of  jurisprudence,  or  of  mathematics  ;  we  refer  to  the 
works  of  the  Roman  Agrimensorcs  or  measurers  of  land.  These  writings  are 
sometimes  termed  Gromatic  (Gromatici),  as  Gromatice  was  a  word  employed 
to  designate  the  art  of  surveying. 

The  Romans  had  peculiar  laws  and  customs  in  respect  to  the  division  of 
their  lands,  and  the  determining  and  marking  of  boundaries.  Ample  busi- 
ness was  furnished  for  professional  surveyors,  in  dividing  and  measuring  dis- 
tricts assigned  by  the  state  for  colonies  ;  in  measuring  lands  belonging  to  the 
public  domain;  and  in  settling  the  limits  of  private  estates  (cf.  P.  III.  $88). 
It  is  obvious,  that  these  men  would  need  an  acquaintance  with  practical  ge- 
ometry, with  former  and  existing  agrarian  laws,  and  with  all  the  ancient  cus- 
toms in  the  distribution  and  use  of  lands.  In  the  later  periods  of  the  empire, 
if  not  before,  they  held  a  high  rank  in  the  state,  and  received  a  handsome 
public  salary  ;  and  schools  existed  expressly  for  their  education. 

§  488.  It  would  seem  that  numerous  treatises  were  written  on  the  different 
branches  of  the  art  of  the  agrimensores.  A  body  of  curious  but  obscure  and 
difficult  fragments  still  exists  ;  some  of  them  are  ascribed  to  Siculus  Flaccus 
and  Hyginus  (or  Hygenus)  Gromaticus  already  named  ($478)  ;  but  there  is 
much  uncertainty  respecting  their  authors.  The  collection  now  extant  (089. 
4)  is  considered  by  JYiebuhr  to  be  an  abstract  from  an  older  collection,  with 
additions,  made  by  an  ignorant  compiler  of  the  7th  century. 

G.  B.  JYiebuhr,  the  distinguished  author  of  the  History  of  Rome,  was  led  by  his  speculations 
respecting  the  agrarian  institutions  among  the  Romans,  to  study  these  remains.  "  We  lose 
ourselves,"  says  he,  "  in  the  contemplation  of  the  destinies  of  Rome  and  the  changes  that 
Italy  has  undergone,  in  reading  these  singular  books.  All  the  epochs  of  Roman  history  stand 
here  side  by  side  ;  the  ancient  aruspicy  and  religion  and  Christianity  ;  ordinances  of  the  plebs, 
and  sections  of  the  Theodosian  code,  and  the  Pandects  ;  the  Latin  of  the  earliest  ages  and  the 
embryo  Italian  of  the  seventh  century."  — JYiebuhr,  Diss,  on  the  Agrimensores,  in  Appendix  to. 
his  History  of  Rome,  vol.  n.  p.  474.  Eng.  Transl.  republished  Phil.  1835. 

§  489.  Our  proposed  method  requires  here  a  specification  of  works  pertain- 
ing to  the  classes  of  authors  just  reviewed. 

1.  Mathematical  writers.  —  JMontucla,  Hist,  de  Math.  P.  iii.  L.  l.—Biihr,  Rom.  Lit.  p.  665ss.. 
Aldus,  Astronomicorum  Latin.  Opera.  Ven.  1499.  fol.  Rhegii  Lingobardiffi.  1503.  fol.  con- 
taining Greek  and  Latin  astrologers. On  military  affairs  ;    P.  Scrivrr,  Script.  Rei  Milit. 

Lugd.  Bat.  1644.  12.—  Veteres  de  Re  mil.  Scriptores,  with  comments  of  J.  Sttveekiun  &.c.   Ve- 

salis  (Wesel),  1670.  8. T.  Waideke,  Index  militaris  Scriptor.  Vet.  Gneco-Latinorum.    Soroae, 

1782.   4.  m 

2.  Geographers.  —  E.  L.  W.  Dachcrbdcn,  Von  den  Verdiensten  der  Romer  urn  Ausbreitung 
und  Berichtigung  der  Erdkundeoder  Geographie.  Eilang.  1780.— .R.  Mauncrt,  as  cited  $7.  7(b). 
—  Bahr,  Rb'in.  Lit.  p.  075. Aldus,  Geographi  Latini.  Ven.  1518.  8. 

3.  (Economists.  —  Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  it.  R.  Bradley,  Survey  of  ancient  Husbandry  and 
Gardening;  from  Cato,  Varro  &c.  Lond.  1725.  8.  —  A.  Dickson,  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients. 
Edinb.  1788.  2  vols.  8.—Rollin,  Arts  and  Sciences  of  Ancients,  in  Anc.  Htit.  ed    N.  York,  1835. 

vol.  ti.  p.  357. Collections.  —  Prtnccps,  by  O.  Merula  (ed.  JV.  Jcnsou  pr.)    Ven.  1470.  fol.  — 

Several  others  before  that  of  J.  M.  Gessner,  Lpz.  1735.  4.—  Gessncr's,  republished  (Ernesti  ed.) 
Lpz.  1773.  2  vols.  4 I.  C.  Schneider,  Script,  rei  rust.  vet.  Lat.  &.C.   Lpz.  1794-96.  4  vols.  8. 


MATHEMATICIANS.       VITRUVIUS.      FRONTINUS.  359 

considered  the  best. Didot  (print.),  Traduct.  d'anciens  ouvrages  Lat.  relatifs  a  ['agriculture 

&c.  Par.  1775.  6  vols.  8. 
4.  Gromatic  writers,  or  Agrimensores. —  Niebuhr,  as  cited  §488. — Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  227. 

—  BaJir,  Rom.  Lit.  p.  672. Collections.  —  Princeps,  by  A.  Turnebus,   De  agror.  condit.  et 

constit.  limit.  Par.  1554.  4.  —  N.  Rigaltius,  Auctores  finium  regund.  1613.  4. —  Gul.  Goensius 
for  GoesiusJ,  Rei  agrarian  auctores  &c.  Amst.  1674.  4.  The  contents  of  this  are  given  by  Fab- 
ricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  in.  511,  who  remarks  that  these  writings  were  first  found  in  Ms.  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Bobbio,  A.  D.  1493. 

§  490.  Marcus  Vitruvius  Pollio,  of  Verona,  flourished  about  the  time  of  the 
Christian  era.  He  performed  military  service  under  Caesar.  By  Augustus  he 
was  appointed  to  the  oversight  of  military  engines  and  public  edifices.  The 
city  of  Rome  is  said  to  have  been  greatly  adorned  by  the  buildings  projected 
by  him.  His  work  on  Architecture,  in  10  books,  has  been  preserved  entire, 
with  the  exception  of  the  plans,  which  originally  belonged  to  it.  Only  the  first 
7  books  treat  of  Architecture,  properly  speaking  ;  the  8th  is  on  Aqueducts;  the 
9th  on  Dials  ;  and  the  10th  on  Mechanics.  His  style  has  often  been  censured 
as  wanting  in  elegance  ;  this  charge  is  made  without  adverting  sufficiently  to 
the  peculiar  nature  of  the  subjects  treated  by  him.  The  text  also  needs  vari- 
ous corrections. 

1.  Newton,  in  his  translation,  cited  below,  places  Vitruvius  in  the  reign  of  Titus.  Newton's 
arguments  are  answered  by  Hirt,  at  the  close  of  his  Dissertation  on  the  Pantheon.  —  See  Wolf 
St.  Buttinann,  Museum  der  Alterthumswissenchaft,  vol.  i.  Bed.  1607.  8. — Also  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom. 
li.  189. — The  Prolegomena  in  the  ed.  of  Schneider  cited  below. 

2.  The  work  of  Vitruvius,  entitled  De  Architectura,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  written  on  that  subject  in  the  Latin  language  ;  and  is  the  only  one  on  the 
subject  which  is  preserved  to  us  from  ancient  times.  Its  contents  are  drawn 
in  part  from  Greek  authors  now  lost.  It  is  therefore  a  work  of  the  highest 
importance  in  the  history  of  the  art.  The  loss  of  the  designs,  which  originally 
accompanied  it,  is  much  to  be  regretted.  The  1st  book  treats  of  the  art  in 
general;  the  2d,  of  the  materials  employed  in  building;  the  3d,  of  temples  ; 
the  4th,  of  the  several  orders  of  architecture  ;  the  5th,  of  public  edifices  ;  the 
6th,  of  villas  and  country  residences  ;  the  7th,  of  decorations.  —  Cf.  Btlhr, 
p.  667. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best.— J.  G.  Schneider.   Lpz.  1807,  8.  4  vols.  8.— Aug.  Rode.  Berl.  1800.  2  vols* 

4.  to  which  belongs  a  volume  of  plates  (Kupfer  km  Vitruvs  X  Backer  &c.)  publ.  Berl.  1801.  fol. 

5.  Stratico.  Utini.  1825-29.  4  vols.  fol.  with  the  exercitations  of  Polenus  (Exercit.  Vitruvianm 
&c.  Patav.  1739.  4),  and  notes  of  various  others.  —  More  celebrated  among  the  earlier;  ./.  d« 
Laet.  (Elzevir,  pr.)  Amst. 1649.  fol.  with  plates  and  the  Lexicon  Vitruvianum  of  B.  Baldi. — The 
Princeps,  by  J.  Sulpicius,  along  with  Frontinus,  without  name  of  place  or  date  (probably  Rome, 
before  1490)  fol.  —  There  is  an  abridgment  of  Vitruvius  extant,  Epitome  Vitruvii,  found  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Gall  by  Poggio  ;  published  by  Guliel.  Postellus.  Par.  1540.  4.  —  Cf.  Fabricius, 
Bibl.  Lat.  i.  483,  493. 

4.  Translations.  —  German. — t*f.  Rode.  Lpz.1796.  2  vols.  4. French.— C.  Perrault,  2d  ed. 

with  orig.  Par.  1684.  fol.  Perrault  also  published  an  abridgment  in  French  ;  which  was  re- 
printed Par.1768.  8.  ;  and  translated  into  English,  Lond. 1703. 8. Italian.— B.  Galiani.   Nap. 

1758.  fol.  much  commended. Spanish.— J. Ortiz  y  Sunt.  Madr.1787.  fol.  with  plates. Eng- 
lish.— R.Castel,  with  orig.  Lat.  Lond.1730.  fol.  with  notes  of  hugo  Jones  and  others,  and  nume- 
rous plates — W. Newton.  Lond.  1771.  fol.    1792.  2  vols,  fol.— IV.  Wilkins,  as  cited  P.  I.  <S  242.  4. 

5.  Illustrative.—  H.  Ch.  Genelli,  Exegetische  Briefe  iiber  Vitruv.  Berl.  1801.  1804.  2  Parts  4. 
with  plates.— J.  F.  v.  Rbsch,  ErlAuterungen  zu  Vitruvs  Baukunst.  Stuttg.  1802.  8.—  C.  L.  Stie- 
glitz,  Archacologische  Unterhaltungen.  Lpz.  1820.  8.  (The  1st  Abtheilung  is  on  Vitruvius.)  — 
Vitruvius  on  the  Temples  and  intercolumniations  of  the  Ancients  ;  with  a  Dictionary  of  Terms*. 
Lond.  1794.  8.  with  10  plates.   Cf.  P.  I.  $  242.  4. 

§  491.  Sextus  Julius  Frontinus,  who  was  consul  A.  D.  74,  and  died  in  the 
office  of  augur,  A.  D.  106,  was  the  author  of  two  works  still  extant.  The  one 
first  written  and  most  celebrated  is  entitled  Strategematica,  in  4  books;  con- 
taining notices  of  the  military  manoeuvres  and  remarkable  speeches  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  heroes  ;  the  4th  book  treats  particularly  of  military  science. 
The  other  was  on  the  Aqueducts  of  Rome,  of  which  the  author  had  the  super- 
intendance  under  the  emperor  Nerva. 

1.  The  treatise  on  the  Roman  Aqueducts,  in  two  books,  is  considered  as  a 
valuable  work  on  account  of  its  description  of  those  remarkable  specimens  of 
architecture  ;  it  is  written  with  ease,  but  without  elegance. — The  other  work 
(entitled  sometimes  *Strategeticon  libri  IV)  is  a  compilation,  bearing  marks  of 
negligence,  yet  containing  information  not  elsewhere  found. 

There  are  some  treatises  attributed  to  Frontinus,  which  evidently  belong  to  a  later  age ;  e.  g. 
the  pieces  entitled  Dc  agrorum  qualitate,  De  limitibus,  and  De  Colonics,  found  in  the  collection  of 
Gromatic  writers  by  Goesius  (cited  §  4o9.  4).  Mention  is  also  made  of  a  lost  work,  De  tactica 
Homeri.— Schbll,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  453.— Polenus,  Vita  Frontini,  in  his  ed.  and  also  that  of  Oudtn- 
«j<wy  below  cited.— D.  G.  JUuller,  Diss,  de  Frontino.  Alt.  1C90.  4. 


360  HISTORY  Of  ROMAN  LITERATURE* 

2.  Editions.  —  Both  works  ;  Frontini  Opera.  Bipont.  1788.  8.  "  Editio  accurata"  (Harles).^- 
De  Aqiueduct'bus  :  best,  G.  Ch.  Adler.  Alton.  1792.  8.  with  plates.  —  J.  Polenus.  Patav.  1722.  4* 
— Given  also  in  Gra>vius,  cited  P.  IV.  Q  197.  —  Stratc gcmatica :  best,  F.  Oudendorp.  Lugd.  Bat. 
2d  ed.  1779.  8.  —  JV.  Schwebel.  Lpz.  1772.  8.  —  Given  also  in  the  Collection  of  military  writers 
cited  §  489.  1.  —  Princeps.  Rom.  1487.  4. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —  Of  the  Strategetics  ;  J.  Ch.  Kind  (with  trans],  of  Polyaenus)/ 
Lpz.175 ).  8 — Better  in  the  work  entitled  Kricgswissenschaftl.  Avecdoten  von  bcn'/unten  Fcldhen-n. 
Gotha,I792.  8. French.— Bourdon  de  Sivrais  (Stratesretics).  Par.  1759.  8.— J.  Rondelet  {Aque- 
ducts, with  orig.  Lat.  and  plates.   Par.  1720.  8. English  ;  unknown  author,  Lond.  1686. 12. 

§  492.  Flavins  Vegetius  Iienatus,  probably  a  native  of  Rome,  Hved  in  the  4th 
century  at  Rome  or  Constantinople.  It  has  been  supposed  that  he  was  a 
Christian.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  military  art,  in  five  books,  addressed  to 
Valentinian  II.  It  is  drawn  from  earlier  writers,  and  from  the  constitutions 
and  ordinances  of  some  of  the  emperors. 

1.  Vegetius  is  styled,  in  the  manuscripts,  vir  illustfis,  and  comes.  His  work, 
written  about  A.  D.  3/o,  is  entitled  Epitome  institutionum  rei  militaris.  The 
first  book  treats  of  the  forming  and  training  of  soldiers  ;  the  2d,  of  the  disci- 
pline and  regulation  of  an  army  ;  the  3d,  of  the  Various  arts  brought  into  re- 
quisition in  military  affairs  ;  the  4th,  of  machines  employed  in  attack  and  de- 
fence ;  the  5th,  of  naval  affairs.  Cato,  Celsus,  Paternus,  and  Frontinus  are 
among  the  authors  from  whom  matter  is  collected. 

Bdkr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  671.  —  Waldeke,  Index  militaris,  cited  §  489.  1.  —  Comte  Tnrpin  de 
Crisse,  Commentaires  sur  les  institutions  militaires  de  Vegece.  2d  ed.   Par.  1783.  2  vols.  4. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best. — JV.  Schwebel.  Xorimb.  1767.  4.  with  plates. — The  Bipontine.  Argentor. 
1806.  8.  —  B.  Giamboni.  Flor.  1815.  8.  —  Princeps,  either  that  printed  at  Rome,  1478.  4.  or  one, 
without  date  or  name  of  place,  but  supposed,  Oxf.  1468.  4.  —  Contained  also  in  the  Collections 
of  writers  on  military  affairs  cited  §  489.  1. 

3.  Translations.  —  Germah.-=^R.  Mcineke.  Halle,  1799.  8. French.— Chevalier  de  Bongars. 

Par.  1772.  12. English.— J.  Clark.  Lond.  1767.  8. 

4.  There  is  a  work  extant,  entitled  De  Mulomedicina,  seu  de  arte  veterinaria,  in  four  books, 
Which  has  sometimes  been  ascribed  to  this  author.  It  is  now  referred,  however,  to  a  later 
Writer,  named  Publius  Vegelius.  Cf.  Sclioll,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  232.~Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  in. 177. 
—  First   printed,   Basil.  1548.  4.  —  Contained   in    Schneider's  Collection,  cited  $  489.  3.  —  A 

French  translation  is  given  in  the  Collection  of  Didot,  cited  §  489.  3. English  translation ; 

Lond.  1748.  8. 

§  493.  Julius  Firmicus  Maternus,  a  native  of  Sicily,  lived  in  the  first  part  of 
the  4th  century,  and  was  a  lawyer  under  Constantine.  He  wrote  a  work  en- 
titled Matheseos  libri  VIII ;  which  is  an  astrological  rather  than  a  mathemati- 
cal performance.  There  is  also  a  treatise  on  pagan  errors,  composed  by  him 
after  his  conversion  to  Christianity. 

1.  Some  have  considered  the  works  above  mentioned  as  the  productions  of 
two  different  authors  by  the  same  name.  The  author  of  the  mathematical  or 
or  rather  astrological  work  seems  to  have  been  evidently  a  pagan  at  the  time 
of  writing  it.  The  time  when  this  was  composed  is  fixed  by  an  allusion  to  an 
eclipse  that  occurred  A.  D.  334. 

Cf.  Schiill,  Lit.  Rom.  m.  2r2H.—Fabriciu$,  Bibl,  Lat.  ill.  114-122.— Mongitor,  Bibl.  Sicula,  as 
cited  by  Harles,  Brev.  Not.  Lit.  Rom.  Supplem.  ii.  226. — Munter,  in  his  ed.  below  cited.— Hertz, 
Diss,  de  Julio  Firmico  &c.   Havnis.  1817. 

2.  Editions.  —  Mathesis ;  best,  N.  Prucknen  Bas.  1551.  fol.  with  other  astronomical  writers. 

Princeps,  by  Pescennivs  Fr.  Niger.  Ven.  1497.  fol.— Contained  in  Aldus,  cited  \J  489.  I. De 

Error e  prof anarum  religionum  ;  best,  F.  Munter.    Havn.  1826.  8.-^-Cum  notis  Variorum.    Roter- 
tlam.  1743.  8. 

§  494.  Pomponius  Mela,  who  lived  in  the  first  century,  was  a  native  of  Spain. 
His  geographical  work,  entitled  De  Situ  Orbis,  in  three  books,  is  commendable 
for  the  good  style,  and  the  union  of  brevity  and  accuracy,  by  which  it  is  char- 
acterized. It  is,  properly,  a  compertd,  after  the  system  of  Eratosthenes,  and 
is  drawn  chiefly  from  Greek  sources. 

1.  His  name,  according  to  some,  should  be  Mella.  The  place  of  his  birth  is 
mentioned  by  him,  lib.  ii.  c.  6;  but  the  critics'  do  not  agree  as  to  the  genuine 
reading;  Tingentera,  or  Cingentera,  is  perhaps  the  most  authorized.  He  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  third  sort  of  the  rhetorician  Marcus  Sene- 
ca ;  and  to  have  belonged  only  by  adoption  to  the  family  of  the  Pomponii,  who 
traced  their  origin  back  to  Numa.  A  passage  in  his  work  (lib.  iii.  c.  6)  is  con- 
sidered as  evincing  that  he  lived  in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  •—-  His  geography, 
which  is  entitled  in  some  manuscripts  De  Chorographia,  commences  with  a 
brief  glance  at  the  world  in  general,  and  the  three  ancient  divisions,  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa.  The  author  then  proceeds  to  notice  particular  portions,  in 
the  following  order  :    Mauretania,  Africa  Propria,  Cyrenaica ;    then  Egypt, 


GEOGRAPHERS.       MELA.    SOLINUS.    VIBIUS.  361 

which  he  includes  under  Asia  ;  next  Arabia,  Syria,  Asia  Minor ;  then,  in  the 
2d  book,  he  notices  Scythia,  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Greece,  Illyria,  Italy,  Gaul, 
Spain,  and  the  isles  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  in  the  3d,  he  again  touches  upon 
Spain  and  Gaul,  and  proceeds  to  Germany,  Sarmatia,  the  Northern  and  East- 
ern Oceans,  India,  Persia,  and  then  passes  to  Ethiopia  and  finally  to  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Africa. 

Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  678.—  G.  J.  Voss,  lib.  i.  c.25.  as  cited  §  527.  1.  —  Tzschur.ke,  Diss,  de 
Pomp.  Mela-,  in  his  ed.  below  cited.— Fvhrmun,  Kl.  Handb.  776,  and  references  there  given.  — 
J.  A.  Miller,  Animadvmsiones  in  Pomp.  Melam.  Misn.  1802.8. — G.  G.  Kirsch,  Progr.  de  vera 
Africa?  figura  secundum  Pomp.  Melam.   Hof;e,  1791.  4. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best,  K.  H.  Tzschucke.  Lpz.  1807.  3  vols.  8.  with  maps.  A  reduction  of  this 
for  use  of  schools  by  A.  Weichcrt.  Lpz.  181(5.  8. — The  Bipovtinc,  Argentor.  1809.  8.  is  good,  and 
contains  also  Vibius  Sequester,  Claudius  Rutilius,  &c.  —  Of  previous  editions,  the  better  ;  J. 
Kapp.  Hof.  1781.  8.  —  Abr.  Gronov.  Leyd.  1748.  8.  —  J.  Reiiwld.  Lond.  1748.  4.  fist  ed.  1711.) 
Repr.  Eton.  176L  4.  &  Lond.  1814.  4.  with  maps.— Princcps.  Milan.  1471.  4. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  Ch.  Dietz.   Giessen,  1774.  8. French.  —  C.  P.  Fradin. 

Par.  1804.  3  vols.  8. English A.  Golding.  Lond.  1590.  4. 

§  495.  Caius  Julius  Solinus,  of  an  uncertain  age,  although  probably  of  the 
3d  century,  wrote  a  collection  of  miscellaneous  curiosities,  to  which  on  the 
second  publication  he  gave  the  title  of  Polyhistor.  It  consists  chiefly  of  geo- 
graphical accounts,  and  is  taken  almost  entirely  from  the  elder  Pliny  (§  470). 
Many  passages  are  in  the  exact  words  of  that  author  ;  and  the  extracts  are  not 
made  with  remarkable  judgment  or  taste. 

1.  The  author  is  supposed  to  have  published  two  editions  of  the  work  ;  the 
first  under  the  title  Collectanea  rerum  memorabilium.  It  consists  of  fifty-six 
chapters.  —  There  is  extant  a  small  portion  of  a  poem  entitled  Fragmentum 
Ponticon,  which  has  sometimes  been  ascribed  to  Solinus. 

Salmasius,  Prolegomena  to  his  ed.  below  cited. — D.  G.  Moller,  Diss,  de  Solino.  Altorf.  1693. 4. 
— Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  657. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best;  CI.  Salmasius  ( Saumaise),  Plinian.  Exercitat.  in  C.  J.  Solini  Polyhist, 
2d  ed.  (enra  S.  Pitisci.)  Traject.  ad  Rhen.  (Utr.)  1689.  2  vols.  fol.  —  A.  Gotz.  Lpz.  1777.  8.  — 
Bipont.  1794.  8.  —  Princeps,  by  JV.  Jenson  (printer).  Ven.  1473.  fol.  —  The  Fragmentum  Ponti- 
con is  given  in  Lcmaire's  Poet.  Lat.  Min.  vol.  i. 

§  496.  Vibius  Sequester,  whose  native  place  is  unknown,  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  towards  the  close  of  the  4th  century.  He  composed  a  geographical  cata- 
logue of 'rivers,  lakes,  mountains,  forests,  &c.  for  the  use  of  his  son  Virgilianus. 
Many  illustrations  of  other  authors,  particularly  the  poets,  may  be  derived 
from  this  performance. 

1.  This  author  is  placed  by  Oberlin  (in  his  ed.  below  cited)  much  later.  The  title  of  his  work 
Is  De  Jliiminibus,  fontibus,  Incubus,  turmoribus,  paludibas,  montibus,  rrentibus,  quorum  mrntio  apud 
poetasfit.  —  Boccacio  composed  a  similar  work,  in  preparing  which  he  made  use  of  Vibius, 
although  without  acknowledgment. — Sclioll,  Lit.  Rom.  in.  262. 

2.  Editions.  — Best.  Jer.J.  Oberlin.  Argentor.  fStrassb.J  1778. 8 — Fr.  Hesscl.  Rotterd.  1711.  8. 

—  The  Bipontine,  with  Mela,  as  cited  §  494.  2.  —  Princeps.   Pisaur.  1512.  fol.  with  Solinus. 

§  497.  The  Roman  Itineraries  it  may  be  proper  to  mention  here.  These 
were  either  topographical  delineations,  a  sort  of  chart  (itineraria  picta) ,  or  de- 
scriptions or  specifications  of  the  most  important  places  (itineraria  scripta  or 
adnotata).  The  monument  called  Tabula  Peutingeriana  is  a  specimen  of  the 
former;  and  the  Itineraries  of  Antonine  are  examples  of  the  latter.  Besides 
these,  which  are  the  most  important,  we  have  what  is  called  the  Itinerary  of 
Jerusalem,  and  another  called  the  Itinerary  of  Alexander. 

1.  The  Tabula  Peutingeriana  is  supposed  by  some  modern  critics,  particu- 
larly Mannert,  to  be  an  imperfect  copy  of  a  chart  constructed  in  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century,  under  Alexander  Severus.  (See  §  480.)  They  think  it 
was  executed  by  some  monk  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  taken  not  from  the 
original  chart  of  Severus  but  from  another  copy,  with  omissions  and  additions. 

—  But  it  has  commonly  been  considered  as  the  copy  of  a  chart  or  table  con- 
structed in  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  and  from  that  circumstance  it  is 
sometimes  called  the  Theodosian  Table. 

It  was  found  in  a  German  library  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  came  into  the  possession  of 
Conrad  Pf  utj  mrer  of  Augsburg,  who  died  A.D.1547.  It  was  sent  to  the  famous  geographer  Ortelius, 
who  died  at  Antwerp,  A.  I).  1598.  After  a  various  fortune,  it  was  lodged,  A.  D.  1738,  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Vienna,  where  it  still  remains.     It  is  upwards  of  twenty  one  German  feet 

in  length  and  aliout  one  foot  in  breadth,  formed  by  united  piee'es  of  parchment. It  was  first 

published  (trri  incisa),  by  F.  Ch.  de  Sdiryb.  Vien.  1753.  fol.  —  Republished,  with  an  Introduc- 
tion by  C.  Mannert    Lpz.  1834.  fol.  —  Also  in  M.  P.  Katanesich,  Orbis  Antinuus.   Buda,  1825.  4. 

—  Cf.  So/to;//,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  251.  —  J.  G.  Lotterus,  De  Tab.  Peutinger.  Commentnrius.  Lpz. 
1732.  4.  —  G.  Jleermann,  Commentar.  in  epigramma  Sedulii,  given  in  Burmann's  Anthol.  Lat. 

31 


362  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

vol.  11.  —  Mannert,  as  just  cited,  and  also  in  his  treatise  entitled  Res  Trajani  ad  Danub.  gestae. 
Norimb.  1793.  8.  —  Freret,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inter,  xiv.  17-1.    xvm.  249. 

2.  The  ltineraria  Antonini  are  two  ;  one  designating  routes  by  land,  and 
the  other  routes  by  sea.  They  merely  specify  the  distances  between  the  dif- 
ferent posts.  It  is  well  known  that  they  are  not  the  work  of  the  emperor  An- 
toninus ;  nor  were  they  composed  by  his  order ;  they  were  posterior  to  the 
time  of  Constantino  the  Great.  Yet  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  grew  out 
of  official  sketches  or  draughts,  which  were  preserved  in  the  imperial  archives, 
and  successively  changed  as  new  routes  or  new  stations  wrere  established. 
There  are  two  authors  to  whom  these  Itineraries  have  been  ascribed ;  one  is 
Julius  Honorius,  from  whom  we  have  an  insignificant  fragment  usually  joined 
with  the  Itineraries  ;  the  other  is  JEthicus  Ister,  a  Christian  of  the  4th  century. 
The  latter  is  also  the  supposed  author  of  the  work  entitled  Cosmographia, 
which  presents  a  geographical  table  or  nomenclature  of  the  ancient  world,  un- 
der four  divisions,  styled  east  and  west,  north  and  south. The  Itinerarium 

Hierosolymitanum  was  constructed  by  a  citizen  of  Bordeaux,  in  the  fourth 
century  ;  it  traces  the  routes  of  travel  from  Bordeaux  to  Jerusalem,  and  from 
Heraclea  by  Rome  to  Milan.     It  is  called  also  Itinerarium  Burdigalense. 

The  best  edition  of  these  Itineraries  is  that  of  Peter  JVesselin/r,  Vetera  Romanorum  ltinera- 
ria.  Amst.  1753.  4.  —  The  best  edition  of  the  Costnog-mpliia  is  in  A.  Gronov's  Poinponius  Mela, 

cited  $  494.  2.     The  first  ed.  was  by  J.  Simler.  Bas.  1575.  12. Cf.  Schceil,  Litt.  Rom.  in. 

258  ss. 

3.  The  Itinerarium  Alezandri  is  a  curtailed  account  of  the  route  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  the  invasion  of  Persia.  It  was  constructed  by  an  unknown 
heathen  author,  about  A.  D.  340  or  350,  for  the  benefit  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantius,  in  his  war  with  the  Persians.  A  part  of  this  work  was  inserted  by 
Muratori,  in  his  Italian  Antiquities  ;  but  the  whole  was  first  published  by  Mai, 
from  a  manuscript  found  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan. 

Ruhr,  Ges.  Rom.  Lit.  687. — Fvhnnann,  Kl.  Handb.  779. — Muratori,  Antiquit.  Ital.  medii  JEvi, 

vol.  in.  Diss.  xh\  v 8.  Mai,  Itinerarium  Alexandri,  ad  Oonstantium  Augustum  <fcc.  Mil. 1817.  4. 

Reprinted,  Frankf.  1818.  8. — This  contains  also  a  treatise  found  in  the  same  manuscript,  with 
the  following  title  :  Julii  Valerii  Res  gestee  Alexandri  M  a  cedonis  translate  czJEsopo  Qrcec. 
— Cf.  Class.  Journ.  xix.  374. 

§  498.  Marcus  Porcius  Cato,  of  Tusculum,  was  illustrious  in  the  earlier 
times  of  the  Roman  republic,  about  B.  C.  200.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
general,  consul,  and  censor  ;  as  an  orator,  civilian,  historian,  and  ceconomist. 
He  is  discriminated  from  Cato  of  Utica,  who  was  his  great-grand-son,  by  the 
epithet  elder  (major)  ;  and,  on  account  of  his  rigid  moral  principles,  he  was 
also  called  Censor.  Of  his  numerous  writings  we  have  merely  fragments,  ex- 
cepting the  book  on  Agriculture.  Respecting  the  genuineness  of  this  there 
have  been  doubts  ;  and  if  it  be  his  work,  it  must  have  been  greatly  mutilated 
and  marred  by  transcribers,  as  it  does  not  correspond  to  the  genius  of  his  style 
nor  to  the  testimony  of  the  ancients. 

1.  He  was  born  B.  C.  235,  and  died  B.  C.  149,  according  to  the  common 
statements.  He  is  said  to  have  been  present  in  a  battle  against  Hannibal,  at 
the  age  of  seventeen,  and  to  have  behaved  with  great  valor.  He  was  called 
to  all  the  more  important  offices  of  the  state.  But  when  not  kept  abroad  by 
military  duty,  or  employed  in  civil  and  forensic  business  at  Rome,  he  chiefly 
spent  his  time  at  a  farm  in  the  Sabine  territory,  which  he  inherited  from  his 
father.  His  opposition  to  the  learning  and  refinement  of  the  Greeks  has  often 
been  noticed  (cf.  §  391)  ;  yet  in  his  old  age  he  took  pains  to  acquire  the  Greek 
language. — We  have  his  life  by  Ncpos  ($530)  and  by  Plutarch  ($  349). 

2.  The  book  De  Agricultura,  or  Be  Re  rustica,  is  destitute  of  method.  It 
consists  of  162  chapters,  and  seems  to  be  merely  a  sort  of  journal  containing 
rules  and  observations  recorded  in  the  order  of  accidental  suggestion. 

Of  the  lost  works  of  Cato,  the  one  most  regretted  is  that  entitled  Origincs, 
or  De  Originibus,  in  seven  books  ;  a  work  treating  of  the  history  and  antiqui- 
ties of  Rome.  The  1st  book  contained  the  history  of  the  kings  of  Rome  ;  the 
2d  and  3d  gave  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  states  of  Italy  ;  the  4th  and  5th 
described  the  first  and  second  Punic  wars  ;  and  the  6th  and  7th,  the  Roman 
affairs  down  to  the  victory  of  Servius  Galba  over  the  Lusitanians,  B.  C.  152. 
The  work  was  held  in  high  estimation  ;  Cicero  {Brutus,  c.  17,  87)  praises  the 
conciseness  and  simplicity  of  the  style.  We  have  a  few  genuine  fragments 
of  it;  those  published  by  JYanni  are  spurious. 
Am  ong  the  lost  works  of  Cato  are  mentioned  150  orations,  which  were  extant  in  the  time  of 


(ECONOMISTS.       CATO.    VARRO.    COLUMELLA.  363 

Cicero.  Nearly  a  third  of  them  are  said  to  have  been  spoken  in  his  own  defence  ;  according 
to  Plutarch  he  was  accused  about  fifty  times  and  as  often  acquitted.  —  Cato  also  wrote  a  book 
de  re  miHtari,  of  which  Vegetius  (cf.  §  402)  made  a'free  use.  He  also  left  a  treatise  on  medi- 
cine (cf.  \\  546).  The  following  titles  of  works  by  hiin  are  likewise  given  ;  Carmen  de  mo ribus, 
a  prose  performance,  which  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  verses  called  Disticka  de M oribus 
(cf.  $382);  Libri  Qutestiomim  Epistolicarum  (cf.  Aid.  Gell.  vii.  10)  ;  Dc  Oratore,  ad  filium  ( Quin- 
tal, iii.  1)  ;  Deliberis  cducandis  (.Macrob.  iii.  6) ;  Apothegmata  (cf.  Clc.  de  off.  i.  29.) 

Schneider,  De  JVI.  P.  Catonis  vita,  studiis  et  scriptis,  in  his  Collection  cited  v)  489.  3.— J.  Hugo 
Van  Bolhuis,  Diatribe  in  M.  P.  Catonis  scripta  et  fragmenta.  Utrecht,  1826.—  W.  E.  Weber,  De 
M.  P.  Cat.  vita  et  moribus.  Brein.1831.  4.  —  ./.  Vosdus,  De  Hist.  Lat.  i.  5.  —  Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom. 
Lit.  p.  347,700.— Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  ii.  U.—SchoU,  Litt.  Rom.  i.  188.— Plutarch,  &  Jfepos, 
Vit.  Cat. Cf.  Cic.  Brut,  c.20.— Plin.  Nat.  Hist.  xix.  l.—Liv.  xxxix.  40.—  Valer.  Max.  viii.  7. 

3.  Editions.  —  The  Book  De  Re  rustica  is  given  in  the  Collections  cited  §  489.  3.— First  pub- 
lished in  that  of  JV.  Jensou.  Separately,  Aus.  Pop-ma  (with  pref.  by  Meursius)  Franequer.1620: 8. 
—  J.  Ck.  Hayuisch.  Schleiz.  1743.  8.  —  Fragments  of  lost  works,  by  Aus.  Popma,  in  his  ed.  just 
cited.  —  The  fragments  fabricated  by  JVanni,  or  Aiinius  Viterbicnsis,  were  published  in  his  An- 
tiqiutatcs  Varies,  Rom.  1498.   Cf.  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  i.  35. 

4.  Translations.  —  German. — G.  F.  Grosse.  Halle,  1787.  8. French. — Sabourevx  de  la  Bonr- 

neteric,  in  the  collection  of  Didut,  cited  $  489.  3. English,  of  considerable  portions,  in  Dick- 
son, cited  $  489.  3. 

5.  The  following  works  are  mentioned  here  as  illustrating  passages  in  the  work  on  agricvl- 
ture ;  L.  F.  Mcistcr,  De  torculario  Catonis.  Gbtt.1705. 4.  Cf.  Schneiders  coll.  above  cited,  vol.  n. 
— J.  A.  Markuesen,  Des  M.  P.  Cat.  Beschreibung  eines  Wein-  und  Oel-  Kelterhauses  &c.  Lpz. 
1805.  8.  with  plates. 

§  499.  M.  Terentius  Varro,  who  has  already  been  mentioned  among  the 
Grammarians  (§  423),  wrote  in  advanced  life,  three  books  on  Husbandry. 
which  deserve  the  highest  rank  among  the  similar  works  of  antiquity.  It  con- 
tains much  that  is  valuable  not  only  as  pertaining  to  the  particular  subject  of 
agriculture,  but  also  in  reference  to  literature  in  general. 

1.  The  first  book  of  Varro's  work  treats  of  the  object  and  the  rules  of  agri- 
culture ;  occasion  is  taken  to  speak  of  the  soil,  climate,  and  productions  of  It- 
aly, of  the  proper  situation  and  construction  of  villas,  and  of  the  culture  of 
flowers.  The  2d  book  discusses  the  proper  management  of  flocks  and  herds 
(De  re  pecuaria).  The  3d  treats  of  poultry,  fish,  and  game,  which  are  all  in- 
cluded under  the  denomination  Villicce.  pastiones.  —  The  work  is  constructed 
in  the  form  of  dialogue.  Varro  treats  his  subject  much  more  methodically  than 
Cato,  exhibitug  less  of  the  practical  farmer  and  more  of  the  scholar  and  anti- 
quarian. 

See  Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  703. — References  given  §  423.  1. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  treatise  on  Husbandry  is  given  in  the  editions  of  V.'s  works,  cited  $  423. 
2.  —  Also  in  the  agricultural  collections  cited  §  4S9.  3.  —  It  was  published  separately,  Halle, 
1730.  12. 

3.  translations.  —  German.—  G.  Grosse.  Halle,  1788. English.—  Omen.  Oxf.  1800.  8. 

§  500a.  L.  Junius  Moderatus  Columella,  a  native  of  Gades  (Cadiz)  in  Spain, 
lived  in  the  first  century.  He  composed  a  work  on  agriculture,  in  twelve  books, 
to  which  is  added  a  thirteenth  book  on  the  cultivation  of  trees.  The  latter  book 
may  have  been  originally  an  appendix  to  the  work,  or  it  may  be  the  remnant 
of  another  distinct  production.  The  tenth  book  is  in  verse,  and  contains  rules 
for  gardening.  The  work  possesses  value  both  from  the  beauty  of  the  style 
and  the  richness  of  the  matter. 

1.  Little  is  known  respecting  his  life.  He  was  born  in  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus or  Tiberius.  He  speaks  (L.  iii.  3)  of  Seneca  as  a  contemporary,  and  is 
repeatedly  named  by  the  elder  Pliny.  Some  critics  (particularly  the  two 
Spanish  brothers  by  the  name  of  Moliedano,  cited  below)  have  maintained,  that 
he  was  the  same  person  with  the  Moderatus,  who  wrote  in  Greek  on  the  Pythe- 
gorean  philosophy  (cf.  §  463). — In  the  first  of  the  twelve  books  De  re  rustica, 
Columella  treats  of  the  utility  and  the  pleasures  of  husbandry  ;  in  the  2d,  of 
fields,  of  sowing,  and  of  harvesting;  in  the  3d  and  4th,  of  vineyards  ;  in  the 
5th,  of  dividing  and  measuring  time  ;  in  the  6th,  of  cattle  and  their  diseases; 
in  the  7th.  of  sheep  and  swine  ;  in  the  8th,  of  the  inner-yard  ;  in  the  9th,  of 
bees;  in  the  10th,  of  gardening,  as  above  noticed;  in  the  11th,  of  various  du- 
ties of  the  farmer;  the  12th,  which  is  the  longest,  contains  miscellaneous  in- 
structions and  precepts  in  rural  economy.  —  The  book  De  arb oribus,  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  belonged  to  a  work  in  four  books,  which  formed  the 
original  of  the  one  afterwards  published  by  him  in  tuielvc  ;  and  that,  in  this 
way,  there  was  reason  for  the  remark  of  Cassiodorus,  that  Columella  com- 
posed a  work  on  agriculture  in  sixteen  books. 

ScholL  n.  4G8.—Bahr,  705.— Raph.  &  Pelr.  Mohedano,  Histor.  Lit.  de  Espanna  (in  vol.  8th). 
Ih.dr,l7iih  4.—J.  R.  de  Castro,  Biblioth.  Hispanica  (In  Spanish)  (in  vol.  2d.)  Madrid.  1786.  fol. 


364  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best,  in  the  Collections  of  Gcssner  &  Sdneider,  cited  §  489.  3.  —  ./.  II.  Ress, 
Flensburg,  1795.  8.  1st  vol.  only  executed,  including  4  books. — The  10th  book,  in  the  Poet.  Lat. 
Min.  by  fVemsdorf,  and  by  Lemaire. 

3.  Translations. — German. — M.  C.  Cartius  (De  re  rustica).  Brem.  1769.  8. — /.  Riem  (De  arbo- 
virus). Dresd.  1791.  8. Italian.— G.  Paramo.  Ven.  1793.  8. English  ;  Lond.  1745.  4. 

§  500  b.  Palladius  Rutilius  Taurus  JEmilianus,  probably  a  Roman,  wbo 
lived  about  the  close  of  the  second  century,  was  a  man  of  much  information, 
especially  in  Grecian  literature.  We  have  from  him  a  work  on  Husbandry, 
in  fourteen  books,  in  which  he  evidently  makes  use  of  the  earlier  writings  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  on  the  same  subject.  It  is  written  with  considerable, 
yet  by  no  means  uniform,  correctness  and  simplicity.  The  last  book  is  in  ele- 
giac verse. 

1 .  The  critics  have  not  been  agreed  either  as  to  his  native  country  or  the 
time  when  he  lived.  He  bears,  in  the  manuscripts,  the  title  of  vir  illustris. — 
Among  the  authors  from  whom  Palladius  derived  his  materials  are  Columella, 
Martialis  Gargilius,  and  Vitruvius.  The  style  is  inferior  to  that  of  Columella, 
and  indicates  an  author  belonging  to  a  later  age.  The  first  book  contains 
general  precepts  on  the  cultivation  of  land  ;  the  twelve  following  detail  the 
various  agricultural  labors  of  the  year,  in  the  order  of  the  months,  so  that  a 
book  is  devoted  to  each  month  ;  the  14th  is  a  didactic  poem,  on  the  grafting 
of  trees  (de  insitione). 

Bdhr,  706 Scholl,  in.  243.  —  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  ui.  69.  —  Cellarius  (in  the  Proleg.  to  his) 

Curs  Posteriores.  Jenae  1735.  12. 

2.  One  of  the  lost  works  of  Martialis  Gargilius,  from  which  Palladius  bor- 
rowed, was  entitled  De  hortis.  A  fragment  of  this  was  discovered  by  Mai,  in 
a  palimpsest  manuscript  formerly  belonging  to  the  monastery  of  Bobbio  ;  it  is 
entitled  de  arbor ibus  pomipheris,  and  treats,  in  four  sections,  de  cydoneis,  de 
ptrsicis,  de  amydalis,  and  de  castaneis. 

It  is  published  in  the  work  entitled  Classic.  Auctor.  e  codd.  Vatican  f  by  A.  Mai).  Rom.  1828. 
8. — Another  Fragment  which  has  been  ascribed  to  Gargilius,  entitled  De  cura  bourn,  is  usually 
joined  with  the  veterinary  treatise  of  Vegetius.  Cf.  §  492.  4.  The  critics  now  ascribe  it  to  a 
later  author. 

3.  Palladius  seems  to  have  been  much  read  in  the  middle  ages.  Two  writers  of  the  thirteenth 
century  are  mentioned  particularly  as  having  drawn  from  him  ;  Vinc^ns  de  Beavais,  or  Vincen- 
tius,  in  his  Speculum  HUtorialc.  Ven.  1494.  fol.  ;  and  Crescentius,  in  a  work  called  Commoda 
Ruralia,  in  12  books.   Bas.  1548.  fol.— Bohr,  707.— Harles,  Brev.  Not.  792. 

4.  Editions.  —  Palladius  is  contained  in  the  Collections  cited  <$  489.  3. — Separately,  Heidelb. 
1598.  8. 

§  501.  Ccelius  Apicius,  of  whom  very  little  is  known,  is  named  as  the  au- 
thor of  a  book  still  extant  on  cookery  (De  arte  coquinaria),  in  ten  books.  Some 
place  him  in  the  third  century,  and  think  that  his  name  was  simply  Ccelius, 
and  that  he  put  forth  his  work,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  contents,  un- 
der the  name  of  Apicius,  who  was  a  famous  Roman  gourmand. 

1.  There  were  three  known  epicures  by  the  name  of  Apicius.  Athenseus 
(Deipnosoph.  iv.  19)  mentions  Marcus  Apicius,  a  contemporary  of  king  Nico- 
medes,  and  also  (Deipnos.  i.  6.  12.  cf.  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  17)  M.  Gavius  Api- 
cius, who  lived  under  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  and  after  whom  certain  kinds 

of  cake  bore  the  name  "Anixta.     A  third  of  the  name  lived  under  Trajan. 

The  work  is  sometimes  entitled  De  re  culinaria,  or  De  opsoniis  et  condinicntis »" 
those  who  consider  the  name  Apicius  as  part  of  the  title,  would  give  it  as  fol- 
lows :  C  o  e  1  i  i  Apicius,  sive  De  re  culinaria.  —  The  books  have  each  a  sepa- 
rate title  in  Greek,  indicating  in  general  the  contents;  the  titles  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  ' En i, ut?.i,c,  the  careful ;  Zaoy.orcTr,?,  the  carver  ;  JCgreovgura,  things 
pertaining  to  the  garden  ;  TJurdty.Tt.c,  the  all-receiving ;  "Oojiyioc,  relating  to 
pulse;  \-lioo7iiTitg,  the  flying  ;  TIu/.vTt/.lc,  the  sumptuous  ;  TerouTiovg,  the 
four-footed  ;  GuJiunau,  the  sea  ;  ryi?.isrc,  the  fisherman. 
Scholl,  in.  242.— Bdhr,  70S.— Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  n.  365. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best ;  Th.  J.  ab  Almelovcen.  Amst.  1709. 8.  —  J.  M.  Bernhold.  Onold.  (Ansb.) 
1787.8.   1800.8. 


V 

VIII. — Myth  ographers . 

§  502m.  The  system  of  gods  among  the  Romans,  and  their  fabulous  stories, 
taken  as  a  whole,  had  a  close  resemblance  and  relationship  to  the  mythology 


MYTHOGRAPHERS.       HYGINUS.     FULGENTIUS.  365 

of  the  Greeks,  and  indeed  differed  from  it  merely  by  some  changes  and  addi- 
tions. (See  P.  III.)  The  Roman  mythographers  accordingly  drew  chiefly 
from  Grecian  sources,  and  therefore  they  present  little  that  is  new  or  peculiar, 
either  in  the  tales  themselves,  or  in  the  application  and  interpretation  made 
of  them.  The,  domestic  mythology  of  the  Romans,  the  later  additions  to  their 
system  of  deities,  and  their  whole  scheme  of  religion,  may  be  learned  more 
correctly  and  fully  from  their  historical  and  antiquarian  writers,  than  from 
these  collectors  of  fables. 

§  503.  The  few  writers  that  are  usually  placed  in  this  class,  might  with 
equal  propriety  perhaps  be  ranked  among  the  grammarians.  And,  in  fact, 
only  one  of  them,  Hyginus,  falls  within  the  time  included  in  our  present 
sketch  ;  as  the  others,  whose  names  are  given  below,  lived  after  the  close  of 
the  fifth  century.  —  The  lost  mythological  writings  of  Varro  would,  it  is  be- 
lieved, be  of  more  value  than  all  the  works  of  these  authors.     Cf.  $  423. 

The  following  are  the  principal  Collections.—  Thorn.  Muneker,  Mythogr.  Lat.  Amst. 
1681.  8.  with  figures.  —  Wore  complete,  Jug.  V.  Staveren,  Auct.  Mythog.  Latini.   Leyd.  1747. 

2  vols.  4. The  3d  vol.  of  A.  MaCs  Class.  Auctores  e  Codic.  Vat.  (Rom.  1831.)  contains  three 

additional  my  thographical  works  not  before  published.  These  were  republished  by  G.  H.  Bode, 
Mythographi  Auct.  Lat.  e  Vat.  Codicibus.    Cellis,  1833.  8.    • 

§  504.  Cuius  Julius  Hyginus,  whose  native  country  is  not  known,  was  a 
freedman  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  and  the  keeper  of  the  Palatine  library. 
(Cf.  P.  I.  §  126.)  Little  else  is  known  respecting  his  life.  Perhaps  the  my- 
thographer  named  Hyginus,  was  a  later  author,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
Antonines.  The  work  ascribed  to  him  (Fubularum  Liber)  consists  of  a  collec- 
tion of  277  brief  mythological  tales.  It  is  a  mere  compilation  from  ancient 
grammarians  and  scholiasts,  and  is  written  in  a  style  not  entirely  pure.  The 
work  seems  to  have  contained  a  greater  number  of  fables,  and  to  have  been 
divided  into  two  books.  We  have  also,  from  the  same  author,  a  work  entitled 
Poeticon  Astronomicon,  in  four  books,  illustrating  the  constellations  as  repre- 
sented by  the  poets.  Much  of  it  is  drawn  from  the  Catasterisms  of  Eratos- 
thenes (cf.  §  215). 

1.  The  Hyginus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  was  a  distinguished 
grammarian,  and  is  named  as  the  author  of  several  other  works;  particularly 
one  entitled  De  urbibus  Italicis  ;  another  entitled  De  vita  rebusque  illustrium 
virorum.  —  The  language  and  style  of  the  Fables  are  considered  as  evidence 
that  the  work  was  not  written  by  this  author.  Some  have  supposed  it  to  be  a 
compilation  or  a  translation  from  Greek,  made  even  later  than  the  time  of  the 
Antonines. 

A  mythological  Fragment  discovered  by  Niebuhr  (fragmentum  derebus  Thcbanis mytholog-ici?) 
is  considered  by  him  as  a  section  from  the  original  book  out  of  which,  as  enlarged  by  the  addi- 
tions of  later  times,  the  work  now  passing  under  the  name  of  Hyginus  was  constructed.  The 
first  of  the  three  mythological  works  discovered  by  Mai  contains  an  intimation  that  it  includes 
the  second  book  of  Hyginus  ;  but  notwithstanding  this,  Mai  considers  it  as  the  production  of  a 
writer  in  the  fifth  century.   Cf.'§  506.  3. 

J.  Schcffer,  De  Hygini  script,  fab.  a;tate  atque  stylo,  in  his  ed.  below  cited.  T7i.  Muneker,  De 
auctore,  stvlo  et  aetate  MythologisB,  qua;  C.  J.  Hysrini  nomen  pra?fert,  in  his  ed.  cited  §  503.  — 
Niebuhr,  Orat.  Cic.  pro  Rabir.  etc.  Fragm.    Rom.  1820.  S.—BdJir,  713.— Mohedano,  cited  v^  500a.  1. 

2.  Editions.  —  Hyjni  opera,  by  J.  JifycilUs.  Bas.1535.  fol.  Lugd.  Bat.  1608.  8. Liber  Fabu- 
larum: best,  in  the  collection  of  Stuvcren,  cited  $  503.— J.  Schcffer.  Hamb.  1674.  8. Poet.  Jls- 

tronomicon  ;  in  same  collection.—  Will.  Morell.  Par.  1559.  4.  with  the  phenomena  of  Aratus. 

§  505.  Fabius  Planciadcs  Fulgentius,  a  native  of  Africa,  of  whom  also  little 
is  known,  probably  lived  in  the  sixth  century.  His  most  important  production 
is  a  mythological  work,  in  three  books,  addressed  to  Catus,  a  Presbyter  of 
Carthage. 

1.  Tbe  work  is  entitled  Mythologicon  sen  Mythologiarum  libri  trcs ;  also 
Mythologicum.  The  1st  book  treats  of  Saturn,  Neptune,  Pluto,  Cerberus,  the 
Furies,  the  Harpies,  Proserpine,  Apollo,  the  Muses,  Mercury,  &c.  The  2d  of 
Minerva,  Juno,  Venus,  Hercules,  Ulysses  and  the  Sirens,  Scylla,  Bacchus, 
Ixion,  &c.  The  3d,  of  Bellerophon,  Acteon,  Psyche  &  Cupido,  Myrrha  &. 
Adonis,  &c.  —  There  are  two  other  works,  both  of  a  philological  character, 
ascribed  to  the  same  Fulgentius  J  one  entitled  Exposilio  serrnonum  antiquoram , 
and  the  other,  De  expositione  VirgiHance  continentia:,  or  De  allegoria  Ubrorum 
Virgilii.  Some,  however,  ascribe  these  to  another  Fulgentius  ;  five  different 
individuals  of  this  name  have  been  pointed  out. 

ScmU3  in.  331/— -Muneker,  Praef.  ad  Fulgent,  in  his  Collect,  cited  §  503.—  Q.  I.  Fossius,  De 
Philolog.  c.  5. 

31* 


366  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  three  works  of  Fulgentius  are  contained  in  the  Collections  cited  §  50o* 
Published  also  by  J.  Locker,  under  the  name  of  Philomusus.  Augsb.  1521.  fol.  —  The  Exposdia 
serm.  antiq.  by  J.  Mercer,  in  his  ed.  of  Nonius,  cited  §  427.  2. 

3w.  We  have  a  mythological  work  from  Albricus,  which  is  almost  entirely 
a  compilation  from  Fulgentius.  The  name  of  this  author  is  sometimes  written 
Albcricus,  and  Alfricus  ;  he  lived  in  England,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  His  work  is  entitled  De  Deorum  imaginibvs,  and  in  some 
manuscripts  Poetrica  or  Poetarium  ;  it  relates  chiefly  to  the  mode  of  repre- 
senting the  gods  in  images,  and  gives  brief  explanations  of  the  reasons  for  the 
various  representations. 

The  Poctarhiin  of  Albricus  is  given  in  the  Coll.  of  Stavcrr.n,  cited  §  503.  It  was  first  pub- 
lished in  the  15th  century,  with  the  treatise  Dc  magistratibus  Roma;,  written  by  Fiochi,or  FJoc- 
co  of  Florence,  and  falsely  ascribed  to  FenesteUa,  who  lived  under  the  emperor  Augustus.  Cf. 
Harles,  Brev.  Notit.  p.  210.   Suppl.  ii.  p.  466.— Also,  Rom.  1517.  4. 

§  506.  Lactantius  Placidus  is  also  of  an  uncertain  age.  He  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  same  person  as  Lutatius,  a  Christian  grammarian  of 
the  sixth  century,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Thebaid  of  Statius.  We 
have  from  him  a  brief  abridgment,  in  prose,  of  Ovid*s  Metamorphoses. 

1.  The  Lactantius  here  noticed  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  eminent 
Father  named  Firmianus  Lactantius,  who  lived  in  the  fourth  century,  and  in 
some  of  whose  writings,  especially  in  his  Divine  Institutions  and  the  Epitome 
of  the  same,  ancient  mythology  is  considerably  illustrated.  In  the  first  two 
books  of  the  former  (treating  de  falsa  religione)  are  long  quotations  from  the 

lost  work  of  Euhemerus  (cf.  §  222.  4)  on  the  gods. There  is  also  a  kind  of 

mythological  poem  extant,  which  is  ascribed  to  Firmianus  Lactantius,  entitled 
De  Phamice  ;  and  the  subject  of  which  is  the  Egyptian  fable  respecting  the 
bird  called  Phenix.  The  mythus  is  given  by  Herodotus  (ii.  73)  with  a  decla- 
ration of  his  disbelief  of  the  story.  A  modern  writer,  Marcoz,  has  attempted 
to  resolve  the  whole  into  an  astronomical  fiction,  intended  to  describe  the 
Great  Year  {Annus  Magnus)  of  the  fixed  stars,  or  period  of  nearly  26,000  years 
that  elapses  during  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  through  the  circle  of  the 
ecliptic. 

A.  Martini,  Lactantii  carmen  De  Phrenice.  Lunab.  1825.  8.  —  Marcoz,  Astronomie  &c.  cited 
§  204.  —  Mem.  fnstitui.  Royal,  Classe  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Ave.  vol.  i.  p.  166.  "  sur  le  Phoenix,  ou  Re- 
cherches  sur  les  Periodes  astron.  des  Egyptiens."  —  Ant.  Metral,  Le  Phenix,  ou  l'Oise  au  du< 
Sobeil.   Par.  1824.  containing  the  accounts  of  all  the  ancient  authors. 

2.  Editions.  —  The  Argumcnta  Mctam.  Ovid,  are  given  in  the  Collect,  cited  §  503. — They  are 
also  found  in  various  editions  of  Ovid,  introduced  together  by  themselves,  or  separately  as  in- 
troductions to  the  several  books  of  the  Metamorphoses. — The  Commentary  on  the  Thebaid  is  given 
in  many  editions  of  Statius  (cf.  §  378,  3). 

3.  To  the  Lactantius  or  Placidus,  here  noticed,  Mai  ascribes  by  conjecture  the  second  of  the 
three  mythological  works  discovered  by  him  in  the  Vatican  library.  The  .first  of  these  works 
consists  of  234  fables,  Greek  &  Roman,  promiscuously  thrown  together  and  divided  into  three 
books  ;  at  the  end  of  the  2d  book  stands  the  following  note  ;  Explicit  liber  secundus  C.  Hygini 
fabnlarum,  i.  e.  Here  closes  the  second  book  of  the  fables  of  C.  Hyginus.  Cf.  §  504.  1.  —  The 
second  work  consists  of  225  chapters,  besides  a  proem  ;  the  contents  often  agree  verbatim  with 
those  of  the  first-mentioned,  although  they  are  also  frequently  very  different  ;  this  Mai  conjec- 
tures to  be  the  work  of  Lactantius. — The  third  writing  bears  the  title  Dc  Diis  gentium  et  illa- 
rum  allegoriis  ;  it  consists  of  a  number  of  sections,  which  were  found  in  different  manuscripts  ; 
each  section  treating  of  a  single  deity  or  mythical  personage.  It  is  ascribed  by  Mai  to  a  Chris- 
tian writer  of  the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  by  the  name  of  Leontius. — These  works  are  given  in 
thejmblication  of  Mai,  cited  §  503  5  which  also  contains  some  other  mythological  fragments. 


IX. — Historians  and  Biographers. 

507?/.  The  Romans,  even  in  the  earliest  periods  of  the  state,  began  to  record 
in  writing  the  most  remarkable  events.  These  first  historical  writings  were, 
however,  merely  dry  registers  of  the  principal  circumstances,  although  they 
were  sometimes  composed  in  a  metrical  language  and  arranged  in  the  form  of 
Annals. 

§  508.  The  following  are  among  the  earliest  historical  records  of  the  Ro- 
mans of  which  we  find  any  notice  ;  the  Annul es  or  Commentarii  Pontificum, 
the  Fasti  Magistr a,tuum,  and  the  Libri  Lintei. — The  first  mentioned  were  the 
Tecords  which  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Pontifex  Maximus  to  make  of  the  leading 


HISTORY    AND    BIOGRAPHY.  367 

events  of  each  year,  upon  tablets  that  were  to  be  hung  up  in  his  house  for 
the  use  of  the  people.  They  were  also  termed  Annales  .Maximi  or  Publici. 
The  custom  was  commenced  as  early  at  least  as  the  time  of  Numa,  and  ac- 
cording to  Cicero  {De  Or.  ii.  12,  13),  with  the  very  founding  of  the  city.  It 
was  continued,  with  some  interruptions,  until  the  Pontificate  of  Mucius,  B.  C. 
125. — The  Fasti  Magistratuum  {Livi  iv.  7.  ix.  18)  were  the  lists  of  magistrates, 
especially  of  the  consuls,  whose  names  it  was  customary  to  insert  in  the  Cal- 
endar of  each  year,  which  it  was  the  business  also  of  the  Pontiff  and  his  col- 
lege to  construct.  —  The  Libri  Lintci  (Liv.  iv.  8.  23.  x.  38)  were  writings  on 
linen,  kept  in  the  temple  of  Juno  Moneta,  containing  public  records,  which 
were  of  comparatively  minor  value  ;  as  the  more  important  were  inscribed  on 
tablets  of  lead. 

M.  Kahn,  &  C.A.  Gruner,  Diss,  de  libris  linteis.  Abooc.  1815.  4.  Cf.  Dodwcll,  delibris  linteis 
&.c.  in  his  Prcelect.  Acad.  p.  051,  as  cited  §  542.  7. 

§  509.  We  may  also  mention,  as  a  sort  of  historical  documents,  the  laws  of 
the  kings  {leges  region),  which  were  collected  by  Papirius  (cf.  §  561).  There 
were  likewise  the  treaties  of  the  kings  (fa-dera  rcgum,  Hor.  Ep.  ii.  1),  which 
were  kept  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  (Polyb.  iii.  22,  25,  26).  The 
laws  of  the  ticelvc  tables  (§  56l)  ought  perhaps  to  be  named  here  also.  —  At  a 
comparatively  early  period  there  were  memoirs  of  the  censors  ( Commentarii 
censorumj,  which  were  journals  of  persons  who  had  held  that  office  ;  they 
were  but  a  variety  of  the  class  of  writings  termed  family  memoirs,  which  ere 
long  became  common,  and  which  effected  much,  it  is  said  {Liv.  viii.  40),  in 
corrupting  and  falsifying  history,  by  embellishments  and  exaggerations  de- 
signed to  exalt  particular  individuals  and  families.  There  were  also  the  Lau- 
dationes  funebres  (cf.  P.  IV.  $  340),  which  for  the  same  reason  could  not  be 
relied  on  as  accurate  historic  statements  (Cic.  Brut.  16).  —  The  early  ballads 
already  mentioned  (§  306)  may  likewise  be  noticed  among  the  sources  of  Ro- 
man history,  although  it  may  be  a  question  how  far  such  productions  were 
ever  committed  to  writing. 

§  510.  But  whatever  may  have  been  the  early  historical  records  and  monu- 
ments of  the  Romans,  they  were  almost  entirely  destroyed  {Liv.  vi.  1)  in  that 
conflagration  by  which  the  whole  city  of  Rome  was  laid  in  ruins  on  its  capture 
by  the  Gauls,  B.  C.  385.  Efforts  were  made  to  recover  and  replace  these 
records  and  monuments,  as  far  as  possible  ;  but  it  cannot  be  doubted  that 
much  was  irretrievably  lost ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  earliest  writers  after- 
wards depended  chiefly  on  tradition  as  the  authority  for  their  narratives. 
Hence  the  authenticity  of  the  common  accounts  of  the  early  history  of  Rome 
has  been  much  questioned. 

The  literary  controversy  respecting  the  authenticity  of  the  early  Roman  history  seems  to  have 
commenced  in  France.  It  has  been  long  continuedand  earnest.  In  1722,  Pouilly  brought  for- 
ward arguments  against  its  authenticity,  in  the  Memoires  de.  VJimd.  des  Inscriptions(cf. vol.  ft.  p.14. 
vol.  vrit"),  and  was  soon  opposed  by  Sallier  in  a  memoir  published  in  the  same  work  (vol.  vi). 
L.  de  Beaufort  defended  the  argument  of  Pouilly,  in  another  Memoir,  and  more  fully  in  a  treatise 
published  separately,  sur  V Incertitude  des  cinq  premiers  sicclcs  de  I'HLst.  Romaine.  Utrecht.  1738.  8. 
The  total  uncertainty  of  the  early  history  has  also  been  more  recently  maintained,  in  the  Me- 
mmres  dc  Vlnstitut,  by  Levesque,  while  its  credibility,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  strongly  advo- 
cated by  Lurcher.  Cf.  Mem.  de  flnst.  Royalc,  Classe  delist,  et  Lit.  Jinc.  vol.  ii.  p.  394.  (Par. 
1815).  The  views  of  Levesque  are  also  given  in  his  Histoire  Critique  de  la  Rep.  Rom.  Par.1807. 
— Gibbon  has  argued  for  the  certainty  of  the  history  (cf.  Miscellaneous  Works  iv).  JYeibuhr  con- 
siders much  of  it  as  entirely  fabulous  (cf.  Rom.  Gesch.  cited  $  299.  7.  —  Beck  vindicates  the  au- 
thenticity in  part,  in  the  introduction  to  his  Translation  of  Ferg  arson's  Roman  Republic  (cf. 
§  299.  7) ;  see  also  his  treatise  entitled  Epicrisis  qua-stionis  de  Hist.  Rom.  antiq.  veritate.  Lpz.1812. 
Fiedler  (cf.  §  299.  7)  maintains  that  much  was  rescued  from  ruin  in  the  Gallic  conflagration, 
and  that  valuable  documents  existed  in  other  states  of  Italy,  of  which  the  early  Roman  histo- 
rians made  use. — Bclhr,  345. — Dunlop,  p.  56  ss.  —  It  may  be  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  portions 
of  Cicero's  treatise  De  Republics  lately  discovered  (cf.  $  4684.  2  (h)  evince  that  orator's  belief  in 
the  common  accounts. 

§  511.  In  the  second  period  of  Roman  letters,  according  to  the  division  we 
have  adopted,  which  extends  from  B.  C.  240  to  B.  C.  88,  the  Roman  history 
was  treated  by  a  number  of  authors  that  are  included  under  the  name  of  An- 
nalists. The  metrical  annals  of  Neevius  and  Ennius  have  already  been  no- 
ticed (cf.  §  350,  351),  and  we  here  refer  to  annalists  who  wrote  in  prose.  The 
earliest  of  them  was  Q.  Fabius  Pictor.  Cato  the  Elder  is  included  among  them 
on  account  of  his  Origines  (cf.  §  408.  2).  Several  of  these  authors  are  said  to 
have  written  the  history  of. Roman  affairs  in  the  Greek  language.  The  works 
of  the  Annalists  are  almost  entirely  lost ;  a  few  fragments  have  been  collected, 
and  published. 


368  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

These  fragments  are  given  in  the  collect,  of  Popma,  cited  $  527.  2.— Respecting  Fabius  Pictcr, 
see  D.  G.  Mailer.  Diss,  tie  Q.  Fab.  Picture.  JFA.  1689.  A.—Emcsli,  Pro  Fabii  Fide  ad  versus  Po~ 
lybium,  in  liis  Opusc.  Philologica.    Lpz.  17G4 — Liv.  i.  44.  55.    ii.  49, — Polyb.  i.  14.   iii.  9. — Dio- 

nys.  Hal,  Ant.  Rom.  iv.  30.   vii.  70,  71. From  Cicero  and  Aulus  GclUas,  we  gather  tlie  names 

of  ten  or  twelve  others  belonging  to  this  period  ;  among  them  is  Valerias  Antics,  whose  work 
must  have  been  large,  as  the  74th  and  75th  books  of  it  are  cited  ;  and  L.  Cornelius  Si 
whose  work  seems  to  have  been  continued  by  Sallust — On  the  Annalists,  see  Vossma  &.  Hon- 
kins,  as  cited  ft  5-37.  l.—JIecrcn,  as  cited  §  249.  1. — Lachmaun,  De  font.  Liv.  as  cited  ft  531.  3.  — 
Duidop,  ii.  p.  267. — Bdfr'r,  p.  345  ss. 

§  512.  These  authors  generally  followed  the  account  of  Fabius  Pictor  re- 
specting the  affairs  of  Rome  previous  to  its  destruction  by  the  Gauls.  But  in 
reference  to  the  history  of  events  subsequent  to  that  catastrophe,  they  enjoyed 
ample  means  and  helps;  e.  g.  the  decrees  of  the  senate,  treaties,  tables  of  tri- 
umphs, official  despatches,  and  the  like.  The  vast  number  of  documents  or 
monuments,  which  were  found  among  the  ruins  of  the  capitol  when  it  was  re- 
stored by  Vespasian,  is  an  evidence  of  this  fact;  according  to  Suetonius  (in 
Vespasianum,  c.  8),  3000  brazen  tables  were  gathered  from  these  ruins.  Be- 
sides all  the  help  derived  from  such  sources,  most  of  the  annalists  were  actu- 
ally engaged,  to  some  extent,  in  the  affairs  respecting  which  they  wrote. 

§  513.  The  writers  termed  Annalists  were  not  confined  to  the  period  above 
noticed  (ft  511)  ;  in  the  next  period,  extending  from  B.  C.  88  to  A.  I).  14,  we 
find  the  name  of  several.  Among  them  were  M.  Terentius  Varro,  the  learned 
grammarian  (§  423),  and  Q.  Hortcnsius  Ortalus,  the  rival  of  Cicero  in  elo- 
quence (ft  397). In  this  period  some  of  the  Roman  writers  began  to  com- 
pose universal  histories  ;  Q.  Pomponius  Atticus  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
earliest  that  attempted  this.  The  principal  writer  of  this  class  was  Trogus 
Pompeius,  of  whose  work  we  have  an  abridgment  made  by  Justinus  (§  538). 
—  In  this  period  also  we  notice  the  class  of  works  styled  Commentarii,  a  sort 
of  auto-biography,  in  which  the  authors  relate  the  history  of  events  that  oc- 
curred in  connection  with  their  own  civil  or  military  life.  The  most  noted  are 
the  Commentaries  of  Caesar  (§  528J.  Those  of  Sylla,  in  21  books,  are  lost; 
so  are  those  of  xEinilius  Scaurus,  in  3  books,  and  those  of  Rutilius  Rufus  ;  the 
two  latter,  however,  belong  to  the  preceding  period.  The  history,  which  Cic- 
ero wrote  of  his  own  consulship,  might  with  propriety  be  assigned  to  this  class  ; 
and  likewise  the  work  of  Augustus  the  emperor,  who  wrote  memoirs  of  his 
own  life,  in  13  books.  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa,  a  friend  and  general  of  Augus- 
tus (cf.  $  480)  wrote  memoirs  of  himself. 

M.  Pompilius  Andronicus  fcf.  Sueton.  de  illust.  gram.  8) ;  Procilius  (cf.  Plin.  Hist.  N.  viii.2) ; 
and  Cfficina  (cf.  Cic.  Ep.  Famil.  vi.  7)  are  also  included,  with  others,  in  the  list  of  annalists  of 

this  period. Respecting  Pomponius  Atticus,  see  J.  Ch.  F.  Stuss,  T.  Pomp.  Atticus,  eine  Apolo- 

gie.  Eisen.  1784.  Cf.  Veil.  Paterc.  ii.  10.— Respecting  the  history  by  Cicero,  cf.  De  Leg.  i.  1.  3. 
Ep.  ad  Fam.  i.  9.  v.  12.  It  was  written  in  Greek,  in  a  style  imitating  that  of  Isocrates  ;  and 
was  sent  to  his  friend  Atticus,  to  be  published  at  Athens.     He  also  composed  a  work  on  the 

same  subject  in  Latin  verse The  memoirs  of  Augustus,  extending  to  B.  C.  26,  are  wholly 

lost.  He  is  said  to  have  drawn  up  a  summary  of  his  life  to  be  inscribed  upon  tablets  and  placed 
by  his  tomb.  The  Mo  n  amentum  Aacyranum  (cf.  P.  I.  ft  133.  5J  is  supposed  to  furnish,  partially 
at  least,  a  copy  of  this.— Cf.  Sueton.  in  Aug.  —  Dio  Cass.  (vi.  32).  —  Jac.  de  Rliocr,  Diss,  de  Stu- 
diis  Caes.  Augusti.   Gron.  1770.—  Vossius  as  cited  $  527. 1. 

§  514.  In  the  period  now  before  us,  the  third  of  our  arrangement  (§  301), 
there  were  three  writers  of  special  eminence  in  the  department  of  history. 
Julius  Caesar  has  already  been  named  ;  he  is  the  earliest  that  is  ranked  among 
the  great  Roman  historians.  Next  in  order  of  time  is  Sallust  (§  529),  who  is 
by  many  considered  as  the  first  among  the  Romans  who  truly  merited  the  title 
of  historian.  The  third  distinguished  name  in  this  period  is  that  of  Livy 
(§  531).  The  first  is  remarkable  for  simplicity,  clearness  and  purity  of  style  ; 
he  is  often  compared  to  Xenophon.  The  second  excels  in  force  and  in  the 
apt  delineation  of  character  ;  he  appears  to  have  imitated  Thucydides.  Livy 
has  less  of  simplicity  than  Csesar,  and  less  of  discrimination  perhaps  than  Sal- 
lust  ;  and  is  more  ambitious  of  rhetorical  ornament  and  effect  than  either. 

§  515.  Many  other  writers,  in  this  period,  composed  historical  works.  The 
following  should  not  be  omitted  here  ;  A.  Hirtius  (§  528,  5),  who  added  a  con- 
tinuation to  the  works  of  Cossar;  Cornelius  Nepos  (§  530),  who,  besides  his 
lives  of  illustrious  men,  composed  a  historical  work  entitled  Chronica;  Ver- 
rius  Flaccus,  who  was  the  author  of  several  works  on  history  and  grammar. 
Among  the  historical  writers  we  also  find  Lucius  Luoeeius.  whom  Cicero  re- 
quested to  write  the  history  of  his  consulship;  and  Asinius  Pollio,  to  whom  is 


HISTORY     AND      BIOGRAPHY.  369 

ascribed  the  honor  of  founding  the  first  public  library  at  Rome  (cf.  P.  I.  §126j. 
The  names  of  Valerius  Messala  Corvinus,  Lucius  Fenestella,  and  Aufidius 
Bassus,  may  be  added. 

The  writings  of  V.  Flaccus  are  lost ;  some  portions  of  the  Calendar  (Fasti  Kalendares),  which 
he  caused  to  be  inscribed  at  Pneneste  are  preserved  ;  cf.  P.  I.  §133.6. — Luccciai  wrote  a  history 
of  the  Social  war,  and  of  the  civil  wars  of  Sylla,  cf.  Cic.  Ep.  Fainil.  v.  12.  ad  Att.  iv.  6. — C.  A. 
Pollio  composed  a  history,  in  16  books,  of  the  civil  war  between  Caesar  &  Pompey,  and  the 
events  succeeding  it  until  the  reign  of  Augustus.  See  J.  R.  Thorbeckc,  Comment,  de  A.  Pol- 
lionis  vita  et  studiis.  Lugd.  Bat.  1820.  —  Scholl,  Lit.  Rom.  n.  26.  —  Messala  Corvinus  was  the 
author  of  a  work  entitled  De  Rom  aids  familiis,  which  is  lost.  The  book  now  extant  in  his  name, 
De  pro/renie  Aun-usti,  is  a  meager  sketch  of  Roman  history  from  yEneas  to  Augustus,  and  is  a 
production  of  the  middle  ages.  It  is  published  in  Syluuro-  &  Fiedler  (cited  $  527.  2)  and  sepa- 
rately by  C.  O.  Tzschucke.  ~Lpz.  1793.  Cf.  D.  O.  Mo'llcr,  Diss,  de  W.  Messaia  Corvino.  Altorf. 
1689.— Buritrmj,  in  the  Mem.  Jicad.  hiscr.  torn,  xxxiv.  —  Fenestella  wrote  a  history  entitled  An- 
nates, which  was  freely  used  by  Asconius  Pcdianus  (cf.  $  424). — The  life  of  A.  Bassus  extended 
into  the  next  period  ;  he  wrote  a  history  of  the  civil  war.  and  of  the  wars  in  Germany  ;  both 
works  are  lost.   He  is  highly  commended  by  Quintilian.   See  Quint.  Inst.  Orat.  x.  1.   Cf.  Dial. 

de  causis  corr.  eloquentiae.  23. To  these  may  also  be  added  the  names  of  several  others, 

whose  historical  writings  are  lost ;  Voluwnius,  who  wrote  a  history  of  the  war  between  the 
murderers  of  Caesar  and  his  avengers  ;  Arruntius,  who  wrote  a  history  of  the  first  Punic  war  ; 
Hyrrinus  (cf.  §  51)4),  who  wrote  an  account  of  the  Italian  cities,  and  other  historical  pieces ; 
Labicnus,  who  composed  a  historical  work  so  free  and  seditious  in  its  character,  that  it  was 
condemned  to  be  burned,  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  under  Augustus.  —  Cf.  Sclitill,  it.  32  ss.  — 
Bdhr,  360,  390,  411.—  Vossius,  as  cited  §  527.  1. 

§  516.  Before  leaving  this  period  it  may  be  proper  to  advert  to  the  peculiar 
means  which  the  writers  enjoyed  for  learning  the  course  of  public  affairs. 
The  official  annals  of  the  chief  Pontiff  ceased,  as  has  been  mentioned  (§  508), 
about  B.  C.  125;  perhaps  because  this  method  of  keeping  the  records  was 
found  inadequate  in  the  increasing  multiplicity  and  variety  of  events.  When 
Coesar  was  consul  for  the  first  time,  B.  C.  60,  he  ordered  the  acts  of  the  sen- 
ate (acta  senatus)  and  also  those  of  the  people  (acta  populi)  to  be  committed 
to  writing  daily,  and  to  be  published.  Augustus  prohibited  the  publishing  of 
the  acts  of  the  senate,  and  appointed  a  particular  senator  to  the  duty  of  re- 
cording them,  or  in  other  words,  of  keeping  the  journals;  this  senator  re- 
ceived the  title  a  cura  actorum,  and  the  copyists  or  secretaries  employed  by 
him  were  called  actuaril.  These  journals  were  preserved  in  the  Archives  of 
the  state,  and  were  a  source  of  information  to  the  writers  of  history,  in  addi- 
tion to  all  that  was  freely  published. 

The  journals  of  the  senate  were  sometimes  styled  commentarii ;  Tar..  Ann.  xv.  74.  —  Cf.  Sue- 
ton.  J.  Crcs.  20.  Oct.  36.  —  Tac.  Ann.  v.  4,  5. The  other  journals,  acta  populi,  seem  also  to 

have  been  termed   acta  publica,  acta  urbana,  and  acta  diurna.    Cf.  Sactov.  Til).  5.  —  Tac.  Ann. 

iii.  3  ;   xvi.  22. But  the  journals  that  are  frequently  cited  by  the  simple  name  of  Acta,  or  of 

Diurna,  contained  micellaneous  information  for  the  use  of  all  classes  of  readers  ;  not  merely 
the  votes  of  the  people  in  assembly  (P.  IV.  §259),  but  notices  of  the  courts  and  judicial  pro- 
ceedings of  all  meetings,  such  as  games,  spectacles,  and  the  like,  of  public  works,  marriages, 
births,  and  deaths. — Besides  these  in  the  Latin  tongue,  there  seem  to  have  been  journals  or 
daily  papers,  published  in  Greek,  containing  acecdotes  and  accounts  of  political  affairs  and 
passing  events.  Perhaps  both  these  and  those  in  Latin  are  included  under  the  r^uituura 
otjueiu  mentioned  by  Dion  Cassius. — There  appears  also  to  have  been  another  kind  of  journal, 
called  acta  Ccesarurn,  which  had  respect  more  particularly  to  the  affairs  of  the  imperial  court 

and  family. "  Under  the  emperors,  four  different  records  grew  into  use  ;  namely,  first,  the 

acts  of  the  prince  ;  secondly,  the  proceedings  of  the  senate  ;  thirdly,  the  public  ttansactions 
of  the  people  ;  and  fourthly,  the  daily  occurrences  of  the  city,  called  the  Diurna.  The  last 
were  sent  into  the  provinces,  and  were  there  received  as  the  Roman  Gazette."  —  See  Murphv, 
Note  on  Tac.  Ann.  v.  4.  —  Lipsius,  Excursus  on  the  same  passage. —  Fr.  Ch.  Schlosscr,  Archiv 
fiir  Geschichte.    Fiankf.  3830.  (i.  p.  80.)  —  H.  Dodwcll,  Pralectt.  Acadd.  p.  6t>5.  Oxf.  1692.  8.  — 

Fabricius,  Bib!.  Lat.  iii.  314 Hist,  of  Rome,  in  Lardncr's  Cabinet  Cyclop-.edia,  bk.  v.  ch.  6.  p. 

402,  as  republ.  separately,  Phil.  1837.  8. 

§  517.  In  our  next  period,  from  the  death  of  Augustus,  A.  D.  14,  to  the  time 
of  the  Antonines,  the  writers  in  the  department  of  history  were  not  so  nu- 
merous ;  yet  the  department  was  by  no  means  neglected.  The  preeminence 
among  them  is  generally  conceded  to  Tacitus  ($  534).  Suetonius  holds  a  high 
rank,  although  his  principal  work  (vS  537)  is  biographical,  rather  than  histori- 
cal. Velleius  Paterculus  ($  532)  and  Florus  ($  536)  are  authors  of  considera- 
ble merit ;  yet  their  works  are  merely  compends.  The  four  writers  just 
named  all  confined  themselves  t.o  Roman  affairs,  except  that  Paterculus  ap- 
pears to  have  designed  to  give  in  his  introduction  a  glance  at  general  history. 
Two  other  authors  of  this  period  have  obtained  some  celebrity;  namely,  Va- 
lerius Maximus  (^533),  and  Quintus  Curtius  ($535).  The  former  in  his  rela- 
tions includes  events  of  Grecian  as  well  as  Roman  history.     The  latter  is  oc- 


370  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

cupied  wholly  with  the  achievements  of  Alexander.  The  works  of  these 
several  authors  will  be  separately  noticed. 

§  518.  There  were  other  historical  writers,  whose  names  ought  perhaps  to 
be  presented  here,  although  time  has  spared  none  of  their  productions.  Cre- 
mutius  Cordus  (a)  published  a  series  of  annals,  which  the  senate  under  the 
influence  of  Tiberius  sentenced  to  the  flames,  because  the  author  had  dared 
to  call  Brutus  and  Cassius  the  last  of  the  Romans.  Cneius  Lentulus  (b)  al- 
ready alluded  to  as  an  epigrammatist  ($  340),  is  cited  by  Suetonius  as  a  histo- 
rian. Claudius  (c)  the  emperor  is  said  to  have  composed,  besides  his  own 
memoirs,  a  history  of  Rome,  beginning  with  the  victory  of  Augustus  over 
Antony,  in  41  books.  Cluvius  Rufus,  who  was  consul  under  Claudius,  wrote 
a  history  of  the  reign  of  Nero.  Pliny  the  elder  (§  470)  wrote  a  work  in  con- 
tinuation of  the  history  of  Bassus  (§515),  and  another,  in  20  books,  on  the 
Roman  wars  in  Germany.  Pliny  the  younger  is  also  mentioned  as  a  his- 
torian. 

Several  authors  also  composed  commentaries  or  memoirs  of  the  class  al- 
ready described  ($  513).  Those  of  Claudius  just  named  consisted  of  8  books. 
Tiberius  (d)  is  also  said  to  have  written  a  memoir  of  his  own  life.  Cn.  Do- 
mitius  Corbulo  (e),  who  commanded  in  Germany  under  Claudius  and  in  Ar- 
menia and  Syria  under  Nero,  composed  memoirs  which  seem  to  have  been 
frequently  used  by  Tacitus.  C.  Suetonius  Paulinus  (/)  wrote  an  account  of 
his  campaign  in  Africa.  The  memoirs  of  Crassus  Mucianus,  who  held  a 
command  in  Syria  and  took  an  active  part  in  securing  the  empire  to  Vespa- 
sian, are  often  cited  by  Pliny.  The  emperor  Nerva,  it  would  seem,  prepared 
a  journal  of  his  wars  in  Dacia. — There  were  also  some  individual  biographies. 
L.  Thraseas  Partus  (g)  wrote  the  life  of  Cato  of  Utica ;  and  Herennius  Sene- 
cio  (h)  the  life  of  Helvidius  Priscus;  a  work  which  cost  him  his  life  through 
the  jealousy  of  Domitian. 

(a)  Taz.  Ann.  iv.  34,  35.—  Sueton.  Tiber.  61.  —  (b)  Cf.  Sueton.  Calijr.  8.  —  (c)  Sucton.  Claud. 
41.— (d)  Sueton.  Tiber.  61  ;  Dom.  20.—  (e)  Tac.  Ann.  xi.  18;  xiii.  8.  35ss  ;  xv.  5ss.  —  (f)  Plin. 
Hist.  N-  v.  1.  —  (g)  Tac.  Ann.  xv.  23  ;  xvi.  21as.  —  (h)   Tac.  Vit.  Agr.  2,  3.—  Plin.  fip.  iii.  33. 

To  the  above  we  might  add  several ;  as  C.  Balbitla-s,  who  wrote  an  account  of  Egypt,  where 
he  commanded  under  Nero.  Cf.  Seneca,  Q.ubbs.  Nat.  iv.  11.  ;  M,  Servilius,  cf.  Tac.  Ann.  xiv. 
19;  &c— See  Vossius,  as  cited  §  527.  1.  Ruhr,  456.  Sckoll,  n.  3C0. 

§  510.  In  the  last  period  we  have  to  notice,  from  the  time  of  the  Antonines, 
A.  D.  160,  we  may  observe  the  same  decline  in  history  as  in  other  branches 
of  literature.  Writers  were  not  wanting,  it  is  true  ;  but  the  spirit  which 
should  penetrate  and  enliven  history  was  wanting.  The  danger  which  under 
the  imperial  tyranny  threatened  every  independent  and  faithful  inquirer  after 
truth,  exerted  a  fatal  influence  upon  historical  studies.  It  rendered  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  real  causes  and  consequences  of  events  almost  impossible.  The 
disposition  to  flattery  was  cultivated  in  a  degree  wholly  inconsistent  with  im- 
partial history.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  we  find  in  this  period  noth- 
ing specialty  eminent  in  the  department  now  under  review.  Most  of  what 
was  written  related  to  the  Roman  emperors,  and  comparatively  little  of  the 
whole  amount  of  productions  has  been  preserved  to  our  times. 

§  520.  The  first  author  to  be  mentioned  in  this  period  is  Justin  (§  538),  who 
is  commonly  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  reign  of  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus  ; 
he  is  known  by  his  abridgment  of  the  general  history  of  Trogus  Pompeius. — 
Of  writers  who  attempted  to  give  a  view  of  the  whole  Roman  history,  Aure- 
lius Victor  (§  530)  and  Flavius  Eutropius  (§  540)  were  the  principal.  An  au- 
thor by  the  name  of  Sextus  Rufus  ($  540.  5)  has  also  left  us  a  compend  of  the 
Roman  history.  We  have  a  much  more  important  and  valuable  work  in  the^ 
history  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus  ($541)  ;  with  greater  fullness  he  treated  of 
a  definite  portion  of  Roman  history,  commencing  with  the  reign  of  Nerva, 
where  the  history  of  Tacitus  closes,  and  extending  to  the  death  of  Valens. 
He  wrote  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  and  is  considered  as  the  last  of 
the  Roman  historians,  that  truly  deserved  the  name. 

§  521.  Nearly  all  the  other  writers  that  can  be  properly  included  in  this  de- 
partment belong  to  the  class  of  biographers.  The  principal  are  those  com- 
monly styled  Scriptorcs  Historic  Augusta,  or  writers  of  the  imperial  history  ; 
these  were  particularly  iElius  Spartianus,  Julius  Capitolinus,  Trebellius  Pol- 
lio,  and  Flavius  Vopiscus.     Of  their  collected  writings  we  shall  speak  below 


HISTORY     AND     BIOGRAPHY.  371 

(§  542). — It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  these  writers  cite  twenty-five  different 
authors,  who  lived  in  the  second  century,  and  composed  the  biography  of  one 
emperor  or  more  ;  but  whose  works  are  now  wholly  lost;  their  names  it  is  of 
no  importance  here  to  repeat.  The  emperor  Septimius  Severus  is  also  cited 
as  having-  written  his  own  memoir. 

§  522.  We  close  this  glance  by  adverting  to  a  few  other  writers,  that  are 
sometimes  named  among  the  historians  of  this  period.  Quintus  SeptFmiusfa,) 
is  mentioned  as  the  translator  of  the  Greek  work  of  Praxis  purporting  to  be 
the  journal  of  Dictys  Cretensis.  Julius  Exsuperantius,  probably  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifth  century,  wrote  a  tract  entitled  De  Marii,  Lepidi  et  Serto- 
rii  bellis  civiiibus. —  Hieronymus  Stridonensis,  or  as  he  is  commonly  called, 
St.  Jerome  (c),  who  died  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  left,  with  nu- 
merous other  works,  a  translation  of  the  Universal  History  or  Chronicle  of 
Eusebius.  Two  other  Christian  writers,  belonging  to  the  fifth  century,  may 
be  mentioned  here  as  chronologists.  Flavius  Lucius  Dexter  dedicated  to  St. 
Jerome  a  work  (d)  entitled  Historia  Omnimoda,  which  was  a  general  chronol- 
ogy extending  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  his  own  times.  Prosper  Aquita- 
nus  fej  composed  a  work  entitled  Chronicon,  reaching  from  the  creation  of  the 
world  to  the  capture  of  Rome  by  Genseric,  A.  D.  455. 

(a)  Cf.  $238,  260.  —  This  translation,  in  6  hooks,  is  entitled  De  Bella  Trojano,  or  Ephemeris 
Belli  Trojaiii.  It  contains  some  things  drawn  from  lo3t  works,  and  embraces  a  greater  com- 
pass than  is  taken  by  Homer.  It  commences  with  the  elopement  of  Helen  and  ends  with  the 
death  of  Ulysses.  It  appears  to  have  been  much  used  by  the  later  Byzantines ;  cf.  Hcinrich- 
seii,  De  Carmm.  Cypriis.  Havn.  1828.  —  Bditions;  by  L.  Smids,  Amst.  1702.  4.  containing  the 
Dissertation  of  Perizonius  on  the  original  and  the  translator.  —  In  Volpifs  Delph.  and  Var. 

Classics.— By  A.  Dederich,  Bon.  1833.  S.—SchMl,  Litt.  Rom.  in.  158.  —  Bahr,  455. (b)  The 

work  of  Exsuperantius  is  supposed  to  be  an  abridgment  of  a  lost  work  of  Sallust ;   it  is  given 

in  many  of  the  editions  of  Sallust,  e.  g.  Qcrlach's  cited  $529.  5. (c)  This  translation  is 

given  in  the  edition  of  Jerome's  works,  by  Vallarsi,  Veron.  1734ss.  11  vols.  fol.  reprinted  Ven. 
1766.  11  vols.  4. —  Also  by  7*.  Roucalli,  Vetust.  Lat.  Scriptor.  Chronica.  Pav.  1787.  2  vols.  4.— 

Bdhr,  Gescli.  Horn.  Lit.  Supplem.  p.  95. (d)  A  Jesuit  named  Jeronimo  de  la  Hi^ucra,  at  the 

beginning  of  the  17th  century,  fabricated  a  work  purporting  to  be  the  lost  Chronicle  of  Lucius 
Dexter,  and  pretended  that  the  manuscript  had  been  found  in  the  monastery  of  Worms.  It 
was  published  after  his  death,  by  J.  Calderon,  Cjes.-August.  (Saragossa,)  1694.  4.—  ScliMl,  Hi. 

169. (e)  The  Chronicon  of  Prosper  is  contained,  with  the  chronological  writings  of  some 

others,  in  the  work  entitled  Chronica  medii  mm,  by  Ch.  F.  Bossier,  Tubing.  1798.  —  Sclibll,  ill. 
172.  —  Bdhr,  as  last  cited. 

§  523.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  advert  here  distinctly  to  the  biographical  wri- 
tings of  the  Romans,  although  the  most  important  of  them  have  already  been 
named  in  glancing  at  the  historians.  This  form  of  historical  literature  seems 
to  have  been  cultivated  much  more  among  the  Romans  than  among  the 
Greeks;  at  least  we  have  evidence  that  there  were  many  biographical  wri- 
tings at  Rome,  earlier  than  those  of  Plutarch  ($  249),  whose  series  of  parallel 
lives  is  the  most  important  work  in  the  Greek  language  belonging  to  this 
branch  of  letters.  Indeed  there  is  no  doubt  that  Plutarch  derived  much  assis- 
tance from  Roman  sources.  —  The  earliest  of  these  biographical  writings 
which  are  distinctly  noticed  are  the  memoirs  of  the  censors,  already  named 
(§  509).  The  censorial  office  was  established  B.  C.  442,  which  was  above  50 
years  before  the  burning  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls.  Dionysius  Halycarnasseus 
appeals  to  certain  of  these  memoirs  \rifitrTiKavnofiVi\iiara,  Rom.  Ant.  i.  74),  as 
monuments  examined  by  himself,  and  confirming  his  statements  as  to  this  ear- 
ly period.  The  family  memoirs  (cf.  Plin.  Hist.N.  xxxv.  2)  and  the  funeral 
eulogies  already  mentioned  (§  509),  belong  also  to  the  department  of  biog- 
raphy. 

§  524.  There  were  very  numerous  biographical  works  of  another  class,  viz. 
the  Commentaries  or  Memoirs,  which  have  been  before  spoken  of  ($  513)  as  a 
species  of  autobiography.  Among  these  we  find  the  memoirs  of  generals,  de- 
tailing their  own  military  achievements;  e.  g.  those  of  Scaurus,  Rutilius  Ru- 
fus,  Sylla,  Julius  Cresar,  Corbulo,  Mucianus,  and  others;  of  which  time  has 
spared  to  us  only  the  Commentaries  of  Ccesar.  We  find  also  the  memoirs  of 
consuls  and  civil  governors  describing  the  events  of  their  official  life  ;  e.  g. 
Cicero's  memoirs  of  his  consulship  ($513),  which  he  wrote  first  in  Greek 
prose,  and  afterwards  in  Latin  verse-  There  were  likewise  in  this  class  a 
number  of  imperial  memoirs,  none  of  which,  however,  are  preserved  ;  those  of 
Tiberius,  Claudius,  and  Nerva  have  been  mentioned.  Here  may  be  named 
the  work  of  Agrippina,  Nero's  mother,  whose  memoirs  of  herself  are  cited  by 
Tacitus  (Ann.  iv.  53)  and  commended  by  Pliny  (Hist.  vii.  8). 


372  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

§  525.  A  different  class  of  biographical  writings  is  presented  in  collections 
including  the  lives  of  a  number  of  eminent  persons.  The  earliest  probably, 
was  that  of  Varro,  whose  collection  ($423.  1),  is  said  to  have  contained  a 
notice  of  seven  hundred  distinguished  men.  Here  belong  the  biographical 
works  of  Suetonius  (§  537).  of  which  the  lives  of  the  Cctsars,  and  the  lives  of 
the  Grammarians  are  specially  valuable.  In  the  same  class  are  the  biograph- 
ical collections  of  Cornelius  Nepos  (§  530)  and  Aurelius  Victor  (§  539J. — 
There  was  a  work  of  the  grammarian  Hyginus  f §  504j,  on  the  achievements 
of  eminent  nun,  which  would  be  ranked  under  this  kind.  Caius  Appius  is 
mentioned  as  having  written  the  Lives  of  illustrious  Commanders.  Here  also 
belong  the  biographies  included  in  what  is  called  the  Augustan  History  (§  542;. 
It  may  not  be  wholly  out  of  place  here  to  advert  to  a  work  of  Jerome,  entitled 
Liber  de  Scriptoribus  ecclesiasticis ,  which  contains  brief  notices  of  more  than  a 
hundred  Christian  authors. 

§  526.  Finally,  we  have  to  mention  in  this  glance  several  works  which  were 
simply  individual  biographies.  The  history  of  Alexander  by  Quintus  Curtius 
(§  535)  may  be  put  in  this  class.  We  have  one  beautiful  specimen  of  the  kind 
here  designated  in  the  life  of  Agricola  by  Tacitus  (%  534J.  The  classical  wri- 
ters refer  to  several  other  single  biographies,  which  are  not  extant.  Muratius 
Rufus  (a)  is  said  to  have  written  a  life  of  the  younger  Cato.  Thraseas  Paetus 
(b)  published  a  biography  of  the  same  illustrious  person.  Bibulus  wrote  the 
life  of  M.  Brutus.  Brutidius  Niger  (c)  composed  an  account  of  the  closing 
scenes  of  Cicero's  life.  Pliny  the  elder  is  said  to  have  given  a  life  of  Pompo- 
nius  Secundus,  a  poet  and  general,  who  was  honored  with  a  triumph  under 
Nero.  Herennius  Senecio  (d)  wrote  the  biography  of  Helvidius  Priscus ;  a 
work  which  cost  him  his  life,  through  the  jealousy  of  Domitian. 

(a)  Cf.  Hcercn,  De  Fontibus  Plut.  cited  §  249.  1. — Rufus  and  Bibulus  are  among  the  Roman 
biographers  of  whom  Plutarch  made  use.—  (b)  Cf.  Tac.  Ann.  xv.  23.  xvi.  21  ss.  —  (c)  Cf.  Tac. 
Ann.  iii.  6G.  —  Sencc.  Suasor.  vii.  —  (tl)  Tac.  Vit.  Agric.  2.  3.  —  Plin.  Ep.  iii.  33. 

§  527.  We  here  mention  some  of  the  works  which  illustrate  the  general 
subject;  and  some  of  the  collections. 

1.  G.  J.  Vossius,  De  Historicis  Latinis.  Lugd.  Bat.  1651.  4.  with  the  Supplement  to  the  same, 
by  ./.  A.  Fabncius.  Hamb.  1709.  8.  —  M.  Hankius,  De  Rom.  rerum  Scriptoribus.  Lpz.  1688.  4.  — 
Bait.  Bovifacius,  De  quadraginta  Rom.  Hist.  Scriptoribus.  Helmst.  1620.  4.  —  Cf.  Fabriciics, 

Bibl.  Lat.  iii.  287. Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  i.  160  ss.  if.  2  ss.  357  ss.  in.  139  ss.  —  Bdhr,  338- 

478.  —  Rollin,  Of  Polite  Learning,  ch.  ii.  Art.  2.  rvol.  n.  p.  507.  in  ed.  N.  York,  1835.;  —  G-  L. 
Walch.  Abhandlung  iiber  die  Kuntsform  der  antiken  Biographie,  in  his  ed.  of  Tac.  cited  §  534. 
4.  —  Frcret,  Sur  l'etude  des  anciennes  histoires  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  vi. 
p.  146  —  Meusel,  as  cited  $  240. 

2.  Collections.  —  F.  Sylburg,  Hist.  Rom.  Script.  Lat.  et  Gra?c.  Frankf.  1588-90.  3  vols,  fol.— 
Aus.  Popma,  Fragm.  hist.  vet.  Lat.  &c.  Amst.  1620.  8.  —  Klettenberg  &  Wilder,  Script.  Hist. 
Rom.  nat.  vet.  (ed.  B.  C.  Haurisius)  Heidelb.  1743-48.  3  vols.  fol.  with  notes  and  figures.  — 
RuhlcopfSc  Sccbodc,  Corpus  Historicorum  Latinorum.  Lpz.  1815.  8.  commenced.  —  Fr.  Fiedler, 
Script.  Hist.  Rom.  minores  sex.  Lpz.  1833.  8.  —  Eichhorn,  as  cited  §  240.  —  Conciones  et  Ora- 
tiones  ex  Historicis  Latinis  Excerptie.   Oxf.  1820.  12. 

§  528.  Julius  Ccesar,  whose  life  and  character  are  prominent  in  the  political 
history  of  Rome,  is  also  conspicuous  as  a  historical  author,  on  account  of  his 
works  called  Commentaries  or  Memoirs  (vTcouvt\uaTa).  The  Commentaries  on 
the  Gallic  War  consist  of  seven  books,  treating  of  the  events  during  as  many 
years  ;  the  eighth  book  (usually  added  to  these,)  is  ascribed  to  Aulus  Hirtius, 
who  was  Caesar's  lieutenant  (legatus)  and  confidential  friend.  The  Commen- 
taries on  the  Civil  War  consist  of  three  books.  These  two  works  are  of  great 
value,  both  from  the  fact  that  Ccesar  was  principal  actor  in  the  events  related, 
and  also  from  the  style  in  which  they  are  composed,  which  is  simple  yet  per- 
fectly appropriate,  and  brief  without  becoming  dry. — The  books  pertaining  to 
the  Alexandrian,  African,  and  Spanish  wars,  are  ascribed  to  A.  Hirtius,  or  to 
Caius  Oppius,  another  friend  and  companion  of  Caesar. 

1.  Cresar  was  born  at  Rome  B.  C.  99,  and  was  assassinated  B.  C.  44.  He 
was  eminent  for  his  learning  and  his  eloquence,  as  well  as  for  his  military 
talents.  —  We  have  his  life  by  Suetonius  and  by  Plutarch.  There  is  also  a  bi- 
ography formerly  ascribed  to  J.  Celsus,  but  now  considered  as  the  work  of 
Petrarch. 

Cf.  S.  H.  D(  dwell,  Diss,  de  J.  Claris  vita  per  J.  Celsum,  annexed  to  his  Annalrsi  Qvintilian. 
&c.  Oxon.  1696.  8.—  C.  E.  Ch.  Schneider,  Petrarchffi  Historia  Jul.  Caesaris  fee.  Lpz.  1827.  8 — 
The  life  of  Casar  has  also  been  treated  bv  modern  writers  ;  A.  G.  Jtfeissner,  Leben  des  J.  C. 
fended  by  Ilakcn).   Berl.  1812.  4  vols.  8.  —  F.  D.  Grater,  Ueber  Caesar's  Ermordung  &c.  Zur. 


HISTORIANS.       JULIUS  CESAR.     SALLUST.  373 

XS20.  8.— C.  Coote,  LL.  D.  Life  of  C.  J.  Caesar.  Lond.  1796.  12.—  Oudendorp,  Orat.  de  J.  C.  Cses. 
literatis  studiis.  Lugd.  Bat.  1740.  —  D.  G.  Moller,  Diss,  de  J.  Cssare.   Alt.  1687.  4. 

2.  The  Commentaries  of  Caesar  are  chiefly  occupied  with  the  detail  of  mili- 
tary operations.  The  military  spirit  of  the  Roman  character  and  institutions 
is  everywhere  exhibited  ;  and  almost  everything  which  the  scenes  of  war  can 
offer  to  awaken  and  sustain  our  interest  in  a  narrative,  is  found  in  these  writings. 

Dunlop,  ii.  95. — F.  Schlegel,  Lect.  on  Hist.  Lit.  —  On  Caesar's  style,  cf.  Cic.  Brut.  75. —  Quint. 
Ins.  Or.  x.  1. —  Tac.  Ann.  xiii.  3. — Jacob,  Diss,  de  ubertate  et  verbositate  Caesaris,  in  the  Quast. 
Luciann.  ad  Toxar. — Berger,  De  naturali  pulchritudine  orationis.  Lpz.  1720.  4.— On  his  credi- 
bility, cf.  Sutton,  Jul.  Cais.  56. — C.  H.  Eckard,  De  C.  A.  Pollione  iniquo  optim.  Latinit.  censore. 
Jen.  1743.  4.— H.  0.  Duysing,  De  ride  C.  J.  Caesaris  dubia  &.c.  Marb.  1784.  —  There  is  a  Greek 
version  of  the  Gallic  war,  by  a  certain  Planudcs,  which  is  of  some  value  in  settling  the  Latin 
text.  It  is  given  in  the  ed.  of  Lemaire,  cited  below.  —  Cf.  Flad,  Comparatio  Jul.  Caesaris  Gr&eci 
c.  Latino.  Freib.  1815. 

3.  Caesar  wrote  other  works,  which  are  lost.  The  treatise  De  Analogia,  on 
the  analogies  of  the  Latin  tongue,  in  two  books,  addressed  to  Cicero,  was 
written  (a)  while  crossing  the  Alps.  The  works  entitled  Auguralia  and  De 
Auspiciis,  treated  of  topics  belonging  to  the  art  of  divination;  as  did  also  the 
treatise  De  Motu  siderum(b). — A  collection  of  anecdotes  called  Apoplitliegmata, 
is  said  to  have  been  made  by  him  ;  the  publication  of  which  was  hindered  by 
Augustus.  —  He  composed  a  work  entitled  Anticato,  in  two  books,  which  are 
a  sort  of  rhetorical  declamations,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  speeches  before 
a  judicial  tribunal,  and  are  said  to  have  been  written  (c)  in  reply  to  a  work  of 
Cicero  entitled  Laus  Catonis.  —  Ancient  writers  speak  of  a  work  of  Caesar 
called  Ephemeris  ;  respecting  which  there  is  a  dispute  among  critics  whether 
it  was  was,  or  was  not,  the  same  work  as  his  Commentaries. 

(a)  Cf.  Suelon.  J.Caes.  56.~Aul.Qell.  Noct.  Att.  i.10.  vii.  9. (b)Cf.Plin.  Hist.Nat.xviii.26. 

(c)  Cf.  Cic.  Ep.  ad  Att.  xii.  40 Aid.  Gell.  N.  A.  iv.  16. Dunlop,  ii.  100  ss.— Bdkr,  358. 

—  Sclwll,  n.  6.  —  A  collection  of  the  Fragments  of  Caesar  is  given  in  the  ed.  of  Oudendorp,  be- 
low cited. 

4.  The  name  of  Caesar  is  connected  with  several  scientific  improvements 
among  the  Romans.  It  was  by  his  counsel  that  the  geometrical  survey  of  the 
whole  empire  was  decreed  by  the  senate  (cf.  $  480). — He  also  greatly  amended 
the  Roman  Calendar,  and  introduced  a  method  of  computing  time  which  is 
still  retained  as  the  basis  of  the  modern  calendar. 

Cf.  P.  V.  §  192.  —  Blondel,  Hist,  du  Calendrier  Romain.  Par.  1682.  4.  —  Bianchinus,  Diss,  de 
Calendario  et  Cyclo  Cessans.   Rom.  1703.  fol. 

5.  There  was  doubt,  in  the  time  of  Suetonius,  respecting  the  actual  author  of  the  works 
on  the  Alexandrine,  African,  and  Spanish  wars. — Cf.  Sueton.  Jul.  Cass.  56. — //.  Dodwell,  Diss. 
Ue  autore  Bell.  Alexand.  &c.  given  in  Oudendorp'' s  ed.  below  cited. —  Vossius,  as  cited  §  527.  1. 

6.  Editions.  —  Opera.— Best ;  JV.  L.  Achaintre  &  JV.  E.  Lemaire.  Par.  1819-22.  4  vols.  8.  in 
Lemaire' s  Bibl.  Lat.  —  J.  J.  Oberlin.  Lpz.  1805.  1819.  8.  Lond.  1825.  8.  Vien.  1825.  3  vols.  8. 
The  text  of  Oberlin  is  followed  in  Valpifs  ed.  Lond.  1819.  No.  8-12  of  the  Delphin  and  Vario- 
rum Classics Fr.  Oudendorp.   Leyd.  1737.  4.   Repr.  (ed.  F.  JV.  Moms)   Lpz.  1780.  8.  &  StUttg. 

1822.  2  vols.  8.  —  Other  recent  editions  ;  J.  B.  Giani.  Mil.  1820.  3  vols.  8. — T.  Ch.  Ddhne.  Lpz. 
1825.  8.—F.  C.  Pottier.  Par.  1826.  3  vols.  8.— A.  Baron.  Brux.  1827.  2  vols.  8.—C.  Anthon.  New 
York,  1833.  12.  school  ed. Of  earlier  editions  ;  S.  Clarke.  Lond.  1712.  fol.  with  87  copper- 
plate engravings  ;  "  magnificent  and  celebrated."  —  Davisius  (Davics).  Camb.  1706.  4.  with 
the  Greek  version  of  the  Bell.  Gall.— The  Princeps,  by  Swrynheym  fy  Pannartz  (printers).   Rom. 

1469.  fol.    Moss  mentions  eight  other  folio  editions  in  the  15th  century. De  Bello  G  a  1 1  i  c  o ; 

A.  Mmbius.  Hannov.  1830.  2  vols.  8.  containing  also  the  Alex.  Afr.  &.  Span.  wars.  —  De  Bell. 
C  i  v  i  1  i  ;  C.  G.  Hertog.   Lpz.  1834.  8. 

7.  Translations.— German.— Ax  Wagner.    Hof.  1815.  2  vols.  8. French.— Turpin  de  Crissi. 

Montarq.  1785.  3  vols.  4.  with  40  plates  ;  Lat.  &.  Fr.  with  notes. English.— Best,  W.  Duncan. 

Lond.1753.fol.  1755. 8.  1819. 8.  with  a  discourse  on  the  Rom.  art  of  war.— For  others,  cf.  Moss, 
Bibliogr.  i.  240. 

8.  Illustrative.— In  addition  to  works  already  named  ;  J.  F.  Rdsclt,  iiber  die  Comm.  des  Cae- 
sar. Hal.  1783.  8.— F.  Brown,  Diss,  on  the  Mona  of  Caesar  &c.  Lond.  1702.  12.— Diss,  on  Cse- 
sar's  passage  of  the  Thames  (by  S.  Gale),  and  other  Pieces,  in  the  work  entitled  Archaologia, 
publ.  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London.—  Guiscard,  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  275.  —  Elberling, 
Obs.  Crit.  in  Cass.  Havn.  1828.  8.  containing  notices  of  manuscripts.  —  Cf.  Harles,  Brev.  Not. 
Suppl.  i.  279.  —  J.  von  Hefner,  Geographie»des  Transalp.  Galliens  &c.  Munch.  1836.  8.  with  a 
map.— By  same,  Geographie  zu  J.  C.  Comm.  de  bello  civili.   Munch.  1837.  8. 

§  529.  Cuius  Sallustius  Crispus,  of  Amiternum  in  the  Sabine  territory,  was 
a  contemporary  of  Caesar.  His  character  as  a  writer  is  more  reputable  than 
his  morals,  according  to  the  common  account,  which  appears  to  be  not  without 
foundation.  In  history  he  adopted  Thucydides  as  his  model.  A  noble  brevity 
and  a  vivid  manner  of  representing  events,  were  the  happy  fruits  of  this  imi- 
tation. He  indulges,  however,  too  often  in  expressions  which  are  unusual 
and  obsolete.  The  works  which  we  have  from  him  relate  to  two  very  impor- 
tant events  in  Roman  history ;  namely,  the  Conspiracy  of  Cataline,  and  the 

32 


374    '  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

war  of  the  Romans  with  the  Numidian  king  Jugurtha.  Of  his  Roman  History 
in  six  books,  from  the  death  of  Sylla  to  the  conspiracy  of  Cataline,  only  a  few 
fragments  are  extant.  —  We  may  doubt  the  genuineness  of  the  declamations 
which  are  ascribed  to  him,  and  also  of  the  two  treatises  or  letters  addressed  to 
J.  Caesar  on  the  administration  of  the  state. 

1.  Sallust  was  born  B.  C.  85,  and  died  B.  C.  35.  In  the  year  B.  C.  48  he 
was  excluded  from  the  senate  on  the  charge  of  immorality  (Aul.  Gell.  Noct. 
Att.  xvii.  18).  He  embraced  the  side  of  Caesar  against  Pompey,  and  was 
made  by  him  governor  of  Numidia,  where  he  enriched  himself  by  plundering 
the  province.  When  he  returned  to  Rome  he  built  a  magnificent  palace  near 
the  city,  which  was  surrounded  by  the  delightful  pleasure-grounds  afterwards 
celebrated  by  the  name  of  the  Gardens  of  Sallust  (Horti  Sallustiani)  ;  this  pal- 
ace became  the  residence  of  several  of  the  emperors,  and  was  consumed  by 
fire  when  Alaric  took  the  city. — A  life  of  Sallust,  full  of  hostility  towards  him, 
was  written  by  Lenceus,  the  freedman  of  Pompey  J  and  another  by  Asconius 
Pedianus  :  both  of  them  are  lost.  There  is  extant  a  declamation  against 
Sallust,  which  was  once  ascribed  to  Cicero,  but  is  now  generally  ascribed  to 
Porcius  Latro,  a  rhetorician  in  the  time  of  Claudius.  The  charge  of  excessive 
licentiousness  upon  Sallust  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  a  calumny  occasioned 
by  confounding  him  with  his  nephew,  mentioned  b7  Horace  (Sat.  i.  2.  48. 
cf.  Od.  ii.  2). 

On  the  Life  of  S.  see  D.  G.  Motter,  De  Sallustio.  Alt.  1684.  4.— De  Brosses,  in  the  Mem.  Acad. 
Inscr.  vol,  xxiv.  ;  also  in  his  Transl.  below  cited.  —  O.  M.  M'uller,  Sallustius,  oder  hist.  krit. 
Untersuch.  der  Nachrict.  von  S.  Leben  &c.  Zullich.  1817.  8.  —  J.  W.  Lobell,  zur  Beurtheilung 
des  Sail.  Bresl.  1818.  8.  written  in  answer  to  the  preceding.— Le  Clerc,  Sallustii  Vita,  given  in 
the  ed.  of  Havercamp,  cited  below.—  Wieland,  on  Hor.  Sat.  i.  2.  48.  in  his  Trans,  cited  §  363.  5. 

—  Roos,  Bemerk.  iiber  d.  moral.  Charakt.  d.  Sallust.  Giess.  1788.  4.  —  Histoire  de  Cataline  par 
Plutarque  &c.  trad,  en  Franc.   Amst.  1756.  8. 

2.  The  two  histories  now  extant  are  supposed  by  many  of  the  critics  to  have 
been  written  after  Sallust's  return  from  Numidia  to  Rome.  The  Jugurthine 
War  certainly  was.  In  relation  to  this,  he  consulted  the  documents  preserved 
in  the  archives  of  king  Hiempsal. 

Dunlop,  ii.  85  ss.— Bahr,  378.— Scholl,  n.  20.  — Respecting  the  authorities  used  by  Sallust,  cf. 
Gcrlach,  in  his  ed.  below  cited.— On  his  style  &c.  JVast,  De  virtutibus  hist.  Sallustianae.  Stutg. 
1785.  and  in  his  Opusc.  Lot.  Tiib.  1821.  —  Gerlach,  Progr.  iiber  den  Geschichtscr.  C.  Sallust. 
Bas.  1831. 

3.  The  Roman  History  consisted  of  only  five  books,  as  modern  critics  show, 
instead  of  six  as  formerly  believed.  It  included  a  period  of  thirteen  years, 
beginning  where  the  annals  of  Sisenna  (cf.  §  511)  ended  ;  its  loss  is  much  re- 
gretted. Many  brief  and  disconnected  fragments  have  been  collected  ;  but 
the  most  important  remains  of  the  work  are  four  orations,  and  tioo  letters, 
found  by  Pomponius  Laetus  in  a  Ms.  of  the  Vatican,  containing  a  collection  of 
speeches  from  Roman  history. 

The  fragments  are  given  in  De  Brosses  (Brossaus  &  De  Brossius),  Fragmenta  Sallustiana 
&c.  Dijon.  1780.  Repr.  Lunsb.  1828.  8.  The  same  author,  in  a  French  work,  entitled  Histoire 
de  la  Republ.  Rom.  par  Salluste.  Dijon.  1777.  3  vols.  8.  had  attempted  to  reconstruct  the  work 
of  Sallust  by  a  translation  of  the  fragments  and  by  additions  ;  this  work  was  translated 
into  German  by  J.  C.  Schliiter.  Osnab.  1799-1804.  6  vols.  8.  —  Cf.  F.  Kritz,  De  C.  Sail,  fragm.  a 
C.  De  Brossio  digest.  &c.  Erf.  1829.  4.  —  Also  J.  J.  Kreissig,  C.  Sail.  Historiarum  iii  (tertii) 
Fragm.  e  cod.  Vat.  edita  ab  A.  Maio  &c.  Mis.  1830.  8.— J.  C.  Orellius,  Orat.  et  Epist.  ex  Sail, 
hist,  libris  deperd.  &x.  Turici,  1831.  8.  Cf.  Orellius  (same),  Hist.  crit.  Eclogarum  ex  Sail.  &c. 
Tut.  1832.  8. 

4.  The  two  declamations  are  entitled  declamatio  in  Catalinam  and  declamatio  in  Ciccronem ;  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  the  work  of  Porcius  Latro.  There  is  extant  a  speech  against  Sallust, 
which  is  ascribed  to  Cicero,  but  was  the  work  of  some  rhetorician  (cf.  j>  404.  3) — The  two  let- 
ters to  Caesar,  orationes  or  epistolce,  de  republica  ordinanda,  are  also  considered  as  rhetorical  fab- 
rications.   Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  i.  240,  41.— Bahr,  380.— Cf.  Quint.  Inst.  Or.  iv.  1.  ix.  3. 

5.  Editions.— Whole  Works  ;  best,  F.  D.  Gerlfch.  Bas.  1823  ss.  3  vols.  4.—  C.  H.  Frotscher. 
Lpz.  1825-30.  3  vols.  8.  —  E.  J.  Richter,  commenced  Mon.  1836.  8.  also  in  the  Bibliothcca  Com- 
mentariorum  in  Scriptores  tam  Graecos  quam  Latinos.  —  Best  of  the  last  century,  ./.  JVa.<--c. 
Cambr.  1710.  4.  formed  by  a  collation  of  nearly  80  Mss.  and  containing  a  Lexicon    Salhistianum. 

—  G.  Corte  (Cortias).  Lpz.  1724.  4.  —  S.  Havercamp.  Amst.  1742.  2  vols.  4.  —  There  are  many 
other  good  editions  ;  H.  Homer.    Lond.  1789.  8.—  W.  Lana-e.    Hal.  1815.  8.—F.  Kritzius.    Lpz. 

1835.  2  vols.  8.— A.  Pappuar.    Vien.1837.  2  vols.  8. The  Princcps,  by  V.  De  Spira.   Ven.1470. 

fol.  (Moss,  ii.  555.) — There  have  been  many  school  editions  of  the  two  histories ;  J.  Seibt.  Prag. 
1S22, 1833.  8.— C.  Anthon.   N.  York,  1835.  12. 

6.  Translations.— German.— Among  the  best  ;  J.  C.  Schlvtcr,  Miinst.  1806,  1818.  2  vols.  8.— 

K.  L.  non  Woltmann.  Piatr.  1814.  8. French.— Jfic.  Beauzcc.  Par.  1769.  12. — Dur.  de  Lamalle. 

Par.  1808.  8.     For  a  notice  of  this  and  other  French  versions,  cf.  DussavWs  Annales  Litt.  3d 

vol English.— Earliest,  by  "  Syr  Alexander  Barclay  preest,"  Lond.  fol.  without  date. 

Reprinted  Lond.  1557.  8.  cf.  Moss,  n.  564.— Not  less  than  12  other  English  versions  are  named. 


HISTORIANS.       NEPOS.     LIVY.  375 

The  better  among  them  ;    W.  Rose.  Lond.  1757.  8.  —J.  Mair,  with  Lat.  Edinb.  1774.  8 —  W. 
Stewart.  Lond.  1806.  2  vols.  A.— A.  Murphy.   Lond.  1807.  8. 

§  530.  Cornelius  Nepos,  a  native  of  Hostilia  in  the  territory  of  Verona, 
lived  a  short  time  before  the  Christian  era.  Respecting  the  circumstances  of 
his  life  little  is  known.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cicero  and  Atticus.  Of  his  writ- 
ings we  have  only  a  work  entitled  Vitce  excellentium  imperatorum.  Some  have 
ascribed  it  to  iErnilius  Probus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Great, 
and  was  probably  only  a  transcriber  of  the  work  ;  others  have  considered  it 
as  an  abridgment  made  by  Probus  from  a  more  complete  production  by  Nepos. 
These  lives  are  models  of  biographical  composition,  in  respect  of  simplicity 
and  beauty,  although  too  brief  and  not  wholly  satisfactory  as  to  their  con- 
tents.    Nepos  was  author  of  several  other  works,  which  are  lost. 

1.  There  is  some  doubt  even  respecting  the  place  of  his  birth.  The  state- 
ment that  he  came  to  his  death  by  poison  received  from  his  freedman  is  a 
mistake. 

Cf.  Plin.  Hist.  N.  iii.  18.  Ep.  iv.  28  ;  v.  3,  6.—Plut.  Vit.  Luculli,  43.—  Moller,  Diss,  de  Corn. 
Nepote.  Alt.  1683.  8.—  C.  F.  Ranlcius,  Comment,  de  C.  Nep.  vita  et  scriptis.  Quedl.  1827.  4. 

2.  Modern  critics  have  pointed  out  many  mistakes  in  the  work  entitled 
Vitce  imperatorum.  It  contains  the  lives  of  twenty-two  generals  (nineteen 
Grecian,  one  Persian,  and  two  Carthaginian) ;  and  also  a  brief  notice  or  cata- 
logue of  the  Grecian  and  Persian  kings.  In  some  manuscripts  are  also  con- 
tained a  life  of  Cato  Major  and  a  life  of  Atticus ;  which  however  must  have 
belonged  originally  to  a  separate  production.  —  Those  who  consider  the  work 
to  be  an  abridgment  made  by  Probus,  suppose  it  to  have  been  drawn  from 
the  work  ascribed  to  Nepos  by  the  ancients,  under  the  title  of  Libri  Virorum 
illustrium. 

Cf.  Aul.  Gell.  Noct.  Att.  xi.  8.  —  Bahr,  366.  —  Respecting  the  origin  of  the  work,  see  J.  W. 
Mosche,  C.  Nep.  liber  etc.  utrum  opus  integrum  an  operis  maj.  pars  quaedam  sit.  Lub.  1807. 
— G.  F.  Rinck,  Saggio  di  un  Esame  crit.  per  restituire  a  Emil.  Prob.  il  libr.  de  Vit.  exc.  imper. 
Sec.  Ven.  1818.  8.  Trans,  into  German  by  D.  Hermann,  with  the  title,  Versuch  einer  krit. 
Prufung  den  Mm.  Prob.  &c.  Lpz.  1819.  8. — Ddlme,  De  vit.  exc.  imper.  C.  Nep.  non  JEm.  Prob. 
attribuendis.  Ciz.  1827. 

Respecting  the  authority  &c.  see  Dunlop,  vol.  3d,  as  cited  $299.  8. — J.  J.  Hisely,  Diss.  Crit. 
de  fontibus  et  auctor.  C.  Nep.  Delph.  Bat.  1827.  —  J.  Held,  Prolegom.  ad  vitam  Attici,  qure  C. 
Nep.  adscribitur.  Vratisl.  1826.  8. 

3.  Works  under  the  following  titles  are  ascribed  to  Nepos  by  the  ancients  ;  Chronica  or  An- 
nales,  in  3  books  ;  Exemplorum  libri,  of  which  a  5th  book  is  cited  ;  Libri  vir.  illustrium,  already 
named  ;  De  historicis,  including  both  Greek  and  Roman  historians.  Letters  to  Cicero  are  also 
mentioned,  and  Pliny  speaks  of  Cornelius  as  having  cultivated  poetry. —  The  composition  ex- 
tant under  the  title  De  viris  illustribus,  formerly  ascribed  to  Nepos,  is  now  acknowledged  as 
the  work  of  Aurelius  Victor  (§  539).  The  pretended  translation  of  Dares  is  an  admitted  fab- 
rication (cf.  $260). 

Aid.  Gell.  Noct.  Att.  xvii.  21  ;  vii.  18  ;  xi.  8  ;  xv.  28.— Cor??.  Nep.  Vit.  Dion.  3 — Lactant.Inst. 
Div.  iii.  15. — Plin.  Ep.  v.  3. — Bdhr,  3S3.  — Bardili  and  Tzschucke,  in  their  editions  below  cited. 
— Some  fragments  of  the  lost  works  were  collected  by  A.  Schott,  in  the  edition  of  Nepos,  publ. 
Frankf.  1608.  fol.  —  They  are  given  in  the  editions  of  Bardili  and  others. 

4.  Editions.  —  Best ;  W.  H.  Bardili.  Stuttg.  1820.  2  vols.  8.  —  K.  H.  Tzschucke.  Gott.  1804. 
(with  a  commentary,)  2  vols.  8.  — J.  F.  Fischer,  (ed.  by  Harles.)  Lpz.  1806.  8.  —  J.  Ch.  Ddhne. 

Lpz.  1827.  8. The  Prmccps,  by  JV.  Jenson.  Ven.  1471.  4.  —  Very  numerous  are  the  editions 

specially  designed  for  schools  ;  A.  Stewart.  Edinb. 1819.  8 Ch.  F.  Luttmann,  with  a  Lexicon. 

Lpz.  1816.  8.— J.  Billerbech.  3d  ed.  Han.  1838.  8.  with  a  German  Lexicon. 

5.  Translations.— German. — J.  A.  B.  Bergstrasser.  3d  ed.  impr.  bv  G.  Eichoff.  Frankf.  1815. 

8. French.  — Abbe  Paul.  Par.  1781.  12. Italian.  —  A.  Bandiera.  Ven.  1743.  8. JEng- 

lish.— Sir  Matt.  Hale,  with  observations.  Lond.  1677.  8.  —  T.  Creech,  and  others.  Oxf.  1684.  12. 
—  J.  Clarke,  (exactly  literal,  with  orig.  Lat.)  Lond.  1722.  8.  often  reprinted. 

6.  Illustrative.  — H.  L.  Hartmann,  Animadversiones  in  C.  Nepotem.  Frankf.  1805-8.  4.  — 
C.  H.  Paujlcr,  De  rebus  quibusdam  dubiis  in  C.  Nep.  Sec.  Dresd.  1815.  4.  —  J.  H.  Schlegel,  Ob- 
serv.  crit.  et  hist,  in  C.  Nep.  Hafn.  1778.  4.  —  J.  Jortin,  in  his  Tracts  philological  &c.  Lond. 
1790.  8.  —  For  others  see  Klugling,  suppl.  to  Harles,  p.  135ss.  —  Moss,  Bibliogr.  ii.  323. 

§  531.  Titus  Livius,  a  native  of  Patavium  (Padua),  was  living  at  Rome  at 
the  time  when  Augustus  died,  having  enjoyed  that  emperor's  patronage.  Af- 
terwards he  resided  at  his  native  city  until  his  death,  A.  D.  18.  He  deserves 
the  first  rank  among  the  formal  historians  of  Rome.  His  history,  in  its  whole 
compass,  extended  from  the  arrival  of  iEneas  in  Italy  until  the  death  of  Dru- 
sus,  B.  C.  8  or  9,  the  year  744  from  the  building  of  the  city.  It  consisted  of 
140  or  142  books,  of  which  only  35  are  now  extant ;  namely,  the  first  ten  and 
the  twenty-five  from  the  21st  to  the  45th.  There  is,  however,  an  abridgment 
of  the  whole  work,  from  which  Freinsheim  attempted  to  restore  it,  by  form- 
ing supplements  to  replace  the  lost  books.  Livy  is  characterized  by  truth 
and  precision,  a  talent  for  observation,  and  a  masterly  style  ;  combining  all 
the  qualities  of  a  dignified  practical  historian. 


376  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

1.  Livy  was  born  B.  C.  58.  It  is  not  known  when  he  removed  to  Rome, 
but  he  devoted  20  years  to  writing  his  history,  most  of  which  were  spent  in 
the  city.  —  His  grave,  as  was  thought,  was  discovered  from  an  inscription 
found  at  Padua  in  1413,  and  a  splendid  mausoleum  was  erected  in  1548;  but 
it  was  afterwards  ascertained,  that  the  inscription  did  not  refer  to  the  his- 
torian. 

J.  Ph.  Thomasinus,  T.  Livii  vita.  Patav.  1630.  also  in  the  ed.  of  Drakenborch  below  cited.  — 
D.  O.Moller,  Disp.  de  T.  Livio.  Alt.  1688.  —  The  inscription  is  in  Gruter,  cited  P.  I.  $  130. 

2.  The  history  of  Livy,  which  he  termed  Annates,  was  by  the  copyists  ar- 
ranged in  Decades,  or  portions  consisting  of  ten  books  ;  a  circumstance  which 
perhaps  contributed  to  the  loss  of  so  great  a  part  of  the  work,  as  the  decades 
were  separately  transcribed.  The  loss  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  Gregory  I. 
who  is  said  to  have  caused  all  the  copies  of  Livy  he  conld  obtain  to  be  burned. 
Much  research  has  been  made  since  the  revival  of  letters  to  obtain  a  complete 
copy  of  the  work,  but  in  vain.  The  supplements  of  Freinsheim,  the  abridg- 
ment above  mentioned  which  is  commonly  ascribed  to  Florus,  and  a  few  frag- 
ments, are  all  that  we  have  in  addition  to  the  35  books  that  have  been  named. 

B'dhr,  393. — J.  Freinsheim,  Supplementa  &c.  Argent.  1654.  4.  given  also  in  the  ed.  of  Dra- 
kenborch.— JViebuhr,  Ciceronis,  Livii,  &c.  fragm.  Rom.  1820. — J.  Th.  Kreyssig,  Fragm.  ex  Livii 
libro  xci.  Chemn.  1807.— Same  fragment  in  JViebuhr  as  cited  §  404. 5.  It  was'found  at  Rome  by 
P.  I.  Bruns,  and  first  printed  Hamb.  1773.  fol.— On  a  fragm.'  of  the  16th  bk.  cf.  Hist,  dc  PAcad. 
des  Inscr.  vol.  i  v. 

3.  There  has  been  discussion  among  the  critics  respecting  the  materials 
employed  by  Livy,  and  his  fidelity  in  the  use  of  them.  He  has  been  charged 
with  mistakes,  with  partiality,  and  with  credulity.  —  The  style  of  Livy  was 
censured  by  an  ancient  critic,  Asinius  Pollio,  for  what  he  called  Patavinity 
("  quandam  Patavinitatem")  ;  wherein  this  fault  consisted  has  been  a  theme 
of  dispute  among  the  moderns. — Some  writings  of  Livy  are  mentioned  which 
are  lost ;  the  principal  is  a  work  entitled  Dialogi,  dialogues  or  philosophical 
and  political  questions. 

Schbll,  ii.  37ss. —  Dunlop,  3d  vol.  Eng.  ed.  p.  469.  —  Also,  on  the  matter  of  Livy  ;  Lachnann, 

De  fontibus  Livii.  Comment.  I.  Gott.  1822.  4.  Comment.  II.  Gbtt.   1828.  4. Tocher,  De  Sus- 

pecta  Liv.  fide.  Lpz.  1743.  4. — J.  F.  Eschenbach,  Defensio  fidei  Liv.  Lpz.  1777.  4. — /.  H.  Meie- 
rotto,  De  testim.  Liv.  fide.   Berl.  1797.  fol. — C.  Krose,  De  fide  Liv.  recte  ajstimanda.  Lpz.  1812. 

4 Toland,  T.  Livius  a  Superstitione  vindicatus.    Hag.  Com.  1709* —  Klotsch,  Disp.  de  diligen  - 

tia  Livii  in  enar.  prodig.  recte  aestimanda.  Wittemb.  1789.  4. —  Machiavel,  Discorsi  sopra  la 
prima  deca  di  T.  Livio.  Rom.  1531.  4.  Also  in  his  Works  printed,  in  8vo,  Hague,  1726.  Trans- 
lated into  English,  (by  E.  D.J  Lond.  1674.  8. On  the  style  ;  J.  II.  Parreidt,  De  lactea  Livii 

vbertate.  Lpz.  1746.  4.  "  Lactea  ubertas  "  is  a  phrase  applied  by  Quintilian  (Inst.  Or.  X.  1,  32). 
Cf.  Dr.  S.  Parr,  Characters  of  Ch.  J.  Fox  &c.  Lond.  1809.  2  vols.  8.  (vol.  2d,  p.  594.)  —  H.  C. 
Crellius,  De  T.  L.  dictione.  Francof.  1729. — I.  H.  Meierotto,  de  T.  L.  arte  narrandi.  Berl.  1798. 
fol.  —  Morhof,  De  Liv.  Patavinitare,  in  his  Disputat.  Academ.  Hamb.  1699.  and  also  in  Drakeii- 
borch,s  ed.  below  cited. — 1.  O.  Emesti,  De  paneg.  Liv.  eloquentia.  Lpz.  1787.  4.  —  Pref.  in  Le- 
maire's  ed.  below  cited. 

4.  Livy's  account  of  Hannibal's  passage  of  the  Alps,  compared  with  that 
given  by  Polybius,  has  also  afforded  a  theme  for  interesting  discussion. 

Gibbon,  Miscel.  works,  vol.  3d,  p.  199.  Bas.  1796.  —  Folard,  in  the  Trans,  of  Thuillier  cited 
§  245.  4.  — J.  Whitaker,  Course  of  H.  over  the  Alps.  Lond.  1794.  2  vols.  8.  —  De  Luc,  Hist,  du 
Passage  des  Alps  &c.  Par.  1818. 2d  ed.  improved  1825.— Le tronne,  in  the  Journ.  des  Savans,  Jan. 
1819.  —  Fortia  d' Urban,  Diss,  sur  le  pass,  des  Alps  &x.  Par.  1821.  —  Larauia,  Hist.  Crit.  du 
pass,  des  Alpes  &c.  Par.  1836. — H.  L.  Wickham  fy  J.  A.  Cramer,  Dissert,  on  the  passage  of  Han- 
nibal over  the  Alps.  2d  ed.  Lond.  1828.  8.  with  maps.     Cf.  Edinb.  Rev.  for  Nov.  1825. 

5.  Editions. —  Best;  A.  Drakenborch.  Amst.  1738-42.7  vols.  4.  superior  to  every  preceding 
ed.  according  to  Dibdin.  Repr.  (C.  F.  Klaiber  ed.)  Stuttg.  1820-27.  15  vols.  8.  —  B~.  I.  Crevin: 
Par.  1735^42.  6  vols.  4.  Repr.  Oxf.  1818.  3  vols.  8.  —From  the  Clarendon  Press,  Oxf.  1821.  6  vols. 
8.  text  of  Drakenborch  ;  notes  of  Crevier  ;  "  best  of  all  the  Oxford  reprints  "  (Dibdin).  —  /.  G. 
Kreyssig.  Lpz.  1823ss.  5  vols  8. —  Lemaire,  in  the  Bibl.  Class. There  are  several  other  mod- 
ern editions,  much  approved  ;    H.  Homer.  Lond.  1794.  8  vols  8.   without  notes,  valued  for  its 

index. fl.  W.  Emesti,  (as  finished  by  Schdfer.)  Lpz.  1801-4.  5  vols.  8.  containing  a  Glossan 

urn  Livianum.  —  F.  G.  Dxring.  the  2d  ed.  Goth.  1816-24.  7  vols.  8.  —  Besides  these,  we  notice, 
G.  A.  Rupert.  Gbtt.  1807.  6  vols.  8.  The  commentary  (not  fully  commended  by  Kliigling)  was 
republ.  Lond.  1825.  8. —  C.  G.  Baumgarten-Crusius.  Lpz.  1825.  3  vols.  8. — ./.  E.  Raschig.  Berl. 

1830.  3  vols.  8. Of  editions  in  the  17th  cent,  the  best  is  J.  Gronovius.  Amst.  1679.  3  vols.  8. 

The  Princeps,  by  Sweynheym  <$-  Pannartz.  Rom.  1469.  fol.  —  On  the  Mas.  of  Livy  in  the  Li- 
brary of  the  Escurial,  J.  Harris,  Philological  Inquiries  or  Miscellanies,  vol.  xliv.  p.  553. 

6.  Translations.  —  German.  — AT.  Heusinger.  Brunsw.  1821.  5  vols.  8.  —  Klaiber,  in  the  Col- 
lection by  Osiander,  Tafel,  Sfc.  —  Five  others  are  named  ;  one  printed  1505.  fol. French. — 

Guerin,  (retouche  par  Cousson.)  Par.  1769.  10  vols.  12.—  Dureau  de  la  Malle  et  JVocl.  Par.  1812. 

15  vols.  8. English.—  Philem.  Holland.  Lond.  1600.  ful.  Repr.  1686.  fol.  with  cuts.— Several 

anonymous  authors.  Lond.  1743.  6  vols.  8.  Repr.  Edinb.  1761.  8  vols.  12.  —  Gordon.  Glasg.  1783. 
2  vols.  12.  —  G.  Baker.  Lond.  1797.  6  vols.  8.  the  most  popular  translation  ;   often  reprinted. 

7.  Illustrative.  — J.  Ch.  Brieglieb,  Diss,  de  Livio  ejusque  vhtutibus.  Cob.  1778.  8 Rapin, 


HISTORIANS.       VELLEIUS.    VALERIUS.  377 

Compar.  de  Thucydide  et  de  T.  Live.  Par.  1681.  12.  Transl.  into  Eng.  by  Thorn.  Taylor.  Lond. 
1694.  8. T.  Hunter,  Livy  as  a  historian  compared  with  Tacitus,  in  his  Observations  on  Taci- 
tus.   Lond.  1752.   8. R.  Aires,  Herodotus  and  Livy  compared,  in  his  Sketches  of  Literature. 

Edinb.  1795.  8.  —  D.  H.  Hen-ewisch,  Ueber  den  politischen  Character  des  Livius,  in  his  Neuc 
Batumi  Kleiner  hist,  und  lit.  Schriften.  Alt.  1809.  8. 

§  532.  Caius  Velleius  Paterculus,  belonging  to  the  same  period,  was  a  pree- 
fect  of  horse  under  Augustus,  and  prsstor  under  Tiberius.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  summary  history  of  Rome,  in  2  books,  extending  from  the  origin  of  Rome 
down  to  the  writer's  own  times.  The  beginning  of  the  first  book  is  lost.  The 
work  has  higher  merit  in  respect  of  style  than  it  has  in  point  of  historic  cred- 
ibility ;  since  Velleius  is  evidently  swayed  by  partiality  towards  Tiberius 
and  Sejanus. 

1.  Velleius  is  supposed  to  have  been  involved  in  the  disgrace  of  Sejanus, 
A.  D.  31,  and  to  have  been  put  to  death  with  others  who  had  followed  the 
fortunes  of  that  minister.  His  name  is  scarcely  mentioned  by  ancient  au- 
thors. 

H.  Dodwell,  Annales  Velleiani,  seu  Vita  Velleii  pro  temporum  ordine  disposita.  Oxon.1698. 
8.  given  also  in  the  ed.  of  Ruhnken,  below  cited,  and  others. — Krause,  Proleg.  to  his  ed.  below 
cited.— D.  6.  Moller,  Disp.  de  Veil.  Paterc.   Alt.  1685.  4. 

2.  The  work  is  entitled  Historia  Romana.  But  it  would  seem  that  Velleius 
intended  to  give,  in  the  first  book,  an  outline  of  the  general  history,  although 
the  loss  of  the  first  part  of  the  work  hinders  the  reader  from  learning  his  plan. 
For  the  Roman  history  is  preceded  by  a  notice  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  of 
Greece,  and  of  Macedonia.  The  style  is  considered  as  generally  pure.  He  is 
thought  to  have  imitated  the  manner  of  Sallust,  whom  he  resembles  in  con- 
ciseness and  energy. — Several  critics  have  defended  the  general  credibility  of 
his  statements. 

Bdlir,  417.  —  Scholl,  it.  357.  —  J.  F.  Herel,  Betrachtungen  tiber  die  Gesch.  des  Veil.  Paterc. 

Erf.  1791.  4 Morgenstcm,  Com.  crit.  de  fide  hist.  Veil.  Pat.  &c.   Danz.  1798.     Given  also  in 

Krause,  in  ed.  below  cited.  —  Border,  Characteres  politici  in  Veil.  Pat.  Argent.  1672.  8.  —  E. 
Btirton,  Obs.  on  Veil.  Pat.  in  his  Anc.  Characters  deduced  from  Classical  Remains.  Lond. 
1763.  8. 

3.  Editions. — The  first  edition  was  by  Beatus  Rhenanus  ( Froben,  printer).  Bas.  1520.  fol.  from 
a  Ms.  found  by  him  in  the  convent  of  Murbach  in  Alsace.  This  Ms.  "  Codex  Murbacensis,"  was 
then  in  a  bad  state,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  lost  in  a  removal  of  the  library  to  another  site. 
Cf.  Scltdll,  Litt.  Rom.  n.  358.  •  The  genuineness  of  the  work  was  at  first  doubted.  Cf.  Dibdin, 
ii.  523.  —  The  best  editions  ;  D.  Ruhnken.  Leyd.  1779.  2  vols.  8.— C.  H.  Frotscher  ed.   Lpz.  1830. 

8. T.  Ch.  H.  Krause  (begun  by  Jani).   Lpz.  1800.  8.—H.  H.  Cludius.  Hann.  1815.  2  vols.  8.  the 

notes  of  Ruhnken  form  one  of  the  vols.— AT.  Lemaire.  Par.  1822.  8.— J.  T.  Kreyssig.  Mis.  1836. 
12.  value  not  known. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.— Fr.  Jacobs.    Lpz.  1793.  8.—F.  JV.  Walter  (Lat.  &  Germ.)    Re- 

gensb.  1830.  8. French.— Abbe  Paul.  (Lat.  &.  Gall.)   Par.  1785.  12.— Despres.  (Lat.  &  Gall.) 

Par.  1828.  8.  English.  —  Thorn.  JYewton.    Lond.  1721.  12.  —  Patterson.    Edinb.  1722.  a. 

"best"  (Moss). 

§  533.  Valerius  Maximus,  a  Roman  of  noble  family,  flourished  about  the 
same  time.  He  made  a  collection,  in  nine  books,  of  the  sayings  and  deeds  of 
remarkable  men,  which  he  dedicated  to  Tiberius.  The  matter  relates  chiefly 
to  Grecian  and  Roman  history  ;  it  is  drawn  from  various  writers,  and  is  ar- 
ranged under  certain  heads.  The  work  is  commendable  for  the  contents  rather 
than  the  style,  which  is  pompous,  affected,  and  unsuitable  to  history. 

1.  The  name  has  sometimes  the  prsenomen  Publius.  There  is  an  anonymous  life,  which  is 
ancient.— See  D.  O.  Moller,  Diss,  de  Valer.  Maximo.   Alt.  1684.  A.—Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  n.49. 

2.  The  title  of  the  work  is  Factorum  dictorumque  memorabilium  libri  ix  ad 
Tib.  Cas.  Augustum.  The  titles  of  the  chapters  are  considered  to  be  the  work 
of  grammarians  and  copyists,  not  of  the  author.  There  is  a  fragment,  entitled 
de  nominibus,  of  an  abridgment  of  the  Annals  of  Valerius  of  Antium  (cf.  §  511), 
made  by  Julius  Paris,  which  is  usually  annexed  to  this  work,  and  in  some 
copies  as  a  tenth  book. — There  is  an  abridgment  of  the  work  of  Valerius  Maxi- 
mus, by  the  same  Jul.  Paris,  lately  published  by  Mai. 

Bdhr,  420.— Scholl,  ii.  364. — Kapp,  pref.  to  his  ed.  below  cited.  —  The  abridgment  of  Paris  is 
given  in  A.  Mai,  Script,  vet.  nova  Collectio.  Rom.  1828.  4.  —  An  abridgment  by  a  later  writer, 
Januarius  JYcpotianvs,  is  mentioned  ;  Januar.  JVepot.  Epitoma  &c.  Cellis.  1831.  4.  —  Another 
was  made  in  the  15th  century  by  J.  Honorius ;  published,  Lpz.  1503.  4. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best ;  J.  Kapp.  Lpz.  1782.  8.—  G.  B.  Helfrcofit.  Strassb.  1806.  2  vols.  8.—  C.  B. 
Hase.  Par.  1822.  8.  in  Lcmaxre's  Bibl.  Lat.  —  Most  celebrated  of  earlier,  A.  Torrenius.  Leyd. 
1726.  4.  —  Chr.  Colerus.  Francof.  1627.  8.  collated  with  twenty  Mss.  by  Gudius.  Cf.  Fabricius, 
Bibl.  Lat.  ii.  56. — Princeps,  by  Mentelin  (printer).    Argent,  without  date  (about  1470)  fol. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.— C.E.  Westphal.  Lemg.  1780.  8.— Hoffmann.   Stutfg.1829.  8 

French.— C.  A.  Fremion  (Lat.  &  Gall.)  Par.  1828.  3  vols.  8.—Tarboicher.  Par.1713 English. 

—Speed.  Lond.  1678.  8. 

32s 


378  HISTORY    OF    ROMAN    LITERATURE. 

§  534.  Caius  Cornelius  Tacitus,  born  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  flourished  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  first  century,  and  was  Roman  consul  under  Nerva.  He  was 
celebrated  while  young  for  his  eloquence  at  the  bar.  His  historical  writings 
are  characterized  by  remarkable  political  acumen,  a  noble  freedom  of  spirit,  a 
judicious  arrangement  of  circumstances  in  narration,  and  very  great  richness 
of  thought  together  with  the  most  condensed  brevity  of  expression.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted,  that  his  most  important  works  have  come  down  to  us  only 
in  an  imperfect  state.  Of  his  History,  which  extended  from  the  death  of  Nero 
to  the  death  of  Domitian,  we  have  but  five  books,  containing  little  more  than 
the  events  of  a  single  year.  Of  his  Annals,  which  extended  from  the  death  of 
Augustus  to  that  of  Nero,  we  have  only  the  first  six  books,  and  the  books  from' 
the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  inclusive  ;  and  of  these,  the  5th  and  the  16th  are 
incomplete.  We  have  from  him  also  a  treatise  on  the  manners  of  the  Germans  ; 
and  a  life  of  Agricola,  his  father-in-law,  which  is  a  master-piece  of  biography. 
The  dialogue  on  the  decline  of  eloquence,  before  noticed  (§  415),  has  been 
ascribed  to  Tacitus,  but  without  sufficient  grounds. 

1.  Tacitus  was  born,  it  is  supposed,  at  Interamna,  about  A.  D.  47  or  50. 
He  was  educated  at  Massilia.  He  began  to  rise  in  office  under  Vespasian,  and 
gained  the  highest  honors  of  the  state.  He  is  supposed  to  have  survived  the 
emperor  Trajan,  who  died  A.  D.  117.  Marcus  Claudius  Tacitus,  who  became 
emperor  A.  D.  276,  claimed  to  be  (a)  a  descendant  of  the  historian. 

(a)  cf.  Vopisc.  vit.  Claud.  Tac.  10. J.  Lipsius,  Tac.  vita.— D.  G.  Moller,  Diss,  de  Tacito. 

Ait.  1684.  4. T.  S.  Gestrich,  Diss,  de  vita  et  script.  Tac.    Lund.  18U5.  8.  —  G.  W.  Botticher, 

Proleg.  de  Taciti  vita  &c.  in  his  Lexicon,  cited  below.— JV.  Bach,  Corn.  Tac.  eine  biogr.  Unter- 
suchung.  Sulz.  1831.— Brotier,  in  his  ed.  and  La  Blaterie,  in  his  transl.  below  cited.— A.  Mur- 
phy, Essay  on  the  Life  and  Genius  of  Tacitus,  prefixed  to  his  translation. 

2.  The  Latin  titles  of  the  works  above  named  are  the  following  :  Historiarum  libri ;  Jimmies, 
or  as  in  some  Mss.  Aetorum  seu  Actionum  diumalium  etc.  libri ;  Vita  Agricolce  ;  Dc  situ,,  moribus, 
populisquc  Germanice.  Besides  these  we  find  mention  made  of  his  orations,  Orationes,  and  of  a 
work  called  Liber  Facetiarum  ,•  which  are  wholly  lost.  Tacitus  had  a  design  (cf.  Ann.  iii.  24)  to 
write  a  history  of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  hut  seems  never  to  have  executed  it.  —  The  Annals 
and  History  are  not  parts  of  the  same  work,  although  the  latter  commences  where  the  former 
terminates  (Aul.  Gell.  Noct.  Att.  v.  18).  —  The  Annals  consisted  originally  of  16  books  ;  the 
History  of  14  books  ;  hence  Jerome  (Comment,  in  Zachar.  14)  speaks  of  the'  thirty  volumes  of 
Tacitus. 

On  Tacitus  as  a  biographer;  Walch,  in  pref.  to  his  ed.  of  Agricola  below  cited.—  Woltmann, 

in  his  trans,  below  cited On  his  historical  works  ;  Bdhr,  429.—Scholl,  n.  367  ss.— Lipsius, 

Epist.  ad  Maximil.  II.  Imper.  before  his  notes  to  Tac*  —  J.  Hill,  Essays  on  the  Princ.  of  Hist. 
Compos,  with  an  application  to  Tacitus,  in  Transactions  of  Roy.  Soc.  of  Edinb.  1786;  vol.  i.  86, 
181.  Transl.  into  Germ,  by  Buhle.  Gott.  1789.  8.  ;  into  Ital.  with  an  Appendix.  Pad.  1789.  8, 
—  H.  L.  Meierotto,  de  Taciti  moribus.  Berl.  1790.  fol By  same,  Progr.  de  fontibus,  quibus  Taci- 
tus &.c.  Berl.  1795.  fol.  —  D.  H.  Heg-ewisch,  iiber  den  schriftstell.  Charakt.  des  Tac.  in  his  His- 
torisch.  und  literar.  Aufsdf.z.  Kiel.  1801.  8.  —  T.  Hunter,  Observ.  on  Tacitus.  Lond.  1752.  8.  — 
F.  Rath,  Ueber  Thucydides  Prij  iacitus,  vergleichende  Betrachtungen  &c.     Monach.  1812.  4. 

—Especially  Frisbie,  in  his  Remains,  p.  31. On  the  credibility  of  Tacitus  ;  R.  C.  Barth,  Diss. 

de  dubia  Tac.  fide.  Jen.  1719.— H.  Justus,  De  fide  Taciti.  Zittau.  1827.8.— G.  A.  Arndt,  Disp. 
quatenus  Tac.  de  Germ,  libello  fides  sit  tribuenda.    Lpz.  1775.  4.  —  Volkel,  de  fontihus,  unde 

Tac.  quae  de  Germ.  trad,  hauserit  &c.   Marb.1789.  8. On  the  charge  of  impiety  made  against 

,him  ;   Strada,  in  his  Prolus.  Academica.   Agripp.  Col.  1617 K.  Wolf,  De  divina  mundi  mode- 

ratione  e  mente  C.  C.  Taciti.  Fuld.  1830.  8.  —  A.  J.  Kynaston,  C.  C.  Tacitus  afalso  impietatis 
crimine  vindicatus.   Oxf.  1672.  4.—Staud!in,  iiber  die  Philosophie  des  Tacitus,  in  his  Geschichte 

vnrt  Gcist  des  Scepticismus On  his  style  ;  Hill,  as  above  cited.— M.  Lundblad,  De  Stilo  Taciti. 

Lund.  1789. — J.  G.  Buhle,  De  C.  C.  Tac.  stilo  Obs.  criticae.  Bruns.  1817.—  Wernicke,  De  elocu- 
tione  Taciti.  Thorun.  1829.  A.— Roth,  Tac.  synonyma  et  per  figuram  h  8tlx  dvoir  dicta.  No- 
rimb.  1826.— Murphy,  Essay  &c.  already  cited.  —  G.  Walchius,  Diatr.  de  Tac.  cjusdemque  stilo, 
given  in  Haujps  ed.  of  Tac.   Lpz.  1714.  2  vols.  8. 

3.  There  is  an  interesting  passage  in  Tacitus  (Ann.  xv.  44  J  respecting  the 
persecution  of  Christians  by  Nero,  which  furnishes  an  early  profane  testimony 
to  the  credibility  of  the  gospel. 

See  E.  Gibbon's  Remarks  on  this  passage,  in  his  Dec.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xv\.—Mo?ithhj 
Rev.  June,  1796.  p.  199.  —  Ch.  A.  Teubcr,  Exerc.  historico-critica  de  Marrvribus  Christian  is  Sec. 
Bruns.  1734.— Paley,  Evidences  of  Christianity,  pt.  i.  ch.  2.-— Murphy,  Note  on  the  passage,  in 
his  Transl. 

4.  Editions.  —  Whole  Works.  Ranked  among  the  best ;  G.  Broticr.  Par.  1776.  7  vols.  12. 
and  4  vols.  4.  ;  it  contains  Supplements  by  Brotier  to  supply  the  lost  books  of  the  Annals  ;  also 
Dissertations.  Repr.  Edinb.  1796.  4.  Lond.  (by  Valpy)  1823.  4  vols.  8.  —  J.  J.  Obcrlin.  Lpz. 
1801.  2  vols.  8.  Repr.  Oxf.  1813.  4  vols.  8.  Lond.  1825.  4  vols.  8.  —  ./.  jfatadeb.  Par.  1819.  5  vols. 
8.  in  LemairePs  Bibl.  Lat.—  G.  H.  Wnlthrr.  Lpz.  1831.  4  vols.  8.— Im.  BeUker.  Lpz.1831. 2  vols.  8. 
Later  editions  ;  F.  Ritter.  Bonn.  1834-38.  2  vols.  8.-JV.  Bach.  Lpz.  1836.  2  vols.  8.— More  cele- 
brated among  earlier  editions  ;  ./.  $  A.  Gronov.  Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1721.  2  vols.  4.  —  J.  Lipsius. 
Antw.  1600.  fol.  —  Ph.  Beroaldu.8.  Rom.  1515.  fol.  ;  in  this,  the  first  five  books  of  the  Annals 
were  printed  for  the  (list  time,  from  a  Ms.  purchased  by  Leo  X.  —  The  Princeps  (as  supposed), 
by  Find.  Sjnra.   Ven.  1470.  fol Agricola  &  Germany  have  been  printed  separately 


HISTORIANS.       TACITUS.    CURTIUS.    FLORUS.  379 

very  often  ;  G.  L.  Walch,  Agricola.  Berl.  1828.  8.  Germania.  Berl.  1829.  8.— J.  H.  Bekker,  Ag- 
ricola.  Hamb.  1826.  8.— J.  Grimm,  Germany,  with  extracts  from  other  parts  of  Tac.  pertaining 

to  Germany.    Gbtt.  1835.  8.  —  E.  H.  Barker,  Germany  &  Agricola.     Lond.  1824.  12 In  our 

country,  these  pieces  are  united  with  the  History,  for  the  purpose  of  a  text-book  ;  the  best 
school-edition,  J.  K.  New  Haven,  1827.  12.  containing  also  the  Dialogue  on  eloquence. 

5.  Translations.  —  German.— Best ;  C.  F.  Bahrdt,  Hal.  1781.  2  vols.  8.— Fr.  k.  von  Strombcck. 
Brunsw.  1816.  3  vols.  8. — That  of  K.  L.  von  Woltmann.  Berl.  1811.  6  vols.  8.  is  considered  inele- 
gant, but  valued  for  its  notes  and  dissertations. French. — La  Bletterie  (fy  J.  H.  Dottcville). 

Par.  1799.  7  vols.  8. — Dur.  de  La  Malle,  or  Lamalle  (Lat.  &  Gall,  with  the  supplements  of  Bro- 
tier,  transl.  by  JVoel).   Par.  1827.  6  vols.  8.  —  J.  L.  Burnouf  (Lat.  &  Gall.)   Par.  1833.  6  vols.  8. 

C.  L.  F.  Panckoucke  (Lat.  &  Gall.)   Par.  1830.  6  vols.  8. English.  —  Best,  Arthur  Murphy. 

Lond.  1793.  4  vols.  4.  with  an  Essay  on  the  life  &c.  and  notes,  supplements,  and  maps  ;  often 
reprinted  ;  Boston,  1822.  6  vols.  8. — There  had  been  three  earlier  translations  ;  Sir  H.  Saville  & 
B.  Grencway.   Lond.  1798.  2  vols,  fol.— Dryden,  with  others.  Lond.  1698.  3  vols.  8.—  T.  Gordon. 

Lond.  1731.  2  vols.  fol.  with  political  discourses  on  Tac— Cf.  Crit.  Rev.  June,  1793. T.  Aiken 

(Germany  and  Agricola).   Lond.  1778.  8. 

6.  Illustrative. — Although  so  many  references  have  been  given,  we  select  a  few  of  the  mul- 
titude that  might  be  added.  —  G.  C.  Gebauer,  Vestigia  juris  Germanici  in  C.  C.  Tac.  Germania 
&c.  Gott.  1766.  8 — G.  Bolticher,  Lexicon  Taciteum.  Berl.  1830.  8.— E.  Ferlet,  Observations  &c 
sur  les  histoires  de  Tacite  (with  the  Lat.  text).  Par.  1801.  2  vols.  12.  —  A.  Hoffmeister,  Die 
Weltanschauung  des  Tacitus.  Ess.  1831.  8. 

§  535.  Quintus  Curtius  Rufus,  of  whom  little  is  known,  probably  lived  about 
the  middle  of  the  first  century,  perhaps  at  a  later  period ;  so  uncertain,  how- 
ever, is  this,  that  some  critics,  although  without  reason,  have  hesitated  to 
class  him  among  the  ancient  authors.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  achievements 
of  Alexander,  in  10  books.  The  first  two  books  and  some  other  portions  are 
wanting;  Bruno,  Freinsheim,  and  Cellarius,  have  attempted  to  supply  these 
parts.  The  manner  of  Curtius  differs  very  much  from  the  noble  simplicity  of 
most  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  historians,  and  often  sinks  into  the  extravagant 
and  romantic.  His  style  is  too  elaborate  and  too  much  ornamented.  Yet  his 
narrative  is  agreeable  and  entertaining. 

1.  Different  critics  have  assigned  Curtius  to  different  eras  ;  the  reign  of  Augustus,  Tiberius, 

Claudius,  Vespasian,  Trajan,  Constantine,andTheodosius,  have  each  been  advocated. J. 

Vossius,  De  Hist.  Lat.  cited  $527.  1.— D.  G.  Moller,  Disp.  de  Curtii  aetate.  Alt.' 1683.  A.—Bag- 
nolo,  Delia  gente  Curzia  et  dell'  eta  di  Q,.  Curzio.  Bologn.  1741.  — A.  Hirt,  liber  das  Leben  des 
Q.  C.  Rufus.  Berl.  1820.  8.  —  Buttmann,  iiber  das  Leben  etc.  (written  with  reference  to  Hirt's 
treatise  just  cited.)  Berl.  1820.  8. —  G.  Pinzger,  iiber  das  Zeitalter  des  Q.  C.  R.  in  Seebodc's 
Archiv  f  iir  Philologie  und  Predagogik.  1824. 

2.  The  work  of  Curtius,  De  rebus  gestis  Alcxandri  magni,  is  considered  as 
not  possessing  strict  historical  truth.  The  author  is  supposed  to  have  followed 
Greek  writers,  who  had  adorned  the  story  of  Alexander  with  fabulous  addi- 
tions or  exaggerations. — The  letters  published  under  the  name  of  Curtius,  are 
wholly  a  fabrication  made  by  Hugo  Rugerius. 

Scholl,  it.  383. — Bdltr,  444. — Perizonius,  Curtius  Rufus  restitutus  et  vindicatus.  Lugd.  Bat. 
1703.  8. — St.  Croix,  Examen  &c.  cited  §  235.  —  J.  J.  Sartorius,  Curtius  Rufus  a  quorund.  repre- 
hens.  defensus.  Erl.  1773.  8.— J.  Rook,  Le  Clerc's  criticism  on  Q.  Curt.  &c.  pref.  to  his  Transl. 

of  Arrian,  cited  §  250.  4. On  the  style  ;  G.  L.  Walch,  Meletem.  crit.  specimen.  Jena,  1809.  4. 

— J.H.Emesti,  usurpata  a  Curtio  in  partic.  Latinitas.   Lpz.1719. — Ctuize,  in  his  ed.  below  cited. 

Respecting  the  pretended  letters,  cf.  Fabricius,  Bibl.'Lat.  iii.  2ob.—Harlcs,  Brew  Not.  Suppl. 

ii.  18.— Scholl,  ii.  387.— They  were  first  published  by  Rugerius.  Reg.  Lep.  1500.  4.  in  5  books. 

3.  IMitions.  —  Best ;  H.  Snakcnburg.  Lugd.  Bat.  1724.  4.  —  J.  T.  Kunze.  Helmst.  1st  vol. 
published  1802.  8.  whether  completed,  not  known.  —  Lemaire.  Par.  3  vols.  8.  in  the  Bibl.  LaU 
Class.  —  Good,  F.  Schmieder.   Gott.  1804.  2  vols.  8.  —  A.  Baumstark.   Stuttg.  1829.  3  vols.  8.  in 

ZeWs  Lat.  Classics. The  Supplements  alluded  to  above  were  given  in  the  following  :  C. 

Bruno.  Bas.  1545.  fol.  Lugd.  1584.  12.  —  J.  Freinsheim.  Argent.  1640.  2  vols.  8.— C/i.  Ccllarius. 
Lpz.  1688.  12. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.— J.  Ph.  Ostrrtag.  Frankf.  1799.  2  vols.  8. French.—  Vaugelas. 

Par.  1647.  4.  V.  is  said  to  have  devoted  tJiirti/  vears  to  this  translation,  and  to  have  left  his 
corpse  to  the  surgeons  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors.  {D>  Israeli's  Curios,  of  Lit.)  —  Aug.  Sf 

Alph.  Trognon  (Lat.  &  Gall.)    Par.  1828.  3  vols.  8 Enirlish.— Th.Codriixrton.   Lond.  1652.  4. 

—  J.  Digby.  Lond.  1714.  12.    Revised  by  W.  Young.  Lond.  1747.  2  vols.  li. 

§  536.  Lucius  Annceus  Florus,  a  native  of  Gaul  probably,  or  of  Spain  ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  some,  lived  at  the  close  of  the  first  century  and  be- 
ginning of  the  second.  He  composed  an  Epitome  of  Roman  History;  in  four 
books,  extending  from  the  founding  of  the  city  until  the  general  peace  under 
Augustus.  His  style  is  not  marked  by  any  very  uniform  or  fixed  character  ; 
it  rises  sometimes  far  above  the  limits  of  prose,  and  is  not  unfrequently  over- 
loaded with  the  decorations  of  idle  learning. 

1.  A  modern  critic  has  maintained  that  this  person  was  the  same  with  the  Julius  Florus,  who 
was  the  friend  of  Horace  (cf.  Ep.  i.  3.  ii.  2).    He  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  written  in  the 

reign  of  Trajan. Fr.N.  Titze,De  Epit.  Rer.  Rom.  qua?  sub!  nom.  L.  Ann.  Flor.  fertar,  ;eta'c 

etc.  Line.  1804.  8.— D.  G.  Moller,  Disp.  de  L.  Ann.  Floro.  Alt.  1084.  A.—L)uker,  in  his  ed.  below 
cited. 


380  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

2.  The  work  of  Florus  is  entitled  Epitome  de  Gestis  Romanorum,  or  Rerum 
Romanarum  Libri  IV.  It  has  been  called  a  eulogium  on  the  Romans,  rather 
than  a  history.  The  division  into  four  periods,  infancy,  youth,  manhood,  and 
old  age,  is  ascribed  to  transcribers  by  some  critics,  who  suppose  the  author  to 
have  made  but  three  divisions. — The  abridgment  of  Livy,  Argumenta  librorum 
historian  Liviance,  is  commonly  ascribed  to  this  author,  but  not  with  certainty. 

Bdhr,  452. — Heint-.c,  De  Floro  lion  historico  seel  rhetore.  Vim.  1787.  —  C.  H.  Hausotter,  Diss, 
de  suspect.  Flori  fide.   Lpz.  1747.  4. 

3.  Editions.— Best,  C.  A.  Dakar,  2d  ed.  Lugd.  Bat.  1744.  2  vols.  8.  Repr.  Lpz.  1822.  2  vols.  8. 
—  F.jY.Titze.  Prag.  1819.  8.—  J.  A.  Amur.  Par.  1822.  8.— That  of  J.  F.  Fischer.  Lpz.  1760.  8.  is 
good. — There  are  four  editions,  two  in  quarto  and  two  in  folio  printed  without  date  or  name  of 
place,  probably  about  1470  ;  which  of  them  is  the  Princeps  is  doubtful. 

4.  Since  the  edition  of  Salmasius  (Lugd.  Bat.  1638.  12),  Florus  has  usually  been  accompanied 
with  the  Liber  Memorialis  of  Lucius  Ampelius,  a  writer  who  lived  perhaps  under  Theodosins, 
but  of  whom  little  is  known  ;  this  work  consists  of  excerpts  pertaining  to  astronomy,  geogra- 
phy, and  history,  from  various  writers.  Ampelius  has  been  edited  separately  ;  C. H.Tzschuckc. 
Lpz.  1793.  8.—F.  A.  Beck.   Lpz.  1826.  8.— Cf.  §  421. 

5.  Translations.  —  German. — C.  F.  Kretschmann.  Lpz.  1785.  8. French Abbe  Paul.  Par. 

1774.  12.  —  ./.  L.  Bel.   Par.  1776.  12. English.— J.  Davies.   Lond.  1667.  8. — T.  Clarke.   York, 

1727.  8.  ;  often  repr.  —  J.  Sterling.   Lond.  1738.  8. 

§  537.  Cuius  Suetonius  Tranquillus.  a  grammarian,  rhetorician,  and  lawyer 
at  Rome,  flourished  about  the  same  time.  Like  Tacitus  he  was  a  friend  of  the 
younger  Pliny.  His  lives  of the  first  tic elve  Caesars  have  the  merit  of  candid 
impartiality,  conscientious  love  of  truth,  and  an  admirable  copiousness  in  the 
exhibition  of  important  circumstances.  They  are  marked  also  by  an  easy  and 
simple  style.  Yet  there  is  a  want  of  historic  art  in  the  arrangement.  Besides 
the  work  just  named,  we  have  from  him  some  smaller  critical  and  biographical 
pieces,  on  distinguished  grammarians,  rhetoricians,  and  poets  ;  he  wrote  other 
works,  whose  titles  only  are  known. 

1.  Under  Hadrian,  Suetonius  was  private  secretary,  Magister  epistolarum, 
but  lost  the  office,  it  is  said,  because  he  was  wanting  in  respect  to  the  empress 
Sabina.     The  time  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

Cf.  Plin.  Ep.  i.  18,  24.  v.  11.  ix.  34.  x.  95,  96.—  Sueton.  Oth.  10  Ner.  57.  Dom.  12.— D.  G. 
Moller,  Diss,  de  Suetonio.   Alt.  1685.  4. 

2.  The  imperial  biography  of  Suetonius  is  entitled  Vita  XII  impcratorum  ; 
in  some  Mss.  it  is  divided  into  eight  books,  the  lives  of  Julius  Cassar,  Augus- 
tus, Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero,  forming  each  one  book  ;  those  of 
Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius,  the  seventh  ;  and  those  of  Vespasian,  Titus,  and 
Domitian,  the  eighth.  The  situation  which  the  author  held  at  the  imperial 
court  gave  him  access  to  the  best  authorities  and  sources  of  information.  — 
The  work  entitled  De  illustribus  grammaticis,  is  said  to  have  been  a  part  of  a 
larger  work,  De  viris  illustribus ;  to  which  also  belonged  perhaps  another 
piece  that  is  partly  preserved  unto  us,  entitled  De  claris  rhetoribus.  There  are 
extant  several  other  biographies,  which  have  been  commonly  ascribed  to  Sue- 
tonius, and  which  may  have  belonged  to  a  more  complete  work  De  poetis ; 
viz.  Vita  Tcrentii, — Horatii, — Persii, — Lucani, — Juvenalis.  The  piece  styled 
Vita  Plinii  is  not  allowed  to  be  the  production  of  Suetonius. 

Bdhr,  450.  —  F.  A.  L.  Schweiger,  de  fontibus  atq.  auctorit.  Vit.  xii  Suetonii.  Gott.  1830.  4.  — 
E.  Burton,  in  his  Ancient  Characters,  &c.  cited  $  532.  2.  —  A.  Browne,  Ess.  on  the  Compar.  au- 
thentic, of  Tacitus  and  Suetonius  &c.  in  Transact,  of  Royal  Irish  Acad.— Also  in  his  Miscella- 
neous Sketches  &c.  Dubl.  1798.  8.—G.  H.  Walther,  Obs.  in  Sueton.  vitas  Csesarum.  Torg.  1813. 
8.— R.  Krausc,  De  fontibus  et  auctoritate  Suetonii.  Berl.  1831.  8.— J.  Gael,  De  Ruhnken's  scho- 
lia in  Sueton.  Vit.  Caes.   Lugd.  1828.  8. 

3.  There  i3  a  passage  in  the  life  of  Claudius  (c.  25)  in  which  Suetonius  states  that  the  Jews 
were  banished  from  Rome  because  they  were  seditious  under  the  instigations  of  a  certain  Chres- 
tus.  This  has  occasioned  an  inquiry,  of  some  interest,  whether  Suetonius  here  refers  to  Jesu.s 
Christ. — P.  C.Hilscher,  Programma  de  Chresto,  cujus  mentionem  facit  Suetonius.  Lips,  (sine 
anno.)—  G.  C.Oettcl,  De  Judaeis,  impulsore  Chresto,  &c.  Salf.  1779.— .ff.  '/'.  Tscltirncr,  On  allu- 
sions to  Christianity  in  Greek  and  Roman  writers ;  transl.  by  H.  B.  Hackett,  in  the  Bibl.  Rcpos. 
vol.  xi.  p.  203. 

4.  Editions.  —  Whole  Works.  Best ;  Ph.  Burmann.  Amst.  1736.  2  vols.  4.  —  A.  Wolf.  Lpz. 
1802.  4  vols.  8.— D.  K.  W.  Baum  gart,n-Crusius.    Lpz.  1816-18.  3  vols.  8.  the  3d  vol.  including  a 

Clavis.  —  C.  B.  Hasc.   Par.  1828.  2  vols.  8 Best  of  earlier  editions  ;  J.  G.  Gra-vius.   Traject. 

1703.  4.  containing  the  commentary  of  C.Patinus,  who  published  Sueton.  illustrated  from  coins, 
Bas.  1675.  4.—S.  Pitiscus,  Leov.  (Leu warden.)  1714.  2  vols.  4.— The  Priuceps,  by  Phil,  de  Lig- 
namine  (as  is  supposed).  Rom.  1470.  fol. S  elect  Lives  j  //.  Paldam.  Hal. 1829.  8. —  Vita  Ho- 
ratii, by  E.  J.  Richter.   Zwick.  1831.  4. 

5.  Translations.  —  German. — N.  G.  Eichhoff,  1821.  8. French. — Maurice,  Lcvcsque  (Lat.  & 

Gall.)   Par.  1807.  2  vols.  8.— Dc  Golbery  (Lat.  &  Gall.)      Par.  1832,  33.  3  vols.  8. EngMsh. 

-.  Holland.  Lond.  1606.  fol.  —  Jab.  Hughes.  Lond.  1717.  2  vols.  12.— John  Clarke  (Lat.  <te 
Eng.)  Lond.  1732.  8.  —  Dr.  Al.  Thomson.  Lond. 1796.  8.  with  observations  on  the  Government 
and  Literature  of  the  different  periods.    Cf.  Moss,  Bibliogr.  ii.  637. 


HISTORIANS.       SUETONIUS.     JUSTIN.     EUTROPIUS.  381 

§  538.  Justinus,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century  under 
the  Antonines,  wrote  an  abridgment  of  the  Universal  History  of  Trogus  Pora- 
peius.  Trogus  was  a  native  of  Gaul,  and  lived  under  Augustus  ;  his  larger 
work  is  lost.  The  abridgment  of  Justin  is  in  44  books,  extending  from  Ninus 
to  Augustus.  The  style  is  not  destitute  of  merit,  and  the  work  is  highly  en- 
tertaining in  its  character. 

1.  Nothing  is  known  respecting  the  life  of  Justin  ;  his  name  is  sometimes  given  M.  Junianus 

Justinus,  and  sometimes  Justinus  Frontinus. D.  G.  Moller,  Diss,  de  Justino.   Alt.  1684.  4.  — 

J.  H.  St.  Rzesinski,  De  Justino  &c.   Cracov.  1826.  8. 

2.  The  Epitome  of  Justin  is  entitled  Historlarum  Philippicarum  et  totius 
mundi  et  terra  situs,  ex.  Trogo  Pompeio  excerptavum  libri  xliv.  The  subjects 
of  the  several  books  are  stated  by  Scholl.  Much  of  the  original  work  of  Tro- 
gus seems  to  have  been  drawn  from  Greek  authors,  especially  fromTheopom- 
pus  (cf.  §  233J. 

Scholl,  Lit.  Rom.  in.  140.— Bdhr,  410.— J.  G.  Oatterer,  Plan  des  Trogus  &c.  in  the  Allgcmeine, 
Histor.  Bibliothek.  vol.  3d.  Hal.  1767.  8.— Koch's  Proleg.  cited  $  233.— A.  H.  L.  Heeren,  De  Trog. 
Pomp,  ejusque  epitomatoris  font,  et  auctoritate,  in  the  Comment.  Societ.  reg.  scient.  Gbtting. 
vol.  xv.   1803. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best ;  Abr.  Gronovius,  2d  ed.  Lued.  Bat.  1760.  8.  Repr.  ed.  C.A.  Frotscher. 
Lpz.  1828.  3  vols.  8. — T.  F.  Fischer.    Lpz.  1757.  B.—  C.  F.  Wetzel.    Leign.  1806.  8.—  JV.  Lemaire. 

Par.  1823.  8. There  are  other  recent  editions  ;  J.  Seibt.   Prag.  1827.  8.  —  F.  Deubner.   Lpz.- 

1831.  8.  —  The  Princeps,  by  Jenson  (pr.)   Rom.  1470.  4. There  are  Prologi  to  the  several 

books  of  the  history,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  work  not  of  Justin,  but  of  some  ancient 
grammarian.     G.  H.  Graucrt,  Trog.  Pomp,  histor.  Philipp.  prologi.   Monast.  1827.  8. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.— I.  P.  Ostcrtag.   Frankf.  1792.  2  vols.  8. French.— Abbe  Fa- 

vier.    Par.  1737.  12.  —  Abbe  Paul.    Par.  1774.   1805.    1817.  2  vols.  12  with  notes,  and  geograph. 

Diet. English.—  Arthur  Golding.   Lond.  1564.  4.— Phil.  Holland.   Lond.  1606.  M.—  Turnbull. 

Lond.  1746.  12. — There  are  several  others.     Cf.  Moss.  ii.  135. 

§  539.  Scxtus  Aurelius  Victor,  a  native  of  Africa,  lived  in  the  4th  century, 
and  was  a  favorite  of  Julian,  who  raised  him  to  honorable  offices.  Under 
Theodosius  he  was  made  consul  at  Rome.  His  history  of  the  Origin  of  the 
Roman  People,  according  to  its  title  extended  from  Janus  to  the  tenth  consu- 
late of  Constantius  ;  but  the  portion  we  have  extends  only  to  the  first  year 
after  the  founding  of  the  city  ;  it  contains  some  things  not  mentioned  by 
others,  or  at  least  not  so  minutely.  The  work  entitled  De  viris  illustrious 
Roma,  which  usually  passes  under  his  name,  is  by  some  ascribed  to  Suetoni- 
us, or  to  the  younger  Pliny. 

1.  Two  other  works  bear  his  name  ;  one  entitled  De  Casaribus,  from  Au- 
gustus to  Constantius  ;  the  other  Epitome  de  Ccesaribus,  from  Augustus  to 
Theodosius.  The  latter  is  an  abridgment  of  the  former,  and  was  made  by  a 
later  author  called  Victor  junior,  or  Victorinus.  —  Some  consider  the  first  of 
the  works  above  mentioned,  Origo  gentis  Romance,  to  be  the  production  of 
some  compiler  later  than  Aurelius  Victor. 

Scholl,  in.  159.  —  Bdhr,  466.  —  Vossius,  cited  $  527 D.G.  Moller,  Diss,  de  S.  Aur.  Victore. 

Alt.  1685.  4.  —  Arnztcn,  Pref.  to  his  ed.  below  cited. 

2.  Editions.  —Best  ;  S.  Pitiscus.   Utrecht,  1696.  8.  — J.  Arnzten.  Amst.  1733.  4 J.  F.  Gru- 

ner.  Cob.  1757.  8.  (cur.  G.  C.  Harlcs.J  Erl.  1787.  8.  fcur.  F.  Schonberger.J  Vindob.  1820.  8.  — 
F.  Schroter.   Lpz.  1831.  2  vols.  8. 

3.  Translations.  —  German.  —J.  H.  Hildebrand.   Lpz.  1795.  8. French.  —  Savin.    Par. 

1780.  12. English.— By  several  pupils  of  Mr.  Maidwell.   Lond.  1693.  8. 

§  540.  Flatius  Eutropius,  probably  a  native  of  Italy,  lived  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury. He  was  private  secretary  CETcioroXoyQuyoq)  under  Constantine  the 
Great;  afterwards  he  accompanied  Julian  in  the  expedition  against  the  Per- 
sians, and  in  the  year  371  he  was  proconsul  in  Asia.  By  the  direction  of  the 
emperor  Valens  he  composed  an  Epitome  of  Roman  History,  in  10  books,  from 
the  founding  of  the  city  to  the  reign  of  Jovian.  It  is  written  in  an  easy  and 
plain  style,  but  without  critical  acumen.  We  have  a  Greek  translation  of 
it,  although  not  quite  complete,  by  a  certain  Paanius. 

1.  The  title  of  Vir  clarissimus  is  given  to  Eutropius  in  the  manuscript;  and 
he  is  spoken  of  by  subsequent  writers  with  respect.     Some  have  thought  him 

to  have  been  a  Christian,  but  without  sufficient  evidence. His  epitome, 

Breviarium  historic  Romano;,  was  a  favorite  work  in  the  middle  ages,  and  was 
often  copied.  It  is  inserted,  with  some  additions,  in  the  work  called  Historia 
Miscella,  the  production  chiefly  of  Paul  Winfrid,  called  also  Paul  Diaconus. 

Scholl,  in.  161.— Bdhr,  Am.— Vossius,  cited  $527. —D.G. Moller,  Diss,  de  Eutropio.  Alt.1685. 
4.  —  Tzschucke,  Diss,  de  vit.  et  Script.  Eutrop.  in  his  ed.  below  cited. Respecting  the  His- 
toria miscella,  cf.  Scholl,  in.  178.  —  It  is  given  in  Muratori,  Script.  Rer.  Italicarum,  vol.  i. 


382  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

2.  There  is  extant  a  letter,  purporting  to  be  written  from  Jerusalem  by  Pu- 
blius  Lentulus  and  containing  a  description  of  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ, 
which  has  been  published  as  belonging  to  Eutropius.  It  is  given  in  the  Ec- 
clesiastical History  of  the  Centuriatores  Magdeburgcnses  (Bas.  1559.  fol.), 
with  this  inscription  "  Lentuli  epistola,  &c.  quae  apud  Eutropium  in  annalibus 
Senat.  Rom.  extat."  What  Eutropius  or  what  annals  can  here  be  designated 
is  unknown.  It  seems  inadmissible  to  apply  the  passage  to  the  Roman  histo- 
rian, since  no  manuscript  or  copy  of  his  work  exhibits  the  least  trace  of  any 
such  epistle.  —  This  letter  was  published  in  England  in  1817,  as  having  been 
recently  discovered  in  a  manuscript  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican  and  pre- 
viously unknown,  although  the  existence  of  such  a  manuscript  had  been 
mentioned  by  Fabricius  a  century  before.  The  letter  is  generally  and  justly 
considered  to  be  a  mere  fabrication. 

See  the  Letter,  and  a  full  examination  of  its  authenticity,  by  E.  Robinson,  in  the  Bibl.  Repos. 
ii.  p.  367ss. 

3.  Editions.  — Best  ;  H.  Verhcyk.  Leyd.  1793.  8.—  C.H.  Tzschucke.  Lpz.  1796.  8.  this  pro- 
nounced by  Dibdin  better  than  the  reprintjJLpz.  1804.  —  Best  school  editions,  F.  W.  Grosse. 
Halle,  1813.  8.  —  F.  Hermann.  Liib.  1818.  8.  —  F.  Sclvonberger,  Vien.  1816.  8.  —  E.  T.  Hohler. 

Vien.  1819.  8 The  Princeps,  by  G.  Laver  pr.  (as   is  supposed)   Rom.  1471.  fol.  giving  the 

work  as  found  in  the  Historia  miscella  above  named. The  metaphrase  of  Pceanius,  by  J.  F. 

S  Kaltwasser.  Goth.  1780.  8. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.  —  Ph.  L.  Haus.  Frankf.  1821.  8. French.  —  Abbe  Leieau.  Par. 

1717.  12. English.  —  J.  Clarke,  (with  orig.  Lat.)  York,  1722.  8.— J.  Sterling.  Lond.  1726.  8. 

—  J.  Thomas.  Lond.  1760.  8. 

5.  There  is  an  epitome  of  Roman  History  ( Breviarium  rerum  gestarum  populi  RomaniJ  which 
was  written  by  Sextus  Rufus  Fcstus,  of  whom  little  is  known.    The  work  is  said  to  have  been 

drawn  up  by  direction  of  the  emperor  Valens. It  is  contained  in  Verheyk's  ed.  of  Eutropius 

above  cited."  Separately,  C.  Munnich.  Han.  1815.  8. From  the  same  Rufus,  we  have  under 

the  title  De  regionibus  Roma,  a  sketch  of  the  chief  buildings  and  monuments  of  Rome. 

§  541.  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  a  Greek  born  at  Antioch,  lived  in  the  same 
century.  He  wrote  a  Roman  history,  in  31  books,  from  Nerva  to  Valens; 
the  first  13  books  are  lost.  The  work  may  be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of 
Tacitus  and  Suetonius.  It  derives  its  merit  not  from  the  style,  which  is  af- 
fected and  often  rough  and  inaccurate,  but  from  its  various  matter;  it  is  in- 
terspersed with  numerous  digressions  and  observations,  which  render  it  in- 
structive and  entertaining. 

1.  Ammianus  devoted  his  early  years  to  study;  then  engaged  in  military 
service,  in  which  he  passed  many  years  and  acquired  reputation  under  Julian 
and  his  successors ;  he  finally  returned  to  Rome,  and  there  composed  his  his- 
tory.—  There  is  no  proof  that  he  was  a  Christian,  although  he  relates  events 
connected  with  the  Christian  religion  with  impartiality. 

D.  G.  Moller,  Diss,  de  Am.  Marc.  Alt.  1685.  4.— CI.  Chifflet,  De  Am.  Marcel,  vita  &c.  Lovan. 
1627.  also  in  the  ed.  of  Erfurdt  below  cited.  —  For  a  specimen  of  his  manner  of  speaking  of 
Christianity,  cf.  bk.  xxi.  c.  16 ;  xxii.  11. 

2.  Although  so  many  books  of  the  Rerum  Gestarum  of  Marcellinus  are  lost, 
yet  the  18  books  extant  are  the  most  valuable  part.  The  whole  work  includ- 
ed a  period  of  above  280  years,  from  the  accession  of  Nerva,  A.  D.  91,  to  the 
death  of  Valens,  A.  D.  378  ;  the  lost  books  brought  the  history  down  to  A. 
D.  352;  the  remaining  books  are  a  sort  of  memoirs  of  his  own  times.  Gib- 
bon freely  acknowledges  his  great  obligations  to  this  author. 

ScJwll,  in.  165.— Bdhr,  473.  —  Ch.  G.  Heyne,  Censura  ingenii  et  histor.  Ammiani  Marcellini. 
Gott.  1802.  also  in  his  Opusc.  Academ.  vol.  vi.  —  Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  cb.  xxvi. 
vol.m.  p.  55.  ed.  N.  Y.  1822. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best ;  J.  A.  Wagner,  compiled  by  C.  F.  A.  Erfurdt.  Lpz.  1808.  3  vols.  8  &  fol. 
—  A.  W.  Ernesti.  Lpz.  1773.  8.  —  Best  among  the  earlier,  J.  Gronov.  Leyd.  1693.  fol.  —  The 
Princeps,  bv  A  Sabinus.  Rom.  1474.  fol. 

4.  Translations.  — German.  — J.  A.  Wagner.  Frankf.  1794.  3  vols.  8.  —  L.  Tross,  in  the  Col- 
lection of  Tafel,  Osiander,  #c. French.  —  Mich,  de  Marolles.  Par.  1672.  12. English.— 

P.  Holland.  Lond.  1609.  fol.—  An  interesting  passage  on  the  character  of  the  Roman  nobles  is 
translated  by  Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xxxi. 

§  542 1.  There  is  extant  a  historical  or  biographical  collection,  under  the 
title  of  Scriptores  Historia  Augusta*,  or  writers  of  the  imperial  history.  It  con- 
sists of  the  lives  of  the  Roman  emperors  from  Hadrian  to  Carus,  ascribed  to 
six  different  authors,  who  belonged  to  the  3d  and  4th  centuries.  These  biog- 
raphies do  not  possess  a  high  degree  of  merit ;  yet  they  are  of  some  import- 
ance to  the  careful  student  of  history  ;  indeed  they  are  our  only  source  of  in* 
formation  in  some  particulars  of  the  history  of  the  emperors. 


WRITERS    ON   MEDICINE    AND    NATURAL    SCIENCE.  383 

1  u.  The  first  writer  in  the  collection  is  JElius  Spartianus,  of  the  time  of 
Diocletian.  He  is  said  to  have  written  the  lives  of  all  the  emperors  from  Ju- 
lius Caesar  to  his  own  day.  We  have  under  his  name  the  lives  of  Hadrian, 
■JElius  Verus,  Didius  Julianus,  Septimius  Severus,  Pescennius  .Yigcr,  Caracalla, 
and  Geta.  He  also  is  considered  by  some  as  the  author  of  the  biographies 
ascribed  to  Gallicanus  and  Lampridius.  His  style  has  little  merit  ;  his  pieces 
are  deficient  in  proper  arrangement,  and  are  personal  memoirs  of  the  emper- 
ors rather  than  histories  of  their  reigns. 

2.  Vulcatius  Gallicanus,  who  also  belonged  to  the  age  of  Diocletian,  is  said  to 
have  designed  a  complete  biography  of  the  emperors.  The  manuscripts  as- 
sign to  him  the  life  of  Avidius  Cassius,  which  some  however  ascribe  to  Spar- 
tianus. 

3  u.  Jvlius  Capitolinus  lived  in  the  time  of  Diocletian  and  Constantine  the 
Great.  He  is  mentioned  as  the  author  of  the  lives  of  Antoninus  Pius,  Mar- 
cus Aurelius,  Lucius  Verus,  Pertinax,  Mbinus,  Macrinus,  the  two  Maximini, 
the  three  Gordiani,  Maximus,  and  Balbinus.  These  are  composed  with  little 
judgment.     Some  of  them  have  been  ascribed  to  Spartianus. 

4  u.  Trebellius  Pollio  was  of  the  same  period.  He  wrote  the  lives  of  the 
emperors  from  Philippus  to  Claudius.  We  have  the  following  ;  a  fragment 
of  the  life  of  Valerian  the  elder,  the  life  of  Valerian  the  younger  or  the  son, 
the  lives  of  the  two  Gallieni,  of  the  Triginta  Tyranni,  and  of  Claudius.  His 
narratives  are  careless  and  diffuse. 

5.  JElius  Lampridius  is  mentioned  by  Vopiscus  as  among  his  masters.  He 
is  considered  by  some  to  have  been  the  same  person  with  Spartianus,  as  if 
the  name  of  the  latter  were  iElius  Lampridius  Spartianus.  To  him  are  as- 
cribed the  lives  of  Commodus,  Diadumenus,  Hcliogabulus,  and  Alexander  Se~ 
verus. 

6u.  Flavius  Vopiscus,  of  Syracuse,  lived  in  the  time  of  Constantine.  From 
him  we  have  the  lives  of  Aurelian,  Tacitus,  Florian,  Probus,  Firmus,  Saturni- 
nus,  Proculus,  Bonosus,  Carus,  Numcrianus,  and  Carinus.  He  excels  the 
other  writers  of  the  collection  in  method,  accuracy,  and  learning. 

7.  Respecting  these  writers,  see  Sch'dll,  in.  149.— Bcihr,  46Q.—  Vossius,  as  cited  $527. —  Tlrh- 
•mont,  Histoire  des  Empereurs.  Par.  1697. — O.  Mascovius,  Orat.  de  usu.  et  prcestahtia  Hist.  Au- 
gust, in  jure  civili.  Harderov.  1731.  4.  and  in  his  Opusc.  jurid.  et  pkil.  edited  by  Puttmajui. 
Lpz.  1776.  8.—  C.  O.  Heyne,  Censura  sex  Scriptor.  Hist.  Aug.  Gott.  1803.  and  in  his  Opusc. 
Jicadem.  vol.  vi.  —  De  Moulines,  Mem.  surles  ecrivains  de  Christ.  Aug.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad. 
dc  Berlin,  an.  1750. — Dodwell,  Prauectiones  Academics.  Oxf.  1692.  8.  Besides  the  notice  of  the 
writers  of  the  Historia  August*  in  the  first  part  (p.  32-151),  this  work  contains  essays  on  vari- 
ous topics  suggested  by  particular  passages.  —  D.  O.  Moller,  Diss,  de  JEl.  Spartiano.  Alt.  1687. 
4. ;  de  Vulcat.  Gallicano.  Alt.  1689.  4. ;  de  Jul.  Capitolino.  Alt.  1689.  4. ;  de  JE\.  Lampridio. 
Alt.  1688.  4  ;  de  Flav.  Vopisco.  Alt.  1687.  4. 

8.  Editions.  — The  Princeps.  Milan,  1475.  fol.  cum  notis  var.  Lugd.  Bat.  1671.  2  vols.  8.— 
J.  P.  Schmid.  Lpz.  1774.  8.   with  pref.  bv  Pilttmann.  —  Bipont.  1787.  9  vols.  8. 

9.  Translations.  —  German.  —  J.  P.  Ostertatr.    Frankf.  1787.  2  vols.  8.  —  L.  Storch,  in  the 

Premlau  Collection  of  Translations  (1827ss). French.—  O.  de  Moulines.  Berl.  1783.  3  vols. 

8 ;  Par.  1816.  3  vols.  12. 


X— Writers  on  Medicine  and  Natural  Science. 

§  543m.  None  of  the  sciences  received  less  patronage  among  the  Romans 
than  that  of  Medicine.  They  were  not  wholly  strangers  to  the  theoretical 
knowledge  auxiliary  to  it ;  but  the  practical  part,  on  the  other  hand,  was  in 
low  estimation.  Until  the  time  of  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.  xxix.  1),  the  practice  of 
medicine  was  not  an  occupation  of  any  of  the  more  noble  and  cultivated  Ro- 
mans, but  was  followed  only  by  slaves,  freedmen,  or  foreigners. 

§  544.  The  early  Romans  supposed  diseases  to  be  healed  only  by  special 
intervention  of  the  gods  ;  hence  their  first  physicians  were  the  augurs  and 
aruspices,  and  their  remedies  in  all  cases  consisted  very  much  in  religious  rites 
and  magical  chants.  In  epidemic  maladies,  it  was  customary  to  consult  the 
Sibylline  books  ;  and  some  ceremony  or  observance  was  prescribed  for  relief. 


384  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

It  was  thus  that  dramatic  sports  were  first  introduced  to  remove  a  plague  (cf. 
§  305).  To  alleviate  a  pestilence  the  Romans  at  another  time  erected  a  tern* 
pie  to  Apollo  Medicus  (Liv.  iv.  25)  ;  at  another,  Esculapius,  in  the  form  of  £ 
serpent,  was  solemnly  escorted  from  Epidaurus  to  an  island  in  the  Tiber. 
Hence  too  divine  honors  were  offered  to  deified  diseases  (cf.  P.  III.  $93). 

§  545.  But  the  Romans  could  not  fail  to  discover  that  processions,  lustra- 
tions, lectisternia,  and  supplicia  (cf.  P.  IV.  §211,220),  and  other  superstitious 
ceremonies  were  not  the  natural  remedies  for  diseases,  which  continued  to  in- 
crease in  number  and  malignity  with  the  progress  of  luxury.  They  were 
willing  to  receive  medical  prescriptions  from  the  Greeks,  from  whom  they 
had  borrowed  in  almost  every  thing  else ;  and  Greek  slaves  became  physi- 
cians to  the  mistress  of  the  world.  Eminent  citizens  sometimes  kept  a  slave 
in  the  sole  capacity  of  family  physician.  The  custom  of  thus  employing 
slaves  no  doubt  tended  to  foster  the  notion,  that  the  medical  art  was  ignoble  ; 
but  the  use  of  Grecian  remedies  and  methods  undermined  the  superstitious 
reliance  on  charms  and  rites,  and  contributed  to  encourage  a  proper  study  of 
the  science.  —  It  is  also  supposed,  that  the  study  was  encouraged  by  a  trans- 
lation into  Latin  of  the  medical  treatises  found  in  the  library  which  was  col- 
lected by  Mithridates  (cf.  §452,  P.  I.  §  126)  ;  this  translation  was  made,  un- 
der the  patronage  of  Pompey,  by  his  freedman  Lenceus  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxv. 
2,  3). 

§  546.  The  first  freeborn  Greek,  who  practiced  medicine  at  Rome,  is  said 
to  have  been  Archagathus,  who  came  to  Rome  B.  C.  219.  He  received  from 
the  senate  the  gift  of  citizenship,  and  was  furnished  with  a  medical  or  apoth- 
ecary's shop  (medecina).  His  severe  method  of  practice,  however,  became 
unpopular  ;  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  he  was  stoned  to  death.  After  the 
conquest  of  Greece  and  the  fall  of  Corinth  B.  C.  146,  Greek  physicians  seem 
to  have  flocked  to  Rome  in  greater  numbers.  Asclepiades,  from  Prusa  in 
Bithynia,  B.  C.  110,  gained  great  celebrity  in  the  art  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxvi. 
3)  ;  and  seems  to  have  had  many  disciples  (cf  §  263). 

The  question  has  been  started,  whether  the  Greek  physicians  were  ban- 
ished from  Rome  along  with  the  philosophers  (§  449),  and  learned  writers 
have  contended  on  both  sides.  (See  Middleton,  Spon,  &c.  as  cited  §  552.  2.) 
Cato  who  was  so  hostile  to  the  philosophers  was  no  friend  to  the  physicians  ; 
"if  the  Greeks,"  said  he,  according  to  Pliny  (xxix.  1),  "  impart  to  us  their 
learning,  we  are  ruined  ;  especially  if  they  send  hither  their  physicians  ; 
they  have  sworn  together  to  destroy  all  the  barbarians  by  medicine." 

§  547  a.  Cato  is  considered  as  the  first  Roman  who  attempted  to  write  on 
diseases  and  remedies;  he  composed  a  work  that  might  be  called  a  book  of 
domestic  medicine;  but  it  exhibited  no  great  knowledge  of  the  subject. —  The 
next  who  is  mentioned  as  having  written  on  the  medical  art  in  Latin  was  the 
freedman  Antonius  Musa.  He  was  a  celebrated  physician  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, and  gained  illustrious  rewards  for  curing  that  prince  of  a  dangerous 
sickness.     His  genuine  works  are  lost. 

The  treatise  of  Cato  was  entitled  Commentarius  quo  mcdeturfdio,  servis,  familiaribus.  Cf.  Plu- 
tarch, Vit.  Cat.  —Plin,  Hist.  Nat.  xxv.  2;  xxix.  1.  -—There  are  two  pieces  extant,  which  have 
been  ascribed  to  Musa  ;  namely,  a  treatise  De  herba  betonica,  and  a  metrical  fragment  De  tuen- 
da  valetudine.  —  C.  F.  Crell,  Ant.  Musa,  &c.  Lpz.  1725.  4.  —  Flor.  Caldanus,  Ant.  I\lusa3,  frag- 
nienta  quae  extant.  Bassano,  1800.  8.  — Cf.  Ackcrman,  Prol.  de  Ant.  Musa.  Alt.  1786.  8. 

§  547  b.  The  next  celebrated  name  in  the  list  of  Roman  medical  authors  is 
Cornelius  Celsus  (§553),  who  is  by  many  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  although  little  is  certainly  known  respecting  his  history. 
Apuleius  Celsus  was  a  different  person,  a  native  of  Centorbi  in  Sicily,  who 
lived  under  Tiberius,  and  wrote  on  agriculture  and  on  plants ;  but  his  works 
are  lost. 

In  the  commencement  of  the  period  extending  from  the  death  of  Augustus 
to  the  time  of  the  Antonines  most  of  the  practicincr  physicians  at  Rome  were 
Greeks ;  and  until  the  time  of  Trajan  they  were  chiefly  of  the  Methodic 
School  (cf.  §264).  Eudemus  was  one  of  them,  mentioned  as  a  disciple  of 
Themison,  and  cited  as  author  of  observations  on  hydrophobia.  Menecrates 
is  named  as  another,  who  composed  upwards  of  150  treatises.  Andromachus 
from  Crete  was  physician  to  Nero,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  was 
called  archiater  ;  this  title  however  does  not  appear  to  have  been  common  un- 


WRITERS    ON    MEDICINE.  385 

til  a  later  period.  But  it  should  be  remarked,  that  under  the  first  emperors 
the  medical  art  was  patronized  much  more  than  previously,  and  that  the 
teachers  in  this  branch  were  permitted  to  enjoy  the  same  privileges  and  hon- 
ors as  the  teachers  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy. One  of  the  most  distin- 
guished in  this  period,  that  wrote  in  Latin,  was  Scribonius  Largus  ($  554), 
who  accompanied  Claudius  in  his  expedition  into  England,  A.  D.  43.  Vettius 
Valens  is  mentioned  also  as  an  author,  but  Tacitus  {Ann.  xi.  31,  35)  has  con- 
signed his  name  to  infamy  for  his  connection  with  the  wife  of  Claudius,  the 
flagitious  Messalina.  Coelius  Aurelianus  probably  belongs  to  the  close  of  this 
period,  being  usually  considered  a  contemporary  of  Galen  (cf.  $273)  ;  he  has 
left  two  works,  both  of  which  were  drawn  from  Greek  authors,  especially 
from  Soranus,  a  Greek  physician  who  obtained  great  distinction  at  Rome  (cf. 
§  264),  being  a  supporter  of  the  Methodic  School.  —  Perhaps  Pliny  the  elder 
should  be  mentioned  as  a  writer  on  medicine,  since  in  his  Natural  History 
($470)  he  treats  of  the  healing  virtues  especially  of  mineral  substances. 

Coelius  was  a  native  of  Sida  or  Sicca  in  Numidia.  The  two  works  extant  are  entitled,  Tar- 
darum  sive  Chronicarum  passionum  libri  V.,and  Celerum  sive  acutarum  passionum  libri  III.  Sev- 
eral-other  works,  now  lost,  were  written  by  him.  Cf.  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  iii.  531-35.  —  His 
works  are  given  in  the  collections  of  Stephanus  and  of  Hatter,  cited  $  552.  3.  Separately,  Al- 
meloveen,  (e  recens.  J.  C.  Amman,  M.  D.)  Amst.  1709.  4.  Repr.  1755.  4.  —There  is  a  Latin 
treatise  entitled  Isagoge  in  artem  medicam,  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  translation  by  Coelius, 
from  a  work  of  Soranus  ;  by  others  considered  the  original  work  of  some  later  Latin  author ; 
it  is  in  the  Coll.  of  Stephanus. 

§  548.  In  the  former  part  of  the  last  period  included  in  our  notice  (from 
the  Antonines  A.  D.  160,  to  the  destruction  of  Rome  A.  D.  476),  lived  Se- 
renus  Sammonicus,  eminent  as  a  physician  and  a  learned  man,  from  whom  we 
have  a  didactic  poem  on  diseases  and  their  remedies  (§  555).  This  was  per- 
haps preceded  by  the  Greek  poem  on  medicine,  called  an  epic,  in  42  books, 
by  Marcellus  Sidetes  (cf.  $  32),  who  probably  lived  somewhat  earlier.  We 
have  also  a  sort  of  medical  epistle  from  Vindicianus,  who  was  physician  to 
the  emperor  Valentinian,  about  A.  D.  370.  From  his  contemporary  and  dis- 
ciple, Theodorus  Priscianus,  we  have  two  works  pertaining  chiefly  to  medi- 
cal subjects  ($  556).  Sextus  Placitus  is  named  as  a  medical  writer  of  the  4th 
century  and  author  of  a  treatise  on  medicines  derived  from  the  animal  king- 
dom. There  is  a  compilation,  in  Jive  books,  De  re  medica,  ascribed  to  Plinius 
Valerianus,  who  is  commonly  referred  to  the  former  part  of  the  4th  century. 
Marcellus  Empiricus,  who  was  physician  to  Theodosius  Magnus,  left  a  book 
on  medicines,  addressed  to  his  sons  (cf.  §  557).  Finally  we  mention  a  treatise 
on  the  veterinary  art,  ascribed  to  Publius  Vegetius  (as  already  noticed,  $  492. 
4)  ;  it  is  however  considered  to  be  merely  a  sort  of  translation  from  the  Greek 
Hippiatrica  ^iTcniaxqixa,  cf.  $268),  made  by  some  ignorant  monk  of  the  12th 
century. 

The  epistle  ascribed  to  Vindicianus  is  prefixed  to  the  treatise  of  Marcellus  as  usually  pub- 
lished ;  cf.  $  557.  2.  See  Bdhr,  Rom.  Lit.  p.  210.  —  The  treatise  of  Sextus  Placitus  Papyriensis, 
entitled  De  medicamentis  ex  animalibus,  is  given  by  Stephanus,  and  Ackermann,  as  cited  $  552.  3. 
—  The  compilation  of  Plinius  Valerianus  De  re  medica,  or  Medicina  Pliniana,  is  drawn  chiefly 
from  Pliny  and  Galen  and  Dioscorides  ;  it  is  given  by  Stephanus  as  just  cited  ;  also  by  Alb.  To- 
rinus,  Basil,  1528.  fol.     Cf.  Scholl,  Litt.  Rom.  m.  233.   Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  n.  247. 

§  549.  We  have  already  remarked  ($  547b),  that  from  the  time  of  Augustus 
physicians  were  held  in  higher  estimation  at  Rome  than  previously,  and  were 
flattered  with  honors.  The  physician  of  Nero,  it  is  said,  was  styled  archiater. 
"It has  been  a  question,"  observes  Scholl  (Litt.  Rom.  in.  236),  "  whether  this 
title  designated  the  one  who  was  the  physician  to  the  reigning  prince  (larqbq 
mv  uo/ovroq),  or  chief  of  the  pthysicians  of  a  city  or  town  (uq/vjv  i<hv  iarQoh). 
The  two  opinions  may  be  reconciled,  if  we  only  suppose  that  both  offices  or 
characters  were  united  in  one  and  the  same  person.  Each  city,  or  each  quar- 
ter of  a  city,  had  its  special  physician.  Antoninus  Pius  fixed  the  number  at 
ten  for  the  large  places,  seven  for  the  middling,  and  five  for  those  of  the  third 
rank.  These  were  called  archiatri  popular es  ;  they  were  nominated  not  by 
the  governors  of  the  provinces,  but  by  the  people  of  each  place  ;  and  they 
formed  a  body  by  themselves,  termed  ordo  or  collegium.  All  other  physicians 
were  subordinate  to  this  body,  which  exercised  over  them  a  rigid  inspection. 
After  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great  there  were  archiatri  palatini,  who 
ranked  among  the  high  officers  of  the  imperial  court ;  and  after  the  5th  cen- 
tury they  were  placed  on  a  level  with  the  duces  or  vicarii."  (Cf.  P.  IV.  $  309. ) 
33 


3S6  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE!. 

§  550.  "  The  vast  conquests  of  the  Romans,  and  the  expeditions,  in  which 
they  penetrated  to  the  most  remote  regions  of  the  globe,  afforded  them  oppor- 
tunities for  studying  nature  and  enriching  the  natural  sciences  by  impor- 
tant discoveries.  But  the  military  spirit  stifled  the  curiosity  which  would 
have  paused  in  their  career  in  order  to  examine  the  novel  objects  presented  to 
their  view.  Rare  animals  brought  to  Rome  by  the  conquerors  furnished  stu- 
dious men  with  means  of  making  interesting  observations,  which  were  to 
some  extent  improved.  But,  after  all,  the  Romans  generally  had  little  ardor 
for  any  such  pursuits,  and  they  accomplished  little  in  any  department  of 
physical  science."     (SchOll.) 

§  551.  The  principal  writings,  to  which  we  can  refer,  that  contain  matter 
pertaining  to  this  department,  are  those  of  Seneca  and  Pliny  already  noticed 
(cf.  §  469,  470)  under  the  head  of  philosophy.  The  former  in  his  Quastiones 
JYaturales  (L.  iii.)  expresses  his  regret,  that  he  had  not  paid  more  attention  to 
subjects  so  interesting.  Pliny  must  be  acknowledged  to  have  had  a  love  for 
the  study  of  nature,  and  the  work  left  by  him  is  of  acknowledged  value. 
These  works  present  some  facts  worthy  of  our  notice  in  this  connection  ; 
e.  g.  Seneca  remarks,  that  small  letters  seen  through  a  glass  vessel  filled  with 
water  appear  magnified,  and  that  a  sort  of  wand  made  with  several  angles  and 
presented  to  the  sun  in  a  certain  manner  will  cause  the  colors  of  the  rainbow 
to  show  themselves. 

Pliny  observes  (Hist.  Nat.  ii.  97,64),  that  the  tides  are  caused  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  that  the  sun  is  like  a  supreme  moderator 
among  the  planets.  He  notices  also  (Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  14)  the  properties  as- 
cribed to  the  magnet  (ferrum  vivum,  MayvfjXig  ?.[6og). — Frontinus  in  his  trea- 
tise on  aqueducts  has  occasion  to  exhibit  theoretic  views  respecting  the  laws 
of  fluids,  and  makes  some  just  observations,  but  without  scientific  precision. 
Vitruvius  in  his  Architecture,  we  may  add,  brings  forward  some  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  mechanics.  Both  these  authors  have  been  mentioned  among  the 
mathematical  writers.  Indeed  we  find  but  a  single  name  to  mention  here, 
that  has  not  found  a  place  in  some  other  department.  There  was  a  work  by 
Julius  Obsequens,  entitled  De  Prodigiis  or  Prodigiorum  liber,  in  which  the 
writer  described  the  extraordinary  and  wonderful  phenomena  of  nature  that 
had  occurred  at  Rome.  The  part  which  is  now  extant  relates  to  the  two  cen- 
turies immediately  preceding  the  Christian  era,  and  contains  much  that  is 
drawn  from  the  history  of  Livy.  This  performance,  which  closes  our  notice 
of  the  attainments  of  the  Romans  in  physics,  although  written  in  a  style  con-" 
sidered  by  some  as  not  unworthy  of  the  Augustari  age,  is  but  a  collection  of 
marvelous  tales  rather  than  a  book  of  science. 

Of  the  person  named  Julius  Obsequens  and  the  time  When  he  lived  nothing  is  known  with 
certainty  ;  some  critics  have  assigned  him  to  the  1st  century,  others  to  the  4th.  —  Cf.  Vossiusj 
de  histor.  Lat.  iii.  Perizonius,  Animadversiones  Historicse.  cap.  viii. Best  editions  ;  sepa- 
rately, F.  Oudcndorp.  Ludg.  Bat.  1720.  8.  Repr.  (ed.  J.  Kapp.J  Curiae,  1772.  8.  —  Given  also  in 
Hose's  Val.  Maximus,  cited  §  533.  3. 

§  552.  We  give  the  following  as  references  on  the  class  of  writers  just 
noticed. 

1.  Physical  science  among  the  Romans;  A.  Libes,  Histoire  Philosophique  des  Progres  de  la 
Physique.  Par.  1810.  4  vols.  8.  (L.  i.  ch.  vi.)—  Schdll,  Litt.  Rom.  u.  454.  —  Comtc  de  Caylus, 
Bur  les  connaisances  des  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Tiiscr.  xxvn.  58. Mahudel  Du  lin  incom- 
bustible &c.  in  the  same  work,  iv.  634.  —  Ameilhon  (the  telescope  not  known  to  the  ancients), 
in  same  work,  xlii.496.  Cf.  P.  I.  $207. —  Falconet,  Sur  ce  que  les  Anciens  ont  cm  de  l'Aimant, 
in  the  same,  vol.  iv.  p.  613. 

2.  History  of  medicine  among  the  Romans  ;  Oood,  Le  Clerc,  and  Sprengel,  as  cited  P.  I.  $23. 

—  J.  H.  Schulze,  Compend.   Hist.  Med.    Halae,  1742. On  the  question  as  to  the  rank  and 

treatment  of  physicians  ;  Oevers,  De  servil.  condit.  homin.  artes  Rom.  colent.  —  A.  Ot  Rich- 
ter,  Prisca  Roma  in  medicos  suos  haud  iniqua.  Gbtt.  1764.  4. — Kvhn,  De  medecin.  militar. 
apud  Grsec.  et  Roman,  conditione.  Lpz.  1827.  4. —  Cony.  Middleton,  De  Med.  apud  vet.  Rom. 
degentium  conditione  (published  1725),  in  his  Miscellaneous  works,  Loud.  1752.  4  vols.  4. — 
J.  Spon,  (Diss,  in)  Recherches  Curieuse  a'Antiquite.  Par.  1683.  4.  —  Schldger,  Historia  litis, 
de  Med.  ap.  Vet.  Rom.  deg.  conditione.  Helms.  1740. 

3.  Medical  Collections.  The  earliest  by  Critandcr,  Bas.  1528.  fol.  —  The  second  by  Aldus > 
Ven.  1547.  fol.  —Next,  by  H.  Stephanus,  Medicte  Artis  Principes.  Par.  1567.  2  vols.  fol.  con- 
taining Greek  and  Latin.  Cf.  Fabria 'us,  13 ibl.  Lat.  hi.  522.  —  And.  Rivinus,  Vet.  quorumd. 
Script,  libri  de  materia  medica.  Lips.  1654.  8.  —  Haller,  Art.  Med.  princ.  and  Gruner,  Bibl.  d. 
alt.  Aerzte,  cited  $269.  —J.  Ch.  G.  Ackermann.  Parabilium  medicamentorum  Scriplores  an- 
tiqui.  Norimb.   1788.  8. 

§  053.  Aurelius  or  Jlulus  Cornelius  Celsus,  a  native  of  Rome  or  of  Verona, 


PHYSICIANS.       CELSUS.    SCRIBONIUS.    SAMMONICUS.  387 

lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  first  century.  He  wrote  a  comprehensive  work, 
entitled  De  Artibus,  in  20  books ;  it  was  a  sort  of  encyclopeedia,  treating  of 
philosophy,  rhetoric,  rural  ceconomy,  the  art  of  war,  jurisprudence,  and  medi- 
cine. Of  this  we  have  only  the  eight  books  on  medicine,  which  are  not  un- 
worthy of  notice  either  in  respect  of  their  contents,  or  the  style  in  which  they 
are  written :  the  last  two  books  treat  of  surgery. 

1.  There  is  not  an  agreement  among  the  critics  as  to  the  name  of  Celsus, 
whether  it  was  Aurelius  or  Aulus  ;  nor  as  to  his  birth-place,  whether  Rome  or 
Verona ;  nor  as  to  the  time  of  his  birth,  whether  under  Augustus,  or  later. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  a  practical  physician. 

See  J.  Rhodius,  Vit.  Celsi.  Havn,  1672. — Morgagni,  Epist,  in  A,  C.  Celsum.  Hag.  Com. 1724. 
4.  given  in  the  Bipont  ed.  below  cited.  —  L.  Bianconi.  Lett,  sopre  A.  C.  Celso.  Rom. 1779.  8.  — 
M.  O.  Schilling.   Uusst.  de  C.  Celsi  vita.  Lpz.  1824.  8,—Fabricius  Bibl.  Lat.  ft.  36. 

2.  The  books  of  Celsus  De  Medicina  are  ranked  among  the  most  valuable 
remains  of  the  ancient  physicians  ;  he  has  been  called  the  Latin  Hippocrates, 
and  the  Cicero  of  the  physicians.  The  preface  contains  a  notice  of  the  vari- 
ous schools  of  medicine  before  his  time  ;  the  first  four  books  treat  of  internal 
diseases  ;  the  next  two  of  external  diseases  ;  and  of  the  two  last,  one  treats  of 
dislocations  and  fractures,  the  other  of  surgical  operations.  The  author  has 
drawn  freely  from  Hippocrates.  —  There  are  two  letters,  which  have  been  as- 
cribed to  Celsus,  but  were  probably  written  by  Scribonius  Largus.  The  trea- 
tise de  Veterinaria,  sometimes  mentioned,  is  supposed  to  have  been  merely  the 
section  on  that  topic  included  under  the  head  of  agriculture  in  his  general 
work.  —  There  is  extant  a  book  de  arte  dicendi,  which  was  once  ascribed  to 
Celsus,  but  is  now  referred  to  Julius  Severianus,  a  writer  in  the  fifth  century. 

Le  Clerc  &  Schulze,  as  cited  §  552. 1.  —  Chiappa,  Intormo  alle  opere  e  alia  conditione  di  A.  C. 
Celso.  Mil.  1819.—  O.  Matt/rice,  Diss,  de  A.  C.  Celsi  medicina.  Gott.  1766.  4.— F.  C.  Oertel,  Diss, 
de  aquas  frigid®  usu  Celsiano,  Monach.  1825.  4. — Respecting  the  book  de  arte  dicendi,  cf.  Harles 
Brev.  Not.  Suppl.  i.  522. 

3.  Editions.  —  Best ;  D.Ruhnken.  Lugd.  Bat.1785.  2  vols. 4.  based  on  that  of  L.Targa  (Pad. 
1769.  4),  but  more  fnll.—Bipontins.  Argent. 1806. 2  vols.  8.  Ex.  recens  Targcc  (cum  Lexico  Celsi) 
Verona,  1810.  4.^E.  Milligan.  Lond.  1826.  8,  after  the  Jtexjt  of  Tayga,^-Cf.  L.  Choulant,  Prodro- 
mus  nov.  edit.  Celsi.  Lpz.  1824.  4.  -^-  Of  previous  editions,  some  of  the  more  noted  ;  J.  A.  van 

der  Linden.   Leyd.  1665.  12. Qlmeloveen.    Amst.  1713.  8.  —  The  Prineeps,  by  Barthol.  Fontio. 

Flor.  1478.  fol.  —  The  letters  are  given  in  the  collection  of  Stcpkanus,  cited  §  552.  3. — The  book 
on  rhetoric  is  given  in  the  collection  of  Pithmus  cited  $  412. 

4.  Translations.  —  German.—  O.Ch.F.Fuchs.  Jena, 1799.  8.  only  the  first  book. — J.  C.  Jdger. 
Frankf.  1789.  8.  7th  &  8th  books. French.— H.  JVinnir.  Par.  1753.  2  vols.  12.  (revue  par  Le- 
page). Par.  1821. English.— J.  Grieve.   Lond.  1756.  8.  —  Collier  (with  Latin).   Lond.  1829. 

2  vols.  8.—  Underwood  (with  orig.  Lat,)   Lond.  1833.  2  vols.  8.  —  Lee  (Lat.  &  Angl.)   Lond.  1836. 

3  vols.  12. 

§  554.  Scribonius  Largus,  a  physician  at  Rome,  lived  in  the  first  century, 
under  Tiberius  &  Claudius.  He  is  considered  as  the  author  of  a  treatise  still 
extant,  yet  not  very  valuable,  on  the  preparation  of  medicines.  It  has  been 
conjectured  that  it  was  originally  written  in  Greek,  and  translated  into  Latin 
at  some  later  period. 

1.  His  full  name  was  Scribonius  Largus  Designatianus.  His  treatise  De 
compositione  medicamentorum  is  addressed  to  Caius  Julius  Callistus.  In  the 
introduction  he  alludes  to  medical  pieces  written  by  him  in  Latin  (scripta. 
Latina  medicinalia) ,  which  Callistus  had  presented  to  Claudius  the  emperor; 
language  which  would  seem  to  imply  that  this  or  some  other  piece  or  pieces 
must  have  been  in  Greek. 

Le  Clerc,  cited  §  552.  l.—Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  tit.  322.—Bcrnhold,  Prsef,  to  ed.  below  cited.— 
Bdhr,  p.  696. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best,  J.  M.  Bemhold.  Argent.  (Strassb.)  1786.  8.— .7.  Rhodius.  Pad.  1655.  4.— 
Contained  also  in  Stcphanus,  as  cited  §  552.  3.  It  was  first  published,  opera  J.  Ruellii.  Par. 
1529.  8.  along  with  two  other  pieces.    Repr.  Bas.  1529.  8. 

§  555.  Q.  Screnus  Sammonicus,  who  lived  in  the  second  and  third  centuries, 
was  a  man  of  much  learning,  and  a  favorite  of  the  emperor  Severus.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  Caracalla,  on  suspicion  that  he  was  on  the  side  of  Geta. 
We  have  from  him  a  poem  on  diseases  and  their  remedies  ;  it  is  probably  not 
free  from  interpolations,  and  is  not  complete,  being  defective  at  the  close. 

1.  It  has  been  doubted  whether  the  poem  was  written  by  this  distinguished 
physician,  or  by  his  son  of  the  same  name.  The  poem  is  in  hexameter  verse, 
and  is  entitled  Carmen  de  morbis  et  remediis,  or  De  medicina  pr&cepta  ;  it  was 
much  read  and  frequently  copied  in  the  middle  ages.  The  materials  are 
phiefjy  deriyed  from  Pliny  and  Dioscorides. 


388 


HISTORY    OF    ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


There  is  also  under  the  name  of  Serenus  Sammonicus  a  poem  entitled  Carmen  de  t'mgendis 
capillis.     A  fragment  of  another,  entitled  Res  recondite,  is  given  by  Macrobius  (Sat.  iii.  c. 15-17). 

—  Keuchen,  Proleg.  to  his  ed.  below  cited. Zckerman,  Praef.  to  his  ed.  below  cited.  —  Bdhr, 

p.  210,  780.  —  Fuhrmann,  Kl.  Handb.  p.  701. 

2.  Editions.  —  Best ;  J.  Ch.  G.  Ackermann.  Lpz.  1786.  8 Keuchen.   Amst.  1662.  1706.  8.— 

Contained  also  in  Burmann's  Poet.  Lat.  Min. — Often  in  editions  of  Celsus. — The  poem  de  ting, 
capillis,  by  Bbhmer,  Programmata  i — iv.   Viteb.  .1798 — 1800.  4. 

§  556.  Theodorus  Priscianus,  of  whose  life  we  have  no  account,  flourished 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  physician 
of  some  eminence,  bearing  the  title  Archiater.  "We  have  from  him  a  trea- 
tise on  dietetics,  and  a  larger  work,  in  4  books,  chiefly  on  medicine.  The  style 
is  rough  and  corrupt. 

1.  The  treatise  is  entitled  Diceta,  or  De  rebus  salubribus.  The  other  work  is 
entitled  Euporiston,  or  Phenomenon  Euporistos  ;  it  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  Com- 
pend,  made  in  Latin  from  a  work  written  by  him  in  Greek  ;  hence  the  Greek 
title,  which  however  is  rather  the  appropriate  title  of  the  1st  book  {de  medicina 
facile  par abili).  The  4th  book  treats  of  topics  belonging  to  physical  science 
generally.  The  work  has  been  erroneously  ascribed  to  Q.  Octavius  Horatia- 
nus. 

Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  in.  538.— Harles,  Brev.  Not.  p.  600.   Suppl.ii.  244 BiUir,  698. 

2.  Editions. — Euporiston;  the  first  bv  Hermannus  Comes  Nuenarius  (Count  of  Nevenar).  Ar- 
gent.1532.  fol.— Better,  by  S.  Gelenius.  Bas.1532. 4.— Also  in  Aldus,  cited  §552.  3.— J.  M.  Bemhold. 
Ansb.  1791.  8.  three  vols,  designed  ;  but  only  two  prepared,  and  only  the  first  printed  ;  the  work 
being  interrupted  by  the  editor's  death. — D'wta,  G.  E.  Schreiner.  Hal.  1632.  8. — Also  in  Rivinus. 
cited  $  552.  3. 

§  557.  Marcellus  Empiricus,  of  Burdegala  (Bordeaux),  lived  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  century,  under  the  emperor  Theodosius  I.  The  work  left  by 
him,  on  Medicines,  is  a  compilation  from  various  Roman  authors,  made  with- 
out careful  selection  or  judgment. 

1.  The  work  is  entitled  Medicamentorum  liber.  It  is  accompanied  by  an 
epistle  addressed  to  his  sons,  in  the  title  of  which  he  is  styled  vir  inluster  ex 
magno  officio  Theodosii  senioris.  Respecting  his  work,  he  himself  states  that 
he  had  diligently  read  the  earlier  Roman  medical  writers,  and  had  also  learned 
from  the  lower  classes  of  the  people  some  simple  remedies.  He  gives  counte- 
nance to  the  superstitious  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  charms,  and  recommends  to 
suspend  from  the  neck  a  copy  of  certain  Greek  verses  in  order  to  relieve  pains 
in  the  fauces. 

Fabricius,  m.  527,-^Bcihr,  210,  698.— Sprengel,  as  cited  §  552.  1. 

2.  Editions,  —  First  published  by  Janus  Cornarius.  Bas.  1536.  fol.  —  Given  also  in  the  Col- 
lect, of  Stephanus,  cited  §  552.  3. 


XI. —  Writers  on  Law  and  Jurisprudence. 

§  558.  The  science  of  law  was  cultivated  at  Rome  above  all  others.  On 
no  subject  was  so  much  written  and  published.  Yet  the  existing  remains  are 
not  proportionally  numeroufc  and  extensive.  In  addition  to  all  the  common 
causes  that  have  effected  a  loss  of  productions  in  other  departments,  we  may 
perceive  a  special  reason  for  the  loss  of  the  early  works  on  the  various  topics 
included  under  the  head  of  jurisprudence  ;  it  is  found  in  the  fact,  that  con- 
densed collections  were  made  in  later  times  by  public  authority.  These  col- 
lections superceded  the  previous  works,  which  of  course  would  cease  to  be 
transcribed  and  would  soon  be  lost. 

§  559.  The  works  belonging  to  the  department  of  jurisprudence  were  ex- 
ceedingly various  as  well  as  numerous.  Some  were  dissertations  on  existing 
rights,  or  laws  ;  some  were  treatises  on  the  particular  objects  of  a  law  ;  there 
were  commentaries  on  the  writings  of  earlier  jurists;  inquiries  respecting  the 
foundation  of  rights  (institutiones)  ;  miscellaneous  compends  or  manuals  (en- 
chiridia)  ;  systems  of  general  or  abstract  principles  (dcfinitiones)  ;  collections 
or  reports  of  law  cases  (responsa)  ;  or  opinions  generally  admitted  (sentcntioi 
receptm)  ;  and  in  later  times,  regularly  arranged  compilations  on  the  whole 
subject  of  jurisprudence  (digesta).  Among  the  writings  still  preserved,  we 
find  but  few  fragments  belonging  to  the  better  periods  of  Roman  literature  } 


LAW    AND    JURISPRUDENCE.  389 

they  are  chiefly  productions  from  the  time  of  Trajan  and  after  him.  But 
there  is  a  degree  of  purity  in  the  language  and  excellence  in  the  style,  which 
is  the  more  remarkable  because  found  in  works  of  these  later  ages,  and  which 
can  be  explained  only  by  considering  that  their  authors  had  their  attention 
constantly  turned  upon  the  writings  of  the  earlier  jurists.  As  a  matter  of 
course  however,  they  must  contain  many  technical  terms,  with  obsolete 
phrases,  and  some  foreign  words  and  expressions,  especially  Graecisms. 

§  560.  To  enter  upon  a  notice  of  the  principles  of  the  civil  law,  or  a  re- 
view of  the  actual  laws,  would  be  foreign  from  the  object  of  our  sketch,  and 
belongs  rather  to  the  political  than  the  literary  history  of  Rome.  Indeed  the 
Roman  jurisprudence  forms  of  itself  a  theme,  which  has  been  found  suffi- 
ciently ample  for  a  separate  history.  All  we  propose  here  is  to  glance  at  some 
of  the  principal  writers  and  works. 

§  561.  The  earliest  production  to  which  we  find  any  reference  is  the  Jus 
Papirianum,  a  collection  of  laws  (Leges  regice)  and  usages,  which  was  made 
in  the  reign  of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  by  a  lawyer  named  Papirius.  —  The  next 
is  the  collection  called  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  which  is  said  to  have 
consisted  partly  of  the  pre-existing  customs  and  regulations,  and  partly  of 
principles  and  rules  derived  from  Greece  through  an  embassy  which,  it  is 
said,  was  sent  to  examine  the  Grecian  laws  and  institutions.  The  Decemvi- 
viri  (cf.  P.  IV.  $249)  were  charged  with  the  business  of  forming  this  collec- 
tion, and  the  chief  labor  is  ascribed  to  Hermodorus,  B.  C.  448.  These  tables 
are  highly  lauded  by  the  ancient  writers  ;  they  are  mentioned  by  Livy  (iii. 
34)  as°the  foundation  of  the  whole  Roman  system  of  jurisprudence,  and  are 
said  by  Cicero  {De  Or.  i.  44)  to  be  more  valuable  than  the  writings  of  all  the 
philosophers.  A  few  fragments  of  them  are  preserved.  —  We  find  next  the 
Jus  Flavianum,  which  was  a  collection  containing  an  account  of  the  forms, 
rites,  and  days,  (or  certain  formula,  called  legis  actiones,)  necessary  to  be  re- 
garded in  legal  transactions  ;  a  proper  knowledge  of  these  was  confined  tQ 
the  patricians,  it  is  said,  until  Flavins,  a  clerk  of  Appius  Cladius  Caecus,  a 
descendant  of  Appius  Claudius  the  Decemvir,  published  (B.  C.  312)  the  col- 
lection, which  bears  his  name,  but  which  is  said  to  have  been  composed  by 
his  master  and  stolen  by  the  clerk.  —  The  patricians  devised  a  new  set  of 
forms  and  rules  for  the  transaction  of  judicial  business,  which  were  expressed 
in  writing  only  by  certain  signs  (note)  ;  but  a  statement  and  account  of  these 
forms  also  was  published  by  Sextus  JElius  Psetus,  about  the  year  B.  C.  200, 
in  a  collection  afterwards  termed  Jus  mlianum. 

Respectins  the  collections  above  named  see  the  IRst.  of  Rom.  Jurisprudence,  by  Bach,  or  oth- 
ers, cited  §  571. —  Of  those  who  have  attempted  to  collect  and  arrange  the  fragments  of  the 
Twelve  Tables,  the  most  eminent  are  J.  Gothofredus  (Godfrey),  Fragm.  xii.  Tabularum.  Heid. 
1616.  —  J.  JV*.  Funk.  Rinteln,  1744.  4.  —  M.  A.  Bouchaud,  Commentaire  sur  la  loi  des  XII.  ta- 
bles. Par.  2d  ed.  1803. 2  vols.  4.— And  Dirksen,  Versuch.  z.  Kritik  und  Ausleg.  d.  Quellen  des  R. 
R.  ;  a  recent  work,  cf.  Bdlir,  p.  340.  — The  origin  of  these  laws  has  been  a  matter  of  much 
dispute  ;  some  denying  and  others  affirming  a  Grecian  origin ;  cf.  Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall  of 
Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xliv.  —  JYiebuhr,  Hist.  Rom.  ii.  p.  223.  ed.  Phil.  1835.  —  B.  Bonamy,  sur  l'orig. 
des  XII.  tab.  in  the  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  Inscr.  xn.  27.  —  Seb.  Cumpi,  Novum  Examen  loci  Livi- 
ani  de  Leg.  Rom.  Athenas  miss.  &c.  Viln.  1821.  —  Lelievre,  Comment,  de  legib.  XII.  Tab.  Lo- 
vanii,  1827.  —  Campi  defends  and  Lelievre  opposes  the  opinion  that  the  laws  were  derived 
from  Greece  by  means  of  the  embassy.  —  The  principal  ancient  authorities  are  Dionys.  Hal. 
Rom.  Ant.  x.  57.  —  Liv.  iii.  31.  —  Lydus,  de  magist.  i.  31. 

§  562.  The  mention  of  the  work  of  ^Elius  has  brought  us  within  the  second 
period  according  to  our  adopted  division,  that  between  the  1st  Punic  war,  B.  C. 
240,  and  the  civil  war  of  Marius  ending  B.  C.  87.  There  were  celebrated  law- 
yers or  jurisconsults  in  this  period,  of  whom  some  of  the  principal  have  been 
already  named  among  the  orators  (§  392ss).  Cato  the  elder  and  his  son  Porcius 
Cato  Licinianus  were  both  eminent  jurists;  and  their  memory  was  preserved 
by  a  work  on  the  civil  law  subsequently  known  by  the  title  Catoniana  regula. 
—  Three  authors  of  this  period  are  sometimes  named  as  the  founders  of  the 
science  of  civil  law  :  M.Junius  Brutus,  who  left  seven  books  de  jure  civili 
(Cic.  de  Or.  ii.  55) ;  Manius  Manilius,  consul  B.  C.  147,  who  composed  seve- 
ral works,  one  of  which  was  afterwards  styled  Manilii  Monumentu  ;  and  Pu- 
blius  Mucius  Scscvola,  author  of  a  work  De  jure  civili,  in  10  books.  The 
Mucian  family  was  celebrated  for  its  hereditary  knowledge  of  jurisprudence ■_; 
"  the  kindred  appellation  of  Mucius  Scoevola,"  says  Gibbon,  "  was  illustrated 
by  three  sages  of  the  law."  The  father  and  the  son  of  the  one  just  men- 
33* 


390  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

tioned,  both  bearing  the  name  of  Quintus  Mucius  Scaevola,  were  illustrious 
civilians;  there  was  indeed  another  named  Quintus,  usually  surnamed  the 
Augur,  who  was  a  distinguished  lawyer  ;  from  whom  Quintus  the  son  of  Pu- 
blius  is  usually  discriminated  by  the  surname  of  Pontifex.  The  latter  wrote 
several  works  ;  one  of  them,  entitled  Definitiones  (oqoi),  is  said  to  be  the  old- 
est, of  which  any  part  is  included  in  the  Digests  of  Justinian. 

See  Bach,  and  others,  as  cited  §  571.  —  E.  L.  Harnier,  De  regula  Catoniana.  Heidelb.  1820.  8. 
—  O.  d,Arnaud,  Vitas  Sccevolarum.  Traject.  ad  Rhen.  1767.  8. 

§  563.  The  next  period  is  a  brilliant  one  in  the  history  of  Roman  jurispru- 
dence. One  of  the  most  eminent  writers  was  Servius  Sulpicius  Rufus,  a  dis- 
ciple of  ScEevola  and  friend  of  Cicero  ;  and  author,  it  is  said,  of  above  a  hun- 
dred books  on  the  science  of  law.  Cicero  should  perhaps  be  named  here,  as 
some  of  his  works,  especially  his  Laics  and  Republic  (cf.  §  468)  illustrate  the 
subject  before  us.  "He  declined  the  reputation  of  a  professed  lawyer;  but 
the  jurisprudence  of  his  country  was  adorned  by  his  incomparable  genius, 
which  converts  into  gold  every  object  that  it  touches."  Of  the  many  other 
writers  in  this  department,  before  the  death  of  Augustus,  we  can  mention  on- 
ly the  following  ;  Alfenus  Varus,  author  of  a  collection  called  Digcsta,  in  40 
books  ;  C.  Trebatius  Testa,  author  of  several  works,  —  among  them,  one  by 
the  title  De  religionibus ;  A.  Cascellius ,  of  whose  writings  the  treatise  styled 
Liber  benedictorum  is  particularly  noticed;  Q.  JSiiua  Tubero,  author  of  a  work 
entitled  De  officio  judicis,  and  of  others ;  Q.  Antistius  Labeo,  who  composed 
a  great  number  of  works,  among  which  are  mentioned  one  entitled  Libri  VIII. 
Jltt&avwv,  and  another  entitled  Posteriorum  Libri  xl.  ;  C.  Atejus  Capito, 
cited  as  author  of  a  work  called  Conjectanea,  and  another  De  jure  Poniificio  ; 
and  ^Elius  Gallus,  of  whose  treatise  on  the  signification  of  terms  pertaining 
to  the  civil  laic,  some  fragments  are  still  extant. 

See  the  works  cited  $571.  —  E.  Otto,  De  vita,  Studiis  etc.  J.  Sulpicii  Rufi.  Traj.  ad  Khen. 
1737.  8.  —  JV.  H.  Grundling,  C.  Trebatus  Testa,  ab  inj.  vet.  etc.  liberatus.  Halle,  1710.  4. — 
J.  F.  Eckard,  C.  Treb.  Testa  Vindicatus.  Isenac.  1792.  4.  —  E.  G.  Lansmann,  Diss.  De  A.  Cas- 
cdlio.  Lugd.  Bat.  1823.  8. —  P.  H.  S.  Vadcr,  De  a.  J£A\o  Tuberone  ejusque  fragmentis.  Lugd. 
Bat.  1824.  8.  —  C.  Van  Eck,  De  vita,  moribus  eit.  M.  Antist.  Labeoiiis  et.  C.  Atej.  Capitonis. 
Franecq.  1692.  8.  —  C.  G.  Heimbach.  Fragm.  ^Elii  Galli  De  Verborum,  qua  ad  jus  civ.  pertinent. 
Lpz.  1823.  8. 

§  564.  In  the  period  which  follows,  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the  time 
of  the  Antonines,  the  historian  who  traces  the  progress  of  Roman  law  and 
politics,  finds  many  changes.  The  civilians  and  legal  writers  continued  to  be 
numerous.  Masurius  Sabinus,  who  was  honored  with  peculiar  privileges  by 
Tiberius,  wrote  a  treatise  De  jure  civili,  which  was  of  such  importance  as  to 
be  the  subject  of  many  volumes  of  comments  by  subsequent  civilians.  It  was 
after  him  that  one  of  the  two  opposing  schools  of  jurists  derived  the  name  of 
Sabinians  ;  while  the  other  received  that  of  Proculians,  from  Sempronius  Pro- 
culus,  who  composed  notes  on  Labeo,  and  a  work  styled  Epistolai ;  the  Procu- 
lians advocated  an  adherence  to  the  ancient  systems  and  principles  of  juris- 
prudence ;  the  Sabinians  were  more  in  favor  of  innovations  which  augmented 
the  imperial  authority.  The  following  additional  names  are  selected  from  the 
list  of  writers  falling  within  the  period  now  in  view;  M.  Cocceius  Nerva, 
author  of  a  treatise  De  usucapionibus  ;  C.  Cassius  Longinus,  author  of  a  work 
on  civil  rights,  of  which  the  sixteenth  book  is  cited  in  the  Pandects ;  Pegasus, 
whose  name  is  preserved  by  the  law  denominated  Senatusconsultum  Pegasia- 
num  ;  P.  Juventius  Celsus,  author  of  various  works,  particularly  a  collection 
called  Digesta,  in  39  books  ;  Neratius  Priscus,  among  whose  writings  was  one 
entitled  Regula,  in  15  books  ;  Javolenus  Priscus,  whose  writings  are  said  to 
have  exerted  an  influence  not  inconsiderable  on  subsequent  times  ;  L.  Volu- 
sius  Msecianus,  who  instructed  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  in 
civil  law,  and  is  mentioned  as  author  of  a  treatise  entitled  Libri  X.  Fidei 
Commissorum. 

Cf.  references  given  $571.  —  D.  G.  Moller,  Diss,  de  Masur.  Sabino.  Alt.  1693.  4.  —  P.JV. 
Arntzen,  Diss,  de  Mas.  Sabino.  Traj.  ad.  Rh.  1768.  4.  —  J.  A.  Ahasver,  Diss,  de  M.  Cou.  Ner- 
va. Brem.  1748.  4.  —  J.  Steenwinkel,  Diss,  de  C.  Cassio  Longino.  Lugd.  Bat.  1778.  8.  —  H.  T. 
Pavenstecher,  Jus  Pegasianum.  Lemg.  1741.  4.  —  Heineccius,  Pr.  de  Juventio  Celso.  Francof. 
ad  V.  1727.  4.  —  J.  C.  Stiekel,  Diss,  de  Neratio  Prisco.  Lpz.  1788.  4.  —  G.  A.  Jcnischen,  Diss, 
de  Prisco  Javoleno.  Lpz.  1734.  4.  —  J.  Wunderlich,  Coram,  de  L.  Vol.  Maeciano.  Hamb.  1749.4. 

Respecting  the  two  sects,  cf.  G.  Mascov,  Diss,  de  Sectis  Sabiniorum  et  Proculianorum. 

Alt.  1724.  4.  Lpz.  1828.—  Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Empire,  ch.  xliv.  —  Fabricius,  Bibl. 
Lat.  in.  p.  489. 


JURISPRUDENCE.  391 

§  565.  There  are  three  other  names  which  should  be  mentioned,  belonging 
to  this  period,  and  particularly  to  the  reign  of  Hadrian ;  namely,  Salvius  Ju- 
lianus,  Sextus  Pomponius,  and  Gaius  or  Caius.  Salvius  Julianus  was  em- 
ployed by  Hadrian  to  reduce  to  a  settled  and  permanent  form  the  principles 
and  method  by  which  the  Praetor  should  conduct  all  his  judicial  proceedings; 
the  work  or  system  of  rules  thus  produced  was  called  the  perpetual  edict  (edic- 
tum  perpetuuni).  —  Sextus  Pomponius,  who  lived  later  than  Julian,  composed 
numerous  and  voluminous  works  ;  a  history  of  jurisprudence,  De  origine  juris 
libri  II,  is  preserved  in  the  Pandects. — Gaius,  sometimes  with  the  appellation 
Titus,  was  also  the  author  of  numerous  treatises  ;  the  principal  was  the  work 
entitled  Institutes  {Libri  Instittitionum  quatuor),  which  was  designed  to  com- 
municate to  the  student  of  civil  law  its  essential  principles,  and  which  served 
as  the  model  for  the  Institutes  of  Justinian.  This  work  was  discovered  in  the 
year  1816,  in  a  Codex  rescriptus  or  palimpsest  manuscript  belonging  to  the  li- 
brary at  Verona. 

See  works  cited  §  571. — Heineccius,  Pr.  de  Salv.  Juliano.  Hal. 1733.  4. — A.  O.  S.  Francke,  De 
edicto  Prat.  urb.  prasertim  perpetuo.  Kil.  1830.  4.  —  The  Histor%(eZe  orig. juris)  of  S.  Pompo- 
nius was  published  by  C.  A.  Rupert.  Jen.  1661.  12.  The  work  of  Gaius,  previously  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  palimpsest  above  mentioned,  was  known  chiefly  by  a  lifeless  abstract  or  Epitome 
in  what  was  called  the  Breviary  of  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths  (Breviarium  Marici).  —  The 
best  edition  of  the  Epitome,  by  A.  C.  Q.  Hauhold.   Lpz.  1792.  8.  —  Of  the  original  work,  drawn 

from  the  palimpsest,  J.  F.  L.  Qoschen.   Berl.1825.  8 Cf.  H.Dittmar,  De  nomine,  state  et  scrip- 

tis  Gaii.   Lpz.  1820.  4. — Bulletin  des  sciences  Historiques,  vol.  vu. 

§  566.  In  the  remaining  period  of  our  sketch  there  were  numerous  civilians. 
As  a  class  or  professional  body  they  seem  to  have  enjoyed  high  consideration 
until  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus,  A.  D.  235.  But  from  that 
time  until  the  reign  of  Constantine,  who  was  proclaimed  A.  D.  306,  but  not 
established  as  sole  emperor  until  A.  D.  323,  the  jurisconsults  were  in 
much  less  estimation,  and  the  business  of  the  lawyer  was  practiced  by  persons 
not  suitably  educated  for  the  work.  "  The  noble  art  which  had  once  been 
preserved  as  the  sacred  inheritance  of  the  patricians,  was  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  freedmen  and  plebeians,  who,  with  cunning  rather  than  skill,  exercised  a 
sordid  and  pernicious  trade.  Careless  of  fame  and  of  justice,  they  are  de- 
scribed, for  the  most  part,  as  ignorant  and  rapacious  guides,  who  conducted 
their  clients  through  a  maze  of  expense,  of  delay,  and  of  disappointment ;  from 
whence,  after  a  tedious  series  of  years,  they  were  at  length  dismissed,  when 
their  patience  and  fortune  were  almost  exhausted." 

When  Constantine  formed  his  new  arrangements  for  the  government  of  the 
empire,  the  credit  of  the  profession  was  revived.  The  school  of  Berytus  (cf. 
P.  I.  §  128.  5),  which  had  existed  it  is  supposed  from  the  time  of  Alexander 
Severus,  now  nourished  with  new  vigor,  and  furnished  the  fourth  century 
with  distinguished  civilians.  Under  the  system  of  Constantine,  the  civil 
magistrates  were  wholly  or  chiefly  taken  from  the  class  of  lawyers  ;  and  sub- 
sequently, even  down  to  the  time  of  Justinian,  the  youth  of  the  empire  were 
stimulated  to  pursue  the  study  of  the  law  by  the  hope  of  being  rewarded  ulti- 
mately by  honorable  and  lucrative  offices.  The  regular  course  of  study  occu- 
pied five  years.  The  degree  of  encouragement  afforded  by  the  prospect  of 
honor  and  profit  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that  "  the  court  of  the  Praeto- 
rian prefect  of  the  east  would  alone  furnish  employment  for  one  hundred  and 
fifty  advocates,  sixty-four  of  whom  were  distinguished  by  peculiar  privileges, 
and  two  annually  chosen,  with  a  salary  of  sixty  pounds  of  gold,  to  defend  the 
causes  of  the  treasury."  (Gibbon.) 

§  567.  Of  the  writers  after  the  Antonines  and  before  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der Severus  (i.  e.  between  A.  D.  180  &  235),  the  most  eminent  were  iEmilius 
Papinianus,  Domitius  Ulpianus,  and  Julius  Paulus.  Papinian  was  appointed 
by  Maximus  Severus  to  the  office  of  Magister  libellorum,  in  which  capacity  it 
was  his  duty  to  reduce  and  arrange  the  answers  (rescripta)  of  the  emperor  to 
the  petitions  addressed  to  him.  He  was  put  to  death  by  Caracalla.  Among 
his  works  are  mentioned  particularly  two,  entitled  Quaistiones,  in  37  books, 
and  Responsa,  in  19  books.  Ulpian  was  recalled  from  exile  and  raised  to  the 
office  of  Praetorian  prefect  by  Alexander  Severus;  but  having  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  soldiers,  he  was  by  them  slain  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the 
emperor  and  the  people  to  save  him.  His  Commentaries  on  Dem-isthenes,  writ- 
ten in  Greek  (cf.  §  106),  are  still  extant.     The  titles  of  above  thirty  other  works 


392  HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

are  recorded,  among  which  we  notice  a  Digest,  Digesta,  in  forty-eight  books, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  the  basis  of  the  Digest  of  Justinian  ;  of  all  these 
productions  nothing  is  now  extant  excepting  twenty-nine  chapters  (tituli)  of 
a  work  entitled  Regulce,  Juris.  Paulus  was  also  made  Praetorian  prefect  (prce- 
fectus  prcctorio)  under  Alexander  Severus,  and  put  to  death  by  the  soldiers, 
A.  D.  230.  The  catalogue  of  his  works  exceeds  that  of  Ulpian's,  and  he  was 
termed  the  most  prolific  of  the  jurists  (jiolvyQaiffoTaTog  jurisconsultorum) . 
We  have,  as  preserved  in  the  Breviary  of  Alaric,  a  sort  of  abstract  of  one  of 
his  works,  entitled  Sentential  Receptee.  To  the  three  names  here  given,  per- 
haps we  ought  to  add  those  of  Q.  Septimius  Florens  Tertullianus,  JSlius  Mar- 
cianus,  and  Herennius  Modestinus;  the  latter  was  a  scholar  of  Ulpian,  and 
characterized  by  the  humaneness  of  his  principles. 

Cf.  $  571.  —  E.  Otto,  de  Papiniani  vita,  scriptis  etc.     Lugd.  Bat.  1718.     Brem.  1743.  8. * 

F.  A.  Schilling,  Diss.  Critica  de  Ulpiani  Fragm.  Vratisl.  1824.  8.  —  There  have  been  several 
editions  of  Ulpian's  Tituli ;  the  Princcps.  Par.  1549.  8.— One  of  the  best,  6.  Hugo.  Gott.1788. 
Repr.  Bed.  1824.  8.— E.  Booking.  Bon.  1836.  12.  with  other  fragments.  —  There  is  a  Fragment 
(de  manumissiombus)  ascribed  to  Ulpian,  preserved  by  a  grammarian  named  Dositherus,  first 
published  in  Pitlmus,  as  cited  §  571 ;  cf.  Schilling,  Diss.  Grit,  de  Fragm.  jur.  Roin.  Dosither. 
Lpz.  1819.  8.  —  On  the  question  respecting  Ulpian's  regard  towards  Christians,  see  P.  de  Toul- 

Ucu,  Or.  de  Ulpiano,  an  Christianis  infenso.   Gron.1724.  4. Of  Paulus,  the  Princeps  edition 

was  by  A.  Bouchardus.   Par.  1525.  4.     The  best  is  by  O.  Hugo,  Julii  Pauli  Sentent.  Recept.  ad 

filium'libri  V.   Bed.  1795.  8. J.  H.  Blumbach,  Ep.  de  Q.  "Septimio  Florente,  Presb.  et  Juris- 

cons.  &c.   Lpz.  1735.  4.—0.  CElrichs,  Diss,  de  vita,  studiis  etc.   M\.  Marciani.   Traj.  ad  Rhen. 

1754.  4. The  chief  monument  of  Herennius  is  the  work  entitled  Excusationes,  written  in 

Greek,  Ileal  svotjutxrixiov  ( Hcurematicon)  ;  published  by  H.  Brcncmann,  De  Heurematicis 
etc.   Lugd.  Bat.  1706.  8. 

§  563.  In  the  time  of  Constantine  two  jurists  are  particularly  noticed  as 
authors,  Gregorianus  and  Hermogenianus.  The  former  made  a  collection  of 
the  imperial  constitutions  (constitutions principales,  cf.  P.  IV.  $265)  extending 
back  to  the  time  of  Hadrian.  The  latter  prepared  a  supplement  to  it.  These 
works,  under  the  names  of  Codex  Gregorianus  and  Codex  Hermogenianus, 
were  soon  recognized  as  standard  authorities  in  the  courts  of  justice.  Some 
portions  of  them  are  preserved  in  the  Breviary  of  Alaric. — Some  other  jurists 
in  the  time  of  Constantine  and  his  immediate  successors  are  recorded  ;  but  the 
next  work  specially  worthy  of  mention  here  is  the  collection  termed  Codex 
Theodosianus,  which  was  reduced  by  the  order  of  Theodosius  the  second  and 
promulgated  in  the  Eastern  empire  A.  D.  438.  This  Code  the  same  year  was 
introduced  to  the  Western  empire  under  Valentinian  the  Third.  It  consisted 
of  sixteen  books,  of  which  the  first  five  related  to  private  rights,  and  the  re- 
mainder to  public  rights,  and  ecclesiastical  affairs ;  it  contained,  however, 
only  the  imperial  constitutions  from  the  time  of  Constantine.  Of  the  first  five 
books  we  have  only  an  abridgment  contained  in  the  Breviary  of  Alaric.  The 
Theodosian  Code  retained  its  authority  in  the  Western  Empire  until  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  Roman  government,  A.  D.  476.  And  after  this,  Roman  law 
still  held  sway,  although  modified  by  the  institutions  of  the  conquerors  ;  the 
Code  of  Theodoric,  and  the  Breviary  of  Alaric,  both  justify  this  remark. 

Cf.  $  571.— Ch.  F.  Pohl,  Diss,  de  codd.  Gregor.  et  Hermogen.  Lpz.  1777.  4. Of  the  Theo- 
dosian Code  there  have  been  several  editions  ;  the  first  by  J.  Tilius.  Par.  1550.  8.— J.  D.  hit- 
ter. Lpz.  1736.  fol.  containing  also  some  additional  constitutions  by  Theodosius  and  succeeding 
emperors,  under  the  title  of  Novella;.  —  Fragments  before  unpublished  collected  by  W.  F.  Clos- 
sius.  Tub.  1824.  8.  and  by  A.  Peyron.  August.  Taur.  1824.  4.  —  The  first  five  books,  by  C.  F. 
Ch.Wenk.   Lpz.1825.  8.— Cf.  Jt  A.  Wolf,  De  Latinitate  ecclesiast.  in  Cod.  Theodos.  Lpz.1774.  4. 

The  Code  of  Theodoric,   Edictum    Theodorici,  was  issued  by  him,  A.  D.  500,  after  his 

establishment  in  Italy  as  king  of  the  Ostrogoths;  it  consists  of  fifty  chapters,  drawn  chiefly 
from  the  writings  of  Paulus.  —  It  is  given  in  Cuncianus,  Legg.  antiq.  Barbar.   Ven.  1781.   C£ 

G.  F.  Rhon,  Commentat.  ad  Edict.  Theodorici.    Hal.  1816.  4. The  Breviary  of  Alaric, 

Brnuarium  legum  Romanarum,  is  sometimes  called  the  Breviary  of  Anianus,  whose  name  is  at- 
tached to  it  not  as  having  collected  it,  but  as  certifying  its  authority.  It  was  made  by  order  of 
Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  residing  at  Toulouse,  A.  D.  506  ;  and  is  a  compilation  from  the 
three,  Rom.an  codes  above  named,  and  the  writings  of  Gaius,  Paulus,  and  Papinian. — First  pub- 
lished by  P.  Pitlmus.  Par.  1579.  fob— The  best  edition,  Madrid,  1815.  fol.  Cf.  Turk,  Ueber  das 
Westgoth.  Gesetzbuch.   Rost.  1829.  8. 

§  569.  In  the  Eastern  Empire  the  Theodosian  code  retained  full  authority 
until  the  time  of  Justinian.  Notwithstanding  all  the  efforts  of  preceding  em- 
perors and  jurists  to  reduce  the  Roman  jurisprudence  to  a  satisfactory  form 
and  system,  the  vast  variety  of  laws,  decisions,  and  constitutions,  involved  the 
subject  in  great  confusion  and  perplexity.     Justinian  undertook  the  task  of 


JURISPRUDENCE.  393 

reducing  the  whole  to  order,  and  employed  for  the  purpose  the  most  eminent 
lawyers  of  the  age,  with  the  celebrated  Tribonian  at  their  head. 

The  first  performance  was  a  collection  and  reduction  of  the  imperial  consti- 
tutions from  the  time  of  Hadrian  downward,  which  was  promulgated,  as  the 
Codex  Justinianus,  A.  D.  529,  when  all  preceding  codes  were  abrogated.  But 
this  first  edition  was  abolished  A.  D.  534,  when  a  second  edition,  with  some 
corrections  and  additions,  was  promulgated  ;  which  was  called  Codex  repeti- 
t(S  leclionis.  The  Code  was  thus  corrected  and  completed  by  Tribonian  and 
four  other  lawyers  ;  nine  had  aided  in  the  first  preparation.  —  The  next  labor 
was  a  collection  and  reduction  of  the  writings  of  the  jurisconsults  of  preced- 
ing ages,  especially  those  who  had  lived  under  the  emperors,  and  whose 
works  are  said  to  have  amounted  to  two  thousand  volumes.  For  executing 
this  task  Tribonian  was  allowed  ten  years  with  sixteen  associates  ;  it  was  ac- 
complished in  three  years,  and  was  published  A.  D.  533,  under  the  title  of 
Pandects  or  Digests.  The  former  title  referred  to  their  completeness  as  com- 
prehending the  whole  of  Roman  jurisprudence  (rc'av  and  di%habai),  and  the 
latter  to  their  methodical  arrangement  (digesta). — At  the  same  time  was 
published,  by  the  emperor's  orders,  a  work  on  the  elements  or  first  principles 
of  Roman  law,  entitled  Institutes  (Institutiones),  prepared  by  Tribonian  and 
two  others,  Theophilus  and  Dorotheus.  —  There  is  another  collection,  con- 
sisting of  imperial  constitutions  and  edicts,  which  were  promulgated  after 
A.  D.  535  ;  and  which  are  included  under  the  title  of  Novels  (Novella  sc.  con- 
stitutions) .  They  were  chiefly  written  in  Greek  (called  veaqai  diara^sig), 
but  were  first  known  to  the  moderns  by  a  Latin  translation. — The  four  works 
here  described,  viz.  the  Code,  the  Novels,  the  Institutes,  and  the  Pandects  or 
Digests,  constituted  what  is  now  called  the  Body  of  Roman  Law,  Corpus  Ju- 
ris Romani  Civilis. 

Cf.  references  $  571.  — J.  P.  de  Ludewig,  Vita  Justin,  atque  Triboniani.  Halle,  1731.  4.  —  K. 
Witte,  Leges  restitutae  des  Jnstiniancischen  Codex.  Bresl.  1830.  8.—  Dodwell,  Cur  nulli  legantur 
in  Codice  principes  Legumlatores,  nee  ulli  in  Pandectis  Jurisconsulti,  antiquiores  quam  Hadri- 
ano,  in  his  Prmlect.  Acad.  Oxf.  1692.  8.  —  H.  Brencmann,  Historia  Pandectarum.  Traj.  ad  Rhen. 

1722.  4. Respecting  the  Florentine  Ms.  of  the  Pandects,  see  P.  I.  §  143.  —  F.  A.  Bicner, 

Gesch.  der  Novellen  Justinians.  Berl.  1824. On  the  system  followed  in  the  Institutes,  see 

Th.  L.  Mazer  oil,  De  Ord.  Instit.  Gbtt.  1815.  4. 

Best  editions  of  the  Corpus  Juris. — Dionys.  Gothofredus  (Godefroi,  Godfrey).  Lugdun.  1627. 
6  vols.  fol.  with  glossary. —  G.  C.  Oebauer  &  G.  A.  Spangenberg.  Gbtt.  1797.  2  vols.  4.  with 
notes,  without  glossary.  —  J.  L.  G.  Beck.  Lpz.  1825.  8.  without  glossary  or  notes. On  edi- 
tions, see  E.  Spangenberg,  Einleit.  in  d.  Just.  Recthsb.    Hannov.   1817.  8. Late  edition  of 

the  Institutes,  by  C.  Buclier.  Erlang.  1826.  8.  — There  is  a  Greek  Paraphrase  of  the  Institutes 
by  a  Theopilus,  supposed  to  be  the  person  associated  with  Tribonian  ;  the  best  edition  is  that 
of  TV.  O.  Reiz.  Hag.  Comit.  (La  Haye,  Hague),  1751.  2  vols.  4. —  An  English  translation,  by 
Dr.  Harris.  Lond.  1814.  8.  —  A  labored  and  learned  analysis  of  the  Institutes  is  given  by  Gib- 
bon, Decl.  and  Fall,  of  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xliv. 

§  570.  The  system  of  jurisprudence  established  by  Justinian  remained  in 
force  in  the  Eastern  empire  until  its  destruction  and  the  capture  of  Constan- 
tinople A.  D.  1453.  The  countries  which  formed  the  Western  empire  had, 
previously  to  the  time  of  Justinian,  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians  ; 
and  although  for  a  short  time  he  recovered  from  them  Italy  and  other  portions 
through  the  military  talents  of  Belisarius,  yet  his  system  of  laws  did  not  ob- 
tain much  sway  in  the  west.  But  in  the  former  part  of  the  12th  century,  Ir- 
nerius,  a  German  lawyer  who  had  studied  at  Constantinople,  opened  a  school 
at  Bologna,  and  thus  revived  and  propagated  in  the  west  a  knowledge  of  the 
Roman  Civil  Law.  Students  flocked  to  his  school  from  all  parts,  and  by  them 
the  Roman  jurisprudence,  as  embodied  in  the  system  of  Justinian,  was  trans- 
mitted to  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  and  acquired  a  degree  of  authority 
in  the  courts  of  justice,  which  "  seems  to  promise,"  (as  has  been  justly  re- 
marked,) "  the  fulfillment  of  the  famous  prediction  of  the  ancient  Romans 
concerning  the  eternity  of  their  empire." 

§  571 .  We  add  here  some  references  on  the  general  subject. 

J.  A.  Bach,  Historia  Jurisp.  Rom.  (as  ed.  by  A.  C.  Stockmann)  Lpz.  1807.  8.  —  S.  Zimmern, 
Geschichte  des  Rom.  Privatrechts.  Heidelb.  1826.  8.— C.  A.  Haubold,  Institute  Juris  Rom.  his- 
tor.  dogm.  Lineament  (ed.  C.  E.  Otto).  Lpz.  1826.  8.  —  G.  Panciroli,  De  Claris  leg.  intrepret. 
Ven.1634.  Lpz.1721.  A.—  W.Grotius,  Vitae  Jurisconsultorum,  quorum  in  Pandect,  ext.  nomina. 
Lugd.  Bat.  1690.  4.  —  /.  Bcrtrard,  Blot  rouinoyv.  Tolos.  1617.  4.  —  G.  Majansms,  Comment, 
ad  xxx  Jurisc.  omnia  fragmenta.  Genev.  1764.  4. — Schulting,  Jurisprudentia  Ante-Justinianea. 
Lpz.  1737.  4.  containing  works  of  several  of  the  jurisconsults.  Cf.  Fabric'ms,  Bibl.  Lat.  in.  508. 
i — H,  de  Buchholi,  Juris  Civ.  Ante-Justinianei  "Vatic.  Fragm.  ab  A.  Mai  edita.  Kbnigsb.  1828.  8. 


394  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

— E.  Spangenberg,  Antiquitatis  Rom.  Monumenta  legalia  extra  libros  Jur.  Rom.  sparsa,  quae  in 

aere,  lapide,  aliave  materia  etc.  supersunt.   Berl.  1830.  8. Pithmus,  collatio  Legam  Mosaic*. 

rum  et  Romanorum.  Par.  1573.  4.  The  Collatio  is  the  work  of  an  unknown  author  of  the  fourth 
century  ;  it  is  given  also  in  Schulting,  as  above  cited  ;    likewise  in  the  Critici  Sacri  (8th  vol.) 

Lond.  1660.  9  vols.  fol. G.  Panciroli,  Notitia  dianitatum  omnium  tam  civilium  quam  milita- 

num  in  partibus  Orientis  et  Occidentis.  Ven.  1593.  Genev.  1623.  fol.  This  Notitia  is  a  con- 
densed summary  or  table  presenting  a  view  of  the  organization  of  the  government  both  civil 
and  military  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  empires;  it  is  a  systematic  nomenclature  of  all  the 
offices  with  their  respective  rank  ;  and  is  of  course  of  some  value  in  studying  the  system  of 
Roman  jurisprudence.  It  contains  also  a  topographical  notice  of  Rome  and  of  Constantinople. 
It  was  drawn  up,  it  is  believed,  about  A.  D.  450  ;  the  author  is  unknown.  —  It  is  given,  with 

explanations,  in  SckiiWs  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.  vol.  in.     Also  in  Qrcevius,  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  197.  

See,  also,  on  Rom.  Jurisp.  Gibbon,  Dec.  and  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  ch.xliv.—  Scholl,  Lit.  Rom.  l. 
177.  n.221,  478.  m.  265  ss.  —  Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.  p.  738-770.  —  Fabricius,  BibI.Lat.ur. 
477-510.  ' 


Christian  Writings  in  the  Latin  Language. 

§  572.  It  would  be  useful  and  interesting,  if  there  were  room  for  it,  to  take 
here  a  glance  at  the  works  of  the  early  Christian  authors  who  wrote  in  the 
Latin  language.  The  names  of  some  have  been  introduced  already  on  ac- 
count of  their  literary  performances.  A  number,  besides  Ausonius  ($  385), 
Sedulius  ($388),  and  Prudentius  ($  387),  might  be  mentioned  as  poets  i  Cy- 
prian, Commodian,  Tertullian,  Lactantius  (cf.  $506),  Juvencus,  Victorinus, 
Hilarius,  Ambrosius,  Gregorius,  Columbanus,  &c.  Others  are  known  as  his- 
torical writers;  Hieronymus  or  Jerome,  Prosper,  Cassiodorus,  Marcellinus, 
Rufinus,  Isidorus  (cf.  $434),  Beda,  Gennadius,  Jornandes,  Gildas,  Bonifacius, 
&c.  Many  might  deserve  notice  on  account  of  writings  of  a  Biblical,  relig- 
ious, or  miscellaneous  character,  commentaries,  apologies,  or  epistles  ;  Sido- 
nius  (cf.  $445),  Boethius  (cf.  $474),  Minucius  Felix,  Arnobius,  Augustine, 
Pelagius,  &c. — It  has  been  remarked,  that  the  influence  of  the  pagan  schools 
of  philosophy  is  less  manifest  in  the  writings  of  the  Latin  than  in  those  of 
the  Greek  Fathers.  The  style  of  the  Latin  Fathers  is  marked  by  Hellen- 
isms and  Orientalisms.  Many  of  them  had  occasion  to  address  people  less 
civilized  and  cultivated  than  those  of  the  East. 

Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  i  v.  p.  1-130.  —  Bd.hr,  Supplement  &c.  as  cited  $  299.  8.  —  Clarke, 
Murdoch,  Si.c.  as  cited  $  293.  —  A.  Fabricius,  Biblioth.  medias  et  infimae  retatis.  Hamb.  1734. 
6  vols.  8 — D.  Schramm,  Analysis  operum  ss.  Patrum  et  script.  Ecclesiasticorum.  Aug.  Vind. 
1780.  18  vols.  8.— C.  T.  Schonemann,  Biblioth.  hist.  lit.  Patrum  Latinorum.  Lips.  1792.  2  vols.  8. 


Appendix  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  Literature. 

§  573.  It  will  be  very  proper  to  append  in  this  place  a  slight  notice  of  some 
of  the  principal  editions  of  the  Classics  in  regular  sets,  or  in  uniform  sizes. 

1.  The  Editiones  Principes  are  a  set  or  collection,  consisting  of  the  first  edition  ever  printed 
of  each  author,  at  whatever  press  issued,  or  by  whatever  editor.  They  are  of  course  not  uni- 
form in  appearance. 

2.  The  Aldine  Classics  include  those  issued  from  the  presses  of  Aldus  Pius  Manutius  and  his 
Ron  and  grandson,  Paulus  Manutius  and  Aldus  Manutius.  Aldus  the  elder  was  born  at  Bassano 
in  Italy,  and  early  acquired  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  and  in  connection  with  two  friends 
formed  the  plan  of  printing  the  works  of  the  ancients.  His  establishment  was  at  Venice,  where 
the  operations  of  his  press  were  continued  between  twenty  and  thirty  years,  and  his  efforts 
were  greatly  patronized  by  the  learned.  He  died  1516.  The  Aldine  editions  are  still  consid- 
ered as  great  ornaments  to  a  classical  library.  They  are  marked  by  the  vignette  or  rebus  of  a 
dolphin  idbbliyi.fr  an  anchor. 

See  Rcnouafd  Annales  dc  l'Imprimerie  des  Aides,  ou  Histoire  des  trois  Manuces  et  de  leurs 
editions,  et  Supplement.   Par.  1803-12.  3  vols.  8. 

3.  The  editions  printed  by  the  family  of  Stephens  enjoyed  gre.at  celebrity.  The  labors  of 
Henry,  the  founder  of  the  family,  commenced  at  Paris  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Their  establishment  was  continued  in  that  city  about  half  a  century  and  then  removed 
to  Geneva,  where  the  reputation  of  the  name  was  sustained  more  than  half  a  century  longer. 
The  glory  of  the  house  was  shared  by  five  successive  generations.  The  most  distinguished 
v/ere  Robert  and  Henry,  the  2d  and  3d  in  t,he  succession,  the  latter  particularly  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Greek. 

M.  Mattaire,  Stephanorum  Historia,  vitas  ipsorum  ac  libros  complectens.   Lond.  1709.  8. 


APPENDIX.       COLLECTIONS  OF  CLASSICAL  AUTHORS.  395 

4.  By  the  Variorum  Classics  is  usually  designated  a  series  of  Latin  Authors  published  in  the 
■seventeenth  century,  with  notes  of  various  scholars  (cum  notis  variorum)  ;  commenced  by  C. 
Schrevel,  1651.  They  were  printed  at  Leyden  (Lug.  Bat.)  chiefly  in  the  octavo  form.  Some  of 
the  series  were  printed  several  times,  at  different  places,  and  of  different  sizes.  The  set  in 
■quarto  comprises  about  160  vols,  and  in  octavo  426  vols. 

5.  The  Elzevir  editions  are  those  published  by  the  celebrated  printers  of  that  name,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  at  Leyden  and  Amsterdam.  There  were  five  brothers  all  of  distinguished 
celebrity  in  the  art.  The  editions  designated  by  their  name  are  in  the  duodecimo  form,  and  are 
celebrated  for  typographical  neatness  and  accuracy.  They  are  much  sought  after  by  amateurs 
in  bibliography,  and  bring  very  high  prices. 

See  Essai  Bibliographiques  sur  les  Editions  Elzevirs.  Par.  1829.  8. 

6.  The  Delphin  Classics  consist  of  the  Latin  authors  prepared,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  for  the  use  of  the  Dauphin  or  heir  of  the  crown  of  France  (in  usuin  DelphiniJ* 
The  plan  originated  with  B.  P.  Huct  (Lond*  Quart.  Rev.  iv.  Ill),  who,  with  Bossuet,  was  ap- 
pointed by  Louis  XIV  as  a  preceptor  to  the  Dauphin.  Besides  critical  observations  on  particu- 
lar words  and  passages,  these  editions  were  furnished  with  a  sort  of  running  note  or  ordo,  to 
exhibit  in  easier  Latin  the  author's  sense.  -*-  A  complete  set  was  sold  at  the  Roxburghe  sale  in 
1812  for  above  £500.  —  The  set  in  quarto  is  usually  bound  in  65  vols. 

7.  The  Bipontinc  editions  are  those  published  by  a  Typographic  society  originally  established 
at  Dcux-Ponts  (called  in  German  Zwey-Brucken,  in  Latin  Bipontium),  in  the  last  century.  The 
first  work  in  the  series  was  printed  in  1779.  The  society  continued  their  labors  without  inter- 
ruption until  about  1795,  when  the  French  troops  took  possession  of  the  place,  and  their  presses 
and  magazines  were  seized  and  conveyed  to  Metz.  The  company  determined  to  continue  their 
impressions  in  Strasburg  (Argentoratum) ;  and  finding  this  a  more  favorable  location,  at  length. 
in  1798,  fixed  their  establishment  here,  and  from  that  time  prosecuted  their  work  with  renewed 
activity.  The  Bipontine  editions  have  scarcely  any  annotations ;  but  the  text  is  carefully 
corrected,  and  to  each  author  is  prefixed  a  Notitia  Literaria,  giving  an  account  of  his  life  and 
works,  of  the  previous  editions  of  such  as  had  been  published,  and  the  translations  of  them 
into  living  languages.    The  volumes  of  both  the  Latin  and  Greek  authors  are  in  the  octavo  form. 

A  catalogue  ana  description  of  the  editions  issued  previously  to  1811  is  attached  to  No.  V.  of 
the  Classical  Journal.    Cf.  Klugling,  Suppl.  iii.  to  Harles,  p. 11,  as  cited  $299.  8. 

8.  In  the  year  1818  was  commenced,  by  A.  J.  Valpy  as  printer  and  editor,  a  collection  of  the 
Latin  Classics,  incorporating  both  the  Delphin  and  the  Variorum  editions,  and  giving  the  vari- 
ous readings,  and  a4so  the  Literaria  Notitia  from  the  Bipont  editions  continued  to  the  present 
time.  The  execution  has  been  in  a  high  degree  satisfactory.  The  collection,  as  issued,  formed 
141  vols.  8. ;  but  was  subsequently  divided  into  159  vols,  the  Small  Paper  and  185  vols,  the 
Large  Paper.  It  was  conducted  under  the  patronage  of  the  Prince  Regent  of  England,  and  was 
sometimes  called  The  Regent's  Edition.  —  It  should  be  observed  that  there  was  another  edition 
of  the  Latin  authors  previously  commenced,  in  18mo,  under  the  name  of  '  The  Regent's  Edi- 
tion,' which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  one  here  noticed.  This  consists  of  54  vols,  ed- 
ited by  Dr.  Carey,  and  beautifully  printed.   Cf.  Class.  Jour*  xvn.  213% 

9.  A  very  good  collection  of  the  Latin  Classics  is  that  of  Lemaire,  recently  published  in  Paris, 
Styled  Bibliotheca  Classica  Latina,  ou  Collection  des  auteurs  Classiques  Latins,  avec  des  Commen- 
taires  anciens  et  nouveaux,  des  Index  Complets,  le  Portrait  de  chaque  Auteur,  des  Cartes  Geo- 
graphiques  etc.  Par.  Nicolas-Eloi  Lemaire,  Professeur  de  Poesie  Latinc  a  la  Faculte  des  Let- 
txes,  Academic  de  Paris.    It  consists  of  142  volumes  in  octavo. 

10.  Some  years  since  a  collection  of  the  Latin  authors,  entitled  Scriptores  Romani,  was  com- 
menced in  Boston.  The  works  of  Cicero  and  Tacitus  were  published  (23  vols.  12),  and  then 
the  work  was  suspended,  we  believe,  for  want  of  satisfactory  patronage. 

11.  The  cheapest  collection  of  Latin  and  Greek  Classics,  and  one  which  can  easily  be  pro- 
cured, is  that  of  Tauchnitz  (printer)  of  Leipsic.  His  Corpus  Poctarum  Grcecorum  has  been  cited 
already  (§47£.  2).  Both  this  and  his  Corpus  Auctor.  Pros.  Orcscorum  have  been  stereotyped,  and 
also  his  collection  of  Latin  Authors,  in  a  very  small  duodecimo  form.  They  contain  only  the  text; 
but  this  is  considered  as  very  accurate,  and  the  edition  is  much  esteemed. 

12.  Valpy's  School  Classics  are  only  a  series  of  such  authors  or  portions  of  authors  as  are  more 
commonly  used  in  Schools  and  Seminaries.  They  are  accompanied  with  English  notes  and 
Questions  for  Examination,  are  prepared  by  various  editors,  and  published  in  a  uniform  size. 
The  design  includes  both  Greek  and  Latin  authors  ;  and  the  work,  yet  in  progress,  appears  to 
be  well  received  in  England. 

13.  In  1824,  a  collection  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors  was  commenced  at  Leipzig  by  Teubner 
printer,  under  the  care  of  I.  Bekker  as  editor.  It  is  in  12mo,  with  excellent  type  ;  the  text  is 
considered  as  pure  ;  with  a  preface  to  each  author,  and  notes  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  The 
work  is  still  in  progress  ;  and  is  sold  in  London  as  Black  &.  Armstrong's  collection. 

14.  The  collection  of  Oreek  Classics  by  Jacobs  &  Rost,  has  already  been  mentioned,  §  7.  1. 

§  574.  There  are  also  Collections  of  Translations  of  the  classical  authors, 
some  of  which  it  may  be  acceptable  to  the  student  to  find  mentioned  here, 
although  our  limits  will  not  allow  a  notice  of  the  individual  works  comprised 
in  them. 

1.  Three  collections  of  German  translations  are  recent.  —  That  under  the  care  of  E.  F.  C* 
Oertel  was  commenced  at  Munich,  1822,  in  12mo  ;  including  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  — — -  The 
Prenzlau  collection  was  commenced  in  1827,  published  by  Ragbzy,  in  16mo;  including  Greek 
and  Latin  authors.     Many  of  the  translations  are  from  good  classical  scholars ;   they  are  all 

accompanied  with  notes  for  general  readers. The  collection  edited  by  Tafel,  Osiander,  and 

Schwab,  published  by  Metzler,  at  Stuttgart,  was  commenced  in  1827,  in  16mo.  This  includes 
both  Latin  and  Greek  authors  ;  the  translations  are  all  new  ;  many  of  them  very  good ;  the 
translations  of  the  poets  are  metrical.  —These  collections  are  stdl  in  progress. 

2.  A  collection  of  English  translations  is  in  a  course  of  republication  at  New  York,  in  12mo, 
by  the  Messrs.  Harpers,  and  is  denominated  the  Classical  Library. 


396  HISTORY    OF    CLASSICAL    LITERATURE. 

§  575.  It  would  be  useful  to  present  here  a  glance  at  the  history  of  classi- 
cal studies  from  the  revival  of  letters  to  the  present  time.  But  the  limits  of 
the  work  forbid  it. 

We  can  merely  give  some  references.  —  For  the  period  of  the  revival  especially,  in  Italy  and 
France  ;  Tiraboschi,  Stor.  dell.  Letterat.  Ital.  —  Muratori,  Antiq.  Ital.  —  Ouinguene,  Hist.  Lit- 
ter, d'ltalie.  —  Roscoe,  Life  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici. —  Same,  Life  of  Leo  X.  — Mill,  Travels  of 

Theodore  Ducas.  —  The  work  entitled  Histoire  Litcraire  de  la  France  f  by  the  Benedictines  J. 

Warton,  Diss,  on  the  Introd.  of  Learning  into  England,  in  his  History  of  Eng.  Poetry. Hee- 

ren,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  53.  These  velumes  contain  the  history  of  classical  studies  in  the  middle 
ages  ;  introductory  to  a  History  of  these  studies  since  the  revival  of  letters,  designed  by  him. 

T.  G.  Eichhoni's  Litterargeschichte.    Gbtt.  1812.  3  vols.   8.     (In  $  368-377  of  his  work,  he 

treats  of  the  history  of  classical  studies  in  Italy,  France,  Germany,  Netherlands,  and  Eng- 
land ;  making  two  periods,  the  first  from  A.  D.  1450  to  1650,  the  second  from  A.  D.  1650  to  the 
time  of  his  writing.  —  Cf.  I.  G.  Buschke,  De  progressu  humanitatis  studiorum  in  Germania. 
Rostoch,  1811.  4.  - —  Hallam,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  85.  1.  —  The  Appendix  to  Dunlop  ;  cf.  P.  I.  §  142. 
—  F.  Sciioll,  (as  cited  $7.  9,)  vol.  vu.  p.  351ss.  treats  of  the  introduction  of  Greek  learning 
into  France,  Germany,  and  Hungary,  and  of  the  influence  of  the  art  of  printing  on  its  pro- 
gress.—  See  also  references,  P.  I.  $29.  —  Cf.  likewise  B.  Sears,  on  Learned  Schools,  in  the 
Christian  Review.  Bost.  1838.  No.  for  September. 

But  a  more  full  and  exact  history  of  modern  classical  learning  than  yet  exists  is  a  disidera- 
tum.  A  great  portion  of  the  materials  is  to  be  drawn  from  the  biography  of  individual  scholars. 
Here  we  can  merely  repeat  the  names  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  of  those  who  have  contrib- 
uted to  the  advancement  of  classical  learning.  —  (a)  1 1  a  1  i  a  n  :  Poggio  (born  1380 — died  1459) ; 
Politian  (b.1454— d.1494) ;  G.  Merula  (1420—1494) ;  Aldus  Manutius  (1447—1516.  cf.  $  573.  2)  ; 
Landini  (1424—1504)  ;  Ph.  Beroaldus  (1453—1505) ;  P.  Victorius  (1498—1585)  ;  Robortellus 
(1516 — 1567) ;    F.  Ursinus  (d.1600) ;    C.  Sigonius,  Facciolatus,  Lamius,  Muratori,  Corsinus, 

Spalletti,  Rossi,  Vulpius.  (b)  Frenc  h.—Turnebus  (1512— 1565)  ;    Lambinus  (1526 — 

1572);  the  Stephenses,  cf.  $  573.  3  ;  Muretus  (1526— 1585)  ;  Budaeus ;  Casaubon  (1559— 1614)  ; 
J.  Scaliger  (1540—1609) ;  CI.  Salmasius  (1588—1653) ;  Rigaltius,  Morellus,  Longolius,  Pi- 
thceus,  Passeratius,  T.  Faber,  Dacier ;  Bouhier  (d.1746)  ;  Capperonius,  Brotier,  Valesius, 
Harduin,      Sallier,      Cotelerius,    Montfaucon,    Villebrune,    Larcher,    Ballu,    Barthelemy, 

Burigny,    Auger,    De  Brosses,    Vauvilliers,    Villoison,  &x. fcjInNetherlands.— 

Erasmus  (1467—1536)  ;  Douza  (1545—1604)  ;  J.  Lipsius  (1547—1606) ;  H.  Junius,  H.  Gro- 
tius,  J.  Meursius,  D.  Heinsius,  N.  Heinsius,  C.  Schrevel,  A.  Popma,  G.  Vossius,  J. 
Vossius,  P.  Scriver,  J.  F.  Gronov,  A.  Gronov,  Feith,  P.  Burmann,  Graevius,  Draken- 
borch,  Oudendorp,  Broukhusius,  Schulting,  Havercamp,  Le  Clerc,  Wesseling,  Hem- 
sterhuis,  Valckenar,  Lennep,  Hoogeveen,  Ruhnken,  Wittenbach,  &c. (d)  In  Ger- 
man y .— Melancthon  ;  Camerarius  (1500—1571)  ;  Acidalius  (1567—1595) ;  Gruter  (1560— 
1627);  F.  Sylburg,  H.  Wolf,  J.  Christoph.  Wolf,  J.Christian.  Wolf,  C.  Barth,  M.  Ne- 
ander,  E.  Schmid,  Kiister,  Carpzof,  Heusinger,  Fabricius,  Gessner,  Ernesti ;  Werns- 
dorf  (1723— 1793)  ;  Heyne,  Reiske,  Brunck,  Schweighauser,  Morus  ;  Schneider  (b.1751); 
Beck  (b.1757)  ;  Schiitz  (b.1747)  ;  Heeren,  Manso,  Jacobs;  Harles  (b.1738)  ;  Wolf  (of 
Halle,  b.1757) ;  Doling  (b.1759) ;  Gorentz  (b.1765) ;  Eichsfadt  (b.1771) ;  Hermann  (b.1772); 
Oberlin,     Kapp,     Ast,     A.  Bbckh,     F.  H.Bothe,     Ph.  Buttmann,     G.  F.  Creuzer,     Gierig, 

A.  Matthiae,  F.  Passow,  Sch'afer,  Wagner,  Wieland,  Weiske,  Wetzel,  &c. (e)  Among 

the  En  glish.— I. Vossius,  Grabe,  Hudson,  Bentley,  Clarke,  T. Hearne,  Cuningham, 
Gibson,  Baxter,  Hare,  Wasse,  Pearce,  Davis,  Creech,  Johnson,  Middleton,  Mark- 
land,  Potter,  Gataker,  Barnes,  Taylor,  Stanley,  Gale,  Wells,  Winterton,  Robinson, 
Wallis,  Musgrave,  Hutchinson,  T.  Morell,  Dawes,  Mattaire,  Warton,  Toup,  Bur- 
gess,   Dalzell,    Parr,    Blomfield,    Valpy,    &c Cf.    Harles,    Brev.  Not.   (as  cited  $  299. 

8.)  p.  45ss.  and  Klugling,  Suppl.  111.  p.  13ss.  and  also  Harles,  Introd.  (as  cited  $7.  9.)  vol.  i. 
p.  71ss.  —  We  mention  two  works,  recommended  by  Prof.  Sears ;  Fridemann's  Vitae  Duum- 
virorum  T.  Hemsterhusii  et  D.  Ruhnkenii.  —  S.  F.  Hoffmann's  Lebenbilder  beriihmten  Hu- 
manisten.  Commenced,  Lpz.  1837.  vol.  i.  8. 

We  cannot  forbear  to  congratulate  the  student  in  view  of  the  progress 
which  classical  learning  is  making  in  our  country.  After  having  been  almost 
banished  (cf.  Miller,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  29.  3),  it  has  been  greatly  revived  during 
the  last  thirty  years.  The  names  of  Buckminster,  Pickering,  Stuart,  Popkin, 
Kingsley,  Everett,  Robinson,  Anthon,  and  others,  are  now  too  familiarly 
known  to  need  our  remarking  upon  what  their  example,  writings,  or  instruc- 
tions have  accomplished  in  effecting  the  change.  The  very  just  conviction, 
that  classical  learning  will  always  be  a  handmaid  to  evangelical  religion,  has 
awakened  greater  ardor  in  the  pursuit.  And  while  such  eminent  classical 
scholars  as  Stuart,  Robinson,  Sears,  Stowe,  Alexander  (the  son),  Howe,  &c. 
are  connected  with  our  Theological  Seminaries,  we  may  apprehend  no  relapse 
of  the  interest.  Theological  Seminaries  are  named  especially,  because  (aside 
from  the  fact  that  a  majority  of  the  teachers  in  the  principal  Colleges  are 
drawn  from  them)  the  influence  of  clergymen  in  our  country  bears  so  directly 
upon  the  subject  of  education.  Let  these  seminaries  send  forth  to  the  church- 
es a  succession  of  ministers  who  feel  that  classical  learning  is  of  little  value, 
and  no  efforts  of  individual  genius  can,  in  the  present  state  of  things  among 
us,  create  a  high  or  general  interest  in  its  pursuit. 


PART   III. 


MYTHOLOGY 


OF   THE 


GREEKS  AND  ROMANS 


34 


PLATE     X  . 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 


Introduction. 

§  1.  Among  the  early  nations  of  antiquity,  before  the  art  of  writ- 
ing had  come  into  general  use,  tradition  was  the  only  mode  of  pre- 
serving and  spreading  the  knowledge  of  remarkable  events.  Many 
circumstances  contributed  to  give  to  early  traditions  a  fabulous 
character.  The  love  of  the  marvelous,  a  natural  tendency  of  the 
mind  to  employ  symbolical  and  allegorical  images  to  express  ideas 
for  which  no  definite  words  have  been  appropriated,  and  a  disposi- 
tion to  eulogize  and  exaggerate  the  exploits  of  ancestors,  all  con- 
spired to  load  history  and  fact  with  a  mass  of  fiction,  so  that  it  be- 
came impossible  for  later  inquirers  to  distinguish  accurately  between 
the  true  and  false. 

§  2.  Traditions  of  this  sort  the  Greeks  distinguished  from  authen- 
tic history  by  the  name  of  mythi  (uvtioi),  and  they  termed  their  con- 
tents or  the  matter  of  them,  as  well  as  the  knowledge  or  study  of 
them,  mythology  (^v&o7.oyia).  Mythology,  however,  was  not  with 
them,  as  in  modern  times,  a  distinct  branch  of  study.  The  term  is 
now  used  appropriately  for  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  consid- 
ers the  notions  and  stories,  particularly  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, respecting  gods  and  demigods,  their  pretended  origin,  their 
actions,  names,  attributes,  worship,  images,  and  symbolical  represen- 
tations. It  is  often  employed  also  in  a  wider  sense,  including  the 
religious  fables  of  all  ages  and  nations,  and  thus  is  made  synonymous 
with  the  history  of  fable. 

§  3.  It  is  important  to  distinguish  the  point  of  view  in  which  these 
mythological  narratives  were  contemplated  by  the  ancients,  from  that 
in  which  we  are  to  regard  them.  To  the  former  they  were  closely 
connected  with  their  national  history  and  their  religious  faith,  were 
indeed  parts  of  them ;  to  us  they  are  only  monuments  and  evidences 
of  the  state  of  culture  of  the  human  mind,  if  we  view  them  philo- 
sophically. They  exhibit  the  reflections,  upon  nature  and  deity,  of 
men  guided  by  sense  and  imagination,  affected  much  by  external  ap- 
pearances, and  mistaking  physical  effects  for  independent  or  volun- 
tary powers.  But  they  afford  much  valuable  and  even  necessary  aid 
in  understanding  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors,  especially  the  poets, 
and  in  judging  of  ancient  opinions,  usages,  and  art. 

§  4.  The  traditions  of  mythology,  in  passing  down  through  many 
centuries,  were  multiplied  and  augmented,  and  experienced  various 
changes  in  respect  to  their  general  dress,  aim,  and  application. 
Originally  they  consisted  in  part  of  actual  occurences,   in  part  of 


400  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

arbitrary  fiction,  springing  from  fear,  reverence,  gratitude,  patriotism, 
credulity  and  love  of  the  marvelous,  or  duplicity,  cunning,  and  am- 
bition. They  were,  it  is  probable,  sometimes  of  native  origin  but 
more  frequently  were  introduced  from  foreign  sources,  by  settlers 
and  otherwise.  By  the  poets  they  were  woven  into  epic  song ;  by 
early  philosophers  they  were  clothed  in  mystery  and  allegory  ;  and  by 
the  later  interpreted  in  divers  conflicting  ways ;  while  artists  found 
in  them  an  ample  range  of  subjects  for  the  chisel  and  the  pencil. 

§  5.  Some  of  the  modern  writers  on  Greek  and  Roman  mythology 
have  merely  stated  the  fables  as  reported  among  the  ancients.  Oth- 
ers have,  in  addition,  sought  to  trace  them  to  their  origin,  either  by 
making  conjectures  of  allegorical,  historical,  and  physical  meanings 
in  the  stories,  or  deducing  them  from  the  events  of  early  ages  re- 
corded in  the  Bible.  But  as  these  traditions  arose  in  various  ways, 
and  often  accidently,  there  will  of  course  be  error  in  every  system, 
which  attempts  to  refer  them  all  to  one  common  source  and  purpose. 

§  5«.  The  foundation  of  very  many  of  the  fictions  of  mythology  is  laid  in 
the  idea,  which  arose  from  the  simplicity  and  inexperience  of  the  first  ages, 
conversant  only  with  objects  of  sense ;  viz.  that  every  thing  in  nature  was 
endued  with  an  appropriate  activity  and  spontaneity  like  that  in  man.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  idea,  wherever  an  unusual  appearance  or  agency  was  ob- 
served, it  was  ascribed  to  a  distinct  being  or  existence  operating  directly  or 
immediately.  This  creation  of  personal  existences  out  of  natural  phenomena, 
this  personification  of  physical  objects  and  events,  was,  in  all  probability,  one 
of  the  most  prolific  sources  of  fable  and  of  idolatry ;  for  which  the  stars  and 
the  elements  seem  to  have  furnished  the  first  and  the  most  common  occasion. 

Many  of  the  pagan  stories  are  ingeniously  solved  by  referring  their  origin  to  symbolical  or. 
allegorical  descriptions  of  physical  principles  and  changes.  Cf.  P.  I.  $41.  —  On  the  rise  of 
idolatry,  we  refer  to  Faber,  Origin  of  Pagan  Idolatry.  Lond.  1816.  3  vols.  4.  Cf.  also  SAucA- 
ford>  Sac.  and  Prof.  Hist.  bk.  v.  —  Banier,  cited  §  12.  2.(a). 

The  following  remarks,  on  the  sources  of  fable,  are  from  the  Traite  des  Etudes  of  Rolliru 
They  were  translated  by  Mr.  Wellington  H.  Tyler,  who  has  consented  to  their  insertion  here. 

1.  "  One  source  of  Fable  is  the  perversion  or  alteration  of  facts  in  Sacred 
History;  and,  indeed,  this  is  its  earliest  and  principal  source.  The  family  of 
Noah,  perfectly  instructed  by  him  in  religious  matters,  preserved  for  consid- 
erable time  the  worship  of  the  true  God  in  all  its  purity.  But  when,  after 
the  fruitless  attempt  to  build  the  tower  of  Babel,  the  members  of  this  family 
were  separated  and  scattered  over  different  countries,  diversity  of  language 
and  abode  was  soon  followed  by  a  change  of  worship.  Truth,  which  had 
been  hitherto  intrusted  to  the  single  channel  of  oral  communication,  subject 
to  a  thousand  variations,  and  which  had  not  yet  become  fixed  by  the  use  of 
writing,  that  sure  guardian  of  facts,  became  obscured  by  an  infinite  number 
of  fables,  the  latter  of  which  greatly  increased  the  darkness  in  which  the 
more  ancient  had  enveloped  it.  —  The  tradition  of  great  principles  and  great 
events  has  been  preserved  among  all  nations  ;  not,  indeed,  without  some  mix- 
ture of  fiction,  but  yet  with  traces  of  truth,  marked  and  easy  to  be  recog- 
nized ;  a  certain  proof  that  these  nations  had  a  common  origin.  Hence  the 
notion,  diffused  among  all  people,  of  a  sovereign  God,  all  powerful,  the  Rul- 
er and  Creator  of  the  universe  :  and  consequently  the  necessity  of  external 
worship  by  means  of  ceremonies  and  sacrifices.  Hence  the  uniform  and  gen- 
eral assent  to  certain  great  facts  ;  the  creation  of  man  by  an  immediate  exer- 
tion of  Divine  power  ;  his  state  of  felicity  and  innocence,  distinguished  as 
the  golden  age,  in  which  the  earth,  without  being  moistened  by  the  sweat  of 
his  brow  or  cultivated  by  painful  labor,  yielded  him  all  her  fruit  in  rich  abun- 
dance ;  the  fall  of  the  same  man,  the  source  of  all  his  woe,  followed  by  a  del- 
uge of  crime,  which  brought  on  one  of  water  ;  the  human  race  saved  by  an 
ark,  which  rested  upon  a  mountain  ;  and  afterwards  the  propagation  of  the 
human  race  from  one  man  and  his  three  sons.  —  But  the  detail  of  particular 
actions,  being  less  important,  and  for  that  reason  less  known,  was  soon  altered 


INTRODUCTION.  401 

by  the  introduction  of  fables  and  fictions,  as  may  be  clearly  seen  in  the  family 
of  Noah  itself.  The  historical  fact  that  he  was  the  father  of  three  sons,  and 
that  their  descendants  after  the  flood  were  dispersed  into  three  different  parts 
of  the  earth,  has  given  rise  to  the  fable  of  Saturn,  whose  three  sons,  if  we 
may  believe  the  poets,  shared  between  them  the  empire  of  the  world." 

On  several  of  the  points  above  suggested  by  Rollin,  the  pagan  mythology  exhibits  striking 
v  coincidences  with  facts  in  sacred  history.  These  are  pointed  out  by  several  writers  ;  we  men- 
tion particularly  Grotius  De  veritate  Kel.  Christ.  (L.  i.  c.  17.)  —  Faber,  Horae  Mosaics. —  Col- 
Iyer,  Lectures  on  Scripture  Facts.  2d  ed.  Lond.  1809.  —  Stillingfieetfs  Origines  Sacra;.  —  Cf. 
Maurice,  History  of  Hindostan.  Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  4.  (bk.  i.) 

2.  "  A  second  source  of  Fable  was  furnished  by  the  ministry  of  angels  in 
human  affairs.  God  had  associated  the  angels  with  his  spiritual  nature,  his 
intelligence  and  his  immortality  ;  and  he  was  farther  desirous  of  associating 
them  with  his  providence  in  the  government  of  the  world,  as  well  in  the 
departments  of  nature  and  the  elements,  as  in  reference  to  the  conduct  of 
men.  The  Scriptures  speak  of  angels,  who,  armed  with  their  glittering 
swords,  ravage  all  Egypt,  destroy  by  pestilence  in  Jerusalem  an  innumerable 
multitude  of  people,  and  entirely  exterminate  the  army  of  an  impious  prince. 
Mention  is  made  of  an  angel,  the  prince  and  protector  of  the  Persian  empire  ; 
of  another,  prince  of  the  Grecian  empire  ;  and  of  the  Archangel  Michael, 
prince  of  the  people  of  God  {Dan.  x.  20,  21).  The  visible  ministration  of  an- 
gels is  as  ancient  as  the  world,  as  we  learn  from  the  Cherubim  stationed  at 
the  gate  of  the  terrestrial  paradise  to  guard  its  entrance.  —  Noah  and  the  oth- 
er patriarchs  were  perfectly  instructed  in  this  truth,  which  to  them  had  an  in- 
tense interest;  and  they  took  pains,  no  doubt,  to  instruct  their  families  on  a 
subject  of  such  importance  ;  but  these  by  degrees  losing  the  more  pure  and 
spiritual  notions  of  a  divinity  concealed  and  invisible,  attended  only  to  the 
agents,  through  whom  they  received  their  blessings  and  punishments.  Hence 
it  is  that  men  formed  the  idea  of  gods,  some  of  whom  preside  over  the  fruits 
of  the  earth,  others  over  rivers,  some  over  war  and  others  over  peace,  and  so 
of  all  the  rest ;  of  gods  whose  power  and  agency  were  confined  to  certain 
countries  and  nations,  and  who  were  themselves  under  the  dominion  of  the 
supreme  God. 

3.  "  A  third  source  of  Fable  may  be  in  a  native  principle  deeply  fixed  in 
the  minds  of  all  people  ;  this  is  the  persuasion  which  has  always  prevailed, 
that  Providence  presides  over  all  human  events  great  and  small,  and  that  each, 
without  exception,  experiences  his  attention  and  care.  But  men,  frightened 
by  the  immense  detail  to  which  the  Divine  Being  must  condescend,  have  felt 
bound  to  relieve  him  by  giving  to  each  of  a  number  of  deities  some  particu- 
lar, appropriate,  personal  duty  ;  Singulis  rebus  propria  dispcrtientes  oflicia  nu- 
minum.  The  oversight  of  the  whole  field  would  devolve  too  many  concerns 
upon  a  single  deity  ;  the  soil  was  entrusted  to  one,  the  mountains  to  another, 
the  hills  to  a  third,  and  the  valleys  to  another  still.  St.  Augustin  (de  Civitate 
Dei,  iv.  8)  recounts  a  dozen  different  deities,  all  occupied  upon  a  stalk  of 
grain,  of  which  each,  according  to  his  office,  takes  a  special  care  at  different 
times,  from  the  first  moment  that  the  seed  is  cast  into  the  ground,  until  the 
grain  is  perfectly  ripened. —  Besides  the  crowd  of  deities  destined  to  perform 
the  inconsiderable  duties  of  such  affairs,  there  were  others  which  were  re- 
garded as  of  a  higher  grade,  because  supposed  to  take  a  more  noble  part  in 
the  government  of  the  world." 

The  number  of  gods  admitted  in  the  Greek  mythology  was  immense,  if  we  may  take  Hesi- 
od's  testimony  for  authority.     He  says  there  arc  30,000  gods  on  earth,  guardians  of  men. 

4.  "  A  fourth  source  of  Fable  was  the  corruption  of  the  human  heart,  which 
ever  strives  to  authorize  its  crimes  and  passions.  The  more  important  and 
renovved  of  these  gods  are  the  very  ones  whom  Fable  has  most  disparaged  and 
defamed  by  attributing  to  them  crimes  the  most  shameful  and  debauchery  the 
most  detestible,  murders,  adulteries,  incests.  And  thus  it  is  that  the  human 
heart  has  been  ready  to  multiply,  distort,  and  pervert  the  fictions  of  mytholo- 
gy, for  the  purpose  of  palliating  and  excusing  practices  the  most  vicious  and 
frightful  by  the  example  of  the  gods  themselves.  There  is  no  conduct  so  dis- 
graceful, that  it  has  not  been  authorized  and  even  consecrated  by  the  worship 
which  was  rendered  to  certain  deities.  In  the  solemnities  of  the  mother  of 
the  gods,  for  instance,  songs  were  sung  at  which  the  mother  of  a  comedian 

34* 


402  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

would  have  blushed  ;  and  Scipio  Nasica,  who  was  chosen  by  the  senate  as 
the  most  virtuous  man  in  the  republic,  to  go  and  receive  her  statue,  would 
have  been  much  grieved  that  his  own  mother  should  have  been  made  a  god- 
dess to  take  the  place  and  honors  of  Cybele. 

5.  "  I  do  not  propose  to  introduce  here  all  the  sources  from  which  Fable 
takes  its  rise,  but  merely  to  point  out  some  of  those  best  understood.  And  as 
a  fifth  source,  we  may  refer  to  a  natural  sentiment  of  admiration  or  grati- 
tude, which  leads  men  to  associate  the  idea  of  something  like  divinity  with 
all  that  which  particularly  attracts  their  attention,  that  which  is  nearly  relat- 
ed to  them,  or  which  seems  to  procure  for  them  some  advantage.  Such  are 
the  sun,  the  moon  and  the  stars ;  such  are  parents  in  the  view  of  their  child- 
ren, and  children  in  that  of  their  parents;  persons  who  have  either  invented 
or  improved  arts  useful  to  the  human  family  ;  heroes  who  have  distinguished 
themselves  in  war  by  an  exhibition  of  extraordinary  courage,  or  have  cleared 
the  land  of  robbers,  enemies  to  public  repose  ;  in  short,  such  are  all  who,  by 
some  virtue  or  by  some  illustrious  action,  rise  conspicuous  above  the  common 
level  of  mankind.  It  will  be  readily  perceived  without  further  notice  that  his- 
tory, profane  as  well  as  sacred,  has  given  rise  to  all  those  demigods  and  heroes 
whom  Fable  has  located  in  the  heavens,  by  associating,  with  the  person  and 
under  the  name  of  a  single  individual,  actions  widely  separated  in  respect  to 
time,  place,  and  person."  —  Cf.  P.  II.  §  222.  4. 

§  6.  The  advantages  of  an  acquaintance  with  mythology  are 
many.  One  of  the  most  important,  aside  from  its  aid  in  reference 
to  ancient  philosophy,  religion,  and  history,  is  the  better  understand- 
ing it  enables  one  to  obtain  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  and  of 
the  works  of  their  artists.  [It  is  obviously  necessary  to  the  cultivation 
of  classical  learning,  which  is  of  such  acknowledged  importance  in 
modern  education. 

On  the  benefits  of  studying  the  ancient  mythology  we  add  an  extract  from 
Rollin,  as  cited  under  the  last  section. 

1.  "  It  apprizes  us  how  much  we  are  indebted  to  Jesus  Christ  the  Savior, 
who  has  rescued  us  from  the  power  of  darkness  and  introduced  us  into  the 
wonderful  light  of  the  Gospel,  Before  his  time,  what  was  the  real  character 
of  men?  Even  the  wisest  and  most  upright  men,  those  celebrated  philoso- 
phers, those  great  politicians,  those  renowned  legislators  of  Greece,  those 
grave  senators  of  Rome  ?  In  a  word,  what  were  all  the  nations  of  the  world, 
the  most  polished  and  the  most  enlightened  ?  Fable  informs  us.  They  were 
the  blind  worshipers  of  some  demon,  and  bowed  the  knee  before  gods  of  gold, 
silver,  and  marble.  They  offered  incense  and  prayers  to  statues,  deaf  and 
mute.  They  recognized,  as  gods,  animals,  reptiles,  and  even  plants.  They 
did  not  blush  to  adore  an  adulterous  Mars,  a  prostituted  Venus,  an  incestuous 
Juno,  a  Jupiter  blackened  by  every  kind  of  crime,  and  worthy  for  that  reason 
to  bold  the  first  rank  among  the  gods. —  See  what  our  fathers  were,  and  what 
we  ourselves  should  have  been,  had  not  the  light  of  the  Gospel  dissipated  our 
darkness.  Each  story  in  Fable,  every  circumstance  in  the  life  of  the  gods 
ought  at  once  to  fill  us  with  confusion,  admiration,  and  gratitude. 

2.  "  Another  advantage  from  the  study  of  Fable  is  that,  by  discovering  to 
Us  the  absurd  ceremonies  and  impious  maxims  of  Paganism,  it  may  inspire  us 
with  new  respect  for  the  majesty  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  for  the  sanc- 
tity of  its  morals.  Ecclesiastical  history  informs  us,  that  a  Christian  bishop 
(Theophilus  of  Alexandria),  to  render  idolatry  odious  in  the  minds  of  the  faith- 
ful, brought  forth  to  the  light  and  exposed  before  the  eyes  of  the  public,  all  which 
was  found  in  the  interior  of  a  temple  that  had  been  demolished;  bones  of  men, 
limbs  of  infants  immolated  to  demons,  and  many  other  vestiges  of  the  sacrileg- 
ious worship,  which  pagans  render  to  their  deities.  This  is  nearly  the  effect 
which  the  study  of  Fable  must  produce  on  the  mind  of  every  sensible  person; 
and  this  is  the  use  to  which  it  has  been  put  by  the  holy  Fathers  and  all  the  de- 
fenders of  the  Christian  religion.  The  great  work  of  St.  Augustin,  entitled 
1  The  City  of  God,'  which  has  conferred  such  honor  upon  the  Church,  is  at 
the  same  time  a  proof  of  what  I  now  advance,  and  a  perfect  model  of  the 
manner  in  which  profane  studies  ought  to  be  sanctified." 


INTRODUCTION.  403 

We  Would  here  refer  to  a  Very  able  and  interesting  treatise  On  the  nature  and  moral  influence 
of  Heathenism  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  Bibl.  Repository,  vol.  it.,  translated  from  Thol- 
uck  by  Prof.  Emerson  of  Andover.  —  "  Whosoever,"  says  Tholuck,  "  stands  on  a  lofty  moun- 
tain should  look  not  merely  at  the  gold  which  the  morning  sun  pours  on  the  grass  and  flowers' 
at  his  feet,  but  he  should  sometimes  also  look  behind  him  into  the  deep  valley  where  the  shad- 
ows still  rest,  that  he  may  the  more  sensibly  feel  that  that  sun  is  indeed  a  sun.  Thus  it  is  also 
salutary  for  the  disciples  of  Christ,  at  times,  from  the  kingdom  of  light  to  cast  forth  a  glance 
over  the  dark  stage  of  where  men  play  their  part  in  lonely  gloom,  without  a  Savior,  without  a 
God  !  " Respecting  Theophilus,  see  Murdoch's  Mosheim,  i.  392. 

3.  "  Still  another  benefit  of  very  great  importance  may  be  realized  in  the 
understanding  of  authors  either  in  Greek,  Latin,  or  even  French,  in  reading 
which  a  person  is  often  stopped  short  if  ignorant  of  mythology.  I  speak  not 
of  poets  merely,  whose  natural  language  is  Fable  ;  it  is  often  employed  also 
by  orators,  and  it  furnishes  them  frequently  with  the  happiest  illustrations  and 
with  strains  the  most  sprightly  and  eloquent.  Such,  for  example,  among  ma- 
ny others,  is  that  drawn  from  the  story  of  Medea,  in  the  speech  of  Cicero 
(Pro.  Leg.  Manil.  sect.  9),  upon  the  subject  of  Mithridates,  king  of  Fontus. 

4.  "  There  is  another  class  of  works,  whose  meaning  and  beauty  are  illus- 
trated by  a  knowledge  of  Fable  ;  viz.  paintings,  coins,  statues,  and  the  like. 
These  are  so  many  enigmas  to  persons  ignorant  of  mythology,  which  is  often 
the  only  key  to  their  interpretation." It  should  be  added,  that  mytholo- 
gy, at  the  same  time,  itself  receives  new  light  from  the  study  of  such  remains 
or  imitations  of  ancient  art,  so  that  these  two  branches  of  classical  pursuits 
reciprocally  aid  each  other. 

§  7.  Greece  having  been  settled  by  colonies  from  several  eastern; 
countries,  and  having  derived  her  religious  notions  particularly  from 
Egyptians  and  Phoenicians,  the  origin  of  most  of  the  Greek  deities 
is  to  be  sought  in  the  religious  history  of  those  countries  and  na- 
tions.  But  many  changes  took  place,  and  this  original  derivation 
was  greatly  obscured  through  the  vanity  of  the  Greeks,  who  wished 
to  claim  for  themselves  and  ancestors  the  merit  of  their  whole  relig- 
ious system.  This  motive  led  them  to  confound  the  history  and  alter 
the  names  of  the  primitive  gods. 

Some  traditions  may  have  come  from  India.  There  are  certainly  many 
points  of  resemblance  between  the  mythology  of  Greece  and  that  of  India. 

See  Karl  Ritter,  Die  Vorhalle  Europaeischer  Vcelkergeschichten  vor  Herodotus  um  den  Kau- 
kasus  und  an  den  Gestaden  des  Pontus.  Berlin,  1820.  8.  Cf.  Kennedy,  as  cited  §  12.  2.  (b).  Also 

Moore  and  Maurice,  as  there  cited.  Also  the  Works  of  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  cited  §25.  4. On  the 

influence  of  the  Phoenicians  &c.  on  the  early  culture  of  the  Greeks,  cf.  P.  I.  §  40-42 ;  P.  II. 
$12. 

§  8.  The  religious  system  of  the  Romans  gives  clearer  evidence 
of  its  Grecian  descent,  being  in  scarcely  any  part  of  it  a  native 
growth,  but  borrowed  chiefly  from  the  Greek  colonies  in  Italy.  Yet 
the  Romans  likewise  changed,  not  only  in  many  cases  the  names  of 
the  Gods,  but  also  the  fictions  of  their  story,  and  the  rites  of  their 
worship.  They  also  derived  some  notions  and  usages  from  the  Etru- 
rians. (Cf.  P.  I.  §  109.)  All  the  religious  conceptions  and  institu- 
tions of  the  Romans  were  closely  interwoven  with  their  civil  policy, 
and  on  this  account  exhibited  some  peculiarities,  particularly  in  their 
system  of  auspices,  auguries,  and  various  omens.  We  find  therefore 
in  Roman  mythology  much  which  the  Greek  had  not,  and  much 
which  was  borrowed  from  it,  but  altered  arid  as  it  were  moulded 
anew. 

§  9.  Thus  the  general  division  or  classification  of  the  gods  was 
not  the  same  with  both  nations.  The  Greeks  made  a  threefold  di- 
vision into  Superior  gods,  Inferior  gods,  and  Demigods  or  heroes ; 
the  Romans  a  twofold,  into  gods  Superior  and  Inferior  (Dii  majo- 
rum  et  minorum  gentium).    Their  first  class  the  Romans  distinguish- 


404  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

ed  as  Consentes  and  Selecti ;    the  second,  which  included  demio-ods 

or   heroes,   as  Indigetes    and  Semones. The  deities  were   also 

classed  according  to  their  supposed  residence.  They  are  sometimes 
arranged  according  to  their  descent  in  the  fabulous  genealogies. 

When  classed  according  to  residence,  they  are  called  celestial,  terrestrial^ 
marine,  and  infernal.  —  A  genealogical  table  according  to  Hesiod's  Theogony 
is  appended  to  Cooke's  Hesiod.     (Cf.  P.  II.  §  51.  4.) 

In  the  Roman  classification  the  Consentes,  so  called  because  they  were  sup- 
posed to  form  the  great  council  (consentientes)  of  heaven,  consisted  of  twelve, 
6  males  and  6  females;  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Apollo,  Mars,  Mercury,  Vulcan; 
Juno,  Minerva,  Ceres,  Diana,  Venus,  Vesta.  These  were  the  great  celestial 
gods.  The  Selecti  were  nearly  equal  to  them  in  rank,  and  consisted  of  eight, 
Saturn,  Pluto  or  Orcus,  Bacchus,  Janus,  Sol,  Genius,  Rhea,  and  Luna. 
These  were  called  Dii  majorum  gentium,  and  all  the  rest  Dii  minorum  gen- 
tium, in  allusion  to  the  division  of  the  senators  (patres). 

The  Indigetes,  called  also  Adscriptitii,  were  heroes  ranked  among  the  gods 
on  account  of  their  merits,  and  included  particularly  Hercules,  Castor  or  Pol- 
lux, and  Quirinus  or  Romulus.  The  Semones  included  those  deities  that  pre- 
sided over  particular  objects  ;  as  Pan,  god  of  shepherds,  Flora,  goddess  of 
flowers,  &c.  Besides  these  there  was,  among  the  Dii  minorum  gentium,  a, 
numerous  class  of  miscellanei,  including  the  virtues  and  vices  and  other  ob- 
jects, personified  ;  and  also  a  number  called  dii  peregrini,  foreign  gods  intro- 
duced at  Rome  from  abroad,  or  at  least  tolerated,  although  perhaps  worshiped 
chiefly  by  foreigners  residing  in  the  city. 

The  Consentes  in  the  Roman  division  corresponded  to  the  class  which  the 
Greeks,  when  denominating  the  gods  by  their  residence,  termed  the  Celestial 
and  Olympian,  i/vovQuvioi,  6?.vunioi;  which  were  also  called  6i  utyul.oi  -foot, 
and  oi  ScoStxa  &ebi.  The  Athenians  had  an  altar  consecrated  to  these  collec- 
ively,  fiwuoc;  rtov  dibStxa. 

§  10.  But  the  differences  in  the  systems  of  the  two  nations  need 
not  essentially  affect  a  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  of  their 
mythology.  For  the  principal  deities  of  each  were  common  to  both, 
and  it  will  contribute  to  brevity  and  comprehensiveness  to  include 
them  all  in  one  system  of  classification,  pointing  out  what  may  be 
peculiar  in  each  case  as  it  occurs.  It  is  therefore  proposed  to  con- 
sider the  gods  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology  in  four  classes ; 
viz.  (1)  Superior  Gods,  (2)  Inferior  Gods,  (3)  Mythical  Beings9 
whose  history  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  gods,  and 
(4)  Heroes. 

In  the  first  class  will  be  noticed  the  twelve  Consentes,  or  great  celestial  gods, 
and  four  others,  Saturn,  Rhea,  Pluto,  and  Bacchus.  —  In  the  second  will  be 
mentioned  Uranus  or  Ccelus,  Sol,  Luna,  Aurora,  Nox,  Iris,  iEolus,  Pan,  La- 
tona,  Themis,  iEsculapius,  Plutus,  and  Fama.  Here  belong  also  numerous 
deities  of  the  Romans  which  were  not  common  to  them  and  the  Greeks.— The 
third  class  comprehends  the  Titans  and  Giants,  Tritons,  Sirens,  Nymphs, 
Muses,  Graces,  Fates,  Furies,  Genii,  Lares,  Satyrs,  and  the  like. — Under  the 
last  fall  the  names  of  Perseus,  Hercules,  Theseus,  and  various  others,  whose 
achievements  led  to  their  deification. 

§  11.  It  may  be  proper  to  remark  here,  that  the  ideas  entertained 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  respecting  the  nature  of  Divinity,  were 
exceedingly  imperfect.  A  being  possessing  powers  of  body  and  mind 
superior  to  those  of  man,  especially  superior  might,  mainly  answered 
to  their  notions  of  a  god.  The  superiority  which  they  ascribed  to 
their  deities  consisted  chiefly  in  freedom  from  bodily  decay,  a  sort  of 
immortal  youth,  ability  to  move  with  wonderful  celerity,  to  appear 
and  disappear  at  pleasure  with  a  noble  and  beautiful  form,  and  to  ex- 


INTRODUCTION.  405 

ert  an  immediate  influence  upon  the  condition  of  mortals.  In  these 
respects,  however,  their  power  was  limited,  according  to  the  general 
opinion,  being  controlled  by  an  eternal  and  immutable  relation  of 
things,  termed  fate  or  destiny. 

"  The  ancient  Greeks  believed  their  gods  to  be  of  the  same  shape  and  form  as  themselves, 
but  of  far  greater  beauty,  strength,  and  dignity.  They  also  regarded  them  as  being  of  much 
larger  size  than  men  ;  for  in  those  times  great  size  was  esteemed  a  perfection  both  in  man  and 
woman,  and  consequently  was  supposed  to  be  an  attribute  of  their  divinities,  to  whom  they 
ascribed  all  perfections.  A  fluid  named  Ichor  supplied  the  place  of  blood  in  the  veins  of  the 
gods.  They  were  not  capable  of  death,  but  they  might  be  wounded  or  otherwise  injured. 
They  could  make  themselves  visible  or  invisible  to  men  as  they  pleased,  and  assume  the  forms 
of  men  or  of  animals  as  it  suited  their  fancy.  Like  men  they  stood  in  daily  need  of  food  and 
sleep.  The  meat  of  the  gods  was  called  Ambrosia,  their  drink  Nectar.  The  gods  when  they 
came  among  men  often  partook  of  their  food  and  hospitality. 

"  Like  mankind,  the  gods  were  divided  into  two  sexes  ;  namely,  gods  and  goddesses.  They 
married  and  had  children,  just  like  mortals.  Often  a  god  became  enamored  of  a  mortal  wo- 
man, or  a  goddess  was  smitten  with  the  charms  of  a  handsome  youth,  and  these  love-tales 
form  a  large  portion  of  Grecian  mythology. 

"  To  make  the  resemblance  between  gods  and  men  more  complete,  the  Greeks  ascribed  to 
their  deities  all  human  passions,  both  good  and  evil.  They  were  capable  of  love,  friendship, 
gratitude,  and  all  the  benevolent  affections  ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  were  frequently  envious, 
jealous,  and  revengeful.  They  were  particularly  careful  to  exact  all  due  respect  and  attention 
from  mankind,  whom  they  required  to  honor  them  with  temples,  prayers,  costly  sacrifices, 
splendid  processions,  and  rich  gifts  ;  and  they  severely  punished  insult  or  neglect. 

"  The  abode  of  the  gods,  as  described  by  the  more  ancient  Grecian  poets,  such  as  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  was  on  the  summit  of  the  snow-clad  mountains  of  Olympus  in  Thessaly.  A  gate 
of  clouds,  kept  by  the  goddesses  named  the  Seasons,  unfolded  its  valves  to  permit  the  passage 
of  the  Celestials  to  earth,  or  to  receive  them  on  their  return.  The  city  of  the  gods,  as  we  may 
term  it,  was  regulated  on  the  same  principle  as  a  Grecian  city  of  the  heroic  ages.  The  inhab- 
itants, who  were  all  the  kindred  or  the  wives  and  children  of  the  king  of  the  gods,  had  their 
separate  dwellings  ;  but  all,  when  summoned,  repaired  to  the  palace  of  Jupiter,  whither 
also  came,  when  called,  those  deities  whose  usual  abode  was  the  earth,  the  waters,  or  the  un- 
der world.  It  was  also  in  the  great  hall  of  the  palace  of  the  Olympian  king  that  the  gods 
feasted  each  day  on  ambrosia  and  nectar ;  which  last  precious  beverage  was  handed  round  by 
the  lovely  goddess  Hebe  (Youth),  —  maid-servants  being  the  usual  attendants  at  meals  in  the 
houses  of  the  Grecian  princes  in  early  times.  Here  they  conversed  of  the  affairs  of  heaven 
and  earth ;  and  as  they  quaffed  their  nectar,  Apollo  the  god  of  music  delighted  them  with 
the  tones  of  his  lyre,  to  which  the  Muses  sang  in  responsive  strains.  When  the  sun  was  set, 
the  gods  retired  to  sleep  in  their  respective  dwellings. 

"  The  Dawn,  the  Sun,  and  the  Moon,  who  drove  each  day  in  their  chariots  drawn  by  celes- 
tial steeds  through  the  air,  gave  light  to  the  gods  as  well  as  men."  (Keightley,  p.  14-17.) 

§  12 1.  Before  proceeding  to  notice  more  particularly  the  classes 
specified,  we  will,  in  accordance  with  our  general  plan  in  other  parts 
of  this  work,  present  some  references  to  the  sources  of  information 
on  the  subject ;  alluding  first  to  ancient  authorities,  and  then  giving 
the  titles  to  more  modern  works. 

1  u.  Almost  all  the  Greek  and  Roman  "poets  make  use  of,  or  at  least  touch 
upon,  mythological  subjects  ;  although  these  are  not  by  any  means  treated  in 
the  same  manner  in  the  different  kinds  of  poetry,  epic,  lyric,  dramatic,  and 
didactic.  We  have  properly  mythic  poetry  in  the  Theogony  of  Hesiod  and  the 
Cassandra  of  Lycophron  (P.  II.  §  51,  67),  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,  and  in 
two  poems  of  Claudian,  the  Gigantomachy,  and  the  Rape  of  Proserpine  (P. 
II.  §  334).  — Many  historians  have  introduced  into  their  narratives  mytholog- 
ical traditions,  without  presenting  them,  however,  as  fully  entitled  to  cre- 
dence, while  they  have  also  recorded  much  that  appertained  to  the  worship 
of  the  gods  and  to  works  of  art  connected  with  mythology.  Herodotus,  Diod- 
orus,  Strabo,  Pausanias,  and  the  elder  Pliny  may  be  mentioned  particularly. — 
There  were  also  ancient  writers  who  made  mythology  their  theme,  or  treated 
the  subject  more  at  length  ;  as,  among  the  Greeks,  Apollodorus,  Conon,  He- 
phcestion,  Parthenius,  Antoninus  Liberalis,  Palcephatus,  Heraclides,  Phurnutus 
(P.  II.  §  221ss)  ;  among  the  Romans,  Hyginus  and  Fulgcntius  (P.  II.  §384ss). 
Notices  on  this  subject  are  found  also  in  the  works  of  some  of  the  early  writ- 
ers of  the  church  and  also  in  the  notes  of  most  of  the  Greek  scholiasts. 

2  u.  Of  the  numerous  modern  works  on  Mythology,  some  treat  the  subject 
more  at  large,  others  more  compendiously;  some  present  the  subjects  in  an 
alphabetical  order  ;  there  are  also  works  accompanied  with  plates  and  draw- 
ings for  illustration. 


406 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 


(a)  The  following  are  some  of  the  works 
which  go  into  more  full  details. — Lit.  Greg. 
Gyraldi,  Historic  Deor.  Gentil.  Syntagma- 
ta xvii.  Bas.  1548.  fol.  Also  in  his  6pp.  Omn. 
(ed.  J.  Jensius).  Lugd.  Bat.  1606.  fol.  —  Vine. 
Cartari,  le  imagini  degli  dei  degli  antichi. 
Lion.  1581.  4.  Also  in  Latin,  Lugd. 1581.  4.  oft. 
repr —  Natalis  Comitis  Mythologis  s.  Explica- 
tions Fabularum  libri  X.  Gen.  1651.  8. — Gerh. 
J.  Vossius,  De  theologia  Gentili  et  physiologia 
Christiana,  s.  de  origine  et  progressu  idolatriae 
libri  IX.  Amst.  1668.  fol.— Ant.  Banier,  La  my- 
thologie  et  les  fables  expliquees  par  l'histoire. 
Par.  1738-40.  8  vols.  12.  In  German  with  addi- 
tions by  J.  A.  Schlegel  <$'  •/•  M.  Schrbckh.  Lpz. 
1755-65.  5  vols.  8.  In  English,  Banier,  Mythol- 
ogy of  the  Ancients.  Lond.  1739.  4  vols.  8.  — 
Mayo,$yslem  of  Mythology.  Philad.1815. 4  vols. 
8.— F.  Creuzer's  Symbolik  und  Mythologie  der 
Alten  Volker,  besonders  der  Griechen.  Lpz. 
1819-21.  4  Bde.  8.  3d  improved  ed.  commenced 
1836.— Same  (abridged)  by  G.  H.  Moser.  Lpz. 
1822.  8. — Ch.  A.  Lobefie,  Aglaophamus,  sive  de 
Theologias  mystics  Gracorum  causis.  Regi- 
montii  (Konigsburg),  1829.  2  vols.  8.  opposing 
some  of  the  views  of  Creuzer:  it  has  been 
highly  commended. — J.  H.Voss,  Antisymbolik. 
Stuttg.  1824.  8.  —  G.  Hermann,  De  Mythologia 
Graecorum  antiquissima.  1817. —  G.  Hermann  <$• 
F.  Creuzer,  Briefe  iiber  Homer  und  Hesiodus. 

Heidelb.1818.  8 G.  Hermann,  Briefe  iiber  das 

Wesen  und  die  Behandlung  der  Mythologie. 
Lpz.  1819.  8.  —  J.  A.  Roane's  Mythologie  der 
Griechen.  Lpz.1805.  8. — By  same,  erste  Urkun- 
den  der  Geschichte,  oder  allgemein  Mvthologie. 
Baireuth,  1808.  2  Bde.  8.  —  By  same,  Pantheon 
der  altesten  Naturphilosophie  aller  Volker. 
Tub.  1811.  8.  —  J.  L.  Hug's  Untersuchungen 
iiber  d.  Mythos  d.  beriihmtern  Volker  d.  alt. 
Welte,  vorzuglich  d.  Griech.  Freyb.  1812.  4. 
—Buttmann,  Mythologus.  Berl.  1828.  2  vols.  8. 
— S.  A.  L.  Richtcr's  Phantasien  des  Alterthuras, 
oder  Samml.  mvth.  Sagen  der  Hellenen,  Ro- 
mer  &c.  Lpz. 1708-20.  5  Bde.  8 — We  may  add 
J.  Bryant's  New  System  of  Mythology.  Lond. 
1807.  6  vols.  8.  —  Dupuis,  Origine  de  tous  les 
Cultes.  Par.  1822.  7  vols.  8.—R.  P.  Knight,  In- 
quiry into  the  symbolical  Language  of  Ancient 
Art  and  Mythology,  in  different  Nos.  of  the 
ClassicalJoumal. —  Court  de  Gebelin,he  Monde 
Primitif.  Par.  1774.  1787.  9  vols.  4.  explaining 
fables,  traditions,  symbols,  and  language.— 
Guigniaut,  Religions  de  l'Antiquite.  Par.1825 
-30.  4  vols.  8.— Constant,  De  la  Religion.  Par. 
1826-31.  5  vols.  8. 

(b)  More  compendious  treatises,  or  manuals. 

—  C.  T.  Damm,  Mythologie  der  Griechen  und 
Rbmer  (ed.  Lcvezow).  Berl.  1820.  8.  with  plates. 

—  M.  G.  Hermann,  Handbuch  der  Mythologie 
aus  Homer  und  Hesiod.  Berl.  1787-95. 3  vols.  8. 

—  By  same,  Mythologie  der  Griechen,  f  iir  die 
obern  Klassen  &x.  Berl.1801.2  vols.  8,—K.Ph. 
Moritz,  Gb'tterlehre,  oder  mythol.  Dichtungen 
der  Alten.  Berl.  1819.  8.  with  plates.  Also 
transl.  by  C.  F.  Jdger.  N.  York.  1830.  12.  with 
plates.  Same  work  in  English,  Mythological 
Fictions  of  Greeks  and  Romans.  12mo.  —  Fr. 
Rambach,  Abriss  einer  Mythologie  f iir  Kiinstler. 
Berl.  1796.  2  vols.  8.  —  C.  A.  Bbttiger's  Grund- 
risse  zu  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Mythologie. 
Dresd.  1808.  8.  —  By  same,  Amalthea  oder  Mu- 
seum d.  Kunstmythologie  und  bildl.  Alter- 
thumskunde.  Leipz.  1821.— F.  Fiedler,  Mytho- 
logie der  Griechen  und  italischen  Volker.  Hal. 
1823.— Andrew  Tookc,  The  Pantheon  ;  contain- 
ing the  Mythological  systems  of  the  Greeks  &. 
Romans.  36th  ed.  Lond.  1831.  8.  with  plates. 


—  Valpy's  Elements  of  Mythology.  Lond.  183&. 
18.  very  brief.  —  C.  K.  Dillaway,  Roman  Anti- 
quities and  Ancient  Mythology.  Bost.  1831. 12- 
Keightley's  Mythology.   Lond.  1832. 

( c)  Dictionaries  of  Mythology. — B.  Hederich, 
Mythologisches  Lexicon  (ed.  /.  J.  Schwabe), 
Lpz.  1770.  8.— P.  F.  A.  JVitsch,  Neues  mythol. 
Worterbuch  (ed.  F.  G.  Klopfer).  Lpz.  1821. 
2  vols.  8.—K.  Ph.  Moritz,  Mvthol.  Worterbuch 
fur  Schuler.  Berl.  1817.  8.—/.  G.  Gruber,  Wor- 
terbuch der  altklassischen  Mythologie  und  Re- 
ligion. Weim.  1810.  3  vols.  8.— P.  C.  Chomprey 
Dictionnaire  abrege  de  la  fable.  Par.  1818.  12- 
— Fr.JVoel,  Dictionnaire  de  la  fable,  ou  Mytho- 
logie grecque,  latine,  egyptienne,  celtique,  per- 
sanne,  indienne,  chinoise,  &x.  Par.1823. 2  vols. 
8. —  Wm.Holwell,  A  Mythological  Dictionary &.c. 
(Extracted  from  J.Bryant's  New  System  or  An- 
alysis of  Ancient  Mythology.)  Lond.  1793.  8. 
—Bell,  New  Pantheon.  Lond. 1790.  2  vols.  4. 

(d)  The  following  works  contain  plates  il- 
lustrating the  subjects  of  mythology,  accompa- 
nied with  explanations. — Bernard  de  Montfau- 
con,  L'Antiquite  expliquee  et  representee  en 
figures.  Par.  1719.  10  vols,  in  5  fol.  Supplem. 
Par.  1724.  5  vols.  fol.  Translated  into  English 
by  David  Humphreys.  Lond.  1721.  5  vols.  foL 
with  Supplement,  2  vols,  fol.— Joach.  von  Sand- 
rart,  Iconologia  deorum.  Niirnb.  1680.  fol.  -— 
Spence's  Polymetis,  or  an  inquiry  concerning 
the  agreement  between  the  works  of  the  Ro- 
man poets  and  the  remains  of  the  ancient  art- 
ists. Lond.  1747.  fol.  1755.  fol—  A.  Hirt,  Bil- 
derbuch  fur  Mythologie,  Archaeologie  und. 
Kunst.  Berl.  1805-16.  2  vols.  4.  —  A.  L.  Millin, 
Galerie  mythologique,  ou  Recueil  des  monu- 
mens  pour  servir  a  l'etude  de  la  mythologie, 
de  l'histoire  de  Part  &c.  Par.  1811.  2  vols.  8. 
containing  correct  pictures  of  about  800  ancient 
monuments. — 4.  H.  Petiscus,  Der  Olymp,  ode» 
Mythologie  der  ^Egj'pter,  Griechen  und  Rbmet. 
Berl.  1837.  8.  6th  ed. 

(e)  The  impressions  on  ancient  gems  are  of 
much  service  in  illustrating  my thology ,to  which 
part  of  the  subject  belong  the  following  works  : 
A.  C.  Klausing,  Versuch  einer  mythologischett 
Daktyliothekf  iir  Schuler.  Lpz.  1781.  8.  (with 
120  neat  impressions  of  engraved  gems.)  —  T. 
F.  Roth's  mythologische  Daktyliothek.  Niirnb. 
1805  (with  90  impressed  models  of  engraved 
stones).  —  Also  Lippert's  Daktyliothek  (P.  L 
$  210).  One  thousand  of  his  impressions  belong 
to  mythology. — The  gems,  of  which  Wedgwood 
Sf  Bentiey  have  given  imitations,  pertain  many 
of  them  to  mythology,  as  also  those  of  Tassw 
(P.  I.  $210). 

(f)  Here  we  may  name  likewise  some  works 
on  the  Mythology  of  other  nations  besides  the 
Greeks  &.  Romans.— Moore's  Hindoo  Pantheon. 

—  Rhode,  Ueber  die  religiose  Bildung  der  Hin- 
dus. Lpz.1827.  2  vols.  8 — Kennedy,  Researches 
into  the  Nature  and  Affinity  of  Ancient  and 

Hindoo  Mythology.    Cf.  Asiatic  Researches 

Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities.  Lond.1806.  7  vols.- 
8.—  Ward's  View  of  the  History,  Literature,  & 
Religion  of  the  Hindoos.  —  Hager,  Pantheon 
Chinois  (or  Parallel  between thereligious  wor- 
ship of  the  Greeks  and  the  Chinese.)   Par.1810, 

4.     Cf.    Class.  Journ.  i.  178. J.  C.  Prichard, 

Anal \  sis  of  Egyptian  Mythology.  Lond.  1819» 
8.  —  JVyerup,  Worterbuch  der  Scandinavian 
Mvthologie.  Copenh.  1816. 12.  —  J.  M.  Kembley 

Saxon  Mythology.     Cf.  Bibl.  Repus.  xi.  247 

For  some  remarks  On  the  resemblance  of  the 
mythology  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  Classical^ 
cf.  Editor's  Preface  to  Warton's  Hist.  Eng.  Po- 
etry, vol.  i.  p.  25 ss.  ed.  Lond.  1824, 


SUPERIOR    GODS.       SATURN.  407 


I. — Mythological  History  of  the  Superior  Gods. 

§  13.*  The  Divinities  which  we  include  in  the  class  denominated 
Superior  Gods,  are  the  following  :  Saturn,  Kqovog,  Xq6vogt  Saturnus ; 
Janus;  Rhea  or  Cybele,  rFia,  Fd*,  JCv/wlijj  Jupiter,  Zivg;  Ju- 
no, "Hqa\  Neptune,  iioosiSwv,  Neptunus ;  Pluto,  m.ov-nav,  Apollo, 
^Anbu.uv ;  Diana,  "Aqtsui?;  Minerva,  nanhg ;  Mars,*j^?;  Ve- 
nus, \4<pQo8tTti ;  Vulcan,  "Hyaiorog,  Vulcanus ;  Mercury,  cEQuijg, 
Mercurius ;  Bacchus,  Jtowoos ;  Ceres,  J)iut',rtjQ  ;  Vesta,  cEaria. 

§  14.  (1)  Saturn.  This  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  gods, 
called  Chronos  by  the  Greeks  and  Saturnus  by  the  Romans.  He  was 
said  to  be  the  son  of  Uranos  and  Titcea,  i.  e.  the  heavens  and  the  earth, 
and  to  have  possessed  the  first  government  of  the  universe.  His  wife 
was  Rhea,  who  was  his  sister.  Saturn  and  his  five  brethren  were 
called  Titans,  probably  from  their  mother  j  Rhea  and  her  five  sisters 
likewise  Titanides.  Saturn  seized  upon  the  government  of  the  uni- 
verse by  his  superiority  over  his  father  and  brothers ;  yet  pledged 
himself  to  rear  no  male  children;  accordingly  he  is  represented  as 
devouring  his  sons  as  soon  as  born. 

§  15.  But  this  fate,  three  of  them,  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and  Pluto, 
escaped,  through  the  artifice  of  Rhea  their  mother,  who  gave  him 
stones  to  devour  instead  of  the  children  at  their  birth.  Jupiter  aided 
Saturn  in  recovering  his  throne,  after  he  had  been  driven  from  it  by 
his  brothers  the  Titans  and  bound  in  Tartarus.  But  soon  he  made 
war  himself  upon  Saturn,  and  seized  the  government.  According  to 
Roman  fiction,  Saturn  now  fled  to  Italy  (thence  called  Saturnia), 
and  acquired  great  honor  by  teaching  arts  and  morals  to  the  people. 
Under  him  was  the  so-called  golden  age,  which  the  Greek  poets  as- 
signed to  the  reign  of  Saturn  and  described  as  singularly  happy. 
Probably  an  idea  of  the  perfection  and  fecundity  of  nature,  when  just 
newly  created,  is  the  basis  of  this  story. 

Hes.  Op.  et  Di.  vs.  199.—  Virg.  JEn.  viii.  319.— Or.  Metam.  i.  89-112. 

§  16.  From  the  Greek  name  of  this  god,  which  is  the  word  signify- 
ing time  (x^ovog),  he  has  been  considered  as  designed  to  personify 
time,  and  the  first  cause  of  the  visible  world.  His  Latin  name  also, 
as  well  as  the  story  of  his  devouring  his  children,  seems  to  have  some 
reference  to  the  idea  of  time,  as  satiated  only  by  the  destruction-  of 
what  it  has  produced. 

1m.  This  name,  however,  may  have  been  given  from  the  idea  of  fertility  or 
productiveness,  as  he  is  said  to  have  taught  agriculture  and  the  use  of  seeds. 
The  word  Saturnus  is  derived  from  Satur,  signifying  full,  satiated,  and  also 

fertile. Saturn  is  termed  Sator,    Vitisator,  Falcifer   (bearing  a  sickle  or 

scythe),  Sterculinus  or  Stercutius  (having  taught  the  fertilizing  uses  of  manure), 
Canus  and  Leucanthes  (?.svxav8ilg). 

2.  Some  have  traced  the  fables  respecting  Saturn  to  the  history  of  Noah. 
See  Tooke's  Pantheon,  Pt.  ii.  ch.  i.  §  5.  —  "  Saturn  was  not  unknown  to  the 
ancient  Germans,  among  whom  he  was  worshiped  by  the  name  of  Seatur  ; 
who  is  described  as  standing  on  a  fish  with  a  wheel  in  one  hand,  and  in  the 
other  a  vessel  of  water  filled  with  fruits  and  flowers."  HohceWs  Diet,  cited 
§  12.  2  (c). 

§  17.  It  was  once  customary  to  offer  to  Saturn  human  sacrifices, 
particularly  among  the  Carthaginians,  the  Gauls,  and  the  Pelasgic  in- 


PLATE    XI. 


SUPERIOR    GODS.        JANUS.     RHEA  OR  CYBELE.  409 

habitants  of  Italy.  His  principal  temples  among  the  Greeks  were  at 
Olympia,  and  atDrepanum  in  Sicily.  The  temple  of  Saturn  in  Rome 
served  also  the  purpose  of  a  treasury,  in  memorial,  perhaps,  of  the 
general  security  and  the   community  of  goods  in  the  Saturnian  or 

golden  age. The  chief  festival  of  this  deity  was  the  Saturnalia 

of  the  Romans,  which  was,  like  the  Peloria  (neXwqia)  of  the  Thessa- 
lians,  devoted  to  freedom,  mirth,  and  indiscriminate  hospitality. 

Saturn  was  represented  by  the  figure  of  an  old  man  having  a  scythe 
or  sickle  in  one  hand,  and  often  in  the  other  a  serpent  with  its  tail  in 
its  mouth  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  both  emblems  of  time.  There  are, 
however,  but  few  ancient  monuments  of  this  deity. 

Also  thus  described  :  "  a  decrepid  old  man  with  a  long  beard  and  hoary  head ; 
his  shoulders  are  bowed  like  an  arch,  his  jaws  hollow  and  thin,  his  cheeks  sunk ; 
his  nose  is  flat,  his  forehead  full  of  furrows,  and  his  chin  turned  up;  his  right 
hand  holds  a  rusty  scythe,  and  his  left  a  child,  which  he  is  about  to  devour." 
See  Plate  X.  fig.  1. 

The  custom  of  sacrificing  children  to  Saturn  seems  to  identify  him  with  Moloch,  the  Phoeni- 
cian idol,  to  whom  the  apostate  Israelites  sacrificed  their  offspring.  Cf.  Diod.Sic.  xx.14.  Jahn> 
Bibl.  Arch.  §211.— The  Sun-god  of  the  South-Americans  was  worshiped  with  the  same  cruel 

rites.  —  Southey's  Madoc,  Notes. Morin,  and  Freret,  Des  victimes  humaines,  Mem.  Acade 

Inscr.  vols.  i.  &  xvin.  Origin  of  human  sacrifices.    Class.  Journ.  xiv.  352.  xvn.104. 

§  18.  (2)  Janus.  He  was  one  of  the  Superior  Gods  of  the  Romans. 
They  represent  him  as  of  Thessalian  origin,  and  as  reigning  over  the 
earliest  and  so-called  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Italy,  in  the  time  of 
Saturn.  It  was  to  Janus  that  Saturn  fled,  and  under  them  was  the 
golden  age,  a  period  of  uninterrupted  peace.  To  Janus,  therefore, 
Romulus  dedicated  that  celebrated  temple,  which  was  always  open  in 
time  of  war,  and  was  closed  with  much  solemnity,  whenever  there 
was  general  peace  in  the  Roman  empire ;  a  thing  which  happened 
but  three  times  during  724  years  from  the  building  of  the  city  (cf. 
P.  V.  §  60).  From  this  deity  the  month  of  January  was  named,  and 
the  first  day  of  the  month  was  sacred  to  him. 

He  is  represented  with  a  double,  and  sometimes  with  a  quadruple 
face ;    hence  the  epithets  Biceps,  Bifrons,  Quadrifrons.     He  is  also 
called  Patulcius,  Clusius,  Consivius,  Gustos,  and  Claviger. 
•See  Plate  XI.  fig.  8. — It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  Brahma  of  the  Hindoos 

is  represented  with  four  heads.     See  Plate  XIa. Janus  is  also  represented 

with  a  key  in  one  hand  and  a  rod  in  the  other,  with  12  altars  beneath  his  feet, 
supposed  by  some  to  refer  to  the  12  months  of  the  year.  His  statue  erected  by 
Numa  is  said  to  have  had  its  fingers  so  composed  as  to  signify  365,  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  a  year. •  He  was  considered  as  the  inventor  of  locks,  doors, 

and  gates,  which  are  thence  called  janim.  He  was  termed  Father,  and  some- 
times God  of  gods.  In  sacrifices,  prayers  were  first  offered  to  Janus,  and  obla- 
tions were  made  to  him,  as  being  the  door  of  access  to  the  gods. — His  original 
name  was  Djanus  or  Dianus,  which  some  have  derived  from  dies,  day.  He  is 
called  the  Sun  and  was  the  Sun-god  or  God  of  the  Year,  of  the  original  inhab- 
itants of  Italy.  The  story  of  his  friendly  reception  of  Saturn  is  by  some  ex- 
plained as  referring  to  the  agreement  between  the  old  inhabitants  of  Latium 
and  the  immigrating  Pelasgi  to  worship  the  two  gods  in  common. — Janus  was 
not  received  among  the  gods  of  the  Greeks. 

§  19.  (3)  Rhea  or  Cybele.  The  common  name  of  the  wife  and 
sister  of  Saturn,  was  Rhea  or  Ops.  Yet  the  history  and  worship  of 
Cybele  Avere  afterwards  so  entirely  interwoven  with  those  of  Rhea, 
that  both  were  considered  the  same  person,  and  although  Rhea  was 
said  to  be  the  daughter  of  Earth,  were  each  taken  for  Gaia  or  Tellus. 
35 


410  GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

and  often  called  Vesta,  and  the  great  mother  of  gods.  The  origin  of 
Rhea  belongs  to  the  earliest  periods  of  mythical  story,  and  hence  the 
confusion  in  the  accounts  which  are  given  of  her. 

Cybele,  properly  speaking,  lived  later ;  and  was,  according  to  tra~ 
dition,  a  daughter  of  Mason  a  king  of  Phrygia  and  Lydia  ;  or  accord- 
ing to  others,  in  an  allegorical  sense,  the  daughter  of  Protogonus. 
Her  invention  of  various  musical  instruments,  and  her  love  for  Atys, 
a  Phrygian  youth,  whose  death  rendered  her  frantic,  are  the  most 
prominent  circumstances  of  her  history. 

Ovid,  Fast.  4.  223. —  Catullus,  de  At.  et  Ber. Besides  the  names  above 

mentioned,  she  was  called  Mater  Dyndymena,  Berecynthia  and  Ideea,  Pes- 
sinuntia,  and  Bona  Dea. 

§  20.  That  this  goddess  was  a  personification  of  the  earth  as  in- 
habited and  fruitful,  is  supposed  from  the  manner  in  which  she  was 
represented.  Her  image  was  generally  a  robust  woman,  far  advanced 
in  pregnancy,  with  a  turreted  mural  crown  on  her  head.  Often  she 
was  borne  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  lions ;  sometimes  she  rested  upon  a 
lion. 

See  Plate  X.  fig.  2. — She  was  also  formed  with  many  breasts,  with  a  key  or 
keys  in  her  hand,  sometimes  a  scepter,  and  frequently  with  two  lions  under 
her  arms. 

A  figure  in  silver,  with  some  parts  plated  with  gold,  and  the  whole  elegantly  finished,  rep- 
resenting Cybele,  was  found  at  Macon  (ancient  Matisco)  on  the  Saone,  in  1764.  It  was  pub- 
lished by  Count Caylus,  vol.  vn.  pi.  71. — Anthon-'n  Lempriere. — Banicr,  sur  les  statues  de  Cybele, 
in  the  Me-m.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  V.  p.  241 Cf.  P.  I.  §157. 

§21.  Her  worship  was  especially  cultivated  in  Phrygia,  but  spread 
thence  through  Asia.  The  celebration  of  her  festivals  was  exceed- 
ingly tumultuous,  as  her  priests  (called  Corybantes  or  Galli,  and  the 
chief  one  Archigallus)  went  about  with  clamorous  music  and  singing, 
acting  like  madmen  and  filling  the  air  with  the  mingled  noise  of 
shrieks,  howlings,  drums,  tabrets,  bucklers  and  spears. The  re- 
moval of  her  image  from  Pessinus  to  Rome,  and  the  establishment  of 
her  worship  in  the  latter  city,  was  a  remarkable  event.  The  festival 
called  Megalesia  (from  usyu?.t;,  the  great  mother)  was  maintained  in 
her  honor. 

Liv.  Hist.  29.  10, 11, 14.  Val.  Max.  8. 15.-— —The  place  called  Pessinus  was 
said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Jltasir,  to  fall,  because  it  was  the  spot  upon 
which  the  image  of  this  goddess  fell,  being  like  the  fabled  Ancile  and  Palladium 
sent  down  from  Jupiter. 

At  her  festival,  the  Megalesia,  Roman  matrons  danced  before  her  altar ;  the 
magistrates  assisted  in  robes  of  purple  ;  a  great  concourse  of  people  and  stran- 
gers usually  assembled,  and  Phrygian  priests  bore  the  image  of  the  goddess 
through  the  streets  of  the  city.  The  festival  called  Hilaria  was  celebrated  in 
a  similar  manner,  and  attended  with  many  indecencies.  — —  There  appears  to 
be  a  strong  resemblance  between  Cybele  and  Pracriti,  the  goddess  of  nature 
among  the  Hindoos.  The  latter  is  represented  as  drawn  by  lions,  and  her  fes- 
tival is  attended  with  the  beating  of  drurrys. — Moore's  Hindoo  Pantheon. 

§  22.  (4)  Jupiter.  The  highest  and  most  powerful  among  the 
gods  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Ziv?,  by  the  Romans  Jupiter.  It 
would  seem,  that  by  this  god  was  originally  represented  nature  in 
general ;  afterwards,  the  superior  atmosphere ;  and  finally  the  su- 
preme existence.  Many  tales  of  the  early  history  of  Crete  were  in- 
corporated among  the  traditions  respecting  him.  —  He  was  a  son  of 
Saturn  and  Rhea,  educated  in  Crete.  He  robbed  his  father  of  his 
kingdom,  and  shared  it  with  his  two  brethren,  so  that  Neptune  re- 


SUPERIOR    GODS.       JUPITER.  411 

ceived  the  sea,  Pluto  the  infernal  world,  and  himself  the  earth  and 
heavens.  The  Giants,  sons  of  the  earth,  disputed  the  possession  of 
his  kingdom  with  him,  and  attempted  to  scale  Olympus,  but  he  de- 
feated them  with  thunderbolts  forged  by  the  Cyclops. Enraged 

by  the  wickedness  and  deep  corruption  of  men,  he  destroyed  the 
whole  race  by  a  vast  deluge,  from  which  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  alone 
escaped.  The  supposed  date  of  this  flood  is  not  far  from  1500  years 
B.  C. 

Ovid,  Metam.  i.  151,  260.  —  Claudian's  Gigantomachia.  —  Cf.  P.  II.  §  386. 

§  23.  The  ordinary  residence  of  Jupiter  was  upon  Olympus,  a 
mountain  of  Thessaly,  which  the  poets,  on  account  of  the  constant 
serenity  of  its  summit,  represented  as  a  suitable  place  for  the  abode 
of  the  gods.  (Cf.  §  11.)  —  His  first  wife  was  Metis,  whom  he  de- 
stroyed, because  it  was  foretold  him,  that  she  would  bear  a  child 
that  would  deprive  him  of  the  kingdom.  Afterwards  the  goddess 
Minerva  was  produced  from  his  head.  By  his  second  wife,  Themis, 
he  begat  the  Horce  and  the  Par  cm.  —  The  third  and  most  celebrated 
was  Juno,  by  whom  he  had  his  sons  Mars  and  Vulcan. — Tradition,  par- 
ticularly the  tales  respecting  metamorphoses,  relate  numerous  amors 
of  Jupiter  ;  e.  g.  with  Europa  (1),  Danae,  Leda,  Latona,  Maia,  Alc- 
mena,  Semele  (2),  and  Io  (3).  Apollo,  Mercury,  Hercules,  Perseus, 
Diana,  Proserpina,  and  many  other  gods  and  demigods  were  called 
the  children  of  Jupiter.  The  name  of  son  or  daughter  of  Jupiter, 
however,  was  often  employed  merely  to  designate  superior  dignity 
and  rank,  and  not  intended  to  imply  literal  relationship. 

(1)  Ovid,  Metam.  ii.  836.  —  (2)  lb.  iii.  265.  —  (3)  lb.  i.  588. 

§  24.  The  worship  of  Jupiter  was  universally  spread,  and  numer- 
ous temples  were  erected  to  his  honor.  The  largest  and  the  most 
celebrated  in  Greece  was  that  in  Olympia  in  Elis,  remarkable  for  its 
own  magnificence,  and  for  its  colossal  statue  of  Jupiter  wrought  by 
Phidias,  and  for  the  Olympic  games  held  in  its  vicinity  every  fifth 
year.  His  oracle  in  the  grove  of  oaks  at  Dodona  was  renowed,  and 
considered  the  most  ancient  in  Greece.  —  In  Rome  the  Capitol  was 
specially  dedicated  to  him,  and  he  had  in  that  city  many  temples. 

Jupiter  is  generally  represented  as  sitting  upon  a  throne,  with  a 
thunderbolt  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  left  a  long  sceptre  resem- 
bling a  spear.  The  eagle,  sacred  to  him,  appears  standing  near,  or, 
as  in  some  monuments,  resting  at  his  feet  with  extended  wings.  As 
Jupiter  Ammon,  he  was  represented  with  the  horns  of  a  ram. 

The  eagle  sometimes  is  perched  upon  his  scepter.  He  is  also  spoken  of  as 
wearing  "  golden  shoes  and  an  embroidered  cloak  adorned  with  various  flow- 
ers and  figures  of  animals."  —  In  the  statue  at  Elis  (see  PI.  XL  fig.  3)  he  is 
presented  as  "  sitting  upon  his  throne,  his  left  hand  holding  a  sceptre,  his 
right  extending  victory  to  the  Olympian  conquerors,  his  head  crowned  with 
olive,  and  his  pallium  decorated  with  birds,  beasts,  and  flowers.  The  four 
corners  of  the  throne  were  dancing  victories,  each  supported  by  a  sphinx 
tearing  in  pieces  a  Theban  youth."  (Flaxman's  Lect.  p.  87,  as  cited  P.  I. 
§  191.  —  Cf.  Quatr.  de  Quincy,  cited  P.  I.  §  160.) 

§  25.  This  god  received  a  multitude  of  names  and  titles  derived 
from  circumstances  of  his  history,  or  the  places  of  his  worship. 

lu.  The  Greeks  termed  him  Zsvg,  and  applied  to  him  various  epithets,  as 
the  Jdman  (o  5 Iduiog),  Olympic  Qoivurtiy.bg),  Dodowzan  (Jwdwvaiog),  thunder- 


41*2  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

er  (xtQavviog),  deliverer  (iXiv&ioiog),  hospitable  (cirtog),  punisher  of  the  per- 
jured (ony.ioc),  &.c.  The  Romans  styled  him  Optimus  Maximus,  Capitolinus T 
Stator,  Diespiter,  Feretrius,  &c.  As  the  avenger  of  crime,  he  was  called  also 
Vejovis  or  Vedius  ;  yet  some  consider  these  as  names  of  another  distinct  di- 
vinity ;  and  others  take  them  for  names  of  Pluto. 

2.  Among  the  epithets  applied  by  the  Greeks  were  also  the  following ;  from 
his  sending  rain,  ou§<Jiog,  vtnog,  v*(ptZt}ysqizyg,  bqoivup^g ;  from  his  darting 
thunder,  aonqorcf-jTlg,  ($Qovrai'og,  TeQ7zixiQavvog ;  from  his  protection  of  sup- 
pliants, txioiog,  ixiriaiog.  The  Romans  also  called  him  sometimes  Inventor, 
Elicius,  Latialis,  Sponsor,  Victor,  Fluvialis. —  His  Latin  name  Jupiter  is  from 
Ztv  IIureQ,  Z  being  changed  into  J.  From  Ztvg  (in  Doric  28svg  and  iEolic 
Jivg)  came  also  probably  the  Latin  Deus.  The  word  is  by  some  supposed  to 
be  of  eastern  origin ;  others  say  it  is  applied  to  this  deity  as  the  source  of 
life  from  luoj.  —  In  Libya  a  temple  was  consecrated  to  him  under  the  name 
of  Ammon.    Cf.  P.  IV.  §  71. 

3.  Very  discordant  opinions  have  been  maintained  respecting  the  meaning 
of  the  various  fables  about  Jupiter.  It  is  evident,  that  attributes  drawn  from 
many  different  personages  and  probably  eastern  deities  were  associated  with 
Bis  name,  in  the  descent  of  mythological  traditions  from  one  generation  to 
another.  When  the  different  tales  are  united,  they  form  a  very  incongruous 
mixture,  combining  historic  narrative,  poetic  ornament,  and  philosophical  al- 
legory. 

4.  Sir  William  Jones,  with  much  ingenuity  and  learning,  has  attempted  to  show  that  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  embodied  in  their  Jupiter  the  special  attributes  which  the  Hindoos  ascribe 
distinctively  to  the  three  divinities  of  their  famous  triad,  named  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva. 
In  essential  attributes,  Brahma  is  said  to  be  the  creator,  Vishnu  the  preserver,  and  Siva  the 
destroyer  and  re-producer.  Each  of  these  offices  is  ascribed  to  Jupiter  in  the  classical  fables, 
according  to  Sir  William.  —  The  Hindoo  deities  are  given  in  our  Plate  XIa,  as  usually  seen 
in  Bengal :  Brahma  with  four  faces  and  four  hands,  holding  a  spoon,  a  rosary,  a  portion  of  a 
Veda  or  Hindoo  sacred  book,  and  a  vessel  of  the  water  of  ablution  ;  Vishnu  with  four  hands, 
in  one  of  which  is  a  sort  of  ring  or  discus,  which  is  said  to  send  out  flames  of  fire  when  twirl- 
ed on  his  finger,  and  in  the  others  a  shell  used  for  a  trumpet,  a  sort  of  club,  and  a  lotus  ;  Siva, 
having  a  trident  in  one  hand  and  a  rope  in  another  for  binding  offenders,  with  serpents  for  his 
ear-rings,  and  a  string  of  human  heads  for  his  necklace.    He  has  a  third  eye  in  his  forehead. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  Hindoo   fables  represent   Vishnu  as  assuming  different 

forms  by  successive  incarnations,  in  the  exercise  of  his  attributes  as  preserver.  Ten  incarna- 
tions, or  Avatars,  are  specially  designated.  These  are  represented  by  the  ten  engravings  in 
our  plate  Xlb.  "  All  the  Avatars  are  painted  with  gemmed  Ethiopian,  or  Parthian,  coronets  ; 
with  rays  encircling  their  heads  ;  jewels  in  their  ears  ;  two  necklaces,  one  straight  and  one 
pendent  on  their  bosoms  with  dropping  gems  ;  garlands  of  many-colored  flowers,  or  collars  of 
pearls,  hanging  down  below  their  waists  ;  loose  mantles  of  golden  tissue  or  dyed  silk,  embroi- 
dered on  their  hems  with  flowers,  elegantly  thrown  over  one  shoulder  ;  with  bracelets  on  one 
arm  and  on  each  wrist  ;  they  are  naked  to  the  waists,  and  uniformly  with  dark  azure  flesh  ; 
hut  their  skirts  are  bright  yellow,  the  color  of  the  curious  pericarpium  in  the  centre  of  the 
water-lily ;  they  are  sometimes  drawn  with  that  flower  in  one  hand  ;  a  radiated  elliptical  ring, 
used  as  a  missile  weapon,  in  a  second  ;  the  sacred  shell,  or  left-handed  buccinum,  in  a  third  ; 
and  a  mace  or  battle-axe,  in  a  fourth."  Nine  of  these  incarnations  the  Hindoo  tales  describe 
as  having  already  occurred.  The  tenth  is  to  take  place  at  some  future  period,  when  Vishnu 
will  descend  from  heaven  on  a  white  winged  horse,  and  will  introduce  on  earth  a  golden  age 
of  virtue  and  peace.  —  It  should  be  remarked  in  this  connection,  that  Crishna  is  celebrated  in 
Hindoo  mythology  as  an  incarnate  deity.  According  to  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  he  is  considered  as 
distinct  from  all  the  Avatars  ;  these  had  only  a  portion  of  the  divinity  ;  "  while  Crishna  was 
the  person  of  Vishnu  himself  in  human  form."  In  the  Hindoo  pictures,  Crishna  sometimes  ap- 
pears among  the  Avatars  ;  he  is  "  more  splendidly  decorated  than  any  of  them,  and  wears  a 
rich  garland  of  sylvan  flowers  as  low  as  his  ankles,  which  are  adorned  with  strings  of  pearl." 

See  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  on  the  gods  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  India,  in  his  Works  and  Lifcby  Lord 

Teignmouth,  Lond.  1807.  13  vols.  8.  (vol.  in.  p.  318.)  —  Cf.  Monthly  Papers  of  the  A.  B.  Comm. 
for  For.  Miss.  Nos.  n.  and  vn.  May  and  Oct.  1832.  —  Ward,  as  cited  §  13. 

§  26.  (5)  Juno.  The  wife  and  sister  of  Jupiter,  daughter  of  Sat- 
urn and  Rhea,  and  as  wife  of  Jupiter  mistress  of  gods  and  men, 
was  called  by  the  Greeks  "Hqu,  and  by  the  Romans  Juno.  Her  birth- 
place was  assigned  by  the  Greeks  to  Argos,  or  the  island  Samos, 
and  to  other  spots  in  Greece,  although  her  story  and  her  worship 
were  rather  of  Phoenician  origin.  The  chief  peculiarities  of  her 
character  were  love  of  power,  and  jealousy  ;  the  latter  passion  was 
constantly  inflamed  and  fed  by  Jupiter's  infidelity. —  In  consequence 
of  this  jealousy  she  wrought  several  metamorphoses,  as  in  the  case 
of  Calisto  (1)   and  Galanthis  (2).     Hence  also  her  wrath   against 


SUPERIOR    GODS.       JUNO.      NEPTUNE.  413 

lo  (3)  and  Semele  (4),  and  her  ill  will  towards  the  Trojans  because 
Paris  denied  her  the  prize  of  beauty  in  the  contest  with  Pallas  and 
Venus.  By  her  jealousy  she  often  aroused  the  anger  of  Jupiter, 
who  once,  according  to  Homer's  representation  (5),  suspended  her 
in  the  air  by  a  golden  chain.  Ixion's  love  for  her  was  punished  by 
Jupiter  with  everlasting  torture,  he  being  bound  to  a  wheel  constant- 
ly revolving. 

(1)  Ovid,  Metam.  ii.  474.  —  (2)  lb.  ix.  306.  —  (3)  lb.  i.  568.  —  (4)  lb.  iii.  156.  —  (5)  Iliad,  xv. 
15,  18. 

§  27.  The  worship  of  Juno  was  far  spread,  and  the  number  of  her 
temples  and  festivals  was  very  great.  Her  worship  was  especially 
cultivated  in  Argos,  Samos,  Sparta,  Mycenae,  and  Carthage,  cities 
which  committed  themselves  particularly  to  her  protection.  In  Elis 
were  games,  every  fifth  year,  sacred  to  her,  called  f Enala.  This  was 
the  name  also  of  her  great  festival  celebrated  at  Argos  and  other 
places,  which  was  likewise  called  ixariuSoia,  because  it  was  customa- 
ry on  the  occasion  to  sacrifice  a  hecatomb  of  oxen  at  the  temple  of 
the  goddess.  There  was  a  similar  festival  at  Rome  called  Junonia 
and  Junonalia. From  her,  tutelary  angels  or  guardians  of  fe- 
males were  called  among  the  Romans  Junoncs.  The  Roman  women 
took  their  oaths  in  her  name,  as  the  men  did  in  the  name  of  Jupiter. 
Both  Greeks  and  Romans  honored  her  as  the  protectress  of  mar- 
riage. Her  daughters  were  Hebe,  goddess  of  youth,  and  Ilithyia, 
who  presided  over  births.  Her  messenger  and  servant  was  Iris,  the 
goddess  of  the  the  rainbow.  —  The  Romans  dedicated  to  her  the 
month  of  June,  named  (1)  after  her.  — She  is  often  described  by  the 
poets  as  the  Queen  of  gocls  and  men. 

(1)  Ovid,  Fast,  vi.  26. Juno  had  a  great  variety  of  names  ;  as  Argiva, 

Cingula,  Egcria,  Juga  (Zvyia),  Lucinia,  or  Lucina,  Moneta,  JYuptialis  (ZTuu>;- 
7.i.a),  Opigena,  Populonia,  Sospita,  U?ixia,  &c. 

Hebe  was  employed  to  hand  round  the  nectar  at  the  feasts  of  the  gods.  Her 
office  of  cup-bearer  afterwards  fell  to  Ganymedes.  When  Hercules  was  ad- 
mitted to  Olympus,  Hebe  became  his  spouse.  — In  fig.  4,  PI.  XII.  she  is  rep- 
resented as  pouring  out  the  nectar,  with  the  bird  of  Jove  by  her  side. 

§  28.  The  ancient  artists  endeavored  to  exhibit  the  haughtiness 
and  jealousy  of  Juno  in  their  representations  of  her.  Among  the 
symbols  of  her  attributes  the  most  remarkable  was  the  peacock,  held 
as  sacred  to  her,  and  found  by  her  side  in  many  figures.  Sometimes 
her  chariot  is  drawn  by  two  peacocks.  She  was  frequently  repre- 
sented by  Roman  artists  upon  their  coins,  which,  however,  often 
contain  the  Empresses  exhibited  as  Junos. 

She  is  usually  represented  as  a  grave,  majestic  matron;  usually  with  a 
scepter  in  her  hand,  and  a  veil  on  her  head  and  a  crown  decked  with  flowers  ; 
sometimes  she  has  a  spear  in  her  hand,  or  a  patera,  or  vessel  for  sacrifices. 
The  peacock  is  sometimes  at  her  feet.  (See  Plate  XL  fig.  1.)  Homer  exhib- 
its her  in  a  chariot  adorned  with  gems,  having  wheels  with  brazen  spokes, 
and  naves  of  silver,  and  horses  with  reins  of  gold.  But  generally  she  is  rep- 
resented as  drawn  by  peacocks  in  a  golden  chariot. 

The  fables  respecting  Juno  are  interpreted  differently  according  to  the 
meaning  attached  to  those  respecting  Jupiter.  When  Jupiter  is.  considered 
as  typifying,  or  allegorically  representing,  the  active  productive  power  in  na- 
ture, Juno  is  the  passive.  Their  quarrels  are  then  explained  as  physical  al* 
legories. 

§  29.    (6)  Neptune.    The  government  of  the  waters  of  the  earth 
35* 


414  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

was,  in  the  division  of  authority  already  mentioned  (§22),  assigned 
to  the  brother  of  Jupiter,  called  iiooi-iduv,  or  Neptune.  The  idea  of 
a  god  ruling  the  waters  arose  from  the  surprise  of  the  first  observers 
of  the  power  of  that  element ;  even  before  Neptune,  Oceanus,  son 
of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  husband  of  Thetis,  was  honored 
as  god  of  the  sea.  Oceanus  was,  according  to  Hesiod,  one  of  the 
Titans,  and  was  considered  as  ruler  of  the  exterior  waters  encom- 
passing the  earth,  while  the  interior  seas  and  rivers  were  assigned  to 
Neptune.  —  The  wife  of  Neptune  was  Amphitrite,  a  daughter  of 
Nereus  or  Oceanus  and  Doris.  He  obtained  Amphitrite  by  the  aid 
of  a  dolphin,  and  in  return  honored  the  fish  with  a  place  among  the 
constellations.  The  principal  sons  of  Neptune  were  Triton,  Phor- 
cus,  Proteus,  and  Glaucus.  The  chief  characteristics  of  these  mi- 
nor deities  of  the  sea  were  the  power  of  divination  and  ability  to 
change  their  forms  at  pleasure.  The  daughters  of  Nereus  and  Do- 
ris were  the  so-called  Nereides,  or  sea-nymphs,  fifty  in  number.  They 
belonged  to  the  train  of  Neptune  and  were  subservient  to  his  will. 

§  30.  The  principal  exploits  and  merits  ascribed  to  Neptune  are 
the  assistance  rendered  to  his  brother  Jupiter  against  the  Titans, 
the  building  of  the  walls  and  ramparts  of  Troy,  the  creation  and 
taming  of  the  horse,  the  raising  of  the  island  Delos  out  of  the  sea, 
and  the  destruction  of  Hippolytus  by  a  monster  from  the  deep.  He 
was  feared  also  as  the  author  of  earthquakes  and  deluges,  which  he 

caused  or  checked  at  pleasure  by  his  trident. The  following  are 

some  of  his  many  names  and  epithets ;  'Avyukioe,  upholding  the 
earth;  ZsiolxOwv,  earth-shaker;   "inntioq,  Pctrceus,  Consus. 

1.  Various  etymologies  have  been  given  of  the  name  Jloas-iSiov  and  Nep- 
tune ;  The  latter  is  by  some  derived  from  JYubo,  because  the  water  covers  or 
conceals  the  earth ;  the  former  from  novg  and  Siw,  as  Neptune  binds  the  feet, 
that  is,  man  cannot  walk  on  the  water.  But  such  speculations  cannot  be  relied 

on. The  government  and  protection  of  ships  was  committed  to  him.    He 

also  presided  over  the  horse,  which  was  sacred  to  him,  and  over  horse-races ; 
at  the  festival  of  the  Consualia  all  horses  were  allowed  to  rest  from  labor. 

2  m.  The  Greeks  seemed  to  have  derived  the  worship  of  this  god  not  from 
Egypt,  but  Libya.  He  was  honored  particularly  in  cities  situated  near  the 
coasts,  as  presiding  over  their  navigation.  Thus  at  Nisyrus,  on  the  isthmus  of 
Corinth,  he  had  a  celebrated  temple,  and  also  on  the  promontory  of  Tamarus. 
Of  his  temples  at  Rome,  the  most  noted  was  that  in  the  ninth  district  (cf.  P. 
V.  §  54),  containing  a  suite  of  pictures  representing  the  Argonautic  voyage. 
The  victims  usually  sacrificed  to  Neptune  were  horses  and  bulls.  In  honor 
of  him  the  Greeks  maintained  the  Isthmian  Games,  and  the  Romans  the  Nep- 
tunalia  and  the  Consualia,  which  were  afterwards  from  the  place  of  celebra- 
tion called  Ludi  Circenses. 

§  31.  His  figure  upon  remaining  monuments  is  in  accordance  with 
the  dignity  ascribed  to  him,  commanding  and  majestic,  with  a  front 
calm  and  serene  even  in  anger.  In  his  hand  he  commonly  holds  the 
trident,  or  a  long  antique  scepter,  with  three  tines,  with  which  he 
makes  the  earth  tremble  and  throws  the  waters  into  commotion.  He 
is  often  described  as  moving  upon  the  waters,  drawn  in  a  chariot 
by  dolphins  or  war-horses,  and  surrounded  by  a  retinue  of  attendants. 

See  Plate  X.  fig.  5.— Cf.  Virg.  iEn.  i.  124.  Horn.  II.  xiii.  20.  Virg.Mn.  i.JL55. 
Stat.  Achil.  i.  60.  Neptune  is  represented  as  standing  upright  in  his  sea- 
chariot,  which  is  a  large  shell ;  he  is  arrayed  in  a  mantle  of  blue  or  sea  green, 
and  is  accompanied  by  his  wife  ;  he  is  described  with  black  hair  and  blue  eyes. 


PLATE    XI  a. 


416  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGT. 

Sometimes  he  appears  treading  on  the  beak  of  a  ship.  —  Fontenu,  Le  Culte 
des  divinites  des  eaux,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xii.  p.  27. 

§  32.  (7)  Pluto.  He  was  a  second  brother  of  Jupiter,  and  re- 
ceived, as  his  portion  in  the  division  of  empire,  the  infernal  regions 
or  the  world  of  shades.  Under  this  idea  the  ancients  imagined  the 
existence  of  regions  situated  down  far  below  the  earth,  and  they  rep- 
resented certain  distant  and  desert  lands  as  serving  for  a  path  and 
entrance  to  the  under  world.  Hence  the  fictions  respecting  Acheron, 
Styx,  Cocytus,  and  Phlegethon,  as  being  rivers  of  Hell.  These  re- 
gions below  the  earth  were  considered  as  the  residence  of  departed 
souls,  where  after  death  they  received  rewards  or  punishments  ac- 
cording to  their  conduct  upon  earth.  The  place  of  reward  was  called 
Elysium  ;  that  of  punishment,  Tartarus. 

1.  The  residence  of  departed  souls  was  termed  by  the  Greeks  u$rs,  Hadev. 
It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  this  fact  in  reading  the  passages  of  the  New 
Testament,  where  this  word  occurs.  The  term,  although  sometimes  rendered 
grave,  and  sometimes  hell,  properly  signifies  the  world  of  departed  spirits,  and 
includes  both  the  place  of  happiness  and  the  place  of  misery.  Cf.  Luke  xvi.23. 

On  the  meaning  and  use  of  this  term,  cf.  M.  Stuart,  Exegetical  Essays  &c.    Ando.  1830.  12> 

—  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,  vol.  IT.  p.  539  ss. —  Campbell,  Diss,  in  his  Transl.  of  Vie  QospeU. On> 

the  views  of  the  ancients  respecting  the  state  of  the  soul  after  death,  cf.  Homer,  Od.  xi. — JE±- 
r.hylus,  in  his  Prometheus  &.  Persic.— Pluto,  in  his  Phaedo.— Cicero,  De  contemnenda  morte,  and 
Somnium  Scipionis. —  Virgil,  jEh.  vi.  cf.  Tibull.  El.  i.  3.  vs.  57  ss — Gibbon,  on  Virgil's  JEn.  vi, 
in  his  Miscellaneous  Works.  —  Heyne,  Excursuses  in  his  editions  of  Virgil  &  Homer  (cf.  P.  IL 
§  50.  5.  §  362.  4).  —  De  Fuurmont,  L'Enfer  Poetique,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  m.  5.  — 
Class.  Journ.  ill.  276.  xi.  318. 

2u.  The  chief  incident  in  the  history  of  Pluto  is  his  seizure  and  abduction 
of  Ilsitoupovi],  or  Proserpine,  who  thereby  became  his  wife,  and  the  queen  of 
the  lower  world.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres.  The  circum- 
stances of  this  event  are  related  fully  and  poetically  by  Claudian  (I)  and 
Ovid  (2),  and  furnished  the  ancient  artists  with  frequent  subjects  for  their 
skill  in  device  and  representation  (3). 

(1)  De  raptu  Proserpina  L.  iii.  (2)  Metam.  v.  341.  (3)  See  Montfaucon,  Ant.  Expl.  T.  L 
pi.  37-41. 

§  33.  Pluto  is  represented  both  by  poets  and  artists  with  an  air 
menacing,  terrible,  and  inexorable.  The  latter  usually  exhibit  him 
upon  a  throne,  with  a  bifurcated  sceptre,  or  a  key,  in  his  hand.  A 
rod  is  sometimes  put  into  his  hand  instead  of  his  sceptre.  The  de- 
vice which  places  upon  his  head  a  sort  of  bushel  or  measuring-vessel, 
instead  of  a  crown,  is  of  Egyptian  origin,  borrowed  from  the  images 
of  Serapis. 

1.  He  appears  crowned  with  ebony ;  sometimes  with  cypress  leaves  ;  some- 
times with  flowers  of  narcissus.  He  is  also  sometimes  represented  in  the  act 
of  bearing  off  Proserpine  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  winged  dragons.   (See  Plate  X. 

fig-  3.) He  is  said  to  have  possessed  a  helmet  which  rendered  its  wearer 

invisible ;  like  the  magic  ring  of  the  Lydian  Gyges  (cf.  Cic.  de  Off.  iii.  9- 
Herod.  i.  8). 

2u.  His  worship  was  universal;  but  it  was  attended  with  special  solemni- 
ties in  Boeotia,  particularly  at  Coronea.  His  temple  at  Pylos  in  Messenia  wag 
also  celebrated.  The  Roman  gladiators  consecrated  themselves  to  Pluto.  The 
victims  offered  to  him  were  usually  of  a  black  color.  Some  of  his  principal 
names  were  Ztvc,  orvyioc,  Soramis,  Summanus,  Februus. 

3.  The  Greeks  named  him  ID.ovtm  as  some  suppose  from  7t?.ovroc,  wealth, 
which  comes  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  The  Romans  gave  him  the  name 
Dis,  having  the  same  sense.  He  is  also  called  "  A8t\c,  Orcus,  Jupiter  infernus, 
&c. — His  chief  festival  was  in  February,  when  the  Romans  offered  to  him  the 
sacrifices  called  Februa,  whence  the  name  of  the  month.  His  rites  were  per- 
formed by  night  or  in  the  dark.  The  cypress  was  sacred  to  him,  branches  of 
which  were  carried  at  funerals. 


SUPERIOR    GODS.        PLUTO.     APOLLO.  417 

§  34.  Under  the  control  of  Pluto  were  the  three  judges  of  the  lower 
world,  Minos,  Rhadamanthus ,  and  jEacus.  These  decided  the  con- 
dition of  all  the  spirits  brought  into  Pluto's  realms  by  Charon.  Minos 
held  the  first  rank.  They  were  sons  of  Jupiter.  They  appear  in 
Grecian  history  as  real  persons.  At  the  entrance  to  the  world  of  shades, 
in  Pluto's  vestibule,  lay  the  dog  Cerberus,  a  three-headed  monster, 
that  hindered  the  spirits  from  returning  to  the  upper  world.  The 
most  memorable  of  those  represented  as  punished  in  Tartarus  were 
Ixion,  Sisyphus,  Tityus,  Phlegyas,  Tantalus,  the  Danaides,  and  the 
Aloides. 

1.  Charon  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox.  His  office  was 
to  conduct  the  souls  of  the  dead  in  a  boat  over  the  rivers  Styx  and  Acheron  to 
the  realms  of  Pluto.  As  all  were  obliged  to  pay  to  him  an  obolus,  a  small 
piece  of  money,  it  was  customary  to  place  a  coin  for  that  purpose  under  the 
tongue  of  the  deceased  before  the  funeral  rites.  Such  as  had  not  been  honored 
with  a  funeral  were  compelled  to  wander  on  tne  shore  a  hundred  years  before 
they  could  be  transported.  The  fable  respecting  Charon  is  borrowed  from  the 
Egyptians,  who  had  the  custom  of  a  trial  and  sentence  upon  their  deceased, 
before  allowing  them  the  honors  of  burial.  For  this  trial  all  were  carried  acrosa 
a  lake  in  a  boat,  whose  helmsman  was  called  Charon. 

Rollin,  Anc.  Hist.  bk.  i.  ch.  2.  sect.  2. — Cf.  Class.  Journ.  vol.  xxin.  p.  7.— Bulletin  des  Sciences 
Historiques,  vol.  iv.  p.  352. 

2.  There  are  numerous  representations  on  the  monuments  of  Egyptian  art 
which  seem  to  refer  to  this  trial  or  judgment  of  the  soul.  It  appears  to  be 
often  symbolized  by  the  figure  of  a  pair  of  scales  or  balances,  as  if  it  were  a 
weighing  of  the  soul  (U'v/ooaaia)  ;  to  which  there  may  be  an  allusion  in  the 
prophet's  interpretation  of  the  mysterious  writing  on  the  wall  of  Belshazzar'a 
dining-room  {Dan.  v.  27). 

In  fig.  B.  of  our  Plate  XV.  is  a  representation  of  this  kind ;  in  which  we  see 
the  Egyptian  balances,  and  a  number  of  priests  and  allegorical  or  mythical 
personages  ;  the  drawing  is  reduced  from  one  given  the  great  French  work, 
UEgijpte,6cc.  cf.  P.  V.  §177. — See  Mem.  de  I'Institut,  Classe  oVHistoire  et  Lit. 
Anc.  vol.  v.  p.  84.  sur  la  Psychostasie,  ou  pesee  des  ames,  with  plate. 

§  35.  (8)  Apollo.  The  earliest  and  most  natural  form  of  idolatry 
was  the  worship  of  the  stars,  and  especially  of  the  sun,  whose  splen- 
dor, light,  heat,  and  salutary  influence  upon  all  nature,  were  taken  as 
the  supernatural  and  independent  powers  of  a  deity.  Hence  the  an- 
cient fiction  ascribing  personality  to  this  luminary,  which  was  wor- 
shiped by  the  Egyptians  under  the  name  of  Horus,  by  the  Persians 
under  that  of  Mithras,  by  the  later  Greeks  and  Romans  under  that  of 
Phoebus  (&olpog)  and  Apollo.  The  two  latter  people,  however,  con- 
sidered their  "W.iog  and  Sol  as  a  separate  divinity,  and  attached  to  the 
history  of  Apollo  many  circumstances  not  connected  with  his  original 
character  as  the  god  of  light. 

§  36.  According  to  both  nations,  Apollo  was  the  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Latona,  born  on  the  island  Delos.  He  was  regarded  as  the  god 
of  the  sciences  and  the  arts,  especially  poetry,  music,  and  medicine. 
They  ascribed  to  him  the  greatest  skill  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  ar- 
row, which  he  proved  in  killing  the  serpent  Pytho,  the  sons  of  Niobe, 
and  the  Cyclops.  The  last  achievement  incensed  Jupiter,  and  he  was 
banished  from  Olympus.  During  his  exile  Apollo  abode  as  a  shep- 
herd  (1)  with  Admetus  king  of  Thessaly.  He  also  assisted  Neptune 
in  raising  the  walls  of  Troy,  beguiling  the  toil  of  the  laborers  with 
his  lyre  and  songs.  His  musical  contest  (2)  with  Pan  and  Marsyas 
is  referred  to  the  same  period  of  his  history.  —  Other  memorable  cir- 


418  GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

cumstances  in  his  history  are  his  love  for  Daphne  and  her  transforma- 
tion into  a  laurel-tree  (3)  ;  that  of  Clytie  for  him  and  her  metamor- 
phosis into  a  sun-flower  (4) ;  his  friendship  for  Hyacinthus  (5),  who 
was  killed  by  Apollo's  inattention,  but  changed  into  the  flower  of  that 
name ;  and  for  Cyparissus,  also  accidentally  slain  and  changed  into  a 
tree  (6) ;  the  indiscreet  request  of  his  son  Phaethon  (7),  to  guide  his 
father's  chariot  for  one  day,  and  the  fatal  consequences  of  the  attempt. 

Ob.  Met.  ii.  680.  —  (2)  vi.  382.  xi.  146.  —  (3)  Met.  i.  452.  —  (4)  iv.  206,  256.  —  (5)  x.  162.  — 
(6)  x.  106.  —  (7)  i.  750. 

§  37a.  The  worship  of  Apollo  was  much  celebrated  among  both 
Greeks  and  Romans.  As  the  god  of  inspiration  and  prophecy,  he 
gave  oracles  at  Didyma,  Patara,  Claros,  and  other  places.  His  temple 
at  Delphi,  and  the  oracle  connected  with  it,  was  the  most  celebrated ; 
next  in  fame  was  that  in  Argos,  and  the  one  at  Rome  on  the  Palatine 
hill,  built  by  Augustus  and  adorned  with  a  famous  library.  The  Greeks 
celebrated  in  honor  of  Apollo  the  Pythian  games,  and  the  Romans 
those  called  ludi  Apollinares  and  the  ludi  seculares.  The  laurel  and 
olive,  the  wolf  and  hawk,  the  swan  and  grasshopper,  the  raven,  crow, 
and  cock,  were  sacred  to  Apollo. — The  following  names  were  applied 
to  Apollo  :  Cynthius,  Delius,  Nomius,  Patareus,  Pythius  (ni&tog), 
Smintheus,  Thymhrmus. 

He  had  also  the  following  names  :  J6$iag,  Hatav,  'Exrrfokog,  To^ocpooog, 
jD.t^iy.ay.Qg. 

§  37b.  The  image  of  this  god,  as  expressed  by  poets  and  artists, 
was  the  highest  ideal  of  human  beauty,  a  tall  and  majestic  body,  and 
an  immortal  youth  and  vigor.  Accordingly  he  appears  on  extant 
monuments  with  long  hair,  crowned  with  laurel,  having  in  his  hand 
a  bow  and  lyre,  and  a  quiver  on  his  shoulder,  naked,  or  but  lightly 
clad.  The  most  celebrated  monument  (1)  is  the  marble  statue,  called 
the  Apollo  Belvidere. 

See  P.  I.  §  186. 4.  Cf.  Tibull.  L.  iii.  Ele.  4.  v.  27.— "Sometimes  he  is  painted 
with  a  crow  and  a  hawk  flying  over  him,  a  wolf  and  a  laurel-tree  on  one  side 
and  a  swan  and  a  cock  on  the  other,  and  under  his  feet  grasshoppers  creeping." 
Sometimes  he  is  exhibited  in  the  midst  of  the  Muses,  cf.  §  103.  He  also  appears, 
with  a  radiant  head,  in  his  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses.  See  Plate  XI.  fig.  4. 
A  statue  of  Apollo  stood  upon  the  promontory  of  Actium,  as  a  mark  to  mari- 
ners, and  was  seen  at  a  great  distance  at  sea. 

The  stories  respecting  Apollo  resemble  those  in  the  mythology  respecting  Crishna,  who  is 
sometimes  painted  in  company  with  nine  damsels,  who  arS  whimsically  grouped  into  the  form 
of  an  elephant,  on  which  he  sits  and  plays  upon  his  flute.  He  is  also  frequently  represented  as 
the  destroyer  of  the  great  serpent ;  in  some  views  he  is  held  in  the  folds  of  the  serpent,  which 
is  biting  his  foot ;  in  others,  he  holds  the  serpent  triumphantly  in  the  grasp  of  his  hands,  and 
crushes  its  head  beneath  his  foot. — Cf.  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  as  cited  §  25.  4.— -Asiatic  Researches,  vok 
vin.  —  Calmefs  Diet.  &c.  vol.  in.  p.  529  of  ed.  Charlestown,  1813. 

§  38.  (9)  Diana.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Jupiter,  and  was  born 
of  Latona  on  the  island  Delos,  at  the  same  time  with  Apollo.  As  in 
Apollo  the  sun  was  deified  and  adored;  so  was  the  moon,  &/na,oj  ;.>>/;, 
in  Diana,  who  was  called  by  the  Greeks  3'Aqnui?.  She  was  also 
recognised  as  the  goddess  of  hunting  or  the  chase,  of  which  she  was 
passionately  fond  in  her  youth.  She  was  likewise  viewed  sometimes 
as  a  goddess  of  the  infernal  regions,  under  the  name  of  Hecate.  As 
presiding  over  the  chase,  she  received  from  Jupiter  a  bow  with  arrows, 
and  a  train  of  sixty  nymphs.  —  She  also  obtained  from  him  the  grant 
of  her  petition  to  live  a  virgin,  and  was  therefore  the  goddess  of  chas- 
tity.    Hence  her  displeasure  at  the  transgression  of  one  of  her  nymphs, 


SUPERIOR    GODS.      DIANA,  419 

Calisto  (1),  and  her  transformation  of  Actaeon  into  a  stag  (2).  The 
only  one,  towards  whom  she  was  not  indifferent,  was  the  shepherd  or 
hunter,  Endymion.  She  slew  the  nymph  Chione  (3)  from  jealousy 
of  her  beauty,  and  the  daughters  of  Niobe  (4)  because  Latona  was 
slighted  by  their  mother. 

(1)  Ov.  Met.  ii.  464.  —  (2)  iii.  194.  —  (3)  ix.  321.  —  (4)  vi.  148-312.    Cf.  P.  I.  §  186.  2. 

§  39.  Nowhere  was  the  worship  of  Diana  so  much  regarded,  no* 
where  had  she  a  temple  so  splendid  as  at  Ephesus.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §234.  3.) 
With  this  exception,  that  in  Chersonesus  Taurica  was  the  most  cele- 
brated, especially  through  the  story  of  Orestes  and  Iphigenia.  Her 
principal  temple  at  Rome  was  that  erected  by  Servius  Tullius  on 
Mount  Aventinus.  In  Rome  the  festival  of  the  ludi  seculares  were 
sacred  to  her  in  conjunction  with  Apollo,  and  she  was  particularly 
honored  under  the  name  of  Lucina,  as  presiding  over  births.  In  this 
view  she  was  also  called  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  IlitJiyia  (hisdvia), 
although  this  was  the  name  (§  27)  of  a  distinct  divinity.  —  Some  of 
her  other  names  were  Phoebe,  Cynthia,  Delia,  Hecate,  Dictynna, 
Agrotera  (ayooTtna),  Trivia,  from  her  statues  being  placed  in  cross- 
ways  as  she  presided  over  streets,  Chitone  (^irwvrj),  and  Triformis 
(TQiuoqyoc),  from  her  three-fold  character  as  goddess  of  the  moon  or 
month,  the  chase,  and  the  lower  world. 

Other  names  or  epithets  were  applied  to  her  :  ?.o^(ia,  xvvyybg,  oyso'upotToCi 
tqioSlti?,  io^eaiQa  and  To^ocpo^og.  — - —  "  Diana  is  called  Triformis  and  Terge- 
mina.  First,  because  though  she  is  but  one  goddess,  yet  she  has  three  differ- 
ent names  as  well  as  three  different  offices.  In  the  heavens  she  is  called  Luna ; 
on  the  earth  she  is  named  Diana,  and  in  hell  she  is  styled  Hecate  or  Proser- 
pina. In  the  heavens  she  enlightens  everything  by  her  rays ;  on  the  earth 
she  keeps  under  all  wild  beasts  by  her  bow  and  her  dart ;  and  in  hell  she  keeps 
all  the  ghosts  and  spirits  in  subjection  to  her  by  her  power  and  authority.  — 
Secondly,  because  she  has,  as  the  poets  say,  three  heads;  the  head  of  a  horse 
on  the  right  side,  of  a  dog  on  the  left,  and  a  human  head  in  the  midst ;  whence 
some  call  her  three-headed  or  three-faced.  —  Thirdly,  according  to  some,  be- 
cause the  moon  has  three  phases  or  shapes  ;  the  new  moon  appears  arched  with 
a  semi-circle  of  light ;  the  half-moon  fills  a  semi-circle  with  light ;  and  the  full 
moon  fills  a  whole  circle  or  orb  with  splendor." 

§  40.  As  goddess  of  the  chase,  she  is  represented  in  monuments 
of  art,  tall  and  nimble,  with  a  light,  short,  and  often  flowing  cos- 
tume, her  legs  bare,  her  feet  covered  with  buskins,  with  bow  and  ar- 
rows, either  alone,  or  accompanied  by  her  nymphs,  often  with  a 
hound  near  her,  often  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  two  white  stags. 
(See  Plate  X.  fig.  7.)  She  is  thus  represented  in  a  beautiful  statue 
supposed  to  have  come  from  the  same  hands  as  the  Apollo  Belvidere. 
As  the  goddess  of  night,  or  the  moon,  she  is  represented  in  long 
robes,  with  a  large  starred  veil,  having  a  torch  in  her  hand  and  a 
crescent  on  her  head.  We  have  figures  of  the  Ephesian  Diana,  in 
the  Egyptian  style,  and  in  Greek  imitation  of  it,  in  which  she  is  ex- 
hibited with  numerous  breasts,  and  very  similar  to  Isis,  whereby  the 
fruitfulness  of  nature  seems  to  have  been  represented. 

"  Sometimes  she  appears  with  wings,  holding  a  lion  in  one  hand,  and  a  pan- 
ther in  the  other,  with  a  chariot  drawn  by  two  heifers,  or  two  horses  of  differ- 
ent colors."  The  poppy  was  sacred  to  Diana.  The  Athenians  sacrificed  to 
her  goats,  or  a  white  kid,  sometimes  a  pig  or  ox.  The  inhabitants  of  Taurica 
offered  on  her  altar  strangers  that  were  shipwrecked  on  their  coast. 


420  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

§  41.  (10)  Minerva.  Under  the  name  of  Minerva  among  the 
Romans  and  of  HaUUg  and  >A6t)ra  among  the  Greeks,  ancient  fiction 
personified  and  deified  the  idea  of  high  intelligence  and  wisdom. 
She  was  a  daughter  of  Jupiter,  sprung  from  his  head.  She  is  said 
first  to  have  revealed  herself  near  the  lake  Tritonis  in  Libya,  from 
which  circumstance  she  was  called  Tritonia,  according  to  some ; 
others  derive  this  epithet,  and  the  Greek  Tqtroyivtia,  from  the  word 
tqitw  signifying  head. 

The  Greeks  ascribed  to  this  goddess  the  invention  of  many  arts 
and  sciences  (1),  which  had  a  great  influence  on  their  civilization. 
She  was  regarded  as  inventress  of  the  flute,  of  embroidery  and  spin- 
ning, the  use  of  the  olive,  and  various  instruments  of  war  ;  in  short, 
of  most  works  indicating  superior  intelligence  or  skill.  Arachne's 
contest  with  her  in  working  with  the  needle,  and  consequent  despair 
and  transformation  are  beautifully  described  by  Ovid  (2). 

(1)  Ov.  Fastor.  iii.  815.  — .  (2)  Metam.  vi.  5. 

§  42.  The  city  of  Athens  was  consecrated  to  Minerva,  and  boast- 
ed of  receiving  its  name  from  her.  The  splendid  temple  at  that  place 
dedicated  to  her  was  called  Parthenon,  in  reference  to  her  virgin 
purity  (TcaQ&lvoc).  She  had  other  temples,  at  Erythrae,  Tegea,  and 
Sunium,  and  several  at  Rome.  Her  principal  festivals  among  the 
Greeks  were  the  Panathen&a,  the  greater  and  the  less,  and  among 
the  Romans,  the  Quinquatria,  on  each  of  which,  games  and  con- 
tests were  held.  The  owl  was  sacred  to  Minerva,  and  is  often  found 
on  her  images  and  on  the  Athenian  coins. 

The  following  is  the  story  respecting  the  name  of  the  city  of  Athens  :  — 
When  Cecrops  built  a  new  city,  Neptune  and  Minerva  contended  about  its 
name  ;  and  it  was  resolved  in  the  assembly  of  the  gods,  that  whichsoever  of 
the  two  deities  found  out  the  most  useful  creature  to  man,  should  give  the 
name  to  the  city.  Neptune  struck  the  ground  with  his  trident,  and  a  horse  is- 
sued from  the  earth.  Minerva  caused  an  olive  to  spring  up.  The  latter  was 
pronounced  the  more  useful  thing,  and  Minerva  therefore  gave  the  city  her 
own  name,  A&ip-a.  Dr.  Clarke  imagines  that  this  story  had  its  origin  from  the 
fact,  that  the  plains  of  Greece  were  once  covered  or  nearly  so  with  water, 
which  was  afterwards  removed  by  evaporation  and  other  causes,  and  thus  a 
cultivable  soil  was  presented  to  the  inhabitants. 

Clarke's  Travels  in  various  countries  &x.  Part  II.  sect.  ii.  ch.  12.— Respecting  the  Parthenon, 
cf.  P.  I.  $  234,  242.  P.  V.  §107.  On  the  remains  of  the  temple  of  Sunium,  cf.  Am.  Quart.  Rev. 
vol.  vi.  p.  234. 

§  43.  Minerva  is  usually  represented  in  military  armor,  with  a 
helmet,  the  ./Egis,  or  her  peculiar  cuirass  bearing  on  it  Medusa's 
head,  with  a  spear  and  often  a  shield  or  buckler  in  her  hand.  (See 
Plate  XI.  fig.  6.)  Her  helmet  is  generally  ornamented  with  the  fig- 
ure of  the  owl,  but  presents  various  forms.  The  collossal  statue  of 
Minerva,  wrought  by  Phidias,  and  the  Palladium  were  much  cele- 
brated ;  the  former  (1)  on  account  of  the  perfection  of  its  workman- 
ship, the  latter  (2)  on  account  of  the  superstitious  confidence  placed 

in  it  by  the  Trojans,  Greeks  and  Romans. Besides  the  names 

Minerva,  Pallas,  and  Athena,  this  goddess  was  often  called  nanQivog, 
^Qyurig,  and  "Eqyuvi],  iioXiu$ ;  she  is  also  termed  Musica,  Pylotis,  and 
very  often  riavy.vmig  or  Csesia. 

(1)  See  P.  I.  $160,161, 179.  P.  V.  $107.  —  (2)  The  Palladium  was  a  statue 
of  Pallas,  with  a  spear  in  one  hand  and  a  distaff  in  the  other,  about  three  cu- 
bits high.     It  was  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  into  the  citadel  of  Troy  or 


SUPERIOR   GODS.      MINERVA.      MARS.  421 

Illium  before  it  was  completely  built,  and  that  the  oracle  of  Apollo  being  con- 
sulted upon  this  occurrence  answered,  that  "  the  city  should  be  safe  so  long 
as  that  image  remained  within  it."  When  the  Greeks  beseiged  Troy,  it  was 
therefore  thought  of  the  first  consequence  to  obtain  this  image.  Ulysses  and 
Diomedes  succeeded  it  getting  it  by  stealth  (Vir.  JEn.  ii.  162).  It  was  said  to 
have  been  afterwards  recovered  from  Diomedes  by  ./Eneas,  carried  to  Italy, 
and  finally  lodged  in  the  temple  of  Vesta. 

Minerva  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally  an  Egyptian  deity,  worshiped 
particularly  at  Sais,  under  the  title  of  Neith  or  Netha.  Various  Etymologies 
of  her  name  A&yva  have  been  given  ;  among  them  is  the  conjecture,  which 
derives  it  from  the  name  of  the  Egyptian  deity  just  mentioned,  by  inverting 
the  order  of  the  letters,  vtj&a  a&tjv. 

§  44.  (11)  Mars.  The  god  of  war  and  battles  was  a  son  of  Jupi- 
ter and  Juno,  and  educated  in  Thrace.  He  was  viewed  as  presiding 
over  rude  and  fierce  war,  the  origin  of  which  was  ascribed  to  him, 
while  Minerva  had  the  credit  of  inventing  tactics  and  the  proper 

military  art. Notwithstanding  the  high  idea  which  Homer  gives 

of  the  strength  and  heroism  of  Mars,  he  represents  him  as  taken 
prisoner  by  Otus  and  Ephialtes,  and  wounded  by  Diomedes ;  it  was, 
however  by  the  help  of  Minerva  (II.  v.  383,  855).  Besides  these  oc- 
currences, his  amors  with  Venus  and  his  dispute  with  Neptune  re- 
specting the  son  of  the  latter,  Hallirrhotius,  who  was  put  to  death  by 
Mars,  constitute  all  that  is  remarkable  in  his  history. 

§45.  He  was  most  worshiped  in  Thrace  (1),  where  probably  the 
whole  conception  of  such  a  god  originated.  He  had  however  tem- 
ples and  priests  in  most  of  the  Grecian  cities.  The  Romans  regard- 
ed him  as  the  father  of  Romulus,  and  the  founder  and  protector  of 
their  nation.  They  erected  to  him  many  temples,  consecrated  to 
him  a  large  public  place,  the  Campus  Martins,  and  a  peculiar  order 
of  priests  (2),  the  Salii,  who  celebrated  his  festival  with  music  and 
dancing  in  solemn  processions. 

(1)  "  Mars  was  never  a  favorite  deity  with  the  Hellenic  tribes  of  Greece, 
and  his  worship  was  comparatively  neglected.  But  among  the  Romans,  few 
gods  were  more  popular ;  they  even  claimed  him  as  the  founder  of  their  race. 
It  is  not  easy  to  discover  the  origin  of  this  deity;  he  seems  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  Pelasgi,  or  some  other  warlike  and  barbarous  tribe,  rather  than 
Egypt.  He  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  northern  Odin,  and  probably 
was  the  same  deity  under  another  name."    Tookes  Pantheon,  Lond.  ed.  1831. 

(2)  Liv,  i.  20.  Ov.  Fast.  iii.  259.  It  was  a  special  business  of  these  priests 
to  guard  the  ancilia,  or  sacred  shields.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  114.  4.  P.  IV.  §  215.)  — 
Several  animals  were  consecrated  to  Mars ;  the  horse  for  his  vigor,  the  wolf 
for  his  fierceness,  the  dog  for  his  vigilance.  Magpies  and  vultures  were  also 
offered  to  him  on  account  of  their  greediness. 

§  46.  The  ancient  artists  have  represented  Mars  in  full  manly 
vigor,  with  a  strong  but  agile  body,  and  an  air  calm  and  collected, 
rather  than  vehement  or  passionate.  He  commonly  appears  equipped 
in  armor;  sometimes  naked  ;  sometimes  in  the  attitude  of  marching, 
as  Mars  Gradivus.  He  was  called  "A^g  by  the  Greeks  ;  his  other 
names  are  Odrysius,  Strymoniusy  Enyalius,  Thurius,  Qnirinus, 
Ultor. 

He  is  also  represented  as  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  furious  horses,  cov- 
ered with  armor  and  brandishing  a  spear  in  his  right  hand.  (See  Plate  XI. 
fig.  7.)  Sometimes  Bellona,  the  goddess  of  war,  drives  the  chariot,  bearing 
in  her  hand  a  flaming  torch.  Sometimes  he  is  represented  as  attended  with 
a  horrid  retinue,  Clamor,  Anger,  Discord,  Fear,  Terror,  and  Fame. 

36 


422  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

Bellona,  called  by  the  Greeks  Mfrvw,  is  sometimes  said  to  be  the  wife, 
sometimes  the  sister,  and  sometimes  the  daughter  of  Mars.  She  had  a  temple 
at  Rome,  and  before  it  was  a  pillar  called  Bellica,  over  which  the  herald 
threw  a  spear  when  war  was  proclaimed. 

§  47.  (12)  Venus.  The  ideal  of  the  most  perfect  female  beauty, 
and  the  love  awakened  by  it,  was  in  eastern  fiction  expressed  and 
personified  in  an  imaginary  goddess ;  she  was  called  by  the  Romans 
Venus,  and  by  the  Greeks  *Aq>qo3irij.  According  to  the  common 
story,  she  was  born  from  the  foam  (&tpQb$)  of  the  sea;  in  Homer 
she  is  presented  as  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Dione.  After  her 
birth  she  came  first  to  Cythera,  and  thence  to  Cyprus. — Many  of 
the  gods  sought  her ;  but  Vulcan  obtained  her  as  his  spouse.  She, 
however,  loved  Mars,  Mercury,  and  Adonis  especially,  although  with 
unrequited  passion ;  the  early  death  of  the  latter  she  bitterly  lament- 
ed («).  In  her  contest  with  Juno  and  Minerva,  Paris  awarded  to 
Venus  the  prize  of  beauty.  Hence  her  memorable  zeal  for  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Trojans. 

(a)  Ovid,  Metam.  x.  500,  717ss.  —  Bion,  Idyl  on  the  death  of  Adonis.  Cf.  P.  II.  $  69. 
The  story  respecting  Adonis,  the  young  favorite  of  Venus,  is,  that  being 
engaged  in  hunting,  of  which  he  was  excessively  fond,  he  received  a  mortal 
wound  from  a  wild  boar.  At  this  Venus  was  immoderately  grieved,  and  Pro- 
serpina restored  him  to  life  on  condition  of  his  spending  six  months  with 
Venus  and  six  with  herself.  It  has  been  explained  thus :  "  Adonis,  or 
Adonai,  was  an  oriental  title  of  the  sun  signifying  Lord ;  the  boar,  supposed 
to  have  killed  him,  was  the  emblem  of  winter,  during  which  the  productive 
powers  of  nature  being  suspended,  Venus  was  said  to  lament  the  loss  of  Ad- 
onis until  he  was  restored  again  to  life  ;  whence  both  the  Syrian  and  Argive 
women  annually  mourned  his  death,  and  celebrated  his  renovation  ;  "  —  Lu- 
cian  (De  Syria  Dea)  gives  an  account  of  the  festival  Adonia,  held  in  honor  of 
him  at  Byblus.    Cf.  P.  IV.  §  77.  2. 

§  48.  The  most  celebrated  places  of  her  worship  were  Golgi,  Pa- 
phos,  and  Amathus,  upon  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which  was  wholly 
consecrated  to  her  ;  Cythera,  Cnidos,  and  Eryx  in  Sicily  ;  all  situa- 
ted near  the  sea,  and  in  delightful  rep-ions.  In  Rome  she  was  hon- 
ored  as  the  pretended  mother  of  iEneas,  the  ancestor  of  the  nation, 
although  her  worship  was  first  formally  introduced  from  Sicily,  in 
the  sixth  century  after  the  building  of  the  city.  The  pigeon  or  dove, 
the  myrtle,  and  the  rose  were  especially  sacred  to  the  goddess  of  love. 

The  swan  and  the  sparrow  were  also  sacred  to  Venus.  .Her  sacrifices  were 
goats  and  swine,  with  libations  of  wine,  milk,  and  honey. Some  have  con- 
sidered the  worship  of  Venus  as  derived  from  corruptions  of  the  tradition  re- 
specting the  universal  deluge  ;  her  rising  from  the  sea  being  a  type  of  the 
world  emerging  from  the  waves  of  the  flood.  —  Bryant's  Mythology. — Hoi- 
wells  Myth.  Diet. 

§  49.  The  poets  and  artists  of  antiquity  endeavored  in  the  de- 
scription and  representation  of  Venus  to  embody  the  fullest  and  pur- 
est idea  of  female  beauty.  The  most  distinguished  antique  statue  of 
her  is  the  famous  Medicean  Venus  at  Florence  (1).  Various  images 
and  attributes  (2)  were  given  to  her,  under  the  different  characters 
of  Venus  Urania,  Marina,  Victrix,  &c.  She  was  likewise  known 
under  the  names  Erycina,  Anadyomene  (hvaSvouhn),  Paphia,  Idalia. 

(1)  See  P.I.  $186.  5. —(2)  Heyne,  iiber  die  Vorstellungsarter  der  Venus,  in  his  Antiquar. 
Aufi'dtze.    Manso,s  Abhandl.  iiber  die  Venus,  in  his  Versuch.  iiber  mytholog.  Gegenstdnde. 

The  names  and  epithets  of  Venus  were  exceedingly  numerous ;  as,  Cypria, 
nuvdrjuog,  Cytherea,  (pi/.outidi-g,  Tt/.tao'iyctuog,  Verticordia,  'Eraiqa,  Acidalia, 


SUPERIOR    GODS.       VENUS.      VULCAN.  423 

Libertina,  Saligenita,  Gcdaoola,  &c.  —  She  is  represented,  on  coins  and  in  the 
descriptions  of  the  poets,  in  various  ways  ;  sometimes  she  is  clothed  with  a 
purple  mantle  glittering  with  diamonds,  her  head  crowned  with  myrtle  and 
roses,  riding  in  a  chariot  made  of  ivory,  finely  carved,  painted  and  gilded,  and 
drawn  by  swans,  doves,  or  sparrows.  Sometimes  she  is  attended  with  the 
Graces  and  several  Cupids.  (See  Plate  X.  fig.  6.)  At  one  time  she  appears 
like  a  young  virgin,  rising  from  the  sea  and  riding  in  a  shell ;  at  another,  she 
holds  the  shell  in  her  hand.  In  the  celebrated  picture  by  Apelles  (cf.  P.  I. 
§  222),  she  appears  rising  from  the  bosom  of  the  waves  and  wringing  her 
tresses  on  her  shoulders.  In  some  representations  she  has  golden  sandals  on 
her  feet,  and  holds  before  her  a  brilliant  mirror.  The  Sicyonians  exhibited 
her  with  a  poppy  in  one  hand  and  an  apple  in  the  other.  In  Elis  she  was 
painted  as  sitting  on  a  goat  and  treading  on  a  tortoise.  She  usually  had  a 
belt  or  girdle  called  Ccstus,  in  which  all  kinds  of  pleasures  are  said  to  be  folded. 

§  50.  The  son  of  this  goddess,  "Eqtag,  Amor,  or  Cupid,  was  her 
common  companion,  and  the  god  of  love,  which  he  was  supposed  to 
influence  by  his  arrows.  He  is  represented  with  a  bow  and  arrowsfa^, 
often  with  a  burning  torch  in  his  hand.  He  was  very  frequently  ex- 
hibited on  ancient  works  of  art,  and  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  (b). 
Often  several  cupids  appear  in  company.  His  attachment  to  Psyche 
is  the  chief  incident  in  his  story,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful allegories  (c)  of  antiquity.  "Arxlqws,  Anteros,  who  is  usually 
considered  the  god  of  mutual  love,  was  originally  the  god  that 
avenges  despised  love.  He  is  sometimes  represented  as  wrestling 
with  Cupid. 

(a)  See  our  Plate  XI.  fig.  9.  —  (b)  Cf.  Manso,  as  cited  $  49.  — (cj  Cf.  P.  II.  §  471.  2. 

Hymenaeus  was  also  one  of  the  imaginary  companions  of  Venus.  He  pre- 
sided over  marriage.  He  was  represented  as  of  fair  complexion,  crowned 
with  the  amaracus  or  stceet  marjoram,  carrying  in  one  hand  a  torch  and  in  the 
Other  a  veil  of  flame  color,  indicating  the  blushes  of  a  virgin. 

§  51.  (13)  Vulcan.  In  unenlightened  periods,  the  violent  agen- 
cies of  the  elements,  as  well  as  the  appearances  of  the  heavenly  lu- 
minaries, excited  astonishment  and  were  deified.  Traces  of  the  wor- 
ship of  fire  are  found  in  the  earliest  times.  The  Egyptians  had  their 
god  of  fire,  from  whom  the  Greeks  derived  the  worship  of  "HcpcuoTog, 
called  by  the  Romans  Vulcanus  or  Vulcan.  Fable  styles  him  the 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno.  On  occount  of  his  deformity  his  mother 
thrust  him  from  Olympus  ;  or,  according  to  another  story,  Jupiter 
hurled  him  out,  because  he  attempted  to  help  Juno  when  fastened  by 
the  golden  chain.  He  fell  upon  the  island  Lemnos,  afterwards  his 
chief  residence,  and  was,  according  to  the  later  fictions  (2),  lamed 
by  his  fall. 

(1)  Horn.  II.  xviii.  395.  i.  500.  — (2)  Val.  Flac.  Argon,  ii.  87. 

§  52.  To  Vulcan  was  ascribed  the  invention  of  all  those  arts  that 
are  connected  with  the  smelting  and  working  of  metals  by  means  of 
fire,  which  element  was  considered  as  subject  to  him.  His  helpers 
and  servants  in  such  works  were  the  Cyclops,  sons  of  Uranus  and 
Gaia,  whose  residence  also  was  in  Lemnos,  and  of  whom  there  are 
commonly  mentioned  three,  Brontes,  Steropes,  and  Pyrahmon. 
These  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Sicilian  Cyclops  of  a  later 
period. 

1.  The  epithet  Cyclopian  is  applied  to  certain  structures  of  stone,  chiefly 
walls,  in  which  large  masses  of  rough  stone  are  nicely  adjusted  and  fitted  to- 
gether. 

Cf,  ?,  L  $  231.  3. Freret,  L'Histoire  des  Cyclops,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxm.  27. 


424  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

2u.  Mount  iEtna  was  represented  as  the  workshop  of  Vulcan  ;  so  also  Li- 
para,  one  of  the  iEolian  isles,  called  likewise  Vulcanian.  —  Works  requiring 
peculiar  art  and  extraordinary  strength,  especially  when  metals  were  em- 
ployed as  materials,  were  called  bv  the  poets  Vulcan's  masterpieces.  Among 
these  were  the  palaces  of  Phoebus  (1),  of  Mars  (2),  and  Venus  (3) :  the  golden 
chain  of  Juno  (4),  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter  (5),  the  crown  of  Ariadne  (6), 
the  arms  of  Achilles  (7)  and  of  iEneas  (8),  &c. 

(1)  Ov.  Metam.  ii.  1.  — (2)  Stat.  Theb.  vii.  38.  —  (3)  Claud.  Epithal.  Honor,  et  Mar.  v.  58. 

—  (4)  Pausan.  Att.  c.  20.  Lacon.  c.  17.—  (5)  Or.  Metam.  i.  258.— (6)  Ov.  Fast.  iii.  513 

(7)  Horn.  II.  xviii.  468.—  (8)   Virg.  Mil.  viii.  407. 

3.  Vulcan  is  said  to  have  formed,  by  request  of  Jupiter,  the  first  woman  ;  she  was  called 
Pandora,  because  each  of  the  gods  gave  her  some  present,  or  accomplishment.  Cf.  Hes.  Works 
and  Days,  v.  94. 

§  53.  According  to  the  earlier  fictions,  Vulcan  had  for  his  wife 
Charis,  or  Aglaia;  and  according  to  the  later,  Venus,  after  Minerva 
had  rejected  him.  Harmonia  was  his  daughter,  or  the  daughter  of 
Mars  and  Venus.  The  Giants  Cacus  and  Caeculus  were  called  his 
sons.  —  He  was  worshiped  particularly  in  Lemnos,  and  the  Vulca- 
nian isles.  A  temple  was  dedicated  to  him  upon  iEtna.  At  Rome 
the  Vulcanalia  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  him,  and  at  Athens  the 

Xa?.xtta. Some  of  his  names  are  the  following ;  Lemnius,  Mulci- 

her,  Cyllopodes  ( Kvnono^ic),  Amphigyeis  (auipiyviitic). 

A  calf  and  a  male  pig  were  the  principal  victims  offered  in  sacrifice  to  him. 

Some  writers  derive  the  name  and  story  of  Vulcan  from   Tubal-Cain 

mentioned  by  Moses  (Gen.  iv.  22).  —  Holwell,  Myth.  Diet. 

§  54.  Vulcan  was  usually  represented  as  engaged  in  his  work, 
with  hammer  and  pincers  in  his  hands ;  sitting  more  frequently  than 
standing  (a).  His  lameness  is  not  indicated  in  any  existing  monu- 
ments, although  it  was  in  many  ancient  statues  (b). 

(a)  See  Plate  X.  fig.  4.  —  (b)  Cic.  de  Nat.  Deor.  i.  30.  —  «  That  by  Vulcan 
is  understood  fire,  the  name  itself  discovers,  if  we  believe  Verro,  who  says 
that  the  word  Vulcanus  is  derived  from  the  force  and  violence  of  fire  (Vulca~ 
nius,  quasi  Volicanus,  quod  ignis  per  aeremvolitat,  vel  a  vi  ac  violentia  ignis); 
and  therefore  he  is  painted  with  a  blue  hat,  a  symbol  of  the  celestial  or  ele- 
mentary fire."  (Tooke.) "Vulcan  was  represented  covered  with  sweat, 

blowing  with  his  nervous  arms  the  fires  of  his  forges.  His  breast  was  hairy 
and  his  forehead  blackened  with  smoke.  Some  represented  him  lame  and 
deformed,  holding  a  hammer  in  the  air  ready  to  strike  ;  while  with  the  other 
hand  he  turns  with  pincers  a  thunderbolt  on  his  anvil.  He  appears  on  some 
monuments  with  a  long  beard,  disheveled  hair,  half  naked,  and  a  small  round 
cap  on  his  head,  with  hammer  and  pincers  in  his  hand."  (temp.) 

§  55.  (14)  Mercury.  The  Greeks  borrowed  the  worship  of  this 
god  from  the  Egyptians,  whose  Hermes  Trismegistus  is  so  celebrated 
in  their  early  history.  According  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  fables, 
'Hqiiiiq,  Mercurius  or  Mercury,  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia. 
Maia  was  a  daughter  of  Atlas,  found  by  Jupiter  in  the  cave  Cyllene 
in  Arcadia,  and  afterwards  with  her  six  sisters  placed  by  him  among 
the  stars,  thus  forming  the  constellation  named  Pleiades  from  their 
mother  Pleione. 

The  principal  characteristics  of  Mercury  were  cunning  and  dex- 
terity, which  he  exhibited  even  in  his  childhood,  and  not  always  in 
the  most  praiseworthy  manner.  This  appears  from  the  tricks  related 
of  him  and  from  the  circumstance,  that  he  was  considered  as  the 
god  not  only  of  mercature,  but  also  of  theft ;  although  the  latter  in 
early  times  was  not  viewed  so  much  as  a  crime,  as  an  evidence  of 


SUPERIOR     GODS.       MERCURY.      BACCHUS.  425 

power  and  adroitness.  Mercury  stole  the  cattle  of  Admetus  guarded 
by  Apollo,  Apollo's  arrows,  the  girdle  of  Venus,  the  pincers  of  Vul- 
can, &c. 

1  u.  By  his  flute  the  guardian  of  Io,  even  the  hundred-eyed  Argus,  was 
lulled  to  sleep.  (Ov.  Metam.  i.  668.)  —  The  principal  means  of  his  success  in 
his  feats  was  his  eloquence  ;  this  art  was  ascribed  to  him  in  a  high  degree. 
He  invented  also  the  lyre,  attaching  strings  to  the  shell  of  the  tortoise,  and 
presented  it  to  Apollo.  In  return  Apollo  gave  him  the  celebrated  wand  (ca- 
duceus),  the  origin  of  which  is  variously  stated;  its  efficacy  was  potent  in 
calming  the  passions  and  stilling  contention.  Mercury  carried  this  rod  as  the 
messenger  of  the  gods,  and  employed  it  to  awaken  dreams,  and  to  conduct 
the  shades  of  the  dead  to  the  lower  world  ;  for  he  was  called  to  offices  and 
labors  in  that  world,  as  well  as  on  earth  and  in  Olympus. 

2.  "  The  caduceus  was  a  rod  with  wings  at  one  end  and  entwined  by  two 
serpents,  in  the  form  of  equal  semicircles.  Originally  it  was  nothing  more 
than  a  rod  adorned  with  green  leaves,  and  with  a  skilfully  tied  knot  as  the 
symbol  of  traffic.  In  a  later  age  these  decorations  were  changed  by  the  poets 
into  serpents  and  wings.  Various  interpretations  of  the  meaning  of  it  have 
been  given.  Prudence  is  generally  supposed  to  be  represented  by  the  two 
serpents,  and  the  wings  are  the  symbol  of  diligence  ;  both  necessary  in  the 
pursuit  of  business  and  commerce,  which  Mercury  patronized." 

On  the  mythological  character  of  Mercury,  Class.  Journal,  xvi.  224.  —  Bbttiger's  Amalthea. 
i.  104. 

§  56.  Mercury  is  usually  represented  as  a  slender  youth,  holding 
his  wand,  almost  always  in  motion,  either  flying  or  rapidly  marching, 
wearing  a  winged  hat  (Petasus),  and  winged  sandals  (talaria). 
(See  Plate  XI.  fig.  2.)  Sometimes  he  holds  a  purse  in  his  hand,  as 
the  god  of  commerce ;  sometimes  a  tortoise  appears  by  him  in  refer- 
ence to  his  invention  of  the  lyre.  The  monuments  called  Hermae 
(P.  I.  §  164)  were  originally  statues  of  Mercury.  They  had  their 
origin  when  art  was  in  a  very  imperfect  state,  but  were  afterwards 
retained,  and  were  used  to  represent  other  gods  and  memorable  men. 

The  worship  of  Mercury  was  very  common  among  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  many  temples  were  consecrated  to  him. 
At  Rome  there  was  a  particular  festival  (festum  Mercatorum)  held 
for  the  expiation  of  merchants,  in  honor  of  Mercury.  The  cock 
was  sacred  to  him,  and  appears  sometimes  as  an  attribute  in  the  im- 
ages of  Mercury.  His  more  common  epithets  are  Cyllenius,  Atlan- 
tiades,  Ales,  Agoraeus  (ayoQaiog),  Caducifer. 

Other  common  epithets  are  yAQyEi(p6vrrtg,  Siuxtwq,  and  odyyog ;  he  is  also 
termed  S6?.iog  crafty,  y.iodwog,  as  presiding  over  wealth,  TQiy.iyal.og,  because 
his  statues  were  placed  where  three  ways  met.  —  At  his  festival  above  named, 
held*in  the  middle  of  the  day,  the  votaries  sacrificed  to  him  a  sow  or  a  calf, 
and  offered  especially  the  tongues  of  animals,  and  sprinkling  themselves  with 
water,  prayed  to  him  to  forgive  all  their  artful  measures  or  falsehoods  in  pur- 
suit of  gain. 

§  57.  (15)  Bacchus.  The  Greeks  and  the  Romans  worshiped  the 
inventor  and  god  of  wine,  under  the  name  of  Bacchus,  Buy./og,  the 
former  also  called  him  Jiowoog.  In  the  fictions  of  both,  he  was  the 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele,  a  daughter  of  Cadmus.  In  answer  to 
her  request,  Jupiter  appeared  to  her  in  his  full  majesty  and  divinity, 
the  fiery  splendor  of  which  caused  her  death  (Ovid,  Met.  iii.  260). 
Jupiter  saved  alive  the  infant  Bacchus  not  yet  born,  and  carried  him, 
in  his  own  thigh  until  the  proper  time  of  his  birth.  Hence,  ac- 
cording to  some  etymologists,  the  poets  called  him  di&i'Q<xtiipog,  as  hav» 
36* 


426  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

ing  been  twice  born  ;    a  name  which  was  afterwards  given  to  the 
irregular  hymns  sung  at  his  festivals. 

§  58.  The  ancients  ascribed  to  Bacchus  manifold  offices,  and  re- 
lated a  multitude  of  achievements  as  performed  by  him.  Especially 
was  he  celebrated  for  his  advancement  of  morals,  legislation,  and 
commerce ;  for  the  culture  of  the  vine  and  the  rearing  of  bees  ;  and 
for  his  military  expeditions  and  success,  particularly  in  India.  He 
was  universally  worshiped  as  a  god,  and  a  miracle-worker,  except  in 
Scythia.  The  power  ascribed  to  him  is  illustrated  in  the  story  re- 
specting Midas,  king  of  Phrygia,  who  restored  to  Bacchus  his  nurse 
and  preceptor  Silenus,  and  received  as  a  compensation  the  fatal  at- 
tribute of  turning  into  gold  (1)  every  thing  he  touched. —Some  of 
the  remarkable  incidents  of  his  story  are,  changing  the  Tyrrhenian 
sailors  into  dolphins  (2) ;  his  residence  upon  the  island  Naxos,  where 
he  found  Ariadne,  forsaken  by  Theseus,  and  espoused  her,  but  like- 
wise forsook  her,  and  after  her  death  placed  her  crown  among  the 
stars  (3) ;  his  descent  to  Hades  in  order  to  convey  his  mother  Semele 
back  to  Olympus,  where  she  was  deified  under  the  name  of  Thyone. 

(1)  Ovid,  Metam.  xi.  85.  —  (2)  Met.  iii.  650.  — (3)  Fast.  iii.  459. 

§59.  The  worship  of  Bacchus,  originating  very  early  in  the  East, 
probably  in  India,  was  among  the  earliest  and  most  general  practiced 
in  the  Grecian  or  Roman  territories.  Pentheus  and  Lycurgus,  who 
refused  to  participate  in  it,  were  punished  with  death,  and  the  daugh- 
ters of  Minyas  and  Orchomenos  for  the  same  reason  were  changed 
into  bats.  Thebes,  Nysa,  Mount  Citha3ron,  Naxos,  and  Alea  in  Ar- 
cadia, were  renowned  for  their  festivals  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  The 
most  eminent  of  his  festivals  were  the  Trieterica  and  the  Dionysia, 
in  which  his  military  enterprises  were  commemorated.  These  cele- 
brations at  length  became  wild  and  licentious  orgies,  and  were  final- 
ly on  that  account  abolished  in  Rome  by  the  senate,  in  the  year  of 
the  city  568.  —  The  vine  and  ivy  and  the  panther  were  especially  sa- 
cred to  him.  Goats  were  usually  offered  in  sacrifice  to  him,  because 
they  are  particularly  injurious  to  the  vine. 

The  Oscophoria,  Elpilcenia,  Jlpaturia,  Ambrosia,  and  Ascolia,  are  named  as 
festivals  of  this  god.  / 

On  the  Diony.na,  cf.  P.  IV.  §  77.  3.  —  On  the  worship  of  B.,  Freret,  Le  Culte  de  Bacchus, 
Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxm.  p.  242. —  O.F.Creuzer,  Dionysus,  s.  comment.  Acad,  de  Rerum  Bac- 
chic, originibus  et  causis.  Heidelb.1809.  4.— Rolle,  Recherches  sur  le  Culte  de  Bacchus.  Paris, 
3  vols.  8. 

§  60.  The  ancient  representations  of  Bacchus  are  much  more 
dignified  than  those  with  which  the  later  artists  were  accustomed  to 
degrade  him.  By  the  poets  and  artists  of  antiquity  he  was  exhibited 
as  a  handsome  agreeable  boy,  just  on  the  border  of  youth,  with  a  form 
more  resembling  a  female,  than  that  of  Mercury  or  Apollo.  (See  PI. 
X.  fig.  8.)  Of  no  other  god  have  we  a  greater  number  or  variety  of 
representations,  in  statues,  bas-reliefs,  and  gems  (1),  than  of  Bacchus 
with  his  train,  Silenus,  the  Fauns  and  Satyrs,  and  Bacchanals.  —  He 
is  called  Lyseus,  Thyoneus,  Evan,  Nyctelius,  Bassareus,  Thryambus, 
Thvrsiger  (2),  Liber,  Ignigenia,  and  Bimater. 

(1)  See  Montfaucon,  Ant.  Expl.  T.  I.  pi.  142-167.  —  (2)  Ov.  Metam.  to.  11. 

Among  the  various  representations  of  this  god,  we  sometimes  find  him  with 
swollen  cheeks,  and  a  bloated  body.  He  is  crowned  with  ivy  and  vine  leaves, 
having  in  his  hand  a  thyrsus,  an  iron-headed  javelin,  encircled  with  ivy  or  vine 


SUPERIOR    GODS.       BACCHUS.    CERES.  427 

leaves.  Sometimes  he  appears  an  infant,  holding  a  thyrsus  and  cluster  of 
grapes  with  a  horn.  Sometimes  he  is  on  the  shoulders  of  Pan,  or  in  the  arms 
of  Silenus.  Sometimes  he  is  in  a  chariot,  drawn  by  tigers,  leopards,  or  pan- 
thers, surrounded  by  his  retinue  of  Satyrs  and  Bacchse,  and  followed  by  old 
Silenus  on  an  ass. 

Pliny  fHist.  Nat.  L.  xxxvi.  c.  5)  mentions  an  image  of  Silenus,  in  the  mar- 
ble quarry  of  Paros,  said  to  be  the  work  of  nature.  There  is  now  in  the  same 
quarry  a  curious  bas-relief,  of  which  the  image  of  Silenus  forms  a  part.  Dr. 
Clarke  supposes  this  image  to  have  been  a  lusus  naturce,  and  the  other  pieces 
now  in  the  bas-relief  to  have  been  added  to  it  by  sculpture.  "  It  represents  a 
festival  of  Silenus.  The  demigod  is  figured  in  the  upper  part  of  it  as  a  corpu- 
lent drunkard,  with  ass's  ears,  accompanied  by  laughing  satyrs,  and  dancing 
girls.  A  female  figure  is  represented  sitting  with  a  fox  sleeping  in  her  lap. 
A  warrior  is  also  introduced,  wearing  a  Phrygian  bonnet  [see  Plate  XVII. 
fig.  n  and  o].  There  are  twenty-nine  figures  ;  and  below  is  this  inscription  : 
A  J  AM  AS  OJPY2H2  NYM&A12.  " 

The  worship  and  story  of  Bacchus  is  of  eastern  origin  ;  in  several  points  they  resemble  those 
of  the  Egyptian  Osiris.    There  is  also  thought  to  be  a  striking  resemblance  between  Bacchus 

and  the  Schiva  of  India  (cf.  Rhode,  as  cited  $13). Sir  Wm.  Jones  (as  cited  §  25.  4)  considers 

Bacchus  and  the  Hindoo  Rama  to  be  the  same.  "  The  first  poet  of  the  Hindoos"  says  he, 
"  was  the  great  Valmic,  and  his  Ramayan  is  an  epic  poem  on  the  same  subject,  which  in  unity 
of  action,  magnificence  of  imagery,  and  elegance  of  style,  far  surpasses  the  learned  and  elabo- 
rate work  of  Nonnus  entitled  Dionysiaca  (cfTP.  II.  $  76  ),  half  of  which,  or  twenty-four  books, 
I  perused  with  great  eagerness  when  I  was  very  young,  and  should  have  traveled  to  the  con- 
clusion of  it,  if  other  pursuits  had  not  engaged  me.  I  shall  never  have  leisure  to  compare  the 
Dionysiacks  with  the  Ramayan,  but  am  confident  that  an  accurate  comparison  of  the  two  poems 

would  prove  Dionysos  &c  Rama  to  have  been  the  same  person." It  maybe  remarked  that  the 

abominations  of  the  Dionysiac  festivals  are  to  this  day  practiced  at  the  temple  of  Juggernaut  in 

Hindostan. Cf.  Constant,  De  la  Religion,  vol.  n. —  Voss,  Antisymbolik. — Asiatic  Researches, 

vol.  vn  i. 

§61.  (16)  Ceres.  However  useful  the  planting  of  the  vine  might 
be,  agriculture  in  general  was  much  more  so,  and  formed  one  of  the 
earliest  and  most  common  pursuits  of  men.  The  observation  of  its 
importance  and  of  the  productiveness  of  nature  occasioned  the  con- 
ception of  a  particular  divinity,  to  whom  its  discovery  and  improve- 
ment were  ascribed.  The  usual  name  for  this  divinity  was  Jr^r^ 
among  the  Greeks,  and  Ceres  with  the  Romans.  She  was  considered 
as  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  goddesses,  and  was  called  a  daugh- 
ter of  Saturn  and  sister  of  Jupiter.  Her  native  place  was  Enna,  situ- 
ated in  a  fertile  region  of  Sicily. 

In  this  country  she  is  said  to  have  first  taught  men  to  cultivate  grain, 
and  to  instruct  them  in  all  the  labors  pertaining  to  it.  To  her  is  as- 
cribed also  the  establishing  of  laws,  and  the  regulation  of  civil  society. 
Afterwards  she  imparted  her  favors  to  other  lands,  and  the  people  of 
Attica  particularly  boasted  of  her  protection,  and  her  instruction  in 
agriculture  and  the  use  of  the  plough.  She  associated  Triptolemus 
with  her  as  a  companion  in  her  travels,  and  sent  him  over  the  earth, 
to  teach  husbandry,  and  thereby  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  a  god. 

See  Homer,  Hymn  to  Ceres.  —  Ovid,  Fast.  iv.  507-562.    Metam.  v.  642-661. 

§  62.  The  seizure  and  abduction  of  her  daughter  Proserpine  by 
Pluto  has  been  already  mentioned  (§  32).  Ceres  sought  for  her  with 
a  burning  torch  everywhere,  and  thus  diffused  universally  a  knowledge 
of  agriculture  and  good  morals.  She  at  length  discovered  that  Pluto 
had  borne  her  to  his  realms,  supplicated  Jupiter  for  her  deliverance, 
and  received  a  favorable  answer,  on  condition  that  Proserpine  had 
tasted  of  no  fruit  of  the  infernal  world.  But  she  had  just  tasted  of  the 
pomegranate,  and  therefore  received  her  freedom  and  liberty  to  return 
to  this  world  only  for  half  the  year  (1). 


428  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

To  the  history  of  Ceres  belong  also  the  following  mythical  circum- 
stances ;  her  changing  herself  into  a  horse  and  into  one  of  the  furies, 
to  escape  the  pursuit  of  Neptune  ;  her  transformation  of  Lyncus  into 
a  lynx  on  account  of  his  perfidy  (2) ;  and  her  punishment  of  Erysich- 
thon,  who  had  violated  a  grove  sacred  to  her,  by  afflicting  him  with 
insatiable  hunger  (3),  so  that  he  devoured  at  last  his  own  limbs. 

Ov.  Met.  iv.  5&.—  Claudian,  de  Raptu  Proserpinae.  —  (2)  Ov.  Met.  v.  649.  —  (3)  lb.  viii.  738. 

— Callim.  Hymn,  in  Cer.  v.  26 See  Erncsti's  Excursus,  in  his  ed.  of  Call,  f  cited  P.  II.  $  70.2J 

vol.  i.  p.  262. 

§  63.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  festivals  of  this  goddess  was  the 
Qeouocpooia,  which  was  maintained  in  many  Grecian  cities,  especially 
in  Athens,  in  honor  of  her  as  having  taught  the  use  of  laws.  Still 
more  celebrated,  however,  were  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries,  which  were 
likewise  sacred  to  Ceres,  and  which  were  of  two  sorts,  the  greater  and 
the  less,  the  latter  held  annually,  the  former  only  every  fifth  year.  Be- 
sides these,  the  Greeks  and  Romans  honored  her  with  several  festivals 
before  and  after  harvests,  e.  g.  the  nqor^oaia,  and  the  cA?.$a,  the 
Cerealia  and  the  Ambarvalia: 

Among  the  ceremonies  in  her  worship  were  the  sacrificing  of  a  pregnant  sow, 
and  the  burning  of  a  fox  (vulpium  combustio).  "A  fox  was  burnt  to  death  at 
her  sacred  rites,  with  torches  tied  round  it;  because  a  fox  wrapt  round  with 
stubble  and  hay  set  on  fire,  being  let  go  by  a  boy,  once  burnt  the  growing  corn 
of  the  people  of  Carseoli,  a  town  of  the  iEqui,  as  the  foxes  of  Samson  did  the 
standing  corn  of  the  Philistines." 

Cf.  Ovid,  Fast.  iv.  681. — Judges,  xv.  4. — Classical  Journal,  vi.  325. 

The  ruins  of  the  famous  temple  of  Ceres  at  Eleusis,  where  the  mysteries 
were  celebrated,  were  conspicuous  when  Dr.  Clarke  visited  the  spot.  He 
found  also  a  fragment  of  a  colossal  statue  of  the  goddess  among  the  moldering 
vestiges  of  her  once  splendid  sanctuary.  With  great  exertions  that  traveler 
procured  the  removal  cf  the  statue,  in  order  to  its  being  transported  to  Eng- 
land. 

See  Clarke's  Travels,  Part  n.  sect.  2.  ch.  18.— Land.  Quart.  Rev.  xvn.  202. On  the  Eleu- 
sinian Mysteries,  see  P.  IV.  §  77.  4.  P.  I.  §  41. —  Warburton,  in  his  Divine  Legation  of  Moses. — 
J.  Meursli,  Eleusinia.  Lugd.  Bat.  1619.  4.— Sainte  Croix,  Recherches  histor.  et  crit.  sur  les  Mys- 
teres.  {Silv.  de  Sacy  ed.)  Par.  1817.  2  vols.  8.  —  Oiiwaroff,  Essai  sur  les  mysteres  d'Eleusis. 
St.  Petersb.  1815.  8.  —  Bougainville,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxi.  83.  —  Class.  Journ.  xm.  399. 

xiv.  165.  xv.  117.  —  On  the  Thesmophoria,  see  Dutheil,  as  cited  P.  II.  §  65.  3 On  the  .#/«- 

barvalia,  cf.  P.  IV.  $  219. 

§  64.  The  symbolical  accompaniments  to  the  image  of  Ceres  are 
ears  of  corn,  and  the  poppy,  her  usual  ornament.  She  is  often  ex- 
hibited with  a  torch  in  her  hand,  to  signify  her  search  after  Proser- 
pine.— Ceres  bore  several  names  and  epithets,  as  jtloj,  ©to-uo^ooo?,  2itw, 
and  Eleusinia. 

In  some  representations  she  appears  a  tall  and  majestic  lady  with  a  garland 
on  her  head  composed  of  ears  of  corn,  a  lighted  torch  in  one  hand,  and  a  clus- 
ter of  poppies  and  ears  of  corn  in  the  other.  (See  Plate  XI.  fig.  5.)  She  also 
appears  as  a  country  woman  mounted  upon  the  back  of  an  ox,  carrying  a  basket 
and  a  hoe.  Sometimes  she  was  represented  as  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  winged 
dragons.  Her  associate  Triptolemus  also  appears  occupying  her  chariot  (Ov. 
Met.  v.  646). — The  name  Jtipt'jTtjQ  is  by  some  derived  from  d/}  for  y»/  and  u^'tj/o, 
signifying  mother-earth.  —  See  Knight's  Enquiry  into  the  symbol.  Lang.  &c 
Class.  Journ. 

§65.  (17)  Vesta.  The  ideas  conceived  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 
fables  respecting  the  earth  as  a  person  and  goddess  were  exceeding- 
ingly  numerous  and  various.  Besides  Gaia,  Titaea  or  Tellus,  who 
represented  the  earth  taken  in  a  general  sense,  they  imagined  Cybele 
to  denote  the  earth  as  inhabited  and  cultivated ;  Ceres  more  particu- 
larly signified  the  fertility  of  the  soil ;  and  the  name  of  Vesta  or  'Eaxla 


INFERIOR    GODS.  429 

was  employed  to  represent  the  earth  as  warmed  by  internal  heat.  The 
latter  goddess  also  represented  civil  union  and  domestic  happiness, 
being  supposed  to  preside  over  the  household  hearth.  She  was  called 
the  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Rhea,  and  said  to  have  first  taught  men 
the  use  of  fire.  Jupiter  guarantied  her  vow  of  perpetual  celibacy  (1), 
and  granted  to  her  the  first  oblations  in  all  sacrifices. 

(1)  Ov.  Fast.  iv.  249. She  is  sometimes  termed  Vesta  the  younger,  to 

distinguish  her  from  Cybele  (§19),  who  is  also  called  Vesta  the  elder.  Vesta 
the  younger  is  the  same  with  Ignis  or  fire. 

§  66.  The  establishment  of  family  habitations  was  ascribed  to  Vesta, 
and  for  this,  altars  were  usually  erected  to  her  in  the  interior  or  front 
of  all  houses.  The  same  was  done  in  the  buildings  termed  nqvravtta, 
which  were  usually  found  in  the  Greek  cities  near  their  centre ;  that 
at  Athens  (P.  V.  <§  115)  was  the  most  famous.  More  rarely  were 
temples  raised  for  her.  In  her  temple  at  Rome  the  celebrated  Palla- 
dium was  supposed  to  be  kept. 

She  was  represented  in  a  long  robe,  wearing  a  veil,  bearing  in  her 
hand  a  lamp,  or  sacrifical  vase.  (See  Plate  XL  fig.  10.)  It  is,  how- 
ever, more  frequently  a  priestess  of  Vesta,  that  is  thus  represented. 

The  temple  of  Vesta  erected  by  Numa  at  Rome  was  round,  and  without  any 
image  of  the  goddess. — Vesta  is  sometimes  represented  as  holding  in  one  hand 
a  javelin,  or  a  Palladium ;  sometimes  also  with  a  drum  in  one  hand  and  an 
image  of  victory  in  the  other. 

§  67.  Her  priestesses  among  the  Greeks  were  widows.  But  those 
among  the  Romans  under  the  name  of  Vestales,  the  vestal  virgins, 
were  much  more  celebrated,  the  mother  of  Romulus  having  belonged 
to  the  order,  although  their  first  regular  institution  is  ascribed  to  Nu- 
ma. (Cf.  P.  IV.  §218.)  Their  principal  duty  was  to  watch  and  keep 
alive  the  sacred  fire  of  Vesta,  and  guard  the  Palladium  (cf.  §  43). 
Their  rigid  seclusion  was  rewarded  by  various  privileges,  and  a  pe- 
culiar sacredness  was  attached  to  their  persons. 

The  extinction  of  the  fire  of  Vesta  was  supposed  to  forbode  sudden  and  terri- 
ble disasters,  and  if  it  ever  happened,  all  business  was  at  once  interrupted  un- 
til expiation  had  been  made  with  great  ceremony.  Negligence  on  the 
part  of  the  virgins  was  severely  punished.  The  fire  was  every  year  re- 
newed or  replaced,  on  the  Calends  of  March,  by  fire  produced  from  the  rays 
of  the  sun. 

On  Vesta  and  the  Vestals  ;  Livy,  i.  20.— Plutarch,  Life  of  Numa — Class.  Journ.  xv.  123,257. 
xvi.  32.  —  Nadal,  Histoire  des  Vestales,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  ir.  p.  161,  227.— 
Cf.  P.  IV.  $  218.  —  Lipsius,  de  Vesta,  in  his  Works.  —  Bupuy,  La  maniere  dont  les  anciens 
rallumoient  le/eu  sacre  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxxv.  p.  395. 


II. — Mythological  History  of  the  Inferior  Gods. 

§  68.  The  divinities  included  in  the  class,  which  are  here  denominated  In- 
ferior gods,  are  Ccelus  or  'OvQavbg;  Sol  or  "HXiog  ;  Luna  or  Ztl.t-vtj ;  Aurora 
or  'Hiog  ;  Nox  or  Nv$  ;  Iris,  ~  iQig  ;  ^lolus  or  Ai'ol.og  ;  Pan,  n'av  ;  Latona  o? 
Artr<o;  Themis  or  0»;/«is;  ^sculapius  or  'AoyJ.rjrzibg ;  Plutus  or  m.ovrog ; 
Fortuna  or  Tvx*>y  ',  and  Fama  or  <Pt'iturj ;  which  were  all  common  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  But  to  this  class  are  also  to  be  referred  several  divinities,  which 
were  peculiar  to  the  Romans  as  distinguished  from  the  Greeks}  among  which 
we  may  place  the  following  :     (1)  a  number  of  gods  and  goddesses  of  the  rural 


430  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

species,  as  Terminus,  Flora,  and  the  like  ;  (2)  a  large  number  of  such  as  were 
imagined  to  preside  over  particular  pursuits  and  employments ;  (3)  some  for- 
eign gods  admitted  by  the  Romans  from  countries  conquered  by  them ;  (4)  the 
deified  emperors. 

§  69.  (1)  Ccelus.  Although  this  god  was  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  ancient  and  the  father  of  Saturn,  yet  not  much  importance  was 
attached  to  his  worship  either  among  the  Greeks  or  Romans.  His 
wife  was  the  goddess  of  the  earth,  Titsea  or  Gaia ;  their  offspring 
were  the  Titans,  the  Cyclops,  and  the  Centimani.  Through  fear  that 
these  sons  would  deprive  him  of  his  kingdom,  he  precipitated  them 
all  to  Tartarus,  whence  they  were  liberated,  however,  by  the  aid  of 
Saturn,  who  himself  usurped  his  father's  throne.  Venus  and  the  Fu- 
ries were  called  daughters  of  Uranus,  or  Ccelus. 

§  70.  The  fictions  respecting  this  god  perhaps  had  some  foundation 
in  the  history  of  early  nations.  According  to  the  account  of  Diodo- 
rus  (1),  Uranus  would  seem  to  have  been  a  king  of  the  Atlantides, 
the  founder  of  their  civilization,  and  the  author  of  many  useful  inven- 
tions. Among  other  things  he  was  a  diligent  observer  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies,  and  became  able  to  announce  beforehand  many  of  theij 
changes.  Admiration  of  such  knowledge  might  lead  to  his  deification. 
Perhaps  it  might  occasion  the  use  of  his  name  (3ovqavbg)  to  signify 
the  heavens.  The  idea,  however,  of  a  deity  thus  called,  appears  to 
have  been  very  ancient. 

(1)  Diod.  Sic.  L.  iii.  c.  56.  L.  v.  c.44.  —  The  Atlantides  were  a  people  of 
Africa,  living  near  Mt.  Atlas.  — The  Titans,  called  the  sons  of  Uranus,  are  by 
some  considered  to  refer  merely  to  the  constellations.     Cf.  §  97. 

§  71.  (2)  Sol.  Although  the  Greeks  and  Romans  worshiped  Apollo 
as  the  god  and  dispenser  of  light,  and  in  view  of  this  attribute  named 
him  Phoebus,  yet  they  conceived  another  distinct  divinity,  distin- 
guished from  Apollo  especially  in  the  earlier  fables ,  under  the  literal 
name  applied  to  designate  the  sun,  viz.  Sol  or  "m.iog.  These  words, 
therefore,  were  employed  to  express  not  only  the  actual  body  in  the 
heavens,  but  also  a  supposed  being  having  a  separate  and  personal 
existence.  In  the  Homeric  Hymn  addressed  to  Helius,  he  is  called 
the  son  of  Hyperion  and  Euryphaessa.  Eos  and  Selene  are  called  his 
sisters. 

§  72.  The  early  prevalence  of  Sun-worship,  which  was  one  of 
the  first  and  most  natural  forms  of  idolatry,  renders  it  probable,  that 
the  worship  of  this  god  was  early  introduced  into  Greece.  Many 
temples  were  consecrated  to  Helius.  The  island  Rhodes  in  particular 
was  sacred  to  him,  where  was  erected  his  celebrated  colossal  statue, 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Among  the  Romans  his 
worship  was  organized  with  special  solemnities  by  Heliogabalus,  who 
had  been  a  priest  of  the  same  god  in  Syria,  and  afterwards  erected  a 
temple  to  his  honor  at  Rome. 

Sol  or  Helius  is  represented  usually  in  a  juvenile  form,  entirely 
clothed,  having  his  head  surrounded  with  rays,  and  attended  by  the 
Horse,  and  the  Seasons.  He  is  sometimes  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn 
by  four  horses,  which  bear  distinct  names.  These  and  many  other 
circumstances,  pertaining  to  him,  are  also  related  of  Phoebus  or  Apollo, 
when  considered  as  the  god  of  the  sun. 

Cf.  Ovid,  Met.  ii. Helius  is  represented  on  coins  of  the  Rhodians  by  the 


PLATE  XI 

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VII.  Ram  Avatar. 

VIII.  Kishnu  Avatar. 

I.  Fish  Avatar. 

II.  Tortoise  Avatar. 

III.  Hog  Avatar. 

IV.  Lion  Avatar. 

V.  Dwarf  Avatar. 

VI.  Puruslloo-Ram 
Avatar. 

43*2  GREEK   AND    ROMAN   xMYTHOLOGY. 

head  of  a  young  man  crowned  with  rays.  See  Plate  XII.  fig.  1. — The  seven 
wonders  of  the  world  were,  (1)  the  colossal  statue  of  the  Sun  at  Rhodes,  70 
cubits  high,  placed  across  the  harbor  so  that  a  large  vessel  could  sail  between 
its  legs ;  (2)  The  Mausoleum,  or  sepulchre  of  Mausolus  king  of  Caria,  built 
of  marble,  above  400  feet  in  compass,  surrounded  with  36  beautiful  colums  J 
(3)  The  statue  of  Jupiter  in  Olympia  by  Phidias  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  179) ;  (4)  The 
temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  with  127  pillars,  60  feet  in  height,  with  a  splendid 
image  of  the  goddess  ;  (5)  The  walls  of  Babylon  built  by  Semiramis,  50  or  80 
feet  wide  and  60  miles  in  circuit  (Rollin's  Anc.  Hist.  bk.  iii.  ch.  1.)  ;  (6)  The 
pyramids  of  Egypt ;  (7)  The  palace  of  Cyrus. 

On  the  Mausoleum,  see  Comte  de  Caylus,  Tombeau  de  Mausole.  Mem.  Acad.  Tnscr.  xxvi.  321. 
•—Sainte  Croix,  Tomb,  de  Maus.  Mem.  de  PInstitut,  Classe  d'Hist.  &c.  ii.  506. 

§  73.  (3)  Luna.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Hyperion  and  Theia, 
and  was  called  .S^;™?  by  the  Greeks,  being  distinct  in  name,  descent 
and  story  from  Diana  or  "Aqreuig',  who  was,  however,  taken  as  god- 
dess of  the  moon.  To  Luna  was  ascribed  great  influence  in  relation 
to  the  birth  of  men.  Pandia  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Luna  and 
Jupiter  or  Saturn  (a).  In  common  with  her  brother  Helius,  Luna 
seems  to  have  been  especially  worshiped  by  the  Atlantides.  Both  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  consecrated  appropriate  temples  to  her,  although 
the  worship  of  Diana  as  the  goddess  of  the  moon  was  much  more 
prevalent  among  them.  She  was  represented  like  Diana  in  this  char- 
acter, as  a  goddess  riding  in  a  chariot  through  the  skies,  with  the  stars 
as  her  attendants  (b). 

(a)  Cf.  Homer,  Hymn  to  Luna.  —  (6)  She  is  represented  on  coins  by  the  bust 
of  a  fair  young  woman  with  a  crescent  on  her  head.     See  Plate  XII.  fig.  3. 

§  74.  (4)  Aurora.  A  sister  of  Luna,  of  the  same  parents,  was 
the  goddess  of  the  morning  or  day-dawn,  styled  by  the  Greeks  '£«* 
or  cHuioa,  by  the  Romans  Aurora.  By  others  she  is  said  to  have 
been  the  daughter  of  the  giant  Pallas,  and  therefore  called  Pallan- 
tias.  Orion  and  Tithonus  were  her  principal  lovers,  and  Lucifer  and 
Memnon  her  most  distinguished  sons.  The  latter  is  memorable  for 
the  honors  paid  to  him  in  Egypt,  and  for  his  famous  vocal  statue  at 
Thebes.  Cephalus  was  insensible  to  the  love  of  Aurora  towards  him, 
although  she  seized  and  bore  him  away  from  his  beloved  Procris, 
whom,  after  his  return  to  her,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  kill  through 
an  accident  occasioned  by  her  jealousy.  The  early  death  of  a  youth 
was  frequently  called  in  poetic  language,  a  seizure  or  theft  by  Auro~ 

va  (cHufQag  uQTtayl;)* 

The  statue  of  Memnon  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  those  existing  at  the  pres- 
ent day  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  Thebes,  near  the  place  now  called  Medi- 
net  Abou.  A  part  of  the  body  of  it  is  said  to  be  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
It  is  called  by  the  Arabians  Salamat,  the  statue  which  bids  good  morning,  a 
name  evidently  originating  in  a  belief  of  the  ancient  and  common  tradition  ; 
which  was,  that  this  statue  uttered  sounds  at  the  rising  of  the  sun,  when  it 
shone  upon  it.  The  statue  is  covered  with  inscriptions  by  persons  declaring 
that  they  had  heard  its  voice  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  —  Mr.  Wilkinson  states, 
from  experiment  actually  made  by  himself,  that  if  a  person  in  the  top  of  this 
Colossus,  which  is  in  a  sitting  posture,  give  it  a  blow  with  a  hammer,  it  will 
cause  a  sound  to  a  person  standing  at  its  foot  as  if  from  an  instrument  of 
brass. 

See  J.  6.  Wilkinson,  on  the  contrivance  by  which  the  statue  of  Memnon  was  made  vocal ; 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Ro7jal  Society  of  Literature,  vol.  n.  Lond.  183.4.  —  M.  Letronne,  In- 
scriptions Grecques  et  Latines  du  Colossus  de  Memnon  &c,  in  Same  Transactions,  vol.  m. 

Lond.  1837.— ^mer.  Quart.  Review,  No.  ix. On  the  story  of  Cephalus,  Ovid,  Metam.  vii. 

661,  703. 


INFERIOR    GODS.       AURORA.     NOX.     IRIS.     jEOLUS.  433 

§  75.  This  goddess  was  considered  as  the  harbinger  of  the  sun  and 
fcf  the  day,  and  was  sometimes  called  by  the  literal  name  of  the  lat- 
ter among  the  Greeks,  'Huiqa.  By  the  poets  she  is  represented  as  a 
beautiful  young  woman,  whose  chariot  was  drawn  by  white  or  light 
red  horses,  and  who  opened  the  portals  of  the  Sun  with  rosy  fingers. 
Homer  designates  her  by  the  epithet  cPododuxrv?.og. 

She  is  described  as  rising  from  the  ocean  in  a  saffron  robe  (y.qoy.oTviTrXog),  in 
a  rose-colored  chariot,  and  scattering  the  dew  upon  the  flowers.  She  was 
called  the  mother  of  the  stars  and  of  the  winds. 

§  76.  (5)  Nox.  The  night  was  personified  in  ancient  fable  and 
placed  among  the  divinities  as  a  daughter  of  Chaos.  On  account  of 
this  early  origin  she  is  called,  in  the  Orphic  Hymns,  the  mother  of 
gods  and  men.  Generally,  however,  she  is  an  allegorical  rather  than 
a  mythological  personage,  and  in  such  a  sense,  sleep,  death,  dreams, 
the  furies,  &c.  are  called  her  children.  According  to  the  descrip- 
tions of  poets,  and  in  some  representations  by  art,  she  is  exhibited 
as  enveloped  in  a  long  dark  robe,  with  her  head  covered  with  a  veil 
spangled  with  stars.  Sometimes  she  has  black  wings,  or  is  drawn  in 
a  chariot  by  two  horses  with  a  retinue  of  stars.  A  black  cock  was 
the  offering  commonly  presented  to  her. 

A  black  sheep  was  also  offered  to  her  as  mother  of  the  furies.  Pausanias de- 
scribes a  statue  of  Nox,  holding  in  her  Tight  hand  a  white  child,  and  a  black 
child  in  her  left,  representing  sleep  and  death.  She  has  also  been  described 
as  a  woman  with  her  face  veiled  in  black,  crowned  with  poppies,  and  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  owls  and  bats.  In  fig.  2  of  our  Plate  XII.,  she  holds  a  veil 
over  her  head,  and  three  stars  appear  above  it. 

§  77.  (6)  Iris.  By  the  name  ~iQig  was  designated  among  the 
Greeks  the  rainbow,  as  personified  and  imagined  a  goddess.  Her 
father  was  said  to  be  Thaumas,  and  her  mother  Electra,  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Oceanus.  Her  residence  was  near  the  throne  of  Juno, 
whose  commands  she  bore  as  messenger  to  the  rest  of  the  gods  and 
to  mortals.  Sometimes,  but  rarely,  she  was  Jupiter's  messenger,  and 
was  employed  even  by  other  deities.  She  bad  also  sometimes  in  ref- 
erence to  dying  females  an  office,  which  was  usually  assigned  to  Pro- 
serpine, to  cut  off  their  hair,  and  thereby  effect  their  dissolution  (1), 
The  rainbow  was  the  path,  by  which  she  descended  from  Olympus, 
and  returned  thither. 

(1)  Virg.  iEn.  iv.  693,  704.  — —  She  is  represented  with  wings  having  the 
various  colors  of  the  rainbow,  and  often  appears  sitting  behind  Juno  as  wait- 
ing to  execute  her  commands.  Being  the  messenger  of  Juno,  she  was  not 
^infrequently  sent  oft  errands  of  strife  and  discord  ;  whence  some  have  thought 
her  name  derived  from  \ Qig,  strife.  Others  derive  it  from  hqw,  to  speak  or 
declare. 

§  78>  (7)  MqIms.  Under  the  name  of  iEoLus  both  Greeks  and 
Romans  worshiped  a  god  and  ruler  of  winds  and  storms.  He  was 
called  the  son  of  Jupiter,  sometimes  of  Neptune,  and  by  others,  of 
Hippotes,  an  ancient  lord  of  the  Lipari  Isles.  From  Jupiter  he  re- 
ceived his  authority  over  the  winds,  which  had  still  earlier  been 
formed  into  mythical  persons,  and  were  known  by  the  names  Zephy- 
rus,  Boreas,  Notus,  and  Eurus,  and  were  afterwards  considered  the 
servants  of  ^Eolus.  He  held  them  imprisoned  in  a  cave  of  an  island 
«n  trie  Mediterranean  sea,  and  let  them  Joose  only  to  further  his  own 
37 


434  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

designs  or  those  of  others,  in  awakening  storms,  hurricanes  and 
floods.  He  is  usually  described  by  the  poets  as  virtuous,  upright, 
and  friendly  to  strangers. 

Cf.   Horn.   Odyss.  x.  1.  —  Virg.  iEn.  i.  52. The  island  where  iEolus  is 

said  to  have  reigned  was  Strongyle  (-^T^oyyt'/.j,),  so  called  on  account  of  its 
round  figure,  the  modern  Stromboli. —  See  Heyne,  Excurs.  ad  JEn.  i.  51. — 
Cf.  Pliny,  N.  H.  iii.  8. — The  name  JEolus  is  thought  to  come  from  uiu/.os, 
changeable. 

§  79.  (8)  Pan.  One  of  the  most  singular  of  the  inferior  gods, 
was  Pan,  whose  worship  was  universally  regarded.  He  was  the  god 
of  shepherds  and  herdsmen,  of  groves  and  fields,  and  whatever  per- 
tained to  rural  affairs.  His  worship  was  probably  derived  from  the 
Egyptians.  He  was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Mercury  andDryope;  but 
his  genealogy  was  variously  stated.  His  favorite  residence  was  in 
the  woods  and  mountains  of  Arcadia.  From  his  love  to  Syrinx,  who 
was  changed  into  a  reed  (1),  he  formed  his  shepherd-pipe  out  of  seven 
reeds,  and  called  it  by  her  name.  His  pride  in  this  invention  led 
him  into  his  unlucky  contest  with  Apollo  (2).  He  also  invented  a 
war-trumpet,  whose  sound  was  terrific  to  the  foe ;  a  circumstance  (3) 
which  gave  rise  to  the  phrase,  panic  fear  or  terror  (netviy.bv  Stiua). 

(1)   Ov.  Metam.  i.  682.  — (2)  lb.  x.  146 (3)  Pausan.  Phoc.  c.  23. 

§  80.  Pan  was  originally,  among  the  Egyptians,  worshiped  in  the 
form  of  a  goat,  and  under  the  name  of  Mendes  (1).  In  Greece,  Ar- 
cadia was  especially  sacred  to  him,  and  here  he  is  said  to  have  given 
oracles  on  Mount  Lycasus.  His  festivals,  called  Avxaiu  by  the  Greeks, 
were  introduced  by  Evander  among  the  Romans,  and  by  them  called 
Lupercalia  (2).  Goats,  honey,  and  milk  were  the  usual  offerings 
to  Pan. 

His  image  (3)  was  generally  human  only  in  part,  having  common- 
ly the  form  of  a  satyr,  with  ears  sharp  pointed,  and  standing  erect, 
with  short  horns,  a  flat  nose,  a  body  covered  with  hair  or  spotted, 
and  the  feet  and  legs  of  a  goat.  His  Greek  name  nlxr,  signifying  the 
whole  or  all,  had  reference  to  the  circumstance,  that  he  was  consid- 
ered the  god  of  all  the  natural  world ;  or,  according  to  others,  it  was 
derived  from  nuo>  (to  feed),  and  referred  to  his  patronage  of  shep- 
herds and  their  flocks.  The  Romans  called  him  likewise  Inuus, 
Lupercus,  Maenalius,  and  Lycaeus. 

(1)  Herod.  ii.46.—  (2)  Ov.  Fast.  ii.  31 ,  267.  —  (3)  Sil.  Ital.  Pun.  xiii.  326. 

In  some  representations  of  Pan  his  head  was  crowned  with  pine,  which  was 
sacred  to  him,  and  he  hore  in  one  hand  a  crooked  staff,  and  in  the  other  a  pipe 
of  reeds.  See  Plate  XII.  fig.  7.  —  "The  figure  of  Pan  is  a  rude  symbol  of 
the  universe,  and  he  appears  to  have  been  originally  a  personification  of  the 
Jlnima  Mundi,  or  terrestrial  soul,  by  which  some  ancient  nations  believed  tbat 
the  entire  universe  was  directed."  This  god  does  not  appear  in  the  poems 
of  Homer  or  Hesiod. 

§81.  (9)  Latona.  She  was  called  j^tm  by  the  Greeks  and  held 
a  distinguished  place  as  mother  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  on  this  ac- 
count was  often  ranked  among  the  superior  deities.  She  was  daugh- 
ter of  Cceus  or  Polus  and  Pho3be,  and  one  of  the  objects  of  Jupiter's 
love.  The  jealousy  and  anger  of  Juno  was  excited  against  her,  and 
she  adjured  the  goddess  of  earth  to  allow  Latona  no  place  to  bring 
forth  her  offspring.     Neptune,  however,  granted  the  island  Delos  for 


INFERIOR    GODS.       LATONA.    THEMIS.    AESCULAPIUS.         435 

the  purpose.  But  here  she  found  no  sure  asylum,  and  fled  to  Lycia, 
where  (1)  she  was  hindered  from  quenching  her  thirst  at  a  lake  by 
some  peasants.  These  offenders  were  in  return  changed  into  frogs. 
—  Still  more  severe  was  her  vengeance  in  the  case  of  Niobe  (2),  a 
daughter  of  Tantalus  and  wife  of  Amphion  king  of  Thebes.  Niobe 
slighted  the  divinity  of  Latona,  and  the  latter  engaged  both  her  chil- 
dren, Apollo  and  Diana,  to  avenge  her ;  they,  by  their  arrows,  slew 
the  seven  sons  and  seven  daughters  of  Niobe,  who  by  grief  was 
changed  into  stone. 

(1)  Ov.  Metam.  vi.  335.  —  (2)  Metam.  xi.  321.    Cf.  §  38. 

§  82.  This  goddess  was  honored  particularly  in  Lycia,  on  the  isl- 
and Delos,  at  Athens,  and  in  many  of  the  Grecian  cities.  In  Crete 
a  festival  was  sacred  to  her,  called  'ExWoia.  Latona  is  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  the  goddess  of  night ;  and  it  is  possible  that  her  name 
originated  in  this  idea,  derived  from  ;.,;flw,  to  be  concealed,  as  nature 
was  buried  in  profound  darkness  before  the  birth  of  the  Sun  and 
Moon  or  Apollo  and  Diana. 

She  is  usually  represented  as  a  large  and  comely  woman  with  a  black  veil, 
so  painted,  or  in  engraved  gems  expressed  by  a  dark-colored  vein  in  the  stone. 

§  83.  (10)  Themis.  The  goddess  of  justice  (Ohug)  was  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  Titanidcs,  or  daughters  of  Uranus  and  Titaea. 
To  her  is  ascribed  the  first  uttering  of  oracles,  and  also  the  first  in- 
troduction of  sacrifices  into  Greece.  She  had  by  Jupiter  three  daugh- 
ters, Jixtj,  'Euvou'ia,  and  'EiQ^vrj,  which  were  commonly  called  the 
Hurce  ('i2ou/)}  who  are  represented  by  the  poets  in  various  lights, 
but  particularly  as  goddesses  presiding  over  the  division  and  distri- 
bution of  time  (§  105).  Astraea  also  was  by  some  called  a  daughter 
of  Themis.  Astrcea  was  likewise  a  goddess  of  justice  or  rather  of 
property,  and,  according  to  Ovid's  account  (Metam.  i.  149),  was  the 
last  of  the  divinities  to  quit  the  earth.  She  was  placed  among  the 
constellations  of  the  Zodiac  under  the  name  of  Virgo,  anciently 
called  Erigone,  and  represented  with  a  stern  countenance  and  hold- 
ing a  pair  of  scales  in  one  hand  and  a  sword  in  the  other.  There 
was  still  another  goddess,  Nemesis,  who  was  supposed  to  judge  re- 
specting moral  actions,  and  to  exercise  vengeance  towards  unrighte- 
ousness. She  was  called  Adrastia  sometimes,  from  the  circumstance 
that  Adrastus  first  erected  a  temple  to  her,  and  also  Rhamnusia  from 
having  a  temple  at  Rhamnus  in  the  territory  of  Attica. 

See  Aid.  Gell.  Noct.  Attic,  xiv.  4.  —  Herder's  Zerstreuten  Blattern,  Samml.  2.  p.  213. 

§  84.  (11)  JEscuIapius.  In  proportion  as  men  in  the  early  ages 
were  ignorant  of  the  efficacy  and  use  of  remedies  for  disease,  there 
was  the  greater  admiration  of  those  who  were  distinguished  in  the 
art  of  healing,  and  the  greater  readiness  to  deify  them.  Hence  the 
deification  of  iEsculapius,  who  was  viewed  as  the  god  of  Medicine, 
and  said  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph  Coronis  (1).  Hy- 
geia,  the  goddess  of  health,  was  called  his  daughter,  and  two  cele- 
brated physicians  belonging  to  the  age  of  the  Trojan  war,  Machaon 
and  Podalirius,  were  called  his  sons,  and  honored  like  him  after  their 
death.  ^Esculapius  was  killed  with  a  thunderbolt  by  Jupiter,  at  the 
request  of  Pluto.  His  most  celebrated  grove  and  temple  was  at  Epi- 
(Jaurus  (2),  where  he  was  worshiped  under  the   form  of  a  serpent. 


436  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

The  serpent  was  usually  attached  as  a  symbol  to  the  image  of  this 
god,  either  free  or  wound  about  a  staff,  expressing  the  idea  of  health, 
or  prudence  and  foresight  (3). 

(1)   Ov.  Metam.  ii.  591. (2)  lb.  xv.  622.—  The  ruins  of  the  temple  at 

Epidaurus  are  still  visible  at  the  place  now  called  Jero,  pronounced  Yero7  a 
corruption  perhaps  of  f  Itoov  (sacra  aides).  There  were  at  this  ancient  seat  of 
the  gjfod  of  health  medical  springs  and  wells,  which  may  yet  be  traced. 

Clarke's  Travels,  part  II.  sect.  2.  ch.  xv.  —  Frerct,  Culte  rendu  a  iEsculapius,  in  the  Mem, 
Acad.  Inscr.  xxi.  28. 

(3)  See  Plate  XII.  fig.  6.  —  The  serpent  was  also  attached  by  the  Romans 
to  their  goddess  of  health,  Salus.  She  was  honored  by  them  with  a  temple 
and  festivals.  One  of  the  city -gates,  being  near  her  temple,  was  called  Porta 
Salutaris.  She  was  represented  with  a  bowl  in  her  right  hand  and  a  serpent 
in  her  left.  Her  altar  had  a  serpent  twining  round  it  and  lifting  his  head  up- 
on it. 

§  85.  (12)  Plutus.  The  god  of  riches,  mZvro$,  was  probably  of 
allegorical  rather  than  mythical  origin,  since  his  name  in  Greek  is 
but  the  common  term  for  wealth.  His  father,  according  to  the  fable, 
was  Jasion,  a  son  of  Jupiter  by  Electra,  and  his  mother  was  Ceres, 
who  gave  him  birth  in  a  beautiful  region  in  Crete.  Jupiter,  as  it  was 
allegorically  represented,  deprived  him  of  sight,  and  his  usual  resi- 
dence was  low  beneath  the  earth.  It  is  not  known  by  what  figure 
he  was  visibly  represented.  Pausanias  barely  remarks,  that  in  the 
temple  of  Fortune  at  Thebes,  he  appeared  in  the  form  of  an  infant 
in  the  arms  of  that  goddess,  and  at  Athens  the  goddess  of  Peace  held 
him  as  an  infant  in  her  arms.  —  By  some  Plutus  is  considered  as  the 
same  personage  as  Pluto,  ruler  of  the  world  of  spirits,  and  this  may 
have  been  the  case. 

"  Plutus  was  blind  and  lame,  injudicious,  and  mighty  timorous.  He  is  lame, 
because  large  estates  come  slowly.  He  is  fearful  and  timorous,  because  rich 
men  watch  their  treasures  with  a  great  deal  of  fear  and  care." 

§  86.  (13)  Fortune.  Of  a  like  allegorical  character  was  the  god- 
dess of  Fortune,  Tv/tj,  Fortuna,  to  whom  was  ascribed  the  distribu- 
tion and  the  superintendence  of  prosperity  and  adversity  in  general. 
Among  the  Greeks  she  had  temples  at  Elis,  Corinth,  and  Smyrna ; 
and  in  Italy,  before  the  building  of  Rome,  she  was  honored  at  An- 
tium,  and  especially  at  Praeneste  (1).  In  the  temple  at  Antium  were 
two  statues  of  Fortune,  which  were  consulted  as  oracles,  and  gave 
answer  by  winks  and  nods  of  the  head,  or  by  means  of  the  lot. 
Similar  divinations  were  practiced  also  at  Praeneste,  where  her  tem- 
ple was  one  of  the  richest  and  most  celebrated.  The  Romans  made 
her  worship  in  general  very  splendid,  and  gave  her  various  epithets 
originating  from  different  occasions ;  as  Fortuna  Publica,  Equestris, 
Bona,  Blanda,  Virgo,  Virilis,  Muliebris,  &c. 

(1)  Hor.  L.  i.  Od.  35. "  The  goddess  of  Fortune  is  represented  on  an- 
cient monuments  with  a  horn  of  plenty  and  sometimes  two  in  her  hands. 
She  is  blindfolded,  and  generally  holds  a  wheel  in  her  hand  as  an  emblem  of 
her  inconstancy.  Sometimes  she  appears  with  wings,  and  treads  upon  the 
prow  of  a  ship,  and  holds  a  rudder  in  her  hands."  —  See  Plate  XII.  fig.  9. 

§  87.  (14)  Fame.  The  goddess  styled  #*;,hi;,  or  Fama,  was  also 
of  allegorical  origin.  Virgil  calls  her  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Earth,  who  gave  birth  to  this  child,  in  revenge  for  the  overthrow  of 
her  sons,  the  Giants,  in  order  that  she  might  divulge  universally  the 


INFERIOR    GODS.       DEITIES    PECULIAR   TO    ROMANS.        437 

scandalous  conduct  of  Jupiter  and  the  other  gods.  She  had  a  place 
in  the  Greek  Theogony,  and  was  honored  with  a  temple  at  Athens. 
She  was  viewed  as  the  author  and  spreader  of  reports  both  good  and 
bad.  The  poets  represented  her  as  having  wings,  always  awake,  al- 
ways flying  about,  accompanied  by  vain  fear,  groundless  joy,  false- 
hood and  credulity. 

Cf.  Virg.  JEn.  iv.  173.  —  Ov.  Metam.  xii.  39.  —  Stat.  Theb.  iii.  426. 

§  88.  (15)  Deities  peculiar  to  the  Romans,  (a)  T  e  r  m  i  n  u  s. — 
In  order  to  express  and  render  still  more  sacred  the  rights  of  ptoper- 
ty  and  the  obligations  of  fixed  boundaries  in  landed  possessions,  the 
Romans  invented  a  god,  who  had  it  for  his  peculiar  province  to  guard 
and  protect  them,  called  Terminus.  His  statue,  in  the  form  of  those 
called  Hermes  (§  56),  was  employed  usually  to  mark  the  limits  of 
fields.  Numa  first  introduced  this  usage,  and  ordained  a  particular 
festival,  the  Terminalia,  which  was  celebrated  in  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary by  the  occupants  and  proprietors  of  contiguous  lands  (I).  Up- 
on these  occasions  offerings  were  presented  to  the  god  on  the  boun- 
daries or  separating   lines.     He  had  a  temple  on  the  Tarpeian  rock. 

—  Oftentimes  the  statues  of  other  gods,  particularly  the  rural,  were 
placed  in  the  form  of  Hermae,  to  mark, the  limits  of  landed  property, 
and  Jupiter  himself  was  sometimes  represented  under  the  name  of 
Terminus,  or  received  the  epithet  Terminalis. 

The  Romans  ranked  Priapus  among  the  deities  whose  province 
was  the  protection  of  fields  and  cultivated  grounds.  His  image  was 
usually  placed  in  gardens  (2),  which  were  considered  as  more  partic- 
ularly his  care. 

(1)  Ov.  Fast.  ii.  639.— (2)  Hor.  L.  i.  Sat.  8.  —  Priapus  is  usually  repre- 
sented with  a  human  face  and  the  ears  of  a  goat ;  he  has  a  sickle  or  scythe  to 
prune  the  trees  and  cut  down  the  corn,  and  a  cluh  to  keep  off  thieves  ;  his 
body  terminates  in  a  shapeless  trunk.    An  ass  was  generally  sacrificed  to  him. 

—  Images  of  Priapus  were  sometimes  worn  as  a  sort  of  amulet  (fuscinum)  to 
guard  against  evil  charms,  and  hung  upon  the  doors  of  houses  and  gardens. 
Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xix.  4.  Cf.  P.  IV.  §  227.  2.  The  god  whose  special  province 
it  was  to  protect  from  the  charm  of  the  evil  eye  was  named  Fascinus.  — Plin. 
Hist.  Nat.  xxiv.  4. 

§89.  (b)  Vertumnus.  —  Under  this  name  an  old  Italian 
prince,  who  probably  introduced  the  art  of  gardening,  was  honored 
after  death  as  a  god.  The  Romans  considered  him  as  specially  pre- 
siding over  the  fruit  of  trees.  His  wife  was  Pomona,  one  of  the 
Hamadryads  (1),  a  goddess  of  gardens  and  fruits,  whose  love  he 
gained  at  last  after  changing  himself  into  many  forms,  from  which 
circumstance  his  name  (2)  was  derived.  This  goddess  is  represented 
on  some  monuments  of  ancient  art,  and  is  designated  by  a  basket  of 
fruit  placed  near  or  borne  by  her. 

(1)  Cf.  §  101.  —  (2)  Ov.  Metam.  xiv.  623.  —  "  Vertumnus  is  generally  rep- 
resented as  a  young  man,  crowned  with  flowers,  covered  up  to  the  waist,  and 
holding  in  his  right  hand  fruit,  and  a  crown  of  plenty  in  the  left." 

§  90.  (c)  Flora.  —  The  Romans  had  also  a  particular  goddess 
of  blossoms  and  flowers,  whom  they  worshiped  under  the  name  of 
Flora.  She  is  said  to  have  been  the  same  as  the  Grecian  nymph 
Chloris  ;  although  others  maintain,  that  she  was  originally  but  a  Ro- 
man courtezan.  But  this  goddess  seems  not  to  have  been  wholly 
37* 


438  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

unknown  to  the  Greeks,  since  Pliny  speaks  of  a  statue  of  her  made 
by  Praxiteles  (I).  She  was  represented  as  very  youthful,  and  richly 
adorned  with  flowers.  She  had  a  festival  and  games  at  Rome,  cele- 
brated (2)  in  the  month  of  April,  called  Floralia;  they  presented 
scenes  of  unbounded  licentiousness. 

(I)  Plin.  N.  H.  xxxvi.  5.  —  (2)  Ov.  Fast.  v.  283.  —  The  indecency  of  this 
festival  was  checked  on  one  occasion  by  the  presence  of  Cato,  who  chose 
however  to  retire  rather  than  witness  it  (Valcr.  Max.  ii.  10).  By  some  the 
festival  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  honor  of  an  infamous  woman  by  the 
name  #f  Flora.  —  In  our  Plate  XII.  fig.  5,  Flora  is  represented  with  a  garland 
of  flowers  on  her  head,  and  a  horn  of  plenty  on  her  left  arm. 

§91.  (d)  Feronia.  —  Another  goddess  of  fruits,  nurseries, 
and  groves,  among  the  Romans,  was  Feronia.  She  had  a  very  rich 
temple  on  Mount  Soracte,  where  also  was  a  grove  specially  sacred  to 
her.  She  was  honored  as  the  patroness  of  enfranchised  slaves  (P.  IV. 
§  324),  who  ordinarily  received  their  liberty  in  her  temple.  It  was 
pretended  that  the  real  votaries  of  this  goddess  could  walk  unhurt  on 
burning  coals.  Her  name  was  derived  according  to  some  from  a 
town,  called  Feronia,  near  1ft  Soracte  ;  according  to  others,  from 
the  idea  of  her  bringing  relief  (fero)  to  the  slave  ;  or  from  that  of 
her  producing  trees,  or  causing  them  to  bear  fruit. 

§  92.  (e)  Pales.  —  Another  goddess  of  the  same  class,  was  Pa- 
les (from  pabulum),  to  whom  was  assigned  the  care  of  pasturage  and 
the  feeding  of  flocks.  In  her  honor  a  rural  festival  was  held  in  the 
month  of  April,  called  Palilia  or  Parilia. 

1.  Cf.  Ov.  Fast.  iv.  721. On  the  festival  of  Pales  the  shepherds  placed 

little  heaps  of  straw  in  a  particular  order  and  at  a  certain  distance ;  then  they 
danced  and  leaped  over  them  ;  then  they  purified  the  sheep  and  the  rest  of 
the  cattle  with  the  fume  of  rosemary,  laurel,  sulphur,  and  the  like.  The  de- 
sign was  to  appease  the  goddess,  that  she  might  drive  away  the  wolves,  and 
to  prevent  the  diseases  incident  to  cattle.  Milk  and  wafers  made  of  millet 
were  offered  to  her,  that  she  might  render  the  pastures  fruitful.  Pales  is  rep- 
resented as  an  old  lady,  surrounded  by  shepherds. 

2  m.  There  were  also  numerous  other  rural  goddesses  of  inferior  character 
recognized  among  the  Romans  ;  as  Bubona,  having-  the  care  of  oxen  ;  Seia  or 
Segetia,  having  the  care  of  seed  planted  in  the  earth;  Hippona,  presiding  over 
horses  ;   Collina,  goddess  of  hills,  and  the  like. 

3.  Among  the  minor  rural  goddesses,  we  find  also,  besides  those  above 
named,  Vallonia,  empress  of  the  valleys;  Runcina,  the  goddess  of  weeding; 
Volusia,  with  several  other  goddesses,  who  watch  over  the  corn  in  its  succes- 
sive steps  to  maturity  (cf.  §  5.  3) ;  Mellona,  the  goddess  who  invented  the  art 
of  making  honey.  There  were  also  numerous  male  deities  of  the  same  class; 
as  Occator,  the  god  of  harrowing  ;  Stercutius,  the  inventor  of  manuring ;  and 
Pilumnus,  the  inventor  of  the  art  of  kneading  and  baking  bread. 

§  93.  (f)  Gods  presiding  over  various  Conditions 
or  Pursuits  of  Life.  —  In  the  latter  period  of  the  Republic, 
and  during  the  first  ages  of  the  Empire,  the  Roman  system  of  divin- 
ities was  greatly  augmented.  Almost  every  rank  in  life,  every  pro- 
fession and  employment,  had  its  tutelar  god  or  gods,  whose  names  thus 
became  innumerable,  but  who  never  obtained  a  universal  worship. 
For  a  knowledge  of  these,  we  are  mainly  indebted  to  the  writings  of 
the  Christian  Fathers,  especially  Augustinus,  against  polytheism. 
To  this  class  belong-,  for  example,  Bellona,  the  goddess  of  war,  cor- 
responding in  some  degree  to  *Stvm  among  the  Greeks  (§  46) :  Ju- 


PLATE     XII. 


^ 


440  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

turna,  the  goddess  of  succor  ;  Anculi  and  Anculce,  deities  presiding 
over  servants;  Vacuna,  goddess  of  leisure  ;  Strenua,  goddess  of  dil- 
igence ;    Laverna,  goddess  of  theft,  &c. 

See  Jlugustin,  de  Civitate  Dei,  L.  iv. Diseases  were  exalted  into  dei- 
ties. Febris,  Fever,  e.  g.  had  her  altars  and  temple,  and  was  worshiped  that 
she  might  not  hurt ;  and  so  of  others  of  this  species.  Mephitis  was  goddess 
of  noxious  exhalations.   Tac.  Hist.  iii.  33. 

A  deity  of  much  consideration  at  Rome  was  Victoria.  The  hall  of  the  sen- 
ate was  adorned  by  her  altar,  and  a  statue  in  which  she  appears  as  "  a  majes- 
tic female,  standing  on  a  globe,  with  flowing  garments,  expanded  wings,  and 
a  crown  of  laurel  in  her  out-stretched  hand."  See  Plate  XII.  fig.  10.  The 
senators  were  sworn  on  the  altar  of  this  goddess  to  observe  the  laws  of  the 
empire.  A  contest  arose  between  the  pagans  and  the  Christians  on  this  sub^ 
ject,  the  latter  finally  effecting  the  removal  of  this  altar  of  Victory.  Cf.  P, 
II.  §  387.  1. 

§94.  (g)  Deified  Emperors.  —  To  the  gods  already  men- 
tioned we  may  add  those  which  were  constituted  by  the  apotheosis  of 
the  Emperors  and  their  favorites.  Thus  a  Caesar,  an  Augustus,  a 
Claudius,  an  Antinous,  and  others  were  elevated  to  the  rank  of  gods. 
Sometimes  this  was  done  in  their  life-time  by  the  vilest  adulation,  but 
more  frequently  after  death,  in  order  to  natter  their  descendants. 

It  would  probably  be  as  proper  to  rank  the  deified  emperors  (cf.  §  133)  in 
the  fourth  class  of  our  division.  They  should  be  mentioned  in  this  place, 
however,  as  belonging  strictly  to  the  number  of  Roman  divinities,  in  distinc- 
tion from  Greek. 

§  95.  ( h)  Virtues  and  Vices.  —  Finally  it  is  to  be  observed, 
that  the  poets  were  accustomed  to  give  a  personal  representation  to 
abstract  ideas,  especially  to  moral  qualities,  to  virtues  and  vices;  and 
in  this  way  originated  a  multitude  of  divinities  purely  allegorical, 
which  were  however  sometimes  mingled  with  the  mythological,  and 
were  honored  with  temples,  rites,  and  significant  images  and  symbols. 
Such  were  Virtus,  Honor,  Fides,  Pittas,  Spes,  Libertas,  Pax,  Con- 
cordia, Invidia,  Fraus,  and  the  like. 

1.  Virtus  was  worshiped  in  the  habit  of  an  elderly  woman  sitting  on  a 
square  stone.     The  temple  of  Honor  stood  close  by  that  of  Virtus,  and  was 

approached  by  it.     The  priests  sacrificed  to  Honor  with  bare  heads. 

The  temple  of  Fides,  Good  Faith,  stood  near  the  Capitol.  The  priests  in  sac- 
rificing to  her  covered  their  hands  and  heads  with  a  white  cloth.  Her  sym- 
bol was  a  white  dog,  or  two  hands  joined  and  sometimes  two  virgins  shaking 

hands. The  temple  of  Spes,  or  Hope,  was  in  the  herb-market.     Her 

image  is  said  to  have  been  placed  on  some  of  the  coins.  She  is  in  the  form 
of  a  woman  standing;  with  her  left  hand  holding  lightly  the  skirts  of  her 
garments,  and  in  her  right  a  plate,  with  a  sort  of  cup  on  it  fashioned  to  the 
likeness  of  a  flower,  with  this  inscription,  Spes  P.  R.     See  Plate  XII.  fig.  8. 

A  temple  to  Pietas  was  dedicated  in  the  place  where  that  woman  lived, 

who  fed  with  the  milk  of  her  own  breasts  her  mother  in  prison.     Cf.  Plin.  N. 

H.  vii.  c.  36. Concordia  had  many  altars.     Her  image  held  a  bowl  in 

the  right  hand,  and  a  horn  of  plenty  in  the  left.  See  Plate  XII.  fig.  11.     Her 

symbol  was  two  joined  hands  together  and  a  pomegranate. In  the  later 

periods  of  Rome,  Pax  had  a  very  magnificent  temple  in  the  Forum,  finished  by 
Vespasian.  The  goddess  of  peace  or  security  is  represented  on  a  coin  of  An- 
toninus as  a  woman  resting  on  a  column  with  a  spike  of  wheat  in  the  left  hand 
and  a  sceptre  like  the  wand  of  Mercury  in  the  right,  held  over  a  tripod.  See 
Plate  XII.  fig.  12. 

2.  To  the  vices  also  temples  were  dedicated. Fraus  was  represented 

with  a  human  face  and  a  serpent's  body  ;  in  the  end  of  her  tail  was  a  scor- 
pion's sting. Invidia.  is  described  as  a  meager  skeleton,  dwelling  in  a 

dark  and  gloomy  cave,  and  feeding  on  snakes.     Or.  Metam.  ii.  761. 


INFERIOR    GODS.       DEITIES    PECULIAR    TO    ROMANS.         441 

It  is  important  to  remark,  that  although  the  particular  personifications  of 
virtues  and  vices  above  described  refer  to  Roman  Mythology,  yet  the  Greeks 
also  personified  many  of  the  virtues  and  vices  in  a  similar  way,  and  the  im- 
aginary deities  thus  formed  had  altars  erected  to  their  honor  in  Athens  and 
other  cities. 

§  96*.  (i)  Foreign  Gods.  —  It  is  proper  to  notice  here 
some  Egyptian  deities,  whose  worship  was  partially  introduced  at 
Rome. 

(1)  Osiris.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Jupiter  by  Niobe,  and  to 
have  ruled  first  over  the  Argives,  and  afterwards,  leaving  them,  to  have  be- 
come an  illustrious  king  of  the  Egyptians.  His  wife  was  Isis,  who  is  by  many 
said  to  be  the  same  with  the  Io,  daughter  of  Inachus,  who  was  according  to 
the  fables  changed  by  Jupiter  into  a  cow.  Osiris  was  at  length  slain  by  Ty- 
phon,  and  his  corpse  concealed  in  a  chest  and  thrown  into  the  Nile.  Iris,  af- 
ter much  search,  by  the  aid  of  keen-scented  dogs  found  the  body  and  placed 
it  in  a  monument  on  an  island  near  Memphis.  The  Egyptians  paid  divine 
honor  to  his  memory,  and  chose  the  ox  to  represeut  him,  because  as  some  say 
a  large  ox  appeared  to  them  after  the  body  of  Osiris  was  interred,  or  accord- 
ing to  others,  because  Osiris  had  instructed  them  in  agriculture.  Osiris  was 
generally  represented  with  a  cap  on  his  head  like  a  mitre,  with  two  horns; 
he  held  a  stick  in  his  left  hand,  and  in  his  right  a  whip  with  three  thongs. 
Sometimes  he  appears  with  the  head  of  a  hawk. 

(2)  Isis.  She  was  the  wife  of  Osiris.  Io  after  her  metamorphosis  is  said 
after  wandering  over  the  earth,  to  have  come  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and 
there  she  was  restored  to  the  form  of  a  woman.  She  reigned  after  her  hus- 
band's murder,  and  was  deified  by  the  Egyptians.     The  cow  was  employed  as 

her  symbol. Isis  is  often  represented  as  holding  a  globe   in  her  hand, 

with  a  vessel  full  of  ears  of  corn.  Her  body  sometimes  appears  enveloped  in 
a  sort  of  net.  On  some  monuments  she  holds  in  her  lap  a  child,  her  son  Ho- 
rus  ;  who  is  also  ranked  among  the  deities  of  Egypt. 

The  Egyptians  had  numerous  festivals,  which  were  connected  with  the  fa- 
bles respecting  Isis  and  Osiris.  The  chief  festival  adopted  by  the  Romans  was 
termed  the  Isia;  these  lasted  nine  days,  and  were  attended  by  such  licentious- 
ness as  to  be  at  length  prohibited  by  the  senate. 

Some  have  considered  Osiris  and  Isis  as  representing  the  sun  and  the  moon.  Their  story  is 
by  others  viewed  as  corresponding  to  that  of  Venus  and  Adonis.  (Cf.  Knight's  Enquiry  <&c.)  — 
Some  resemblances  have  been  pointed  out  between  Isis  and  Isa,  a  deity'of  the  Hindoos,  and 
Visa,  a  goddess  worshiped  among  the  northern  tribes  of  Europe  (cf.  Tac.  Germ.  9).— See  Crca- 
zer's  Symbolik. There  is  a  curious  piece  of  antiquity  called  the  table  <f  Isis,  because  sup- 
posed to  represent  her  mysteries.  It  is  given  in  Montfaucon's  Anti.  Expl.  cited  $  12.  2  (d).  — 
Cf.  also  Shuckford's  Sac.  and  Prof.  Hist.  Conn.  bk.  viii.  —  Among  the  most  remarkable  ruins 
discovered  at  Pompeii,  is  a  temple  of  Isis.  The  columns  which  surrounded  it,  are  almost  en- 
tirely preserved.  The  temple  itself  was  entirely  built  of  brick,  and  on  the  outside  covered  with 
a  very  solid  stucco.  It  had  the  form  of  a  square  and  was  not  covered  but  was  surrounded  by  a 
covered  gallery,  which  was  supported  by  columns  and  served  for  a  shelter  in  bad  weather. 
"  In  this  temple  have  been  found  all  the  instruments  which  appertain  to  the  religious  ceremo- 
nies, and  even  the  skeletons  of  the  priests  who  had  been  surprised  and  buried  by  the  shower  of 
cinders,  in  the  middle  of  the  occupations  of  their  ministry.  Their  vestments,  the  cinders  and 
the  coals  on  the  altars,  the  candelabra,  lamps,  sistrums,  the  vases  which  contained  the  lustral 
water,  paterae  employed  in  the  libations,  a  kind  of  kettle  to  preserve  the  intestines  of  the  vic- 
tims, cushions  on  which  they  placed  the  statue  of  the  goddess  Isis,  when  they  offered  sacrifices 
to  her,  the  attributes  of  the  divinity  with  which  the  temple  was  adorned,  &x.  are  still  shown. 
Many  of  these  vases  have  the  figure  of  an  Ibis,  of  a  hippopotamus,  of  a  lotus  ;  and  what  renders 
them  still  more  important,  they  were  found  exactly  in  the  situation  in  which  they  were  used, 
so  that  there  can  now  be  no  doubt  as  to  their  reality  and  their  use.  The  walls  of  the  temple  were 
adorned  with  paintings,  relating  to  the  worship  of  the  goddess  ;  there  were  figures  of  priests  in 
the  costume  of  their  order:  their  vestments  were  of  white  linen,  the  heads  of  the  officiating 
priests  were  shaved,  their  feet  covered  with  a  fine  thine  lace,  through  which  the  muscles  might 
be  distinguished."  Stuart,  Diet,  of  Architecture,  article  Pompeii. 

(3)  Apis.  This  is  the  name  of  the  ox,  in  which  Osiris  was  supposed  to  re- 
side, rather  than  a  distinct  deity.  The  ox  thus  honored  was  known  by  certain 
marks;  his  body  was  all  black,  excepting  a  square  spot  of  white  on  his  fore- 
head, and  a  white  crescent  or  sort  of  half-moon  on  his  right  side  ;  on  his  back 
was  the  figure  of  an  eagle  ;  under  his  tongue  a  sort  of  knot  resembling  a  bee- 
tle (cantharus)  ',  and  two  sorts  of  hair  upon  his  tail.  This  ox  was  permitted  to 
live  twenty-five  years.  His  body  was  then  embalmed,  placed  in  a  chest,  or 
Zuobc,  and  buried  with  many  solemnities.  A  season  of  mourning  then  followed, 


442  GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

until  a  new  Apis,  or  ox  properly  marked,  was  brought  to  sight.  —  It  is  a  curi- 
ous fact  that  Belzoni,  who  succeeded  in  finding  an  entrance  into  the  second  of 
the  great  pyramids  of  Egypt,  found  in  the  corner  of  a  large  and  high  chamber 
in  the  interior  of  the  pyramid  a  Zoqbc,  which,  on  being  carefully  opened,  pre- 
sented the  bones  of  an  ox. 

Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xix.  201.  —  Banter,  L'Orig.  dn  culte  que  les  Egyptiens  rendoient  aux 
animaux,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  m.  84. — Also  Blanchard,  Des  animaux  respectes  en  Egypte, 
in  the  Mem.  Sfc.  ix.  20.— Prichard,  as  cited  $12.  2  (f ). 

(4)  Serapis.  This  was  one  of  the  Egyptian  deities,  considered  by  some 
to  be  the  same  with  Osiris.  Magnificent  temples,  generally  called  Sera-pea, 
were  erected  to  him  at  Memphis,  Canopus,  and  Alexandria.  Tacitus  relates 
a  marvelous  tale  of  the  removal  of  an  effigy  of  this  god  from  Sinope,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  to  Alexandria.  The  worship  of  the  god 
existed,  however,  in  Egypt  at  a  much  earlier  period.  The  mysteries  of  Serapis 
were  introduced  at  Rome  under  the  emperors,  but  soon  abolished  on  account 
of  their  licentiousness.  —  Some  derive  the  name  from  Soobs  and  ^  Ann;,  as 
having  signified  at  first  merely  the  chest  or  box  in  which  the  body  of  Apis  was 
deposited. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some,  that  the  Egyptian  Apis  was  a  symbol  of  Joseph  :  and  that  the 
various  legends  connected  with  the  worship  of  this  god,  grew  out  of  the  history  of  that  patri- 
arch. —  Cf.  Vossins,  de  Theologia  Gentili.  Amst.  1642.  This  notion  is  adopted  by  Dr.  Clarke. 
See  his  Travels,  P.  II.  sect.  2.  ch.  5. 

(5)  Anubis.  This  was  another  deity  connected  in  fable  with  Osiris.  He 
was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Osiris,  and  to  have  accompanied  Isis  in  her  search 
after  her  husband.  He  is  represented  as  having  the  head  of  a  dog.  He  is  also 
called  Hermanubis  ;  or,  as  others  say,  the  latter  is  the  name  of  another  deity 
of  a  similar  character.  He  appears  to  be  represented  in  the  monument  ex- 
hibited in  our  Plate  XV.  fig.  B.    Cf.  §  34.  2.  —  See  Creuzer's  Symbolik. 

(6)  Harpocrates.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Horus,  son  of  Isis, 
and  was  worshiped  as  the  god  of  Silence.  He  was  much  honored  among  the 
Romans,  who  placed  his  statues  at  the  entrance  of  their  temples.  He  was  usu- 
ally represented  in  the  figure  of  a  boy,  crowned  with  an  Egyptian  mitre,  which 
ended  at  the  points  as  it  were  in  two  buds ;  in  his  left  hand  he  held  a  horn  of 
plenty,  while  a  finger  of  his  right  hand  was  fixed  upon  his  lips  to  command 
silence  and  secrecy- — In  fig.  1,  of  our  Plate  V,  he  appears,  on  an  Abraxas  (cf. 

P.  I.  §  200.  2),   as  "sitting  on  the  lotus  flower  ;    cf.  P.  I.  $  197. Porphyry, 

Cave  of  Nymphs  (cf.  P.  II.  $199.  2).— Class.  Journ.  in.  142. 


III. — Mythical  Beings,  whose  history  is  intimately  connected  icilh  that 

of  the  gods. 

§  97.  (1)  Titans  and  Giants.  The  enterprises  of  the  Titans  are 
celebrated  in  the  ancient  fables  of  the  Greeks.  They  have  already 
been  mentioned  in  the  account  of  Saturn  (§  14),  to  whom  they  were 
brothers,  being  generally  considered  as  sons  of  Uranus  or  Ccelus  and 
Titaea.  The  oldest  was  called  Titan,  and  from  him,  or  their  mother, 
they  derived  their  common  name.  The  prevalent  tradition  assigned 
to  Uranus  five  sons  besides  Saturn,  viz.  Hyperion,  Cams,  Japetus, 
Crius  and  Oceanus ;  and  likewise  five  daughters  besides  Rhea,  wife 
of  Saturn,  viz.  Themis,  Mnemosyne,  Thya,  Phoebe,  and  Tcthys,  called 
Titanides.  On  account  of  their  rebellion  against  Uranus,  in  which 
however  Saturn  and  Oceanus  took  no  part,  the  Titans  were  hurled 
by  their  father  down  to  Tartarus,  whence  they  were  set  free  by  the 
aid  of  Saturn.  With  Saturn  also  they  afterwards  contested  the  throne, 
but  unsuccessfully.  The  Cyclops,  mentioned  in  speaking  of  Vulcan 
(§  52),  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Titans. 


MYTHICAL    BEINGS.       TITANS  AND  GIANTS.  443 

The  number  of  the  Titans  is  given  variously;    Apollodorus  mentions  13, 

Hyginus  6.     The  number  of  45  is  stated  by  some. The  name  of  one  of  them  , 

Japetus,  is  strikingly  similar  to  Japhet  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  whose  descend- 
ants peopled  Europe,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  Greek  traditions,  Japetus 
is  called  the  father  of  mankind.  Some  have  considered  the  Titans  as  the  de- 
scendants of  Gomer,  son  of  Japhet.  (Pezrons  Antiquities).  —  They  have  also 
been  supposed  to  be  the  Cushites  or  descendants  of  Cush,  and  the  builders  of 
the  tower  of  Babel.  (Bryant's  Analysis  of  Anc.  Mythology).  —  Others  think 
them  merely  personifications  of  the  elements  ;  and  suppose  their  fabled  war 
with  their  father  Ccelus,  or  against  Saturn,  an  allegorical  representation  of  a 
war  of  the  elements. 

Hesiod's  Battle  of  the  Titans  is  often  named  as  a  remarkable  specimen  of 
sublimity.  It  will  be  interesting  to  compare  it  with  Homer's  Battle  of  the  Gods 
and  Milton's  Battle  of  the  Angels.  Cf.  Horn.  II.  xx.  54  ss.  Hee.  Theog.  674  ss. 
Milt.  Parad.  Lost,  vi. 

§98.  The  Giants  were  a  distinct  class,  although  their  name  (yiyag, 
from  yfj  and  yi >•<«)  designates  them  as  sons  of  Earth,  or  Gaia,  who  gave 
them  birth,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Titans  by  Jupiter,  and  out  of  ven- 
geance against  him.  The  most  famous  of  them  were  Enccladus, 
Halcyoneus,  Typhon,  AZgcon,  Ephialtes,  and  Otus.  According  to 
the  common  description,  they  had  bodies  of  extraordinary  size  and 
strength,  some  of  them  with  a  hundred  hands,  and  with  dragon's  feet, 
or  serpents  instead  of  legs.  Their  most  celebrated  undertaking  was 
the  storming  of  Olympus  (1),  the  residence  of  Jupiter  and  the  other 
gods.  In  order  to  scale  this'  summit,  they  heaped  mountain  upon 
mountain,  as  GEta,  Pelion,  Ossa,  and  others.  But  Jupiter  smote  them 
with  his  thunderbolts,  precipitated  some  of  them  to  Tartarus,  and 
buried  others  beneath  the  mountains.  Typhon  or  Typhoeus,  for  in- 
stance, he  pressed  down  with  the  weight  of  ^Etna  (2),  under  which, 
according  to  the  fable,  the  giant  constantly  strives  to  lift  himself  up, 
and  pours  from  his  mouth  torrents  of  flame. 

(1)  Ov.  Metam.  i.  151. (2)  Ov.  Met.  v.  346.—  Claud.  Gigantomach*—  Pind.  Pyth.  i.  31.  — 

Mem.  de  VInstitut,  Classe  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  vn.  98.  sur  la  nature  allegorique  des  centi 
manes  &cc.~Banier,  sur  Typhon,  in  the  Mem.  Acad,  laser,  vol.  in.  p.  116. 

1.  JEgeon  oxBriareus  was  another  giant,eminent  in  the  contest, with  fifty  heads 
and  a  hundred  hands.  He  hurled  against  Jupiter  a  hundred  huge  rocks  at  a 
single  throw  ;  but  Jupiter  bound  him  also  under  iEtna,  with  a  hundred  chains. 
■ —  This  story  of  the  war  between  the  Giants  and  Jupiter,  is  also  explained  by 
some  as  an  allegorical  representation  of  some  great  struggle  in  nature,  which 
took  place  in  early  times.  This  contest  is  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
Titans,  who,  although  often  confounded  with  the  Giants,  were  a  distinct  class. 

2.  Orion  is  by  some  also  placed  among  the  giants  as  a  son  of  Gaia  or  Terra  j 
yet  the  more  common  fable  ascribes  his  origin  to  the  joint  agency  of  Jupiter, 
Mercury,  and  Neptune  ;  according  to  which  some  derive  his  name  from  the 
Greek  word  ovqov  (urina).  He  was  ranked  among  the  attendants  of  Diana, 
and  after  his  death  his  name  was  given  to  a  constellation. 

See  Francmtr,  as  cited  §  117  (f) De  Fourmont,  Le  fab.  d'Orion,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Insert 

xiv. 16.  attempting  to  show  a  connection  of  the  fable  with  the  story  of  Isaac  the  son  of  Abraham. 

3.  ThePygmics  of  the  ancients  were  fabulous  beings,of  very  diminutive  size,  supposed  by  some 
to  dwell  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  ;  by  others,  in  Thrace  and  Scythia ;  and  by  others  in  India.  — 

CI.  Ov.  Met.  vi.  90.— Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  vii.  2 Heyne,  on  How.  II.  iii.  6.—Heeren,  Ideen  vol.  i.  as 

cited  P.  I.  §  171. — Malte-Bnm,  in  the  Annates  des  Voyages,  vol.  i.  p.  355.— Banier,  Les  Pygmees, 
In  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  v.  p.  101. 

§99.  (2)  Tritons  and  Sirens.  Triton  has  already  been  mentioned 
(§29)  as  a  son  of  Neptune  and  Amphitrite.  From  him,  as  most  fa- 
mous, the  other  various  deities  of  the  sea  derived  the  name  of  Tritons. 
They  were  represented,  like  him,  as  half  man  and  half  fish,  with  the 
whole  body  covered  with  scales.     They  usually  formed  the  retinue  of 


444  GREElt  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

Neptune,  whose  approach  Triton  himself  announced  by  blowing  his 
horn,  which  was  a  large  conch  or  sea  shell. 

Cf.  Ov.  Met.  i.  333. —  Virg.  JEn.  x.  209. — There  were  other  minor  divinities 
of  the  sea  under  Neptune  ;  but  Triton  seems  to  have  had  the  pre-eminence7 
and  under  Neptune  a  sort  of  control  among  them.  Phorcus,  Proteus,  and 
Glaucus  have  been  already  mentioned  (§  29).  Nereus  was  ranked  among  them 
as  a  son  of  Oceanus,  and  the  father  of  the  Nereides.  Ino  and  her  son  Palasmon 
or  Melicertes,  are  also  said  to  have  been  admitted  by  Neptune  as  gods  of  his 
retinue.  Palaemon  is  thought  to  be  the  same  with  Portumnus,  whom  the  Ro- 
mans worshiped  as  the  guardian  of  harbors. 

§100.  The  Sirens  were  a  sort  of  sea-goddesses,  said  by  some  to  be 
two  in  number,  by  others  three,  and  even  four.  Homer  mentions  but 
two  (I),  and  describes  them  as  virgins,  dwelling  upon  an  island,  and 
detaining  with  them  every  voyager,  who  was  allured  thither  by  their 
captivating  music.  They  would  have  decoyed  even  Ulysses,  on  his 
return  to  Ithaca,  but  were  not  permitted.  —  By  others  they  were  de- 
scribed as" daughters  of  the  river-god  Achelous,  and  companions  of 
Proserpine,  after  whose  seizure  they  Were  changed  into  birds  (2), 
that  they  might  fly  in  search  of  her.  In  an  unhappy  contest  with  the 
Muses  in  singing,  they  lost  their  wings  as  a  punishment  of  their  emu- 
lation. Others  make  them  sea-nymphs,  with  a  form  similar  to  that  of 
the  Tritons,  with  the  faces  of  women  and  the  bodies  of  flying  fish. 
The  artists  generally  represent  them  as  virgins,  either  not  at  all  dis- 
figured, or  appearing  partly  as  birds. 

(1)  Horn.  Od.  xii.30. 166.  —  (2)  Ov.  Met.  V.  552.— Their  fabled  residence 
Was  placed  by  some  on  an  island  near  cape  Pelorus  ih  Sicily ;  by  others,  on  the 
islands  or  rocks  called  Sirennusae,  not  far  from  the  promontory  of  Surrentum 
on  the  coast  of  Italy*  —  Various  explanations  of  the  fable  of  the  Sirens  have 
been  given.  It  is  commonly  considered  as  signifying  the  dangers  of  indul- 
gence in  pleasure. 

§  101.  (3)  Nymphs.  The  Nymphs  of  ancient  fiction  were  viewed 
as  holding  a  sort  of  intermediate  place  between  men  and  gods,  as  to 
the  duration  of  life ;  not  being  absolutely  immortal,  yet  living  a  vast 
length  of  time.  Oceanus  was  considered  as  their  common  father, 
although  the  descent  of  different  nymphs  is  given  differently.  Their 
Usual  residence  was  in  grottoes  or  water-caves,  from  which  circum- 
stance they  received  their  name,  Ni'uqai.  Their  particular  offices  were 
different,  and  they  were  distinguished  by  various  names  according  to 
the  several  objects  of  their  patronage,  or  the  regions  in  which  they 
chiefly  resided. 

1m.  Thus  there  were  the  Oreades  or  nymphs  of  the  mountains  ;  Naiades,  Ne* 
reides  (cf.  §29j,  and  Potamides,  nymphs  of  the  fountains,  seas,  and  rivers  ;  Dry* 
ades,  and  Hamadryadts,  nymphs  of  the  Woods  ;  Napaa,  nymphs  of  the  vales,&c. 
The  Dryads  were  distinguished  from  the  Hamadryads  (apa  dove)  in  this,  that 
the  latter  were  supposed  to  be  attached  to  some  particular  tree,  along  with 
which  they  came  into  being,  lived  and  died ;  while  the  former  had  the  care  of 
the  woods  and  trees  in  general. 

2.  Places  consecrated  to  these  imaginary  beings  were  called  Nvuipata.  Such 
was  the  celebrated  spot  in  the  vicinity  of  Apollonia,  famous  for  its  oracle  and 
the  fire  which  was  seen  to  issue  constantly  from  the  ground  (Plin.  Nat.  Hist, 
xxiv.  7).  Such  was  the  place  and  building  at  Rome  which  was  called  Nympha* 
um,  adorned  with  stautes  of  the  nymphs,  and  abounding,  it  is  said,  with 
fountains  and  water-falls.  Festivals  were  held  in  honor  of  the  nymphs,  whose 
number  has  been  stated  as  above  3000. 

They  were  generally  represented  as  young  and  beautiful  virgins,  partially 
covered  with  a  veil  or  thin  cloth,  bearing  in  their  hands  vases  of  water,  or  shells, 


MYTHICAL    BEINGS.       NYMPHS.     MUSES.  445 

leaves,  or  grass,  or  having  something  as  a  symbol  of  their  appropriate  offices. 
The  several  gods  are  represented,  more  or  less  frequently,  as  attended  by 
nymphs  of  some  class  or  other  ;  especially  Neptune,  Diana,  and  Bacchus. 
Under  the  term  of  nymphs,  were  sometimes  included  the  imaginary  spirits  that 
guided  the  heavenly  spheres  and  constellations  and  dispensed  the  influences 
of  the  stars ;  the  nymphs  being  distributed  by  some  my thologists  into  three 
classes,  those  of  the  sky,  the  land,  and  the  sea. 
Cf.  Lend.  Quart.  Rev.  xvii.  192.    See  tontenu,  as  cited  §  31. 

§102.  (4)  Muses.  The  ancients  were  not  content  with  having  in 
their  fictions  a  god  of  science  and  a  goddess  of  wisdom  in  general  ; 
but  assigned  to  particular  branches  of  knowledge  and  art  their  ap- 
propriate tutelary  spirits  or  guardian  divinities,  whom  they  called 
Muses,  Movoai,  and  considered  as  the  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mne- 
mosyne. They  were  nine  in  number,  according  to  the  common  ac- 
count, with  Greek  names,  as  follows  :  k?.siw  (Illustrious),  KaUiiTtt] 
(Fair-voice),  MsXTToidrt;  (Singing),  &u?.sia  (Gay),  'e^tw  (Loving), 
^urtoTci;  (  Well-pleasing),  TiQipix^tj  (Dance-loving),  no/.iuvia  (Song- 
full),  and    'ovQixv'iu  (Celestial). 

They  were  frequently  called  by  common  names,  derived  from  places  sacred 
to  them,  or  from  other  circumstances,  as  Pierides  from  Pieria,  Aonides,  Heli- 
coniades,  Parnassides,  Hippocrenides,  Castalides,  &c. 

§  103.  In  order  to  represent  the  Muses  as  excelling  in  their  seve- 
ral arts,  especially  in  music  and  song,  the  poets  imagined  various 
contests  held  by  them  ;  as  for  example,  with  the  Sirens,  and  the 
daughters  of  Pierus  (1),  in  which  the  Muses  always  gained  the  prize. 
They  were  described  as  remaining  virgins,  and  as  being  under  the 
instruction  and  protection  of  Apollo..  Their  usual  residence  was  Mt. 
Helicon,  where  was  the  fountain  Hippocrene,  and  Mt.  Parnassus 
where  was  the  fountain  Castalia;  the  former  in  Bceotia ;  the  latter 
near  Delphi  (2)  in  Phocis.  Mt.  Pindus  and  Mt.  Pierus  in  Thessaly 
were  also  sacred  to  the  Muses.  Particular  temples  were  also  conse- 
crated to  them  among  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans.  Festivals  in  their 
honor  were  instituted  in  several  parts  of  Greece  (3),  especially  among 
the  Thespians.  The  Macedonians  observed  a  festival  for  Jupiter  and 
the  Muses,  which  was  continued  nine  days. 

(1)  Ov   Met.  v.  300.  —  (2)  See  View  of  Delphi  and  Parnassus  forming  the  Frontispiece  to  this 
\ Manual.  —  (3)  See  Heyne,  de  Musar.  religione,  ejusq.  orig.  et  causis  in  Comment.  Soc.  reg.  Oot- 
ting.  vol.  vm.  •* 

The  Muses  are  usually  represented  as  virgins  with  ornamented  dresses,  and 
crowned  with  palms  or  laurels.  "According  to  the  best  authorities,  Clio,  His- 
tory, holds  in  her  hand  a  half-opened  scroll ;  Melpomene,  Tragedy,  is  veiled 
and  leans  upon  a  pillar,  holding  in  her  left  hand  a  tragic  mask  ;  Thalia,  Com- 
edy, holds  in  one  hand  a  comic  mask,  in  the  other  a  staff  resembling  a  lituus 
or  augur's  wand;  Euterpe,  Music,  holds  two  flutes  or  pipes;  Terpsi- 
chore, the  Dance,  is  represented  in  a  dancing  attitude  and  plays  upon 
a  seven-stringed  lyre;  Erato,  Amatory  Poetry,  holds  a  nine-stringed  instru- 
ment ;  Calliope,  Epic  Poetry,  has  a  roll  of  parchment  in  her  hand  and  some- 
times a  straight  trumpet  or  tuba  ;  Urania,  Astronomy,  holds  in  her  left  hand 
a  globe  ;  in  her  right  a  rod,  with  which  she  appears  to  point  out  some  object 
to  the  beholder  ;  Polyhymnia,  Eloquence  and  Imitation,  places  the  fore-finger 
of  the  right  hand  upon  her  mouth,  or  else  bears  a  scroll  in  her  hand."  (Jlntk. 
Lemp.) — A  valuable  monument,  to  guide  the  critic  and  artist  in  distinguishing 
the  Muses,  is  a  bas-relief  on  a  sarcophagus  in  the  Capitoline  gallery  at  Rome, 
in  which  the  nine  are  represented. 

"The  Muses  are  often  painted  with  their  hands  joined  dancing  in  a  ring; 
in  the  middle  of  them  sits  Apollo,  their  commander  and  prince.  The  pencil 
of  nature  described  them  in  that  manner  upon  the  agate  which  Pyrrhus,  who 
38 


446  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

made  war  upon  the  Romans,  wore  in  a  ring  ;  for  in  it  was  a  representation- of 
the  nine  Muses,  and  Apollo  holding  a  harp ;  and  these  figures  were  not  de- 
lineated hy  art  (Plin.  L.  xxxvii.  c.  1),  but  by  the  spontaneous  handy-work  of 
nature." —  Tooke's  Panth. — See  Montfauc.  Ant.  expl.  T.  i.  pi.  56-62. 

§104.  (5)  The  Graces  and  the  Hours.  To  the  retinue  of  Venus 
belonged  the  Graces,  Xuning,  Gratia,  servants  and  companions  of  the 
goddess,  diffusing  charms  and  gladness.  They  were  said  to  be  daugh- 
ters of  Jupiter  and  Eurynome,  or  according  to  others  of  Bacchus  and 
Venus  herself,  and  were  three  in  number,  >AyXala  (Splen- 
dor), Guleia  (Pleasure),  and  'Evcfooavvy  (Joy).  They  were 
honored  especially  in  Greece,  and  had  temples  in  the  principal 
cities.  Altars  were  often  erected  to  them  in  the  temples  of  other 
gods,  especially  Mercury,  Venus,  and  the  Muses.  They  are  fre- 
quently represented  on  ancient  monuments  as  beautiful  young  virgins, 
commonly  in  a  group,  holding  each  other  by  the  hand,  and  without 
drapery. 

Pind.  Olymp.  xiv.  —  Manso,  Abh.  iiber  die  Horen  und  Grazien,  in  his  Mythol.  VersucJt.cn.  — 
Massieu,  sur  les  Graces,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  in.  8. 

§  105.  The  HorcB,  cS2qcu,  were  the  goddesses  of  Time,  presiding 
especially  over  the  seasons  and  the  hours  of  the  day,  and  were  consid- 
ered as  the  daughters  and  servants  of  Jupiter.  They  came  at  length 
to  be  viewed  as  tutelary  patrons  of  beauty,  order,  and  regularity,  in 
reference  to  which  Themis  was  said  to  be  their  mother.  They  were 
named  Evvoula,  Jixij,  and  EiQ^rtj. 

The  Hours  are  usually  represented  as  dancing,  with  short  vestments,  and 
garlands  of  palm-leaf,  and  all  of  the  same  age.  In  some  monuments  of  later 
periods,  four  Hours  appear,  corresponding  to  the  four  seasons. —  Winckelmann, 
Hist,  de  F Art  iv.  ch.  2.  §  83. 

The  Graces,  Hours,  and  Muses,  are  all  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have 
had  originally  a  reference  to  the  stars  and  seasons,  and  to  have  afterwards  lost 
their  astronomical  attributes,  when  moral  ideas  and  qualities  became  more 
prominent  in  the  Greek  system  of  fictions. 

§  106.  (6)  The  Fates.  The  very  common  poetic  representation  of 
human  life  under  the  figurative  idea  of  spinning  a  thread,  gave  rise  to 
the  notion  of  the  Fates,  called  Motocu  by  the  Greeks  ;  by  the  Romans, 
Farces.  They  were  three  sisters,  daughters  of  Night,  whom  Jupiter 
permitted  to  decide  the  fortune  and  especially  the  duration  of  mortal 
life.  One  of  them,  Clotho  (KXo#$)t  attached  the  thread  ;  the  second, 
Lachesis  (ja/sotg),  spun  it ;  and  the  third,  Atropos  {"Axootvoc),  cut  it 
off,  when  the  end  of  life  arrived.  They  were  viewed  as  inexorable, 
and  ranked  among  the  inferior  divinities  of  the  lower  world.  Their 
worship  was  not  very  general. 

The  Parcae  were  generally  represented  as  three  old  women,  with  chaplets 
made  of  wool  and  interwoven  with  the  flowers  of  the  Narcissus,  wearing  long 
robes,  and  employed  in  their  works  :  Clotho  with  a  distaff;  Dachesis  having 
near  her  sometimes  several  spindles  ;  and  Atropos  holding  a  pair  of  scissors. 
See  Catull.  Epithal.  Pel.  et  Thet.  v.  305.  —  Manso's  Abhandl.  v.  Parzen,  in  his  Mythol.  Ver- 
suchcn. — Banier,  Sur  les  Parques,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  i  v.  p.  64S. 

§107.  (7)  The  Furies  and  Harpies.  Among  the  divinities  of  the 
lower  world  were  three  daughters  of  Acheron  and  Night,  or  of  Pluto 
and  Proserpine,  whose  office  it  was  to  torment  the  guilty  in  Tartarus, 
and  often  to  inflict  vengeance  upon  the  living.  The  Greeks  called 
them  'EQtwsg,  Furies;  and  also  by  a  sort  of  euphemism,  or  from  de- 
sign to  propitiate  them,  fflfttvlfeg,  signifying  kindly  disposed;  the  Ro- 


MYTHICAL    BEINGS.       FATES.    HARPIES.    DAEMONS.  447 

mans  styled  them  Furia.  Their  names  were  TisipJwne  (from  rioig 
and  (p6vog)  whose  particular  work  was  to  originate  fatal  epidemics  and 
contagion;  Alecto  (from  ai^y.rog),  to  whom  were  ascribed  the  devas- 
tations and  cruelties  of  war;  and  Megcera  (from  usyuiqw),  the  author 
of  insanity  and  murders.  Temples  were  consecrated  to  them  among 
both  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and  among  the  latter  a  festival  also, 
if  we  may  consider  the  Furinalia  as  appropriated  to  them  and  not  to 
a  separate  goddess  Furina,  as  some  suppose.  They  were  represented 
with  vipers  twining  among  their  hair,  usually  with  frightful  counte- 
nances, in  dark  and  bloody  robes,  and  holding  the  torch  of  discord 
or  vengeance. 

Virg.  Geore.  iii.  551.  Mn.  vii.  341,  415.  xii.  846.  —  Ov.  Met.  iv.  474.— Cf.  C.  A.  Bottiger,  Fu- 
rienmasken  im  Trauerspiel  und  auf.  d.  Bildwerken  d.  alt.  Griechen  ;  eine  archaeol.  Uutersu- 
chung.   Weim.  1801.  8. — Banier,  sur  les  Furies,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  v.  p.  34. 

§  108.  The  fable  of  the  Harpies,  "Aq-kvicu,  seems  to  have  had  ref- 
erence originally  to  the  rapidity  and  violence  of  the  whirlwind,  which 
suddenly  seizes  and  bears  off  whatever  it  strikes.  Their  names  were 
Aello  (from  «*/;.«,  storm),  Celarno  (from  'xsianbg,  dark),  and  Ocypeta 
(from  03/.vjzkTiis,jlyi7ig  rapidly),  all  indicative  of  the  source  of  the 
fiction. 

They  appear  to  have  been  considered,  sometimes  at  least,  as  the  goddesses 
of  storms,  and  so  were  called  QviUai  {Horn.  Od.  xx.  66).  They  were  said  to 
be  daughters  of  Neptune  and  Terra,  and  to  dwell  in  islands  of  the  sea,  on  the 
borders' of  the  lower  world,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Furies,  to  whom  they 
sometimes  bore  off  the  victims  they  seized.  They  are  represented  as  having 
the  faces  of  virgins,  and  the  bodies  of  vultures,  with  feet  and  hands  armed 
with  claws. 

Virg.  M\\.  iii. '210.  —  See  Voss,  Mytholog.  Briefe.  Stuttg.  1827.  3  vols.  12.  —  Le  Clerc  (in  the 
Bibliotheque  Universelle,  vol.  i.  p.  148)  supposes  the  Harpies  to  be  merely  locusts  ;  a  conjecture 
which  Gibbon  seems  to  approve  (Rom.  Emp.  vol.  n.  p.  71.  ed.  N.  Yk.  1822). 

§109.  (8)  The  Damons  or  Genii,  and  Manes.  In  the  earliest  my- 
thologies we  find  traces  of  a  sort  of  protecting  deities,  or  spiritual 
guardians  of  men,  called  Jatuovsg,  or  Genii.  They  were  supposed  to 
be  always  present  with  the  persons  under  their  care,  and  to  direct 
their  conduct,  and  control  in  great  measure  their  destiny,  having  re- 
ceived this  power  as  a  gift  from  Jupiter.  Bad  daemons,  however,  as 
well  as  good,  were  imagined  to  exist,  and  some  maintained,  that  every 
person  had  one  of  each  class  attendant  upon  him. 

From  the  notion  of  an  attending  genius  arose  the  proverbial  expressions  in- 
dulgere  genio  and  defraudare  genio,  signifying  simply  to  gratify  or  deny  one's 

self. The  dcemons  of  classical  mythology  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 

fallen  spirits  revealed  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  represented  as  possessing 
men  in  the  time  of  Christ.  , 

See  Farmer,  Essay  on  Demoniacs.  —  Letters  to  Channing  on  Fallen  Spirits,  bv  Canonicva. 
Boston,  1828.  —  Cf.  Brownlec,  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Christian  Life,  p.  379.   N.  Yk.  1837.  12. 

§110.  The  Manes  were  a  similar  class  of  beings.  Although  often 
spoken  of  as  the  spirits  or  souls  of  the  departed,  they  seem  more  com- 
monly to  have  been  considered  as  guardians  of  the  deceased,  whose 
office  was  to  watch  over  their  graves,  and  hinder  any  disturbance  of 
their  tranquillity.  They  were  subordinate  to  the  authority  of  Pluto, 
on  which  account  he  is  styled  Summanus.     Some  describe  a  goddess, 

named  Mania,  as  their  mother.  The  Romans  designated  by  the 

name  of  Lemures,  or  Larvce,  such  spirits  of  the  dead,  as  wandered 
about  in  restlessness,  disturbing  the  peace  of  men,  issuing  from  the 
graves  as  apparitions,  to  terrify  the  beholders. 

066  Manso's  Abh.  uber  d.  Genius  der  Alten.  in  his  Myth.  Vers.— Simon,  Diss,  sur  les  Lemures, 


448  GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  l. —  Ov.  Fast.  v.  421. — Blum,  Einleitung  in  Rom's  alte  Geschichte.   Berl. 
1828.  12. 

§111.  (9).  The  Lares  and  Penates.  The  system  of  tutelary 
spirits  was  carried  further  by  the  Romans  than  by  the  Greeks.  The 
former  assigned  to  each  dwelling  and  family  its  guardian  deities, 
which  were  called  Lares  and  Penates.  The  Lares  were  said  to  be 
sons  of  Mercury  and  Lara,  or  Larunda,  daughter  of  Almon.  They 
received  a  variety  of  epithets  or  by-names,  according  to  the  particular 
object,  over  which  they  were  in  different  cases  supposed  to  preside, 
as  familiar es,  compitales,  viales,  patellarii,  publici,  privati.  They 
were  especially  considered,  however,  as  presiding  over  houses,  and 
had  in  every  house  their  proper  sanctuary  (Lararium)  and  altar.  They 
seem  to  have  been  viewed  as  the  spirits  of  the  departed  ancestors, 
the  fathers  and  forefathers  of  the  family,  who  sought  the  welfare  of 
their  descendants.  < 

The  dog  was  sacred  to  the  Lares,  and  an  image  of  this  animal  was  placed 
by  their  statues.  These  statues  were  sometimes  clothed  in  the  skins,  and  even 
formed  in  the  shape,  of  dogs.  Public  festivals  were  held  in  their  honor,  called 
Compitalia,  which  were  made  very  joyful  occasions  ;  the  slaves  of  the  family 
shared  liberty  and  equality  with  their  masters,  as  on  the  Saturnalia. —  T.  Hem- 
pel,  Diss,  de  Laribus.   2d  ed.  Zwiccav.  1816.  8. 

§  112.  The  Penates  were  also  domestic  or  household  gods,  but 
they  were  not  properly  speaking  a  distinct  class  by  themselves,  be- 
cause the  master  of  the  dwelling  was  allowed  to  select  any  deity 
according  to  his  pleasure,  to  watch  over  his  family  affairs,  or  preside 
over  particular  parts  of  them.  Accordingly  Jupiter  and  others  of  the 
superior  gods  were  not  unfrequently  invoked  in  this  capacity.  The 
gods  who  presided  over  particular  families,  were  sometimes  styled 
parvi  Penates,  while  those  that  presided  over  cities  or  provinces,  were 
styled  patrii  or  publici  Penates.  Adulation  sometimes  elevated  to 
the  rank  of  Penates  even  living  persons;  especially  the  emperors. 

Cf.  Virg.  jEn.  ii.  717.  iii.  148.— Heyne,  Excurs.  ix.  ad  Virg.  Mn.  ii.—  T.  Hcmpel,  Diss,  de  diis 
Laribus  (cited  above). — Mvllcr,  de  diis  Rom.  Laribus  et  Penatibus.  Hafnise,  1811.  8. — The  Ar~ 
chceologia,  cited  P.  I.  §  243.  3,  contains  a  notice,  with  plates,  of  a  number  of  small  bronze  stat- 
ues, representing  Roman  Penates,  found  at  Exeter,  England.     See  vol.  6th,  p.  1.  published  1786. 

The  Lares  and  the  Penates  are  often  confounded,  but  were  not  the  same. 
"  The  Penates  were  originally  gods,  the  powers  of  nature  personified;  the 
mysterious  action  of  which  produces  and  upholds  whatever  is  necessary  to  life, 
to  the  common  good,  to  the  prosperity  of  families,  whatever,  in  fine,  the  hu- 
man species  cannot  bestow  on  itself.  The  Lares  were  originally  themselves 
human  beings,  who,  becoming  pure  spirits  after  death,  loved  still.to  hover  round 
the  dwelling  they  once  inhabited;  to  watch  over  its  safety,  and  to  guard  it  as 
the  faithful  dog  does  the  possessions  of  his  master.  They  keep  off  danger  from 
without,  while  the  Penates,  residing  in  the  interior  of  the  dwelling,  pour  bles- 
sings upon  its  inmates."  (Anth.  Lemp.) 

§113.  (10)  Sleep,  Dreams,  and  Death.  Among  the  imaginary 
beings  supposed  to  exert  an  influence  over  the  condition  of  mortals, 
"Ynvog,  "Oreiyoc,  and  Gavarog,  gained  a  personification,  being  called 
sons  of  Nox,  or  night,  and  ranked  among  the  deities  of  the  lower 
world.  To  nrirrog,  or  Somnus,  Cimmeria  was  assigned  as  his  resi- 
dence, on  account  of  the  perpetual  darkness,  which  tradition  ascribed 
to  it ;  and  the  poppy,  on  account  of  its  soporific  qualities,  was  his 
common  symbol.  He  is  represented  as  holding  in  his  hand  a  light  in- 
verted and  about  to  be  extinguished. 

The  last  symbol  was  also  employed   in  representing  Guvarog,  ox 


MYTHICAL    BEINGS.       SATYRS.    FAUNS.    GORGONS.  449 

Death,  who  was  often  placed  beside  his  brother  Sleep  on  "sepulchral 
•monuments,  and  appeared  in  a  similar  bodily  form,  and  not  a  mere 
naked  skeleton,  as  in  modern  art.  When  death  was  the  result  of  vio- 
lence, or  circumstances  of  a  disgusting  character,  the  Greeks  expressed 
it  by  the  word  *>}n,  and  they  fancied  a  sort  of  beings  called  y.fjqag,  who 
caused  death  and  sucked  the  blood.  The  Romans  made  a  similar 
distinction  between  mors  and  lethum. 

"Oreioo?  was  the  god  of  dreams,  more  commonly  called  Morpheus, 
from  the  various  images  or  forms  (uogtpi,)  presented  in  dreaming. 
Morpheus  is  sometimes  considered  as  the  god  of  sleep,  but  was  more 
properly  his  minister  ;  Phobetor  (yo^'Tcay),  sometimes  considered  as 
the  god  of  dreams,  was  another  minister  of  Somnus,  and  Phantasus 
(yavTotm)  another. 

Cf.  Ov.  Met.  xi.  592. 634, 640.— Lessinfs  Untersuchung,  wie  die  Alten  d.  Tod  gebildet.  Berl. 
1769.  4.— Herder's  Abh.  in  his  Zerstreuten  Blattern.  Th.  2.  273.  Cf.  Theory  of  Dreams  &c.  il- 
lustrated by  the  most  remarkable  dreams  recorded  in  History.   Lond.  1808.  12. 

The  Romans  imagined  death  as  a  goddess,  Mors.  The  poets  described  her 
as  roving  about  with  open  mouth,  furious  and  ravenous,  with  black  robes  and 
dark  wings.  She  is  not  often  found  represented  on  existing  monuments  of  art ; 
in  one  supposed  to  represent  her,  a  small  figure  in  brass,  she  appears  as  a  skele- 
ton sitting  on  the  ground,  with  one  hand  on  an  urn. — Spence,  Polymetis,  cited 
P.  I.  $151. 

§  114.  (11)  The  Satyrs  and  Fauns.  The  idea  of  gods  of  the 
forests  and  woods,  with  a  form  partly  of  men  and  partly  of  beasts, 
took  its  rise  in  the  earliest  ages  either  from  the  custom  of  wearing 
skins  of  animals  for  clothing,  or  in  a  design  to  represent  symbolically 
the  condition  of  man  in  the  semi-barbarous  or  half-savage  state.  The 
Satyrs  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Fauns  of  the  Romans,  in  their  repre- 
sentation, differed  from  the  ordinary  human  form  only  in  having  a 
buck's  tail,  with  erect  pointed  ears.  There  were  others  called  Panes, 
which  had  also  the  goat's  feet,  and  more  of  the  general  appearance 
of  the  brute.  The  Fauns  were  represented  as  older  than  the  Satyrs, 
who,  when  they  became  old,  were  called  Sileni.  Yet  the  Romans 
represented  the  Satyrs  more  like  beasts,  and  as  having  the  goat's  feet. 
The  Satyrs,  Fauns,  Panes,  and  Sileni,  all  belonged  to  the  retinue  of 
Bacchus  (§  60).  The  name  of  Fauni  was  of  Italian  origin,  derived 
from  a  national  god  Faunus,  who  was  son  of  Picus,  king  of  the  Lat- 
ins, and  the  nymph  Canens  (1),  and  whose  wife  Fauna  was  also  hon- 
ored as  a  goddess. 

(1)  Ov.  Met.  xiv.  320,  336 — See  Heyne's  Abh.  von  Unterschied.  zvvischen  Faun.  Sat.  Silen. 
und  Panen,  in  his  Samml.  Ant.  Aufsatze.     Found  also  in    Winckel manu ,  Histoire  de  l'Art  (cited 

P.  I.  §  32)  vol.  i.  p.  680. Ueber  Faun.  Sat.  Pan.  und  Silenen.  Berl.  1790,  91.  S.—  P'oss,  Myth. 

Briefe. 

§115.  (12)  The  Gorgons.  Three  imaginary  sisters,  daughters  of  Phorcys 
and  Cete,  were  termed  rooyuvsg,  from  their  frightful  aspect.  Their  heads 
were  said  to  be  covered  with  vipers  instead  of  hair,  with  teeth  as  long  as  the 
tusks  of  a  boar,  and  so  terrific  a  look  as  to  turn  every  beholder  into  stone. 
They  are  described  as  having  the  head,  neck,  and  breasts  of  women,  while  the 
rest  of  the  body  was  in  the  form  of  a  serpent.  According  to  some  they  had 
but  one  eye  and  one  tooth,  common  to  them  all,  which  they  were  obliged  to 
use  in  turn.  Their  names  were  Stheno,Euryale,  and  Medusa.  Medusa  is  said 
to  have  been  slain  by  Perseus,  who  cut  off  her  head,  while  they  were  in  the 
act  of  exchanging  the  eye. 

They  are  sometimes  ranked,  with  the  Furies,  among  the  infernal  deities. 
But  their  residence  is  variously  assigned  ;  some  placing  them  in  a  distant  part 
of  the  western  ocean,  others  in  Libya  (cf.  P.  V.  §  179),  and  others  in  Scythia. 

38* 


450  GREEK    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

Some  have  explained  the  fable  as  referring  to  a  warlike  race  of  women,  like 
the  Amazons.     Others  suppose  it  to  have  had  some  reference  to  the  moon  as 
a  dark  body,  which  is  said  also  to  have  been  called  Fooyoviov,  from  the  face  ' 
believed  to  be  seen  in  it. 

Massieu,  sur  les  Hesperides,  and  sur  les  Gorgones,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  in.  p.  28, »1. 
§  116.  (13)  The  Amazons.  The  Amazons  were  no  doubt  mythical  beings, 
although  said  to  be  a  race  of  warlike  women,  who  lived  near  the  river  Ther- 
modon  in  Cappadocia.  A  nation  of  them  was  also  located  in  Africa.  They  are 
said  to  have  burnt  off  their  right  breast,  that  they  might  use  the  bow  and  jave- 
lin with  more  skill  and  force;  and  hence  their  name,  ' Auutorts,  from  «  and 
fiatog.     They  are  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  (iii.  189.   vi.  186.)   and  called  hwiL- 

Various  explanations  of  the  fable  are  given.  Some  consider  it  as  having  a 
connection  originally  with  the  worship  of  the  moon.  Several  statues  of  Ama- 
zons were  placed  in  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  (Plin.  N.  Hist,  xxxiv.  8), 
and  may  have  represented  some  of  her  imaginary  attendants,  or  some  of  her 
own  attributes.  —  A  figure  resembling  an  Amazon,  but  having  four  arms,  is 
seen  in  the  caverns  of  Elephanta. 

Traditions  respecting  a  race  of  Amazons  are  said  to  be  still  current  in  the  region  of  Caucasus. 
Cf.  Edinb.  Rev..  No.  lvi.  p.  324. On  the  Amazons,  see  Creuzer's  Symbolik. 

§  117.  This  seems  to  be  the  place  for  noticing  more  particularly  several 
Monsters,  which  are  exhibited  in  the  tales  of  ancient  mythology. 

(a)  The  Minotaur  was  said  to  be  half  man  and  half  bull.  The  story  is,  that 
Minos,  king  of  Crete,  refused  to  sacrifice  to  Neptune  a  beautiful  white  bull, 
which  was  demanded  by  the  god.  The  angry  god  showed  his  displeasure  by 
causing  Pasiphae,  the  wife  of  Minos,  to  defile  herself  with  this  bull,  through 
the  aid  of  Daedalus,  and  give  birth  to  the  monster.  Minos  confined  the  Mino- 
taur in  the  famous  labyrinth.  Here  the  monster  devoured  the  seven  young 
men  and  the  seven  maidens  annually  required  from  the  Athenians  by  Minos. 
Theseus,  by  the  aid  of  the  king's  daughter  Ariadne,  slew  the  Minotaur  and 
escaped  the  labyrinth  (cf.  §125). 

(b)  The  Chimcera  was  said  to  be  composed  of  a  dragon,  goat,  and  lion  united  : 
the  middle  of  the  body  was  that  of  a  goat,  the  hinder  parts  those  of  a  dragon, 
the  fore  parts  those  of  a  lion  ;  and  it  had  the  heads  of  all  three,  and  was  con- 
tinually vomiting  forth  flames.  This  monster  lived  in  Lycia,  in  the  reign  of 
Jobates,  king  of  that  country.  This  king,  wishing  to  punish  Bellerophon  in 
order  to  gratify  his  son-in-law  Praetus,  sends  him  against  the  Chimaera ;  but 
Bellerophon,  by  the  aid  of  Minerva,  and  the  winged  horse  Pegasus,  instead  of 
perishing  himself,  destroyed  the  monster. 

This  fable  is  bv  some  supposed  to  refer  to  a  volcanic  mountain  on  the  Lycian  coast.  —  See 
Clarke's  Travels,  pt.  ii.  sect.  ii.  ch.  8  (vol.  in.  p.  211.  ed.  N.  Yk.1815).  —  Plin.  N.  Hist.  v.  27. 
—  Banier,  and  Freret,  on  Bellerophon,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Iuscr.  vn.  37.  69. 

(c)  The  Centauri  were  said  to  be  half  men  and  half  horses.  Some  make  them 
the  offspring  of  Ixion  and  the  cloud;  others  refer  their  origin  to  the  bestiality 
of  Centaurus,  the  son  of  Apollo.  They  were  said  to  dwell  in  Thessoly.  The 
principal  incidents  related  of  them  are  their  rude  attempts  upon  the  women  at 
the  marriage  of  Pirithous  and  Hippodamia,  and  the  consequent  battle  with  the 
Lapithaa,  who  drove  them  into  Arcadia.  Here  they  were  afterwards  chiefly 
destroyed  by  Hercules  (Ov.  Met.  xii.  530.)  —  Some  have  imagined  this  fable 
to  allude  to  the  draining  of  the  low  parts  of  Thessaly,  as  the  horse  is  in  gene- 
ral symbolical  of  water. 

Knight's  Inquiry  &c.  in  the  Class.  Journal. — Cf.  Mitfbrd,  ch.  1.  sect.  3. — Banier,  La  Fable  des 
Cent,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  in.  18. 

(d)  G  cry  on  was  a  monster  said  to  be  the  offspring  of  Chrysaor  and  Callirhoe, 
and  to  have  three  bodies  and  three  heads.  His  residence  was  in  the  island  of 
Gades,  where  his  numerous  flocks  were  kept  by  the  herdsman  Eurythion,  and 
guarded  by  a  two-headed  dog  called  Orthos.  The  destruction  of  this  monster 
formed  one  of  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules  (§123). 

(e)  The  Hydra  was  a  monstrous  serpent  in  the  lake  Lerna,  with  numerous 
heads,  nine  according  to  the  common  account.  When  one  of  these  heads  w'as 
cut  off,  another  or  two  others  immediately  grew  in  its  place,  unless  the  blood 
of  the  wound  was  stopped  by  fire.  The  destruction  of  the  Hydra  was  another 
labor  assigned  to  Hercules,  which  he  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  Iolaus,  who 


MYTHICAL    BEINGS.       MONSTERS.  451 

applied  lighted  brands  or  a  heated  iron,  as  each  head  was  removed.  The  ar- 
rows of  Hercules,  being  dipped  in  the  Hydra's  blood,  caused  incurable  wounds. 

if)  Pegasus  was  not  so  much  a  monster  as  a  prodigy,  being  a  winged  horse 
said  to  have  sprung  from  the  blood,  which  fell  on  the  ground  when  Perseus 
cut  off  the  head  of  Medusa.  He  fixed  his  residence  on  mount  Helicon,  where 
he  opened  the  fountain  called  Hippocrene(t7i7iog  and  xfttjvtj).  He  was  a  favo- 
rite of  the  muses,  and  is  called  '  the  muses'  horse.'  The  horse,  having  come 
into  the  possession  of  Bellerophon,  enabled  him  to  overcome  the  Chimsera. 
Afterwards  Pegasus,  under  an  impulse  from  Jupiter,  threw  off  Bellerophon  to 
wander  on  the  earth,  and  himself  ascended  to  a  place  among  the  stars. 

Cf.  Franceeur,  Uranographie  on  Traite  Elementaire  d' Astronomic  Par.  1813.  8.  containing 
the  ancient  Fables  respecting  the  Constellations. 

(g)  Cerberus  was  the  fabled  dog  of  Pluto  (§  34),  stationed  as  centinel  at  the 
entrance  of  Hades.  He  is  generally  described  as  having  three  heads,  some- 
times as  having  fifty.  Snakes  covered  his  body  instead  of  hair.  None  from  the 
world  of  the  living  could  pass  him  but  by  appeasing  him  with  a  certain  cake, 
composed  of  medicated  and  soporific  ingredients.  (Virg.  JEn.  vi.  420.)  —  To 
seize  and  bring  up  this  monster  was  assigned  to  Hercules,  as  one  of  his  labors. 

(h)  Scylla  and  Charybdis  are  the  names,  the  former  of  a  rock  on  the  Italian 
shore,  in  the  strait  between  Sicily  and  the  main  land,  and  the  latter  of  a  whirl- 
pool or  strong  eddy  over  against  it  on  the  Sicilian  side.  The  ancients  con- 
nected a  fabulous  story  with  each  name  :  —  Scylla  was  originally  a  beautiful 
woman,  but  was  changed  by  Circe  into  a  monster,  the  parts  below  her  waist 
becoming  a  number  of  dogs  incessantly  barking,  while  she  had  twelve  feet  and 
hands,  and  six  heads  with  three  rows  of  teeth.  Terrified  at  this  metamorpho- 
sis, she  threw  herself  into  the  sea,  and  was  changed  into  the  rocks  which  bear 
her  name. — Charybdis  was  a  greedy  woman,  who  stole  the  oxen  of  Hercules, 
and  for  that  offence  was  turned  into  the  gulf  or  whirlpool  above  mentioned. 

(i)  The  Sphinx  was  the  offspring  of  Orthos  and  Chimera,  or  of  Typhon  and 
Echidna ;  a  monster  having  the  head  and  breasts  of  a  woman,  the  body  of  a 
dog,  the  tail  of  a  serpent,  the  wings  of  a  bird,  the  paws  of  a  lion,  with  a  human 
voice.  This  monster  infested  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes,  proposing  enigmas 
and  devouring  the  inhabitants  who  could  not  explain  them.  At  length  one  of 
the  enigmas,  in  which  she  demanded  what  animal  it  was  which  walked  on 
four  legs  in  the  morning,  two  at  noon,  and  three  at  night,  was  solved  by  GEdi- 
pus  :  he  said  that  the  animal  was  man,  who  in  the  morning  of  life  creeps  upon 
his  hands  and  feet,  in  middle  age  walks  erect,  and  in  the  evening  of  his  days 
uses  a  staff.    On  hearing  this  solution,  the  Sphinx  instantly  destroyed  herself. 

Representations  of  the  Sphinx  are  very  common  among  Egyptian  monuments.  A  very  cele- 
brated colossal  statue  of  a  Sphinx  yet  remains  near  the  pyramids.  It  is  cut  in  the  solid  rock, 
and  is  125  feet  in  length. —  Clarke's  Travels,  pt.  ii.  sect.  2.  ch.  4. — JDcnon's  Travels  (vol.  i.  p.  55. 
Lond.  18U4).— Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xix.  193,  4U3ss. 


IV. — Mythical  History  of  the  Heroes. 

§  118.  In  Grecian  story  three  periods  are  distinguished  even  by 
the  ancients  :  the  unknoicn,  ud>j?.ov,  of  which  no  historical  monuments 
remained  to  make  known  the  state  of  society ;  the  fabulous,  uv6iy.6v, 
of  which  the  accounts  left  are  mingled  with  manifold  fictions  ;  and  the 
historical,  [otoqixov,  of  which  a  genuine  and  trustworthy  history  is  re- 
corded. The  first  extends  to  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  the  second  to 
the  introduction  of  the  Olympiad  into  chronology,  and  the  third 
through  the  subsequent  times.  To  the  second  of  these  periods  be- 
longed the  Heroes,  as  they  are  called,  and  it  is  on  that  account  often 
styled  the  heroic  age.  These  personages  are  supposed  to  have  pos- 
sessed extraordinary  powers  of  body  and  mind,  and  distinguished  merit 
is  ascribed  to  them  as  having  founded  cities  or  countries,  improved 
their  manners  and  morals,  or  otherwise  exalted  or  defended  them. 


452   '  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

§  119.  Grateful  sensibility  to  the  merits  of  ancestors  and  progeni- 
tors, was  a  most  common  cause  of  the  sort  of  deification,  with  which 
these  heroes  were  publicly  honored  after  death  ;  and  the  disposition 
towards  this  grateful  remembrance  was  quickened  and  sustained  by 
oral  traditions  respecting  their  deeds,  which  were  much  adorned  and 
exaggerated  by  the  poets.  Hence  it  came,  that  most  of  the  heroes 
were  at  last  viewed  as  sons  of  gods,  and  often  of  Jupiter  himself.  The 
veneration  for  the  heroes  was  however  less  sacred  and  less  universal 
than  the  worship  of  the  gods.  To  the  latter,  important  festivals  were 
established,  regular  priests  ordained,  appropriate  temples  erected,  and 
public  solemn  sacrifices  offered.  The  heroes,  on  the  other  hand,  re- 
ceived only  an  annual  commemoration  at  their  tombs,  or  in  the  vicin- 
ity, when  offerings  and  libations  were  presented  to  them.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  respect  paid  them  exceeded  these  limits,  and  they  were 
exalted  to  the  rank  and  honors  of  the  gods.  The  introduction  of 
solemnities  in  memory  of  heroes  is  ascribed  to  Cadmus. 

Cf.  Virg.  JEn.  iii.  301 Saltier,  in  the  Hist,  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  iv.  p.  299. 

§  120.  The  heroes  of  the  Greeks  were  of  different  ranks.  Some 
were  viewed  as  a  sort  of  household  deities,  such  as  after  their  mortal 
existence  watched  over  their  families  and  friends  and  were  honored 
and  worshiped  only  by  them.  Others,  whose  services  while  they  lived 
were  of  a  more  extended  character,  were  worshiped  by  whole  states 
and  tribes,  as  demi-gods,  and  sometimes  had  their  appropriate  festivals 
and  mysteries,  and  even  temples  and  priests.  To  such  was  ascribed 
a  more  general  superintendence  of  human  affairs.  It  is  the  latter  class 
that  we  are  here  to  notice  particularly,  as  they  were  the  most  illustri- 
ous, and  their  worship  was  not  limited  to  the  Greeks,  but  was  adopted 
also  among  the  Romans.  Of  these  only  the  principal  can  be  men- 
tioned, in  doing  which  the  order  of  time  will  be  followed. 

§  121.  The  Giants  and  Titans  (§  97)  might  correctly  be  ranked 
among  the  Heroes,  and  regarded  as  the  most  ancient.  To  the  same 
class,  too,  belong  Inachus,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Argos  ;  his  son 
Phoroneus,  to  whom  various  merits  were  ascribed ;  and  Ogyges,  a 
king  of  Boeotia,  memorable  from  the  flood  which  occurred  in  his 
reign.  This  rank  also  was  enjoyed,  especially  among  their  respective 
people  and  tribes,  by  Cecrops,  founder  of  the  Attic  state  ;  Deucalion, 
a  Thessalian  prince,  who  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  escaped  the  general 
flood  that  happened  in  his  times  ;  Amphictyon,  author  of  the  cele- 
brated council  or  confederation  of  the  early  Grecian  states ;  Cadmus, 
who  came  from  Phoenicia  to  Greece,  and  contributed  so  much  to  en- 
lighten and  improve  the  people  (P.  I.  §  34) ;  Danaus,  to  whom  the 
kingdom  of  Argos  was  indebted  for  its  advancement;  Bellcrophon, 
who  was  said  to  have  destroyed  the  monster  ChimaBra,  and  to  have 
performed  other  exploits;  Pelops,  king  in  Elis,  from  whom  Pelopon- 
nesus took  its  name,  as  his  descendants  occupied  that  peninsula  ;  and 
the  two  princes  of  Crete  by  the  name  of  Minos,  one  celebrated  as  a 
lawgiver,  the  other  as  a  warrior. 

Some  writers  argue  against  the  existence  of  two  individuals  by  the  name  of 
Minos.    See  Hock's  Kreta.    Gotting.  1823.  3  vols.  8. 

§  122.  Perseus  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  early 
Heroes.     He  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae,  educated  by  Poly- 


HEROES.       PERSEUS.     HERCULES.  453 

dectus  on  the  island  Seriphus.  His  chief  exploit  was  the  destruction 
of  the  gorgon  Medusa,  whose  head  he  struck  off  with  a  sword  given 
to  him. by  Vulcan.  From  the  blood,  that  fell,  sprang  the  winged  horse 
Pegasus,  on  which  Perseus  afterwards  passed  over  many  lands.  Of 
his  subsequent  achievements,  the  most  remarkable  were  his  changing 
king  Atlas  into  a  high  rock  or  mountain,  by  means  of  Medusa's  head, 
and  his  deliverance  of  Andromeda,  when  bound  and  exposed  to  be 
devoured  by  the  sea-monster.  In  connection  with  the  latter  adventure 
he  also  changed  into  stone  Phineus,  who  contended  with  him  for  the 
possession  of  Andromeda.  He  inflicted  the  same  afterwards  upon 
Polydectes  for  ill  treatment  towards  Danae.  To  Perseus  is  ascribed 
the  invention  of  the  discus  or  quoit,  with  which  he  inadvertently  occa- 
sioned the  death  of  his  grandfather  Acrisius.  Finally  he  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Mycenae.  After  his  assassination  by  Megapenthes,  he  was 
placed  among  the  constellations,  and  several  temples  were  erected  to 
him,  besides  a  monument  between  Argos  and  Mycenae. 

Ov.  Met.  iv.  603.  v.  1-350. The  fables  respecting  Perseus  are  by  some 

considered  as  a  modification  of  the  story  of  the  Persian  Mithras,  and  a  piece  of 
ancient  sculpture  on  one  of  the  gates  of  the  citadel  of  Mycenae  has  been  thought 
to  confirm  the  analogy. —  Creuzer,  Symbolik. —  Gell,  Itinerary  of  Greece. 

§  123.  Of  all  the  Grecian  Heroes,  no  one  obtained  such  celebrity 
as  Hercules,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmena.  Wonderful  strength  was 
ascribed  to  him  even  in  his  infantile  years.  Eurystheus  king  of  My- 
cenae imposed  upon  him  many  difficult  enterprises,  which  he  carried 
through  with  success;  particularly  those,  which  are  called  the  twelve 
labors  of  Hercules.  These  were  :  to  kill  the  Nemaean  lion  ;  to  destroy 
the  Lernaean  hydra  ;  to  catch  alive  the  Stag  with  golden  horns ;  to 
catch  the  Erymanthean  boar  ;  to  cleanse  the  stables  of  Augias  ;  to 
exterminate  the  birds  of  lake  Stymphalis  ;  to  bring  alive  the  wild  bull 
of  Crete;  to  seize  the  horses  of  Diomedes;  to  obtain  the  girdle  of  Hip- 
polyta,  queen  of  the  Amazons;  to  destroy  the  monster  Geryon;  to 
plunder  the  garden  of  Hesperides,  guarded  by  a  sleepless  dragon  ; 
and  to  bring  from  the  infernal  world  the  three-headed  dog  Cerberus. 

These  various  exploits  were  often  made  the  theme  of  description  and  allusion 
in  the  poets.  The  first  is  detailed  in  the  25th  Idyl  of  Theocritus.  —  The  twelve 
labors  are  described  in  12  verses  in  the  3d  Chiliad  of  Tzetzes  (cf.  P.  II.  §  81). 

§  124.  Many  other  exploits  were  ascribed  to  him,  by  which  he  gave 
proof  of  his  extraordinary  strength,  and  exhibited  himself  as  an  aven- 
ger and  deliverer  of  the  oppressed.  Such  were,  his  slaying  the  rob- 
ber Cacus,  so  much  dreaded  in  Italy  ;  the  deliverance  of  Prometheus, 
bound  to  a  rock  ;  the  killing  of  Busiris  and  Antaeus;  the  contest  with 
Achelous;  and  the  rescue  of  Alceste  from  the  infernal  world.  Less 
honorable  was  his  love  of  Omphale  queen  of  Lydia,  by  which  he 
sank  into  the  most  unworthy  effeminacy.  His  last  achievement  was 
the  destruction  of  the  centaur  Nessus.  Nessus  dying  gave  his  poi- 
soned tunic  to  Dejanira ;  Hercules  afterwards  receiving  it  from  her, 
and  putting  it  on,  became  so  diseased,  that  he  cast  himself  in  despair 
upon  a  funeral  pile  on  mount  QEta. 

The  worship  of  Hercules  soon  became  universal,  and  temples  were 
erected  to  his  honor,  numerous  and  magnificent.  He  received  a  great 
many  surnames  and  epithets  from  his  exploits  and  from  the  places  of 
his  worship.     Hercules  and  his  labors  afforded  the  artists  of  ancient 


454  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

times  abundant  materials  to  exercise  their  ingenuity  in  devices,  and 
they  very  often  employed  them. 

On  the  Hercules  Faniese,  see  P.  I.  §  186.  6.— For  other  principal  representations  of  Hercules, 
Montfaue.  Ant.  expl.  T.  i.  pi.  123-141',  and  Ogle's  Ant.  exp.  No.  31-40.  —  See  also  Laur.  Beseri 
Hercules  Ethnicorum,  ex.  var.  antiq.  reliquiis  delineatus.  Col.  March.  1705.  fol.  —  Heynii  Not. 
ad  Apollodor.  p.  325. — 7.  Gurlitt's  Fragment,  e.  archaeol.  Abhandl.  Ub.  Hercules.  Magd.1800.  4. 
—  Ph.  Butt.mann,  uber  d.  Mythos  des  Herakles.  Berl.  1810.  8.  —  Dupuis,  Orig.  de  tous  les  cult, 
vol.  ii.— Respecting  the  ancient  writers  on  the  Mvthol.  of  Hercules,  see  Miller's  Hist,  and  An- 
tiq. of  Dor.  Race.   Oxf.  1830.  vol.  i.  p.  523. 

Among  the  various  solutions  of  the  story  of  Hercules,  there  is  one  which  very  ingeniously  ap- 
plies the  account  of  his  twelve  labors  to  the  passage  of  the  sun  through  the  12  signs  of  the  Zodiac. 
A  view  of  this  is  given  in  Anthon's  Lempriere. 

§  125.  Theseus,  a  son  of  JEgeus  and  ^Ethra,  or  according  to 
others  a  son  of  Neptune,  was  excited  by  the  renown  of  Hercules,  to 
engage  in  enterprizes  the  most  hazardous,  and  he  successfully  accom- 
plished them.  Among  these,  was  the  extermination  of  a  multitude  of 
robbers  and  assassins  that  infested  Greece,  and  especially  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Minotaur  a  terrible  monster  of  Crete,  to  which  the  Athe- 
nians had  previously  been  compelled  to  send  seven  male  youth  and  as 
many  young  virgins  annually,  to  be  devoured  by  him.  By  the  help 
of  Ariadne,  a  daughter  of  Minos,  Theseus  was  enabled  to  trace  the 
winding  of  the  labyrinth,  in  which  the  monster  had  his  abode,  and 
put  him  to  death.  Ariadne  accompanied  him  on  his  return  to  Athens, 
but  he  ungratefully  deserted  her  on  the  island  of  Naxos. 

§  126.  The  other  principal  exploits  of  Theseus  were  his  descent 
to  the  lower  world  with  his  friend  Pirithous,  his  victory  over  the 
Amazons  (§  116),  whose  queen  Hippolyta  became  his  wife,  and  the 
assistance  he  gave  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos,  against  the  Theban 
prince  Creon.  Great  praise  was  awarded  to  him  for  improving  the 
legislation  and  the  whole  morals  of  Athens  and  Attica ;  and  yet  he 
was  for  some  time  an  exile.  The  manner  of  his  death  is  variously 
related,  but  it  seems  by  all  accounts  to  have  been  caused  by  violence. 
— The  honor  paid  to  him  was  accompanied  with  unusual  solemnities; 
a  superb  temple  was  consecrated  to  him  at  Athens,  and  a  festival  was 
established  called  e^oaa,  held  on  the  eighth  day  of  every  month, 
with  games,  and  a  regular  sacrifice  termed  OyKSiov.  Provision  was 
made  at  the  public  expense  to  enable  the  poor  to  share  in  the  festiv- 
ities of  this  occasion. 

Cf.  Plut.  in  Pit.  Thes.  —  Diod.  Sic.  L.  iv.  c.  61.  —  Ov.  Metam.  vii.  404  ;  viii.  152  ;  xii.  210. 
Mitford's  Greece,  ch.  i.  sect.  3. — For  a  view  of  the  temple  of  Theseus,  see  Plate  XVI.  fig.  3. 

§  127.  Jason  and  the  Argonauts.  One  of  the  most  celebrated 
enterprizes  of  the  heroic  ages,  one  which  forms  a  memorable  epoch 
in  the  Grecian  history,  a  sort  of  separation-point  between  the  fabu- 
lous and  the  authentic,  was  the  Argonautic  expedition.  This  was  a 
voyage  from  Greece  to  Colchis  in  order  to  obtain  the  golden  fleece, 
conducted  by  Jason,  the  son  of  ^Eson,  king  of  Thessaly.  The  un- 
dertaking was  imposed  upon  him  by  his  uncle  Pelias.  He  invited 
the  most  illustrious  heroes  of  Greece  to  unite  in  the  expedition,  and 
among  those  who  joined  him  were  Hercules,  Castor  and  Pollux, 
Pelcus,  Pirithous,  and  Theseus.  The  vessel  built  for  the  purpose 
was  named  Argo,  which  after  various  adverse  events  arrived  at  ^Ea, 
the  capital  of  Colchis.  iEetes  was  then  king  of  Colchis,  and  prom- 
ised to  Jason  the  golden  fleece  only  on  certain  most  difficult  conditions. 

§  128.  Although  Jason  fulfilled  these  conditions,  yet  ^Eetes  was 
unwilling  to  permit  him  to  take  the  desired  booty,  and  sought  to  slay 


HEROES.       JASON.     CASTOR  AND  POLLUX.  455 

Jason  and  his  companions.  This  purpose  was  betrayed  by  Medea, 
the  king's  daughter,  by  whose  assistance  and  magical  art  Jason  slew 
the  dragon  that  guarded  the  fleece,  and  seized  the  treasure.  He  im- 
mediately fled  accompanied  by  Medea,  but  was  pursued  by  her  fa- 
ther. Medea  put  to  death  her  brother  Absyrtus,  cut  his  corpse  into 
pieces  and  strewed  them  in  the  way,  in  order  to  stop  her  father's 
pursuit.  Jason  was  afterwards  faithless  to  her,  and  married  Creusa, 
or,  as  others  name  her,  Glauce,  a  daughter  of  Creon,  king  of  Corinth. 
Medea  took  vengeance  by  causing  the  death  of  Creusa  and  also  of 
the  children  she  had  herself  borne  to  Jason.  After  death  Jason  re- 
ceived the  worship  bestowed  on  heroes,  and  had  a  temple  at  Abdera. 

See  the  poems  on  the  Argon.  Exped.  by  Orpheus,  Apollonius  Rhodius,  and  Valerius  Flaccus. 
(Cf.  P.  II.  §  48,  73,  376.)  —  Banter,  or  the  Argon.  Exped.  in  Mem.  de  VJicad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  it. 
p.  54  ;  xn.  123  ;  xiv.  41.  —  Heynii  Not.  ad.  Appolodor.  p.  177. 

Various  explanations  have  been  put  upon  the  story  of  the  Argonauts.  One  writer  thinks 
the  golden  fleece  was  the  raw  silk  of  the  East.  Hagcr,  Pantheon  Chinois.  —  Another  thinks 
the  phrase  arose  from  the  habit  of  collecting  gold,  washed  down  from  the  mountains,  by  put- 
ting sheepskins  in  the  channel  of  the  streams.  Mitford,  ch.  i.  sect.  3.  —  Bryant  (Anal.  Anc. 
Myth.)  considers  the  whole  story  as  a  tradition  of  the  flood. 

§  129  m.  Castor  and  Pollux,  who  were  among  the  Argonauts,  were  twin 
sons  of  Jupiter  and  Leda  and  brothers  to  Helena.  On  account  of  their  de- 
scent, they  were  called  Dioscuri  (Jiooxovqoi),  although  according  to  some, 
Castor  was  the  son  of  Tyndarus,  the  husband  of  Leda.  Castor  distinguished 
himself  in  the  management  of  horses,  and  Pollux  in  boxing  and  wrestling. 
The  last  exploit  of  the  Dioscuri  was  their  contest  with  Lynceus  and  his  broth- 
er Idas.  Castor  was  slain  by  Lynceus,  and  Lynceus  by  Pollux  ;  and  as  Idas 
was  about  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  brother,  Jupiter  smote  him  with  light- 
ning. —  Pollux  obtained  from  Jupiter  the  honors  of  deification  and  immortal- 
ity in  conjunction  with  his  brother  Castor.  Both  were  placed  among  the 
constellations  and  represented  by  the  Gemini  or  twins  in  the  zodiac.  Both 
the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  consecrated  temples  to  them,  and  they  were  es- 
pecially invoked  and  worshiped  by  mariners. 

1.  They  were  said  to  be  placed  among  the  marine  gods,  from  having  cleared 
the  Hellespont  and  the  neighboring  seas  from  pirates.  They  were  invoked 
as  ' Anornonoi,  averters  of  evil ;  and  white  lambs  were  sacrificed  to  them. — 
The  Romans  honored  them  especially  for  services  supposed  to  be  received 
from  them  in  pressing  dangers,  as  in  the  battle  with  the  Latins  near  lake  Re- 
gillus.  They  constantly  swore  by  their  names  ;  the  oath  used  by  the  women 
was  ^castor,  or  by  the  temple  of  Castor  ;  that  of  the  men  was  Mdepol,  or  by 
the  temple  of  Pollux.  % 

2.  The  festival  called  Dioscuria  (dioaxovtiia)  was  in  honor  of  these  brothers, 
celebrated  especially  by  the  Spartans.  On  this  occasion  the  gifts  of  Bacchus 
were  very  freely  shared.  It  was  amidst  the  drinking  at  the  feast  in  honor  of 
Castor  and  Pollux,  which  Alexander  held  in  Bactra,  that  he  madly  slew  his 
devoted  friend  Clitus.  —  This  festival  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  had  the 
same  origin  as  the  famous  mysteries  of  the  Cabiri,  which  were  celebrated 
particularly  at  Samothrace,  and  were  thought  to  have  great  efficacy  in  pro- 
tecting from  shipwreck  and  storms. 

O.  S.  Faber,  Mysteries  of  the  Cabiri.  Oxf.  1803.  2  vols.  8.  —  Freret,  Les  Cabires,  in  the 
Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxvn.  p.  9. 

§  130  u.  Heroes  of  the  Theban  War.  In  the  early  history  of  Greece,  the 
war  of  Thebes,  which  is  dated  upwards  of  1200  years  before  Christ,  is  much 
celebrated.  Without  relating  its  incidents  we  shall  here  only  name  some  of 
the  principal  heroes  of  the  time.  Among  these  were  Etiocles  and  Polynices, 
the  two  sons  of  CEdipus,  king  of  Thebes,  whose  own  private  story  was  s^ 
tragical.  The  war  arose  from  the  dissension  of  these  brothers,  who  slew  each 
other  in  a  single  combat,  and  were  afterwards  honored  as  demigods.  Several 
famous  chiefs,  as  Capancus,  Tydeus,  Hippomedon,  Parthenopceus,  united  with 
Adrastus,  king  of  Argos  and  father-in-law  of  Polynices,  to  take  part  in  the 
war.  The  events  connected  with  it  furnished  the  poets  with  matter  for  nu- 
merous tragedies- — The  second  enterprize  against  Thebes,  ten  years  later,  was 
more  fortunate  in  its  issue,  but  less  celebrated.     It  was  undertaken  by  the  sons 


456  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

and  descendants  of  those  slain  in  the  first  war,  and  was  therefore  termed  the? 
war  of  the  ^Enlyovoi.  The  most  illustrious  of  these  were  Alcmaeon,  Ther- 
sander,  Polydorus,  and  Thesimenes. 

Paus.  ix.^.—Apollod.  i.  3.—Diod.  iv.— Gillies,  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  i. The  Theban  war  was 

one  of  the  favorite  themes  of  ancient  poets.  Antlmachus  of  Colophon,  a  Greek  poet  and  con- 
temporary with  Cbcsrilus,  wrote  a  poem  in  24  books  on  the  subject  :  the  fragments  have  been 
collected.     Cf.  P.  II.  §  19.— The  poem  of  the  Latin  poet  Statius  is  still  extant.     Cf.  P.  II.  §  378. 

§  131.  Whilst  the  Thebans  and  the  Argives  were  the  sport  of  fortune,  Tantalus,  and  his  de- 
scendants the  Tantalidcs,  were  equally  afflicted  by  various  misfortunes,  occasioned  by  the  im- 
piety of  this  prince.  Being  of  immortal  descent,  he  was  honored  with  a  visit  from  the  gods 
during  an  excursion  they  made  upon  earth.  In  order  to  prove  the  divinity  and  power  of  his 
guests,  he  served  up  among  other  meats  the  limbs  of  his  son  Pelofs,  whom  he  had  cruelly  mur- 
dered. The  gods  perceived  his  perfidious  barbarity,  and  refused  to  touch  the  dish  ;  but  Ceres, 
whom  the  recent  loss  of  her  daughter  had  rendered  inattentive  and  melancholy,  ate  one  of  the 
shoulders.  In  compassion  to  the  fate  of  the  young  prince,  Jupiter  restored  him  to  life  ;  and  in- 
stead of  the  shoulder  which  Ceres  had  devoured  substituted  one  of  ivory,  which  possessed  the 
property  of  healing  by  its  touch  ail  kinds  of  diseases. 

As  a  punishment  for  his  cruelty,  Tantalus  was  condemned  in  hell  (§  34)  with  an  insatiable 
hunger  and  thirst  in  the  midst  of  abundance. — He  had  a  daughter  Niobe,  who  fell  a  sacrifice  to 
her  intolerable  vanity.  Having  a  great  number  of  children,  she  had  the  temerity  to  treat  Latona, 
who  had  only  two,  with  overbearing  arrogance.  Provoked  at  this  insolence,  Latona  applied  to 
Apollo  and  Diana,  who  (§38)  destroyed  all  her  boasted  offspring  except  Chloris  ;  and  Niobe  was 
so  shocked  at  her  misfortune,  that  she  was  changed  into  a  rock. 

Pelops  quitted  Phrygia  and  repaired  to  Elis,  where  he  became  enamored  of  Hippodamia,  the 
daughter  of  king  CEnomaus  ;  but  this  monarch,  having  been  informed  that  he  should  perish  by 
the  hand  of  his  son-in-law,  determined  to  marry  his  daughter  to  him  only  who  could  outrun 
him  in  the  chariot-race  ;  and  those  who  entered  the  list  were  to  forfeit  their  lives  if  conquered. 
Undaunted  at  this  condition,  Pelops  boldly  undertook  the  combat,  and  to  secure  his  success,  he 
previously  bribed  Myrtiles  the  charioteer  of  CEnomaus,  who  disposed  the  axle-tree  of  the  chariot 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  break  it  on  the  course  ;  and  the  unfortunate  king  being  thrown  to  the 
ground,  killed  himself.  CEnomaus  thus  left  his  kingdom  and  daughter  to  Pelops,  who  acquired 
great  celebrity,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  peninsula  in  the  southern  part  of  Greece.  Pelops,  af- 
ter death,  received  divine  honors.  He  had  an  altar  in  the  grove  Altis  at  Olympia,  and  was  much 
revered,  even  above  other  heroes  (Pind.  Olymp.  i.  146.  Pausan.  v.  13).  His  descendants  were 
called  Pelopidm.  His  two  sons,  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  were  celebrated  for  their  mutual  hatred 
and  crimes.  But  his  two  grandsons,  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus,  the  Atrida:,  acquired  a  more 
honorable  renown. 

§  132  u.  Heroes  of  the  Trojan  War.  Of  all  the  wars  of  Grecian  story, 
none  is  more  famous  than  that  of  Troy,  which  was  the  first  military  campaign 
of  the  Greeks  out  of  the  limits  of  their  own  country.  The  immediate  occa- 
sion of  it  was  the  seizure  of  Helen,  wife  of  Menelaus,  king  of  Lacedaemon, 
by  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy.  The  siege  continued,  according  to  the 
common  account,  including  the  preparation  and  marches,  ten  years,  with  va- 
rious successes  and  disasters,  until  at  last  the  Greeks  became  masters  of  the 
city  by  stratagem.  The  chiefs  who  were  engaged  in  this  enterprize  acquired 
the  highest  renown  in  Greece,  and  the  poetry  of  Homer  has  secured  their 
everlasting  remembrance.  The  chief  commander  was  Agamemnon,  and  the 
more  illustrious  of  the  heroes  with  him  were  Achilles,  Ulysses,  Diomedes,  Me- 
nelaus, Ajax  son  of  Telamwn,  and  Ajar,  son  of  Oileus,  Idomeneus,  and  Nestor. 
On  the  side  of  the  Trojans,  Hector,  *8Eneas,  and  Antenor  were  among  the  most 
celebrated. 

The  war  of  Troy  was  not  more  memorable  in  itself,  than  for  its  conse- 
quences. It  gave  a  new  spring  to  Grecian  culture  (P.  I.  §  40).  The  arts  of 
war  were  greatly  improved.  Numerous  and  important  civil  revolutions  took 
place  in  most  of  the  states.  But  all  this  pertains  to  authentic  history  rather 
than  to  the  mythic  tales. 

See  Mitfurd,  ch.  i.  sect.  4.  —  Gillies,  ch.  i.  iii.  —  Class.  Jov.ru.  v.  14.  18.  vi.  25.  ix.  605,  626. 
xviii.  141. —Cf.  P.  II.  $  50.—  Bryant  (in  a  Dissertation  on  the  war  of  Troy,  Lond.  1799.  4)  has 
maintained  that  the  whole  tale  is  mere  fable,  and  that  there  never  was  any  such  war. 

$133.  At  a  much  later  period,  after  the  Roman  imperial  power  was  established,  it  became  a 
regular  custom  to  deify  the  deceased  emperors,  as  has  been  already  mentioned  (§  94).  This  ser- 
vile and  impious  adulation  was  first  practiced  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks  towards  the  successors  of 
Alexander.  It  was  sometimes  extended  to  the  governors  of  provinces.  The  Roman  senate  made 
it  their  business  by  solemn  decree  to  place  every  deceased  emperor  in  the  number  of  the  gods, 
and  the  ceremonies  of  his  Apotheosis  were  united  with  those  of  his  funeral.  But  as  the  actions 
of  each  one  were  now  faithfully  recorded  by  history,  it  was  impossible  to  connect  with  the  dei- 
fied name  such  fabulous  and  mysterious  tales,  as  togive  the  divinities,  thus  established  by  law, 
much  hold  upon  the  popular  feelings.  The  list  of  imperial  demigods,  therefore,  is  of  compara- 
tively little  importance  in  a  view  of  the  ancient  mythology.— This  deification  of  the  emperors, 
it  is  very  likely,  gave  rise  to  the  beatification  of  saint*,  practiced  by  the  Roman  Catholics. 

See  Middlcton's  Letter  from  Rome,  shewing  the  conformity  between  Popery  and  Paganism. 
Lond. 1729.  4.  Also  in  his  Miscellaneous  Works.  Lond.1755.  5  vols.  8.— Cf.  Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall 
&c.  ch.  iii.— Respecting  the  ceremonies  attending  the  Apotheosis,  or  Consccratio,  see  P.  I V.  $  343. 


PART   IV 


GREEK    AND    ROMAN 


ANTIQUITIES 


39 


PLATE     XIII. 


GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 


Introduction. 

§  1.  Gr^ecia  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
Graicus,  a  son  of  Thessalus,  his  descendants  being  called  Graici) 
rqaixol.  The  Graici,  however,  were  only  a  single  tribe  of  the  inhab- 
itants, some  of  whom  planted  themselves  in  Italy.  The  country  orig- 
inally seems  to  have  had  no  common  name,  comprehending  properly 
all  its  tribes.  Graecia  was  a  name  used  by  the  Romans,  not  by  the 
inhabitants  themselves.  It  was  called  by  them  Hellas,  from  Hellen, 
a  son  of  Deucalion,  and  also  Achaia,  Pelasgia,  Ionia  ;  and  the  peo- 
ple were  called  by  the  ancient  writers  Achteans,  Argivi,  Danai,  Hel- 
lenes, Pelasgians,  and  Ionians.  These  names  of  the  country  and 
the  occupants,  however,  were  not  employed  always  in  a  uniform 
sense,  but  seem  to  have  referred  in  their  general  application  chiefly 
to  the  more  important  colonies  or  communities,  which  originally  oc- 
cupied and  peopled  the  land. 

§  2.  Greece,  in  the  most  comprehensive  sense  of  the  term,  was 
bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  Mediterranean  sea,  parts  of  which 
were  distinguished  by  the  names  of  ^Egean,  Cretan,  Ionian,  and 
Adriatic  ;  on  the  north  it  extended  to  Illyricum  and  Thrace.  In  a 
more  limited  sense  it  did  not  include  Macedonia ;  but  contained,  in 
the  Peloponnesus,  Sicyon,  Argos,  Laconia,  Messenia,  Elis,  Arcadia, 
Achaia,  and  Corinth,  and  in  Greece  Proper,  Attica,  Megara,  Boeotia, 
Locris,  Doris,  Phocis,  vEtolia,  Thessalia,  and  Epirus. — Ionia  and 
^Eolia  were  Grecian  colonies  in  Asia  Minor.  Greece  is  otherwise 
divided  also,  into  the  Peloponnesus,  Hellas,  North  Greece,  and  the 
Grecian  islands.     (Cf.  P.  V.  §  72,) 

§  3.  It  may  be  well  to  mention  the  principal  cities  which  were 
distinguished  for  their  power  and  cultivation.  These  were  Athens, 
in  Attica;  Sparta  or  Lacedaemon,  in  Laconia;  Argos,  Mycenae,  and 
Corinth,  in  the  territory  of  Argolis  ;  Thebes,  in  Bceotia ;  Megalo- 
polis, in  Arcadia.  The  more  eminent  foreign  or  colonial  cities  of 
the  Greeks  were  the  following ;  Miletus  and  Ephesus  in  Ionia ;  Mi- 
tylene,  Chios,  Samos,  and  Rhodus,  in  the  islands  near  Asia  Minor ; 
Byzantium  on  the  Thracian  coast ;  Corcyra  on  the  island  of  that 
name  ;  Tarentum,  Sybaris,  and  Locri  in  Southern  Italy  ;  Syracuse, 
Agrigentum,  Gela,  and  Leontium  in  Sicily  ;  Syrene  in  Africa.  In 
later  times  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  Antioch  in  Syria,  and  Seleucis  in 
Chaldea  on  the  Tigris,  were  considered  as  Grecian  cities. 

§  4.  The  form  of  government  in  Greece  underwent,  in  the  course 
of  its  history,  three  remarkable  changes.   In  the  earliest  heroic  ages; 


460  GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES, 

the  several  tribes  or  communities  obeyed  petty  princes  or  chiefs  of 
their  own  choice.  Subsequently  monarchies  properly  so  called  were 
established  in  Sicyon,  Argos,  Attica,  Thebes,  Arcadia,  Thessaly, 
Corinth,  Lacedsemon,  Elis,  ^Etolia,  iEgialea,  or  Achaia.  But  the 
Greeks  were  in  the  most  flourishing  condition  during  the  time  of 
the  two  republics  of  Athens  and  Sparta.  —  The  Achaean  and  Etolian 
league,  the  kingdom  of  Epirus,  and  the  political  constitution  of  the 
Greeks  in  Asia  Minor,  are  also  very  valuable  portions  of  the  Grecian 
history. 

§  5.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Greece,  who  probably  came  from 
Thrace  and  who  were  followed  next  by  the  Pelasgi  (cf.  P.  I.  §  33, 
34)  and  the  Hellenes,  lived  in  a  very  rude  state,  without  any  com- 
mercial relations  or  even  common  laws.  They  practiced  upon  each 
other  constant  robbery  and  violence,  and  were  exposed  to  frequent 
attacks  from  the  occupants  of  the  neighboring  islands.  Colonies 
from  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Asia  Minor,  gave  the  first  impulse  to 
their  culture,  which  was  aided  by  the  commencement  of  navigation. 
The  famous  Argonautic  expedition  was  one  of  the  most  memorable 
exploits  in  the  navigation  of  this  early  period,  occurring  about  80 
years  before  the  Trojan  war.  About  fifty  years  before  the  same,  the 
first  formal  state  constitution  was  adopted,  in  Crete,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Minos ;  not  with  the  perfection,  however,  which  was  secured 
at  Athens,  through  the  influence  of  Cecrops,  and  after  him  Theseus. 
The  people  of  Attica  were  the  first  to  adopt  a  more  peaceful,  quiet, 
and  frugal  mode  of  life;  and  this  example  influenced  the  inhabitants 
of  other  regions  to  renounce  their  irregular  habits  and  predatory  ex- 
cursions. 

§  6.  Hereby  was  occasioned  a  more  free  intercourse  between  the 
different  people  of  Greece,  and  a  greater  union  in  regard  to  objects 
of  common  interest,  particularly  in  reference  to  murders  and  depre- 
dations. A  proof  of  this  was  given  by  the  fact  of  so  many  states 
ioining  to  avenge  the  injury  of  Menelaus  (committed  against  him  by 
*aris  in  the  seduction  of  Helen)  and  carrying  on  together  the  wrar 
against  Troy.  This  war  became  a  means  of  the  further  advance- 
ment of  Grecian  culture,  although  it  was  also  the  occasion  of  many 
troubles  and  revolutions  among  the  states  at  home,  and  thus  led  to  the 
migration  of  many  Greeks  to  neighboring  islands  and  to  Asia.  Fi- 
nally they  became  weary  of  wars  and  tumult,  began  to  love  peace, 
law,  and  social  ease,  and  united  in  adopting  public  solemnities  and- 
religious  rites,  and  maintaining  social  and  civil  order. 

§  7.  Hitherto  the  form  of  government  had  been  chiefly  of  a  mili- 
tary character ;  the  chieftain  who  commanded  in  war  was  the  civil 
head  of  his  people  ;  but  now  a  more  monarchical  form  was  assumed. 
Soon  however  the  kings  abused  their  power,  and  by  their  tyranny 
forced  their  subjects  to  throw  off  the  yoke.  Love  of  liberty  then  be- 
came the  ruling  passion  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  very  name  of  king 
was  odious.  It  was  this  spirit  which  gave  rise  to  a  state  of  things  in 
which  the  Greeks  sustained  an  eminence  surpassing  all  other  nations. 
Through  the  mutual  assistance  rendered  each  other  in  acquiring  in- 
dependence, the  jealousies  and  discords  which  had  previously  reigned 
were  in  great  measure  allayed.     Amphictyo^  third  king  of  Athens, 


INTRODUCTION.  461 

had  united  several  of  the  states  in  a  sort  of  confederacy  (cf.  §  105), 
and  this  compact  afterwards  became  much  more  close  and  strong. 
An  excess  of  population  in  this  period  of  tranquility  and  prosperity 
was  prevented  by  sending  out  various  colonies  to  Italy,  Asia,  and 
Africa. 

§  8.  Among  the  free  states,  Sparta  or  Lacedaemon  enjoyed  first 
the  advantages  of  a  rigid  and  at  the  same  time  salutary  system  of 
laws,  which  however  in  some  particulars  evinced  the  imperfect  cul- 
ture of  the  age.  Lycurgus,  B.  C.  about  820,  the  author  of  this  code, 
had  previously  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  manners  and  in- 
stitutions of  the  Cretans  and  Egyptians.  Without  introducing  any 
violent  changes,  or  even  abolishing  in  form  the  existing  twofold  regal 
office,  he  placed  the  relations  of  rulers,  magistrates,  and  people,  in  a 
new  and  improved  attitude.  His  morals  and  precepts,  which  were  in 
part  very  severe,  tended,  as  did  his  whole  political  system,  to  form  a 
brave,  constant,  and  warlike  people,  and  thus  cause  them  to  be  feared 
and  respected.  His  design  was  accomplished,  and  Sparta  acquired 
in  these  respects  a  high  preeminence  over  the  other  states. 

See  J.  K.  F.  Manso,  Sparta,  ein  Versuch  zur  Erklaerung  d.  Geschichte  und  Verfassung  die- 
ses Staats.    Leipz.  1800-1805.  3  Th.  8.—  Cf.  references  given  P.  II.  $  7. 7(d). 

§  9.  Next  to  Sparta,  Athens  became  distinguished.  Being  ad- 
vanced in  culture  by  the  legislation  of  Solon,  B.  C.  about  594,  and 
subsequently  acquiring  glory  and  power  from  the  defeat  of  the  Per- 
sians at  Marathon,  she  became  more  and  more  jealous  of  the  superi- 
ority of  Sparta.  This  jealousy  led  to  mutual  animosities  and  finally 
to  the  well  known  Peloponnesian  war,  which  was  carried  on  for  eight 
and  twenty  years  (from  431  to  404  B.  C.)  between  Athens  and  Spar- 
ta, and  in  which  almost  all  the  other  states  of  Greece  took  part  on 
one  side  or  the  other.  Sparta  finally  was  triumphant,  but  her  glory 
did  not  endure  long  after  this.  Athens  rose  far  higher  in  political 
and  literary  character,  and  became  the  residence  of  refined  manners, 
useful  knowledge,  and  cultivated  taste  in  the  arts. 

Wm.  Young's  Political  History  of  Athens.  —  Trans,  into  Germ.  Leips.  1777.8. Athenian 

Letters,  or  the  epistolary  correspondence  of  an  agent  of  the  king  of  Persia,  residing  at  Athens 
during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Lond.  1799.  2  vols.  8.  —  Trans,  into  Germ,  by  jP.  Jacobs,  Leipz. 
1800.  —  Bulwcr,  Rise  and  Fall  of  Athens.  —  Cf.  P.  II.  $  7.  7(d). 

§  10.  The  progress  and  decline  of  culture  in  Greece  has  already 
been  exhibited  in  the  Archaeology  of  Literature  (P.  I.  §  33ss.  61ss.), 
and  here  it  is  only  necessary  to  allude  to  the  causes,  which  conspired 
to  render  Greece  so  eminent  in  this  respect.  Some  of  the  causes 
were,  besides  the  highly  propitious  climate  of  the  land,  its  numerous 
population,  whose  very  necessities  as  well  as  mutual  emulation  ex- 
cited and  fostered  a  spirit  of  activity  and  invention  ;  its  enjoyment 
of  an  encouraging  and  ennobling  liberty  ;  its  commercial  intercourse, 
and  the  general  prosperity  which  resulted.  These,  with  other  favor- 
able circumstances,  raised  the  Greeks  to  a  nation  which  is  even  to 
the  present  day  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  history,  and  whose 
works  in  literature  and  art  are  still  valued  as  our  best  models. 

§  11.  Hence  our  diligent  attention  is  properly  bestowed  on  the  an- 
tiquities of  the  Greeks,  by  which  we  become  acquainted  with  their 
religious,  civil,  military,  and  domestic  institutions  and  customs.  The 
general  utility  of  such  knowledge,  especially  as  an  aid  in  the  inves- 
39* 


462  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES, 

tigation  of  history,  language,  criticism,  mythology,  and  art,  com* 
mends  the  study  of  antiquities  to  every  one,  who  engages  at  all  in 
classical  pursuits.  It  adds  to  the  interest  and  value  of  Greek  an-* 
tiquities,  that,  among  all  the  various  objects  of  knowledge,  the  lan- 
guage, literature,  religion,  history,,  and  whole  genius  of  the  Greeks, 
hold  so  high  a  place  in  point  of  relative  importance.  Some  acquaint- 
ance with  what  is  denominated  their  antiquities  is  essential  to  enable 
us  to  enter  much  into  these  subjects,  to  comprehend  well  their  spirit 
and  character,  or  to  contemplate  the  various  monuments  of  their  lit- 
erature and  art  in  a  definite  and  correct  view. 

On  the  utility  of  the  study  of  classical  antiquities,  we  would  introduce  the 
following  remarks,  abridged  from  Rollin  (as  cited  P.  III.  §  5).  —  "  To  a  cer- 
tain extent,  this  study  is  indispensable  for  all  who  make  pretensions  to  edu- 
cation. Without  it,  there  are  a  multitude  of  expressions,  allusions,  and  com- 
parisons which  they  cannot  understand  ;  without  it,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to 
advance  a  step  even  in  reading  history,  without  being  arrested  by  difficulties 
which  a  tolerable  knowledge  of  antiquity  would  readily  solve.  Like  all  other 
studies,  when  carried  too  far,  it  threatens  with  its  dangers.  There  is  some- 
times connected  with  it,  a  sort  of  learning,  abstruse  and  badly  conducted, 
which  is  occupied  only  on  questions  equally  vain  and  perplexing,  which  on 
every  subject  searches  for  that  which  is  least  known  and  most  difficult  to  be 
comprehended.  Seneca  (de  Brev.  Vit.  c.  14)  more  than  once  complains  that 
this  vitiated  taste,  which  originated  with  the  Greeks,  had  passed  over  to  the 
Romans.  Juvenal  also  (L.  iii.  Sat.  7)  ridicules  the  corrupt  taste  of  his  con- 
temporaries, who  required  that  a  preceptor  should  be  able  to  reply  without 
preparation  to  a  thousand  absurd  and  ridiculous  questions.  It  is  to  know  ve- 
ry little  of  the  worth  of  time,  and  grossly  to  misapply  one's  talents  and  exer- 
tions, to  occupy  them  in  the  study  of  things  obscure  and  difficult  and  at  the 
same  time,  as  Cicero  says  (Off.  L.  i.  n.  19),  unnecessary  and  sometimes  even 
vain  and  frivolous.  Good  sense  will  lead  the  student  carefully  to  shun  this 
danger.  He  will  remember  the  sentiment  of  Quintilian  (L.  i.  c.  8),  that  it  is 
a  foolish  and  pitiable  vanity,  which  prides  itself  in  knowing  upon  every  sub- 
ject all  that  inferior  writers  have  said  ;  that  such  an  occupation  consumes  un- 
profitably  the  time  and  strength  which  ought  to  be  reserved  for  better  things  ; 
and  that  of  all  the  eminent  qualifications  of  a  good  teacher,  that  of  knowing 
how  to  be  ignorant  of  certain  things  is  by  no  means  the  least. 

After  these  precautions,  we  cannot  too  highly  recommend  the  study  of  an- 
tiquities either  to  students  or  teachers.  High  attainments  in  this  very  com- 
prehensive branch  of  learning  ought  to  be  the  aim  of  every  youth,  who  pro- 
poses to  pursue  important  studies  himself,  or  to  direct  those  of  others.  The 
extent  or  difficulty  of  the  work  should  dishearten  no  one.  By  devoting  every 
day  a  fixed  portion  of  time  to  the  reading  of  ancient  authors,  intellectual 
riches  will  be  amassed,  little  by  little,  which  will  afterwards  be  a  source  of 
astonishment  even  to  the  possessors  themselves.  It  is  only  necessary  to  make 
the  commencement,  to  employ  time  profitably,  and  to  note  down  observations 
in  order  and  with  accuracy. 

Most  of  the  topics  connected  with  antiquities  might  be  embraced  under 
seven  or  eight  heads:  religion;  political  government;  war;  navigation; 
monuments  and  public  edifices;  games,  combats,  shows  ;  arts  and  sciences  ; 
the  customs  of  common  life,  such  as  pertain  to  repasts,  dress,  &c.  Under 
each  of  these  divisions  are  included  many  subdivisions.  For  example,  under 
the  head  of  religion  are  comprised  the  gods,  priests,  temples,  vases,  furniture, 
instruments  employed  in  different  religious  ceremonies,  sacrifices,  feasts,- 
vows  and  oblations,  oracles  and  omens  ;  and  so  of  the  other  heads." 

See  K.  H.  Milhauser,  Ueber  Fhiloloaie,  Alterthumswissenschaft,  und  Alterthumsstudium. 
Fur  Studirende.  Lps.  1837.  8.  pp.  83.  —  Burgess,  Essay  on  the  Study  of  Antiquities.  Oxf. 
1782.  8.  — Cf.  P.  I.  $£9. 

§  12.  The  sources  of  Greek  antiquities  are  in  part  the  classical 
writers,  and  especially  the  historians,  more  particularly  such  of  them* 


INTRODUCTION. 


463 


as  give  details  of  the  whole  constitution  of  Grecian  society,  the  man- 
ners, customs,  and  modes  of  thinking  and  feeling.  Among  the  class- 
ical writers,  the  poets  also  must  be  considered  as  sources  of  informa- 
tion on  this  subject,  especially  the  epic  poets,  whose  narrations,  not- 
withstanding their  fictitious  ornaments,  have  some  truth  for  a  basis, 
and  whose  representations  give  much  insight  into  the  character  and 
views  of  the  people  of  the  times.  But  another  important  source  is 
found  in  the  remaining  monuments  of  art ;  inscriptions,  coins,  stat- 
ues, bas-reliefs,  gems,  and  vessels  of  various  kinds.  These,  being 
sensible  objects,  give  us  a  more  distinct  and  complete  conception  of 
many  points  than  could  possibly  be  gained  from  mere  verbal  de- 
scriptions, and  are,  moreover,  of  great  value  as  illustrations  of  beau- 
ty and  taste. 

§  13.  Various  modern  writers  have  collected  from  these  sources 
the  scattered  items  of  information,  and  arranged  them  methodically 
for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  antiquities, 
and  apply  it  in  the  study  of  Greek  literature.  Other  writers  have 
investigated  particular  topics  in  a  more  full  and  extended  manner. 


1.  For  an  account  of  works  of  both  kinds, 
see  J.  A.  Fabricii  Bibliographia  antiquaria. 
(Stud,  et  op.  P.  Shaffshausen.)  Hamb.  1760.  4. 
cap.  ii. — JV'ttecA's  Beschreibung  des  &c<  which 
is  cited  below  (Th.  i.  p.  35). — Krebs,  Handbuch 
der  philolol.  Blicherkunde  (Bd.  ii.  p.  211).— Cf. 
Suher's  Allg.  Theorie,  Alien. — Meusel's  Biblio* 
theca  Historica,  vol.  3d,  as  cited  P.  II*  §240, 
enumerates  the  writers  on  Antiquities. 

2.  The  most  important  collection  of  particu- 
lar treatises  on  Greek  Antiquities  is  Jac.  Gro- 
novii  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Graecarum.  Lug. 
Bat.  1697-1702. 13  vols.  fol.  Ven.  1732.  An  ac- 
count of  the  contents  is  given  in  the  work  of 
Fabricius,  just  cited. — A  mass  of  valuable  mat- 
ter relating  to  various  branches  of  Greek  Anti- 
quities, with  illustrations  taken  from  ancient 
monuments,  is  found  in  Montfaucon's  Antiq. 
Expliq.  cited  P.  III.  §  12.  2  (d).  An  abridge- 
ment of  this  in  German,  bv  J.F.  Roth,  was  pub- 
lished Xurnb.  1807.  fol.  with  150  plates. 

3.  Among  the  best  Manuals  and  Compends 
on  the  subject,  are  the  following: — Everh.  Fei- 
thii  Antiquitatum  Homericarum  Librr  iv.  (ed. 
FA.  Stbber)  Argent.  1743.  8.— Jo.  Phil.  Pfieffer, 
Libri  iv.  Antiq.  Grrccarum.  Lpz.  1708.  4.  — 
Lamb.  Bos,  Antiq.  Grsecarum,  prcecipue  Attica- 
rum,  Descriptio  brevis  (with  obs.  of  Leisner  and 
Zeunius).  Lpz.  1787.  8.  (Eng.  trans,  by  Stock- 
dale)  Lond.  1772.  8.  —  Sig.  Havercamp,  Antiq. 
Grascarum,  prsecipue  Atticarum,  Descriptio  bre- 
vis. Lug.  Bat.  1740.  8.  —  P.  F.  A.  Nitsch,  Be- 
schreibung des  ha3uslichen,gottesdienstlichen, 
sittlichen,  politischen,  kriegerischen  und  wis- 
senschaftlichen  Zustandes  d.  Griechen,  &c. 
(fortgesetz  von  Hopfner)  Erf.  1791-1800.  3  vols. 
8.  with  a  4th  vol.  by  Kvpke.  Erf.1806.  Cf. Class. 
Journ.  v.  10.  —  JVifcscA  (same),  Entwurf  der 
Griech.  Alterthumer.  Altenb.1791. 8.— Sthaajps 
Antiquitsten  und  Archceologie  der  Griechen 
und  Rb'mer.  Magdeb.  1820.  8.  —  J.  Robinson's 
Archaaologia  Grasca,  or  the  Antiquities  of  Greece 
&c.  Lond.  1827.  8.  —  J.  Potter,  Archaeologia 
Graeca,  or  the  Antiquities  of  Greece.  Oxf.  1699. 
2  vols.  8.  Same  work,  ed.  G.  Dunbar.  Edinb. 
18-20.  with  additions  and  corrections  by  Authon. 
N.Yk.1825.  8.  with  notes,  maps,  &c.  by  J.  Buyd. 
Glasg.  1837.  12.  valuable.    Same  work  in  Ger- 


man, with  additions  bv  /.  /.  Rambach.  Halle, 
1777-78.  3  vols.  Cf.  P.  I.  §  32.— A  compendium 
of  Grecian  antiquities  by  C.  D.  Cleveland.  Bost. 
1631. 12. — Abriss  der  Griech.  und  Rom.  Alter- 
thiimer,  von  Chr.  Fried.  Haacke.  Stendal  1821. 
12  (very  brief). 

4.  The  following  are  not  designed  for  manu- 
als, but  contain  highly  interesting  pictures  of 
Grecian  antiquity. — ./.  Jac.  Barthelemy,  Voyage 
du  jeune  Anacharsis  en  Grece.  ed.  StereoU 
Par.  1820.  7  vols.  12.  Engl,  transl.  by  W.  Beau- 
•mojif.Lond.1806.  Cf.  P.II.  §153.  In  Germ. with 
notes  by  J.  E.  Biester.  Berl.  1792.  7  vols.  8.  — 
J.  D.  Hartmann's  Versuch  einer  Kulturge- 
schichte  der  vornehmsten  Volkerschaften 
Griechenlands.  Lemgo  1796  &  1800.  2  Bde.  8. 

5.  The  following  works  also  may  be  con- 
sulted with  advantage  on  ditferent  points  « 
—  Wacksmuth  Hellenfsche  Alterthumskunde. 
Halle.  1826.  Trans,  into  Engl.  (Historical  An- 
tiquities of  Greece)  Oxf.  1837.  4  vols.  8.—HilPs 
Essays  on  the  Institutions  of  the  Greeks.  — 
Bock's  Public  Economy  of  Athens.  —  Gillies' 
Discourse  on  the  Manners  of  the  Greeks.  — 
//.  Hase,  The  Public  and  Private  Life  of  the 
ancient  Greeks.  Transl.  from  German.  Lond. 
1836.  8.—Heeren's  Politics  of  Anc.  Greece.  Tr. 
by  G.  Bancroft.  Bost.  1824.  —  C.  O.  Midler's 
History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Doric  Race* 
Tr.  by  II.  Tufnel  and  G.  C.  Lewis.  Oxf.  1830. 
2  vols.  8. — We  may  add  here,  Win.  Bruce,  State 
of  society  in  the  age  of  Homer. — Lardner's  Cabi- 
net Encyclop.  No.  xlvii  &  lxx  (On  Arts,  Man- 
ufactures, Sec.  of  Greeks  &  Romans).— Rouoier, 
L'Agriculture  Ancienne  des  Grecs.  Par.  1830. 
8.—B.G.  Wait,  Jewish,  Oriental,  and  Classical 
Antiquities ;  containing  illustrations  of  the 
Scriptures  and  Classical  Records,  from  Oriental 
sources.  Camb.1823.  8  (cf.  Home,  Int.  to  Stud. 
S.  Script,  ii.  p.  727).— Rollin's  Anc.  Hist.  bk.  x. 
Best  edition,  N.  York,  1835.  2  vols,  large  8.  — 
C.  Ft  Weber,  Repertorium  der  classischen  Alter- 

thumswissenschaft.  Lpz.  1832.  8. fl.  Pauly, 

Real  Encyclopiidie  der  classischen  Alterthums- 

wissenschaften.    Stuttg.  1838.  commenced 

Fosbroke,  Encyclopaedia  of  Antiquities,  Clas- 
sical and  Mediaeval.  Lond.  1838.  3  vols.  4.  with 
plates. 


§  14.  The  subject  of  antiquities  cannot  be  treated  in  so  strict  ac- 
cordance with  chronological  order,  as  the  events  of  history,  because 


464  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

the  sources  of  information  are  not  sufficiently  minute.  But  still  in 
describing  the  antiquities  of  a  people,  one  should  not  lose  sight  of  the 
influence,  which  political  revolutions,  the  progress  and  decline  of  re- 
finement, and  other  circumstances,  have  exerted  at  successive  times 
upon  the  constitution,  manners,  and  whole  national  character  and 
social  state.  Most  writers  have  been  not  sufficiently  mindful  of  this, 
and  have  also  confined  themselves  chiefly  to  the  most  flourishing  of 
-the  Grecian  states,  viz.  Athens,  and  so  have  described  Attic,  rather 
than  Grecian  antiquities.  In  order  to  avoid  this  double  fault  in  the 
present  sketch,  the  antiquities  of  the  earlier  and  less  cultivated  times 
will  be  distinguished  from  those  of  a  later  and  more  enlightened  pe- 
riod ;  and  in  speaking  of  the  latter,  although  Athens  was  then  the 
most  important  and  most  eminent,  we  shall  also  notice  the  constitu- 
tion and  peculiarities  of  the  other  principal  states. 


/. — Of  the  earlier  and  less  cultivated  Ages. 

§  15.  It  has  been  already  suggested  (§  5, 10),  that  Greece  advanced 
with  very  rapid  step  from  a  state  of  extreme  rudeness  in  manners  and 
morals  to  the  highest  degree  of  refinement.  The  history  of  this  pro- 
gress may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  periods.  The  first  extends 
from  the  original  state  of  barbarism  to  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war; 
this  was  the  period  of  the  peopling  of  Greece :  the  second  extends 
from  the  capture  of  Troy  to  the  time  of  Solon,  the  period  of  the  rise 
and  formation  of  the  Grecian  constitutions  and  customs:  the  third 
extends  from  the  age  of  Solon,  to  the  time  when  the  Greeks  lost  their 
liberty  by  subjection  to  the  Macedonians  (cf.  P.  II.  §  9),  the  period 
of  their  greatest  perfection  and  glory. 

Under  the  present  head  it  is  proposed  to  notice  what  pertains  more 
particularly  to  the  first  and  second  of  the  above-mentioned  periods ; 
and  the  subject  will  be  considered  in  four  general  branches,  viz, 
religious,  civil,  military,  and  domestic  affairs. 

(1)  Religious  Affairs. 

§  16.  During  the  rude  and  unsettled  state  of  society  among  the 
Greeks,  their  religion  had  no  fixed  or  steady  form  ;  yet  a  great  part  of 
the  popular  belief  originated  in  these  times,  which  on  this  account 
have  been  called  the  mythical  ages  or  fabulous  period.  The  formation 
of  this  early  popular  faith  was  aided  by  the  general  ignorance,  the  pre- 
dominance of  sensual  ideas,  and  the  natural  tendencies  of  the  mind  in 
an  uncultivated  state  of  society  (P.  III.  §  5m).  With  the  progress  of 
social  and  moral  culture,  the  traditions  and  fables  grew  into  a  sort  of 
system,  which  was  retained  as  a  religion  of  the  people,  and  augmented 
and  modified  by  additions  from  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  mythology. 

According  to  common  accounts,  Greece  received  new  and  better 
religious  notions  from  Thrace,  by  Orpheus,  B.  C.  about  1250  (cf. 
P.  II.  §  12,  48).     They  were,  however,  chiefly  of  Egyptian  origin. 


RELIGIOUS  AFFAIRS  IN  THE  EARLY  AGES.  466 

The  worship  of  animals  the  Greeks  never  adopted ;  but  they  em- 
braced, in  common  with  most  of  the  ancient  nations,  the  worship  of 
the  stars,  that  early  form  of  idolatry.  They  also  practiced  the  custom 
of  deifying  and  worshiping  men  (P.  III.  §118),  who  were  styled  heroes, 
having  distinguished  themselves  by  making  new  discoveries,  estab- 
lishing useful  laws,  or  performing  renowned  exploits. 

On  the  religious  affairs  of  Greece,  we  may  refer  to  J.  G.  Lakemacher,  Antiquitates  Graecorum 
sacrae.  Helmst.  1744.  8.  —  Chr.  BrYiningii,  Compendium  Antiq.  Graec.  e  profanis  sacrarum.  — 
Francof.  1758.  8,—Mitford,  Hist.  Grace,  cb.  ii.  sect.  1. — Foucher,  sur  la  religion  des  Grecs,  in  the 
Jllcm.  Acad.  Iuscr.  vols,  xxxiv.  xxxv.  xxxvi.  xxxvm.  and  xxxix. 

§  17m.  Religious  study  and  instruction  among  the  early  Greeks  was  the 
business  of  their  wise  men,  lawgivers,  and  poets,  who  Were  mostly  at  the  same 
time  priests.  The  matter  of  these  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  dogmas  and 
narratives  of  Theogony  and  Cosmogony,  which  were  of  a  mixed  character, 
fabulous  and  allegorical,  but  based  upon  some  real  appearances  in  nature  and 
man.  The  various  operations  of  the  powers  of  nature  and  the  movements  of 
human  passions,  were  the  principal  foundation  of  the  tales  and  doctrines  of  the 
mythology.  The  origin  of  things,  their  vicissitudes  and  transformations,  their 
nature,  tendency  and  effects,  were  the  subjects ;  and  these  were,  by  a  lively 
fancy,  changed  into  supposed  or  imaginary  persons,  to  whom  words,  actions, 
and  appropriate  attributes  were  ascribed.  The  regular  combination  or  assem- 
blage of  these  in  order  Was  called  the  Theogony,  or  account  of  the  origin  and 
descent  of  the  gods.  This  constituted  the  whole  theory  of  religion,  which  one 
of  the  most  ancient  of  the  Greek  poets,  HesiocL,  reduced  to  a  sort  of  regular 
form  in  his  poem  styled  the  Theogony,  and  all  the  principal  elements  of  which 
Homer  interwove  in  his  two  epic  poems,  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  (Cf.  P.  II. 
§  50,  51.) 

§  18  w.  In  the  first  ages  the  wise  men,  and  especially  the  poets,  made  great 
exertions  to  imbue  the  minds  of  the  people  with  reverence  for  the  gods  and 
respect  for  their  worship.  On  public  solemnities,  and  in  great  assemblies  of 
the  people,  they  were  accustomed  to  adapt  their  songs  to  this  object.  Even 
when  the  subject  of  these  songs  was  not  the  history  of  the  gods,  nor  any  point 
of  direct  religious  instruction,  they  were  opened  by  a  prayer  to  Jupiter,  Apol- 
lo, or  some  inspiring  deity.  In  this  Way  they  fixed  and  strengthened  a  pre- 
vailing faith  in  the  power  and  providence  of  the  gods,  and  formed  the  first  ideas 
of  right,  virtue,  and  morality,  and  of  future  rewards  and  punishments.  The 
songs  of  these  poets  constituted  at  first  the  chief  means  and  subject  of  the  in- 
struction of  the  young.  Hence  arose  on  the  one  hand  the  great  influence  of 
their  poetry  on  the  moral  culture  of  the  Greeks,  and  on  the  other  hand  the 
great  admiration  in  which  the  early  poets  were  generally  held. 

§  19w.  For  an  account  of  the  principal  Grecian  deities,  their  names,  rank, 
history,  attributes  and  mode  of  worship,  we  must  refer  to  the  portion  of 
this  work  which  treats  of  Mythology  (P.  IIIJ.  Here  we  only  remark,  that 
the  number  of  the  Grecian  gods  constantly  increased  with  the  progress  of 
time,  yet  the  highest  and  most  distinguished  of  them  were  introduced  and 
honored  in.  the  early  ages,  and  it  was  chiefly  in  the  class  of  heroes  or  demi- 
gods that  this  augmentation  took  place,  after  the  lapse  of  the  heroic  ages,  and 
by  means  of  oral  traditions.  The  more  extensive  the  services  of  these  heroes 
were  while  living,  the  more  general  was  the  reverence  for  them  after  death ; 
while  those,  whose  beneficial  influence  had  been  confined  chiefly  to  a  particu- 
lar city  or  tribe,  were  deified  chiefly  by  the  same,  and  received  a  less  general 
homage  and  worship. 

§  20.  The  sacred  places^  which  were  specially  dedicated  to  the 
gods  in  these  early  ages,  were  in  part,  fields  and  grounds,  whose  pro- 
duce was  devoted  to  uses  connected  with  religious  worship;  partly 
groves  and  particular  trees,  the  former  being  commonly  planted  in  a 
circular  form ;  and  partly,  at  length,  temples,  which  were  viewed  as 
the  seats  and  habitations  of  their  respective  gods.  The  temples  were 
usually  in  the  cities  near  the  market  or  place  of  public  business, 
although  they  were   sometimes  erected  in  the  country,  and  in  the 


466  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

consecrated  groves.  The  ground,  on  which  they  stood  was  usu- 
ally elevated  either  by  nature  or  art,  and  their  entrance  or  front 
was  commonly  towards  the  east.  Some  of  them  were  dedicated  to  a 
single  deity,  others  to  several.  It  was  not  uncommon  to  place  the 
name  of  the  god,  to  whom  the  temple  was  sacred,  in  a  brief  inscrip- 
tion over  the  entrance. 

§  21.  Originally  the  interior  of  the  temple  was  entirely  vacant, 
after  the  Egyptian  manner,  even  without  the  image  or  statue  of  its 
god.  And  in  the  earliest  times  the  image  of  a  god,  as  has  been  al- 
ready observed  (P.  I.  §  156.  2),  was  nothing  but  a  mere  stone,  which 
served  to  represent  the  deity,  and  to  which  offerings  were  brought. 
This  was  the  primary  origin  of  altars.  By  degress,  these  stones  came 
to  be  formed  into  a  human  shape,  after  which  it  was  more  common  to 
place  statues  {ayaiuara)  of  the  gods  in  their  temples.  The  posture 
was  sometimes  standing,  sometimes  sitting.  The  material,  at  first 
employed,  was  of  no  great  value,  being  stone,  wood,  or  clay.  There 
were,  however,  in  the  heroic  ages,  images  of  the  gods  of  a  more  costly 
substance,  such  as  ivory,  brass,  silver  or  gold,  although  Homer  never 
exactly  describes  the  material. 

§  22.  The  care  of  the  temples  and  holy  things  was  entrusted  to  the 
priests  and  priestesses.  The  number  of  these  varied  in  different  cases, 
and  depended  generally  upon  the  rank  of  the  deity,  on  whose  temple 
and  worship  they  attended.  The  marriage  state  was  not  forbidden 
them,  although  it  became  afterwards  customary  to  take  priestesses 
mostly  from  persons  unmarried,  who  either  were  obliged  to  perpetual 
celibacy,  or  remained  priestesses  only  until  marriage.  In  some  in- 
stances the  priesthood  was  hereditary ;  but  in  others  it  was  adopted 
in  free  choice,  or  by  lot.  The  residence  of  the  priests  was  usually 
near  the  temple,  or  the  consecrated  grove,  often  within  the  limits  of 
the  latter.  They  derived  their  subsistence  from  what  was  offered  to 
the  gods,  and  were  often  in  easy  circumstances.  Generally  the  office 
was  highly  honored  in  the  early  ages  of  Greece,  and  was  held,  in  part 
at  least,  by  the  noblest  and  most  distinguished  personages,  sometimes 
even  by  kings. 

§  23.  Some  of  the  principal  rites  and  solemnities  pertaining  to  the 
religious  worship  must  here  be  mentioned.  Among  these  were  lus- 
trations (y.aGaQuo'i,  tr/ritruoi),  which  consisted  in  the  ablution  of  the 
body,  and  a  certain  purification  of  the  clothes,  and  of  sacred  uten- 
sils. For  this  purpose  salt  water  was  used,  which  was  taken  from 
the  sea,  or  prepared  by  a  solution  of  salt  in  common  water.  Sul- 
phur and  fire  were  also  used  on  these  occasions.  These  purifications 
were  considered  as  especially  necessary  for  those  who  were  defiled 
by  murder  and  blood,  and  even  for  the  places  where  such  crimes  had 
happened.  They  were  often  ordered  for  the  propitiation  of  offended 
deities. 

§  24.  But  prayers  and  sacrifices  were  the  most  essential  parts  of 
Grecian  worship.  The  former  were  put  up,  especially,  when  some 
important  enterprise  or  undertaking  was  commenced  ;  the  object  of 
the  prayer  being  to  secure  a  happy  issue,  in  case  of  which  very  rich 
gifts  were  promised  to  the  gods  by  the  supplicant.  Both  prayers  and 
vows  were  termed  ivx&i-    In  making  them,  the  eyes  and  hands  were 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN   THE    EARLIER   AGES.  467 

raised  towards  the  heavens,  or  in  the  temples  directed  towards  the 
images.  The  posture  was  sometimes  standing,  sometimes  kneeling 
(yowuLio&ai,  yovvnsTsiv) ;  the  latter  was  used  especially  in  case  of  ear- 
nest desire  or  peculiar  distress,  and  often  by  the  whole  assembly  in 
common. 

1.  Supplicants  usually  had  garlands  on  their  heads  and  necks,  and  green 
boughs  of  olive  or  laurel  (d-aXloi.  or  yJ.uSoi  fxrifgtot)  in  their  hands.  In  the 
boughs  wool  was  placed  without  tying,  and  they  were  hence  called  some- 
times oxiuuara.  With  these  boughs  the  supplicants  touched  the  knees,  some- 
times the  cheek,  of  the  statue  of  the  god  addressed  in  their  prayers. 

2  m.  With  the  prayers  were  usually  joined  the  libations,  or  drink  offerings, 
ajtovdui,  called  also  l.oifiui,  %quli.  These  consisted  generally  of  wine,  part  of 
which  was  poured  out  in  honor  of  the  gods,  and  part  of  it  drunk  by  the  wor- 
shiper. The  wine  must  be  pure  (axQarov),  and  offered  in  a  full  cup.  Some- 
times there  were  libations  of  water  (ySqoaTtovda),  of  honey  (lul.'tfmovda),  of 
milk  {ya7.uy.roaico\Su),  and  of  oil  (i?.aio07iov3a). 

§  25.  The  sacrifices,  -&volai,  originally  consisted  merely  of  incense, 
&vo<;,  or  some  sort  of  fragrant  fumigation,  by  cedar,  citron  wood,  or 
the  like.  In  very  early  times,  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  in  a  crude,  un- 
prepared state,  were  offered  ;  and  subsequently,  cakes,  ov?.al,  baked 
of  coarse  barley,  or  meal  mixed  with  salt.  It  was  not  until  a  some- 
what later  period,  that  the  slaughter  of  living  victims  was  introduced. 
These  victims  were  selected  with  great  care.  At  first,  bullocks, 
sheep,  goats,  and  swine,  were  chiefly  taken  for  the  purpose.  After- 
wards certain  animals  became  specially  sacred  as  victims  appropriate 
to  particular  gods.  Sometimes  a  single  victim  was  sacrificed,  some- 
times several  at  once,  which  were  often  of  the  same  kind  of  animal, 
and  often  also  of  different  kinds.  The  hetacomb  (sxaroupt))  properly 
consisted  of  a  hundred  bullocks  or  oxen ;  yet  neither  the  number 
nor  kind  of  animals  was  very  precisely  regarded. 

The  origin  of  sacrifices  is  an  interesting  and  important  theme.  Some  flippant  and  superfi- 
cial writers  ascribe  them  wholly  to  mere  superstition  and  priestcraft.  Others  attempt  in  a 
more  serious  manner  to  explain  their  existence  by  human  origin.  Several  theories  have  been 
proposed  ;  one  is,  that  they  were  at  first  gifts,  a  natural  expedient  for  procuring  the  favor  of 
the  gods  ;  another,  that  they  were  federal  rites,  drawn  from  men's  eating  and  drinking  togeth- 
er in  token  of  friendship,  and  hence  the  sacrificial  banquet  (cf.  §  27)  ;  a  third,  advanced  by 
Warburton  (in  his  Divine  Legation  of  Mose3),  is  that  they  were  symbolical  actions,  expressive 
of  gratitude  in  some  offerings,  and  in  others,  of  the  acknowledgement  of  sin  and  contrition 
through  the  death  of  an  animal  representing  the  death  deserved  by  the  worshiper.  But  a  fourth 
account,  which  refers  them  to  a  divine  institution,  is  more  satisfactory.  The  Bible  represents 
the  Hebrew  sacrifices  as  typical  of  the  death  of  Christ  as  the  great  atoning  sacrifice  for  sin- 
ners. (Cf.  Ep.  to  Heb.  ix.  and  x.)  On  supposition  that  God,  when  he  promised  a  Redeemer  to 
Adam,  instituted  some  memorial  and  type,  in  an  animal  sacrifice,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  by  tradi- 
tion the  practice  of  offering  sacrifices  should  be  universal.  —  See  Magee,  On  the  Atonement ; 
where  the  whole  subject  is  well  discussed. 

§  26.  The  altars  (pwuoi),  on  which  the  sacrifices  were  presented, 
were  erected  not  only  in  the  temples,  but  often  in  open  places,  as  on 
the  banks  of  rivers,  on  mountains,  in  groves,  and  the  like. 

"  Throughout  the  whole  of  the  Iliad  no  mention  occurs  of  a  temple  in 
Greece,  except  in  the  second  book,  evidently  incidental,  and  the  interpolation 
of  some  vainly  patriotic  Athenian  rhapsodist.  The  passage  indeed  might  be 
condemned  on  the  grounds  of  philological  discussion,  but  it  contradicts  both 
the  history  of  art  and  of  religion  in  that  country.  In  Troy,  the  temple  of 
Minerva  appears  to  have  been  a  mere  shrine,  in  which  a  statue  was  enclosed, 
and  probably,  in  Tenedos,  a  temple  of  Apollo  is  merely  alluded  to.  During 
the  age  of  Homer,  then,  the  primeval  altar,  common  both  to  Europe  and  Asia, 
was  the  only  sacred  edifice  known.  This  differed  little  from  a  common  hearth ; 
the  sacrifice  being  in  fact  a  social  rite,  the  victim,  at  once  an  offering  to  heav- 
en, and  the  food  of  man,  was  prepared  by  roasting  ;  the  first  improvement  on 
their  simple  construction  appears  to  have  been  the  addition  of  a  pavement,  an 

i 


468  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

obvious  means  of  cleanliness  and  comfort.  Yet  even  this  appears  to  have  con- 
stituted a  distinction  not  common,  since,  in  particular  instances,  the  pavement 
is  mentioned  as  a  peculiar  ornament.  Subsequently,  in  order  to  mark  in  a 
more  conspicuous  manner,  and  with  more  dignity,  the  sacred  spot,  while  the 
rites  should  be  equally  exposed  to  the  spectators,  an  open  colonnade  was 
added,  enclosing  the  altar  and  pavement.  Thus  the  roofless  temple  might 
be  said  to  be  finished ;  but  whether  this  primeval  structure  existed  in  his  na- 
tive country  during  the  age  of  Homer,  does  not  appear.  We  remark  here  a 
very  striking  resemblance  between  the  ancient  places  of  devotion  in  Greece, 
and  the  Druidical  temple  of  the  more  northern  regions.  In  fact,  the  astonish- 
ing remains  at  Stonehenge  present  the  best  known,  and  perhaps  one  of  the 
most  stupendous  examples  ever  erected  of  the  open  temple..  This  species  of 
religious  erection  appears  to  have  been  co-extensive  with  the  spread  of  the 
human  race,  and  not,  as  generally  supposed,  limited  to  the  northern  portion 
of  the  globe."  — Memes,  Hist,  of  Sculpture,  &c.  p.  255,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  169. 

§  27.  Among  the  ceremonies  connected  with  offering  a  sacrifice, 
was  the  previous  washing  of  the  hands  (§  67.  2)  and  the  sprinkling, 
by  the  priests,  of  those  who  were  present,  with  sacred  water  (xiqvixi>). 
Then  was  placed  upon  the  back  and  head  of  the  victim,  in  early 
times,  unground  barley,  in  later  times,  a  number  of  small  cakes 
(noTiava,  6vl6xvTa)>  often  meal  mixed  with  honey,  wine,  or  oil ;  a  lit- 
tle hair  torn  from  the  forehead  of  the  victim  was  then  thrown  upon 
the  fire ;  next  followed  the  prayer  and  libation  (§  24) ;  then  the 
priest,  or  the  jr^v$,  smote  the  animal  on  the  head  with  an  ax  or  club, 
and  cut  its  throat  with  a  sacrificial  knife  (aifayis).  The  blood  was 
^^PHtoived  in  an  appropriate  vessel  (oyayitoi).  The  victim  was  then 
flayed  and  cut  in  pieces.  The  next  thing  was  to  cover  the  haunches 
or  thighs  (utjooi)  with  caul  or  fat  (xriootj),  and  to  take  small  pieces 
from  other  parts  of  the  animal  and  place  upon  them  (dtfiodereir).  Up- 
on the  portions  thus  prepared,  wine  was  commonly  poured*,  and  they 
were  then  placed  on  the  altar  and  burned.  The  rest  of  the  victim 
was  usually  roasted  on  spits,  and  eaten  at  the  sacrificial  banquet. 
Banquets  of  this  kind  were  made  especially  on  the  sacred  festivals. 

§  28.  Besides  the  sacrifices  properly  so  called,  it  was  common  to 
bring  to  the  gods  other  gifts  and  offerings  (daqa,  &vad»jpora).  Among 
these,  were  crowns  or  garlands  (oTicpavog,  aricpog),  with  which  the  tem- 
ples, altars,  and  statues  were  often  adorned,  and  which  were  formed 
of  the  leaf  sacred  to  the  particular  god  to  whom  they  were  offered ;  e.  g. 
of  ivy,  for  Bacchus ;  of  oak,  for  Jupiter.  Curtains  and  vestments 
(7tsQi7tBTuauaru,  Taqov^uara)  wrought  with  rich  embroidery  were  brought 
and  placed  upon  the  statues  or  hung  in  the  temples.  Vessels  of  gold, 
silver,  and  brass  were  also  offered,  and  tripods  (rqinoSes)  especially  to 
Apollo.  The  spoils  of  war  were  often  thus  consecrated,  6ty.(io&ivta> 
with  shields  and  arms.  Frequently  the  articles  dedicated  to  the  gods 
were  marked  by  inscriptions  stating  the  occasion  and  circumstances 
of  their  dedication.  From  the  custom  here  described,  arose  the 
great  riches  of  some  of  the  Grecian  temples. 

The  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  particularly,  became  in  the  course  of  years 
possessed  of  immense  wealth. 

See  Mitford's  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  xxxvii.  sect.  1 ;  ch.  xxxviii.  sect.  1  ;  ch.  xxxix.  sect.  5.  —  Ban- 
croft's Heeren,  p.  SOI,  as  cited  P.  II.  $7.  8.  —  De  Falois,  Les  richesses  du  temple  de  DelpheSj 
in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  in.  78. 

§  29.  In  addition  to  the  worship  rendered  the  gods,  there  was  a 
worship  of  the  heroes  as  demigods  (§  16),  which  however  was  netih- 


RELIGIOUS   AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLIER    AGES. 

er  so  general  nor  attended  with  so  much  ceremony.  These  had  no 
festivals,  properly  speaking,  but  an  annual  funeral  solemnity  (huyioua), 
and  were  viewed  as  tutelary  guardians  of  their  country,  tribe,  or 
family.  On  these  solemnities,  the  drink  offerings  (/oca)  were  in  com- 
mon practice ;  not  only  wine  was  used  for  the  purpose,  but  often 
milk,  and  even  blood.  Sometimes  victims  were  slain,  and  various 
offerings  presented,  and  from  these  a  trophy  (rgoTtatov)  or  a  funeral 
pile,  was  constructed.  In  some  cases,  the  first  fruits  of  the  season 
were  offered.  The  usual  place  of  such  solemnities  was  the  tomb  of 
the  hero,  in  whose  memory  they  were  held,  near  which  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  erect  an  altar ;  often  also  to  make  a  pit  or  hole  (fodqog, 
laxtcog),  which  had  reference  to  their  dwelling  in  the  under  world. 
(Cf.  P.  III.  §  32.) 

§  30.  Funeral  solemnities  were  generally  a  part  of  the  religious 
usages  of  the  more  ancient  Greeks.  These  commenced  immediate- 
ly on  the  death  of  an  individual,  in  the  formal  closing  of  his  eyes 
(avyyJ.iUiv  roug  o(p6a/.uorg),  a  ceremony  usually  performed  by  the  near- 
est kinsman.  The  corpse  was  then  washed  and  anointed,  clothed  in 
a  white  linen  pall  and  placed  on  a  sort  of  bier  (Uxtqov,  (fiosroov). 
Around  this  the  kindred  and  friends  of  the  deceased  raised  the  fu- 
neral lament,  which  was  often  expressed  in  song  by  persons  employed 
for  the  occasion,  and  accompanied  by  mournful  notes  of  the  flute. 
The  mourners  also  testified  their  sorrow  by  plucking  off  their  hair, 
and  casting  it  upon  the  corpse.  These  ceremonies  were  continued, 
not  always  the  same  length  of  time,  sometimes  three,  sometimes  sev- 
en days,  and  often  a  greater  number. 

§  31.  The  burning  of  the  corpse  was  a  custom  peculiar  to  the 
Greeks,  as  the  Egyptians  and  the  Persians  used  to  inter  their  dead. 
In  the  earliest  times  interring  was  practiced  by  the  Greeks,  although 
Homer  speaks  only  of  burning. 

lu.  After  the  completion  of  the  bewailings  just  described,  the  corpse  was 
borne  on  a  bed  or  bier  to  the  appointed  place,  where  a  funeral  pile  (rcvQa)  was 
erected.  Near  this,  funeral  sacrifices  were  slain.  Upon  the  pile  were  placed 
various  objects,  which  had  been  particularly  valued  by  the  deceased,  even  an- 
imals, and  sometimes  human  beings  previously  put  to  death.  During  the 
burning,  the  attendants  uttered  their  wailings  and  funeral  chants.  The  flame 
was  finally  extinguished  by  pouring  on  some  liquid,  and  the  ashes  or  remain- 
ing bones  were  collected  by  the  nearest  relative,  and  deposited  in  an  urn, 
which  was  buried  in  the  earth.  The  place  of  interment  was  marked  by  stones 
and  a  mound  (x^uu),  on  which  was  commonly  raised  a  pillar  (oTifitj),  or  other 
monument,  with  an  inscription.  The  ceremonies  were  ended  with  a  funeral 
repast  (rexQoSsnzvor,  TctqideiTcvov).  Sometimes  games  were  celebrated  in  hon- 
or of  the  deceased. 

2.  It  is  stated,  that  among  the  Thracians  wives  were  burned  on  the  funeral 
piles  of  their  husbands;  a  custom  which  is  still  prevalent  in  India,  although 
the  influence  of  Christianity  is  breaking  it  up  in  the  portions  of  the  country 
subject  to  England. 

§  32.  In  speaking  of  the  religious  customs  of  the  Greeks,  we 
should  notice  their  regard  to  oracles  and  to  divinations.  The  most 
ancient  of  the  oracles  was  that  of  Dodona  ;  that  of  Delphi  was  still 
more  celebrated,  and  also  of  early  origin.  The  practice  of  divina- 
tion and  the  interpreting  of  signs  was  a  business  of  the  priests  in 
particular.     It  was  done  partly  by  observing  accidental  occurrences, 

40 


470  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

as  the  flight  of  birds,  or  the  breaking  of  thunder,  in  both  of  which 
the  right  side  indicated  good  fortune,  the  observer  having  his  face  di- 
rected to  the  north  ;  and  partly  by  consulting  the  entrails  of  vic- 
tims. Sneezing  was  regarded  as  a  favorable  prognostic.  We  may 
mention  also  the  prophetic  interpretation  of  dreams,  and  the  belief 
of  the  multitude  in  magic,  and  in  bodily  metamorphoses,  which  they 
supposed  to  afford  various  means  of  aid  and  protection. 

The  religious  festivals  were  numerous  and  attended  with  various 
ceremonies. —  But  on  each  of  the  topics  mentioned  in  this  section, 
we  shall  speak  more  particularly  again  (§  70-77). 

(2)    Civil  Affairs. 

§  33.  It  has  been  already  remarked  (§  5),  that  the  first  inhabitants 
of  Greece  lived  in  a  dispersed  state,  without  civil  culture  or  any  so- 
cial compact.  The  family  relations,  the  authority  of  the  parent  over 
the  child,  of  the  husband  over  the  wife,  exhibited  the  only  traces  of 
government.  Phoroneus,  a  son  of  Inachus,  is  mentioned  as  the  first 
author  of  association  for  civil  purposes.  Gradually  the  Greek  tribes 
began  to  select  leaders,  who  were  called  kings  (paatkeig),  however 
limited  might  be  the  extent  of  their  dominion  or  authority.  The 
choice  most  generally  fell  upon  such  as  had  rendered  to  their  tribe 
or  country  some  distinguished  and  meritorious  service ;  and  then  the 
dignity  became  hereditary,  a  thing  rather  rare,  however,  in  the  ear- 
lier ages.  Sometimes  the  choice  was  determined  by  consulting  an 
oracle,  and  in  such  case  the  authority  was  viewed  as  the  more  right- 
ful, and  as  sanctioned  by  the  gods. 

On  the  subject  of  the  civil  affairs  of  the  early  Greeks,  we  may  refer  to  F.  W.  Tittmann,s  Dar- 
stellung  der  griechisch.  Staatsverfassungen.  Leipz.  1822.  8. — Mitford,  ch.  ii.  sect.  2;ch.  iv.  sect. 
4. —  K.  F.Hermann,  Lehrbuch  der  griechischen  Staatsalterthumer.  ( — Transl.  into  English.) 
Political  Antiquities  of  Greece.  Oxf.  1836.  8.  A  2d  altered  and  improved  ed.  of  the  original, 
in  1836.—  Wachsmuth,  as  cited  §13. 

§  34.  The  kingly  power,  in  the  first  ages,  was  far  from  being  des- 
potic, or  unlimited ;  the  leaders  and  princes  being  bound  by  certain 
laws  and  usages.  The  principal  duties  of  these  chiefs  were  to  com- 
mand in  war,  to  settle  disputes  between  the  people,  and  to  take  care 
of  the  worship  of  the  gods.  Valor,  love  of  justice,  and  zeal  for  re- 
ligion were  therefore  reckoned  among  their  most  important  excellen- 
ces. For  their  honor  and  support,  a  portion  of  the  lands  was  as- 
signed, the  cultivation  of  which  they  superintended  themselves.  Cer- 
tain taxes  or  imposts  were  also  paid  to  them,  which  were  increased  in 
time  of  war.  The  signs  of  their  office  were  the  scepter  and  diadem. 
The  former  (&xyjzTQov)  was  usually  of  wood,  and  in  length  not  unlike 
the  lance  :  the  latter  (<?««<%«)  was  a  sort  of  bandeau  or  head-band, 
rather  than  a  proper  crown.  The  general  costume  of  these  kings 
was  distinguished  by  its  richness,  and  was  commonly  of  a  purple 
color. 

In  ancient  times,  one  of  the  tokens  of  office  and  rank  always  was  some- 
thing attached  to  the  head,  a  wreath,  cap,  crown,  or  the  like.  A  metallic 
crown  was  common.  David  is  said  to  have  had  a  crown  of  gold  with  precious- 
stones,  of  the  weight  (meaning  probably  of  the  value)  of  a  talent  (1  Sam.  xii. 
30).  Athenoeus  mentions  a  crown,  made  of  10.000  pieces  of  gold,  placed  on 
the  throne  of  king  Ptolemy. 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLIER    AGES.  471 

In  our  Plate  XIII.  fig.  C,  we  have  a  curious  golden  crown,  which  is  said  to  have  been  found 
in  some  part  of  Ireland,  in  1692,  about  ten  feet  under  ground.  Near  it  in  the  Plate,  fig.  a,  is  an 
ancient  Abyssinian  crown  ;  on  the  other  side,  fig.  b,  is  the  covering  seen  on  the  head  of  a  con- 
quered prince  or  general  upon  Egyptian  monuments.  —  In  Plate  XIX.  fig.  6,  we  have  the  fillet 
and  horn  worn  by  governors  of  provinces  in  Abyssinia.  "  A  large  broad  fillet,"  says  Bruce, 
"  was  bound  upon  their  forehead  and  tied  behind  their  head.  In  the  middle  of  this  was  a  con- 
ical piece  of  silver  about  four  inches  long.  It  is  called  kirn  or  horn,  and  is  worn  especially  in 
parades  after  victories."    Bruce,  Travels  &c.  as  cited  P.  I.  §  118.  1. 

§  35.  The  court  and  retinue  of  the  first  kings  was  very  simple  and 
unimposing.  In  war,  they  usually  had  by  their  side  a  friend,  who 
served  as  a  kind  of  armor-bearer.  Both  in  war  and  peace,  they  em- 
ployed heralds  (y./^vxtg)  in  the  publication  and  execution  of  their  or- 
ders. The  heralds  also  imposed  silence,  when  the  chiefs  wished  to 
come  forward  and  speak  in  an  assembly.  The  same  officers  assisted 
in  religious  ceremonies,  and  were  present  in  the  forming  of  treaties. 
—  The  kings  also  selected  councillors,  of  the  most  distinguished, 
experienced,  and  brave  of  the  people ;  and  in  cases  of  doubt  or  dif- 
ficulty, held  with  them  consultations  and  formal  assemblies,  in  which 
the  speaker  was  accustomed  to  stand  and  the  rest  to  sit.  Both  pub- 
lic and  private  affairs  were  discussed  in  these  assemblies. 

§  36.  The  courts  of  justice  were  in  public  places  ;  and  the  whole 
assembly  usually  presented  the  form  of  a  circle.  The  judges  sat 
upon  seats  or  benches  of  stone  ;  the  men  selected  for  the  office  were 
such  as  were  much  respected  on  account  of  age  and  experience. 
They  bore  in  their  hand  a  scepter  or  staff.  The  cause  was  stated 
orally  by  the  contending  parties  themselves,  and  by  them  the  witness- 
es were  brought  forward.  The  kings  or  chiefs  presided  in  these  ju- 
dicial assemblies,  sitting  on  an  elevated  seat  or  throne.  For  a  period, 
equity  and  precedent  or  usage  formed  the  basis  of  all  decisions ;  but 
afterwards,  the  courts  had  for  their  guide  particular  laws  and  stat- 
utes, which  were  first  introduced  by  Phoroneus,  and  more  extensively 
by  Cecrops. 

§  37.  As  the  laws  in  the  more  ancient  times  were  few  and  simple, 
so  were  the  punishments.  But  few  crimes  were  made  capital.  Mur- 
der was  commonly  punished  by  banishment,  either  voluntarily  sought 
by  the  murderer,  or  expressly  decreed  by  public  sentence ;  its  dura- 
tion, however,  was  but  a  year,  and  even  this  could  sometimes  be 
commuted  for  a  fine.  The  privileges  of  asylum  belonged  only  to 
the  author  of  accidental,  unintentional  homicide.  Adultery  was  pun- 
ished severely,  commonly  with  death.  Robbery  and  theft  were  very 
frequent  in  the  early  times  of  Greece,  and  originally  were  not  con- 
sidered as  criminal,  while  the  right  of  the  stronger  was  admitted,  es- 
pecially if  shrewdness  and  cunning  were  united  with  the  theft.  Noth- 
ing therefore  was  aimed  at  but  to  recover  what  had  been  taken,  or  to 
inflict  vengeance  by  a  corresponding  injury.  Afterwards,  however, 
particular  punishments  were  imposed  for  these  ofYences. 

§  38.  In  as  much  as  the  inhabitants  of  Crete  were  connected  with 
the  Greeks  by  their  having  a  common  language,  it  is  important  to 
mention  the  Cretan  laws,  which  were  introduced  by  Minos.  They 
are  said  to  have  been  the  most  ancient  written  code,  and  were  after- 
wards taken  by  Lycurgus  as  models.  Military  valor  and  union 
among  the  people  seems  to  have  been  their  great  aim ;  every  ordi- 
nance of  Minos  was  directed  to  promote  strength  of  body,  and  to 


472  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

cultivate  social  attachment  between  the  members  of  the  state.  In 
order  to  impart  greater  dignity  and  authority  to  his  laws,  he  brought 
them  forward  as  having  been  revealed  to  him  by  Jupiter.  But  the 
moral  culture  was  not  greatly  advanced  by  institutions  having  their 
primary  and  chief  reference  to  a  state  of  war. 

§  39.  In  the  progress  of  time,  the  form  of  government  among  the 
Greeks  underwent  many  changes,  and  at  length  became  wholly  dem- 
ocratic. The  most  celebrated  of  the  states  were  Athens  and  Sparta. 
)Of  these  in  particular  a  few  important  circumstances  respecting  their 
government  in  the  more  early  ages  are  here  to  be  mentioned. 

Athens  was  originally  governed  by  kings.  The  power  of  these 
kings  was  more  unrestrained  in  war  than  in  peace.  After  the  death 
of  Codrus  (1068  B.  C),  it  became  a  free  state.  The  chief  author- 
ity was  given  to  officers  styled  Archons,  who  ruled  for  life.  Thirteen 
Archons  of  this  description  succeeded  each  other,  all  descended  from 
the  family  of  Codrus.  After  the  time  of  these  (752  B.  C),  the  of- 
fice of  Archon  ceased  to  be  for  life,  and  was  limited  to  ten  years,  and 
was  held  by  a  single  person  at  a  time.  After  a  succession  of  seven 
Archons  of  this  kind,  the  office  was  made  annual  (684  B.  C),  and 
nine  Archons  were  appointed  to  rule  jointly,  not  all,  however,  of  the 
same  rank.  —  The  civil  government  experienced  changes  under 
Draco,  and  others  still  greater  under  the  distinguished  legislator  So- 
lon, and  in  after  times. 

§  40.  Sparta  was  also  originally  governed  by  kings.  Eurysthenes 
and  Procles,  the  two  sons  of  Aristodemus  (one  of  the  Heraclidse  that 
invaded  Peloponnesus)  reigned  jointly,  but  not  harmoniously.  Under 
their  descendants  the  kingly  office  lost  much  of  its  authority.  Ly- 
curgus,  the  famous  Spartan  lawgiver,  changed  greatly  the  form  of 
government ;  it  did  not  become  democratical,  neither  was  it,  proper- 
ly speaking,  aristocratical.  Two  kings  remained  at  the  head,  and  a 
senate  was  established  consisting  of  28  men,  who  were  above  sixty 
years  of  age.  There  was  also  the  body  of  5  Ephori,  appointed  an- 
nually. The  people  themselves  likewise  had  some  share  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  state.  Notwithstanding  many  internal  divisions 
and  disturbances,  this  state  enjoyed  a  long  period  of  comparative 
rest  and  liberty.  This  it  owed  very  much  to  the  wise  regulations  of 
Lycurgus,  the  salutary  influence  of  which  was  aided  by  the  limited 
territory  and  moderate  population  of  Lacedaemon. 

§  41.  One  of  the  most  effectual  means  of  advancing  the  Greeks 
was  their  commerce  and  the  navigation  connected  with  it.  In  the 
earliest  times,  commerce  consisted  chiefly  in  barter  and  reciprocal 
exchanges  of  native  products,  the  use  of  gold  not  being  introduced. 
Afterwards  pieces  of  metal  of  different  values  were  employed.  (Cf. 
P.  I.  §  94).  Navigation  became  more  common  after  the  Trojan  war, 
and  ^Egina  first  turned  it  to  the  advantage  of  commerce.  Corinth 
and  Rhodes  became  most  distinguished  in  this  respect.  The  com- 
merce of  Athens  finally  became  something  considerable ;  that  of 
Lacedaemon  on  the  other  hand  always  remained  comparatively  unim- 
portant. —  On  the  whole,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  extension 
of  commerce  and  maritime  intercourse  had  an  important  influence 
upon  the  civil  and  moral  culture  of  the  Grecian  states.  Cf.  P.  I.  §40. 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    EARLIER   AGES.  473 

M  Commerce,  in  the  Homeric  age,  appears  to  have  been  principally  in  the 
hands  of  the  Phoenicians.  The  carrying-trade  of  the  Mediterranean  was  early 
theirs,  and  Sidon  was  the  great  seat  of  manufacture.  The  Greeks  were  not 
without  traffic  carried  on  by  sea  among  themselves  ;  but  the  profession  of 
merchant  had  evidently  not  in  Homer's  time  that  honorable  estimation  which 
yet,  according  to  Plutarch,  it  acquired  at  an  early  period  in  Greece.  While  it 
was  thought  not  unbecoming  a  prince  to  be  a  carpenter  to  supply  his  own 
wants  or  luxuries,  to  be  a  merchant  for  gain  was  held  but  as  a  mean  employ- 
ment ;  a  pirate  was  a  more  respected  character. 

Navigation  had  been  much  practiced,  long  before  Homer,  in  small  open 
vessels,  nearly  such  as  are  still  common  in  the  Mediterranean;  and  the  poet 
gives  no  hint  of  any  late  advancement  of  the  art.  The  seas,  indeed,  which 
nearly  surround  Greece,  are  singularly  adverse  to  improvements  upon  that 
vast  scale  which  oceans  require,  and  which  modern  times  have  produced. 
Broken  by  innumerable  headlands  and  islands,  with  coasts  mostly  mountain- 
ous, and  in  some  parts  of  extraordinary  height,  the  Grecian  seas  are  beyond 
others  subject  to  sudden  and  violent  storms.  These  united  circumstances, 
which  have  made  the  Greeks  of  all  ages  excellent  boatmen,  have  contributed 
much  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  seamen.  The  skill  and  experience  of 
the  pilot,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  are  constantly  wanted  ;  the  science 
of  the  navigator  is  of  little  avail ;  even  the  compass  is  comparatively  useless 
in  the  iEgean.  The  Mediterranean  vessels  now,  not  excepting  the  French, 
which  are  mostly  navigated  by  Mediterranean  sailors,  never  keep  the  sea  there 
but  with  a  fair  wind.  The  English  alone,  accustomed  in  all  their  surround- 
ing waters  to  a  bolder  navigation,  commonly  venture  in  the  Archipelago  to 
work  to  windward.  Sails  were  used  in  fair  winds  in  Homer's  time  ;  but  the 
art  of  sailing  was  extremely  imperfect.  The  mariner's  dependence  was  his 
oars,  which  no  vessel  was  without.  For  in  seas  so  land-locked,  yet  so  tempest- 
uous, the  greatest  danger  was  to  the  stoutest  ship.  Light  vessels,  which  with 
their  oars  could  creep  along  the  coast,  watch  the  weather,  make  way  in  calms, 
and,  on  any  threatening  appearance,  find  shelter  in  shoal  water  or  upon  an 
open  beach,  were  what  Grecian  navigation  peculiarly  required.  The  Pheni- 
cians, for  their  commerce,  used  deeper  ships,  accommodated  to  their  more 
open  seas  and  longer  voyages."     Mitford. 

(3)    Military  Affairs. 

§  42.  Military  prowess  was  esteemed  by  the  early  Greeks  as  of 
the  greatest  merit,  and  was  therefore  an  object  of  universal  ambition. 
The  first  inhabitants  were  distinguished  for  their  warlike  inclinations 
and  habits  of  life,  although  their  wars  were  conducted  without  much 
method  or  discipline.  They  were  constantly  in  arms,  not  only  to  de- 
fend themselves  and  their  property,  but  to  attack  and  plunder  others. 
Thus  they  perpetrated  violence,  murder,  and  devastation  in  the  ex- 
treme. It  needed  but  a  trifling  occasion  to  excite  a  general,  long, 
and  bloody  war ;  the  seige  of  Troy  furnishes  a  striking  example.  In 
such  cases,  several  chiefs  and  people,  sometimes  of  very  distant  prov- 
inces, united  as  in  a  common  cause. 

On  Grecian  military  affairs,  see  J.  T.  H.  JVast's  Einleitung  in  die  griechischen  Kriegsalter- 
thiimer.  Stuttg.  1780.  8.  a  valuable  work  on  the  general  subject.  —  Also  G.  O.  S.  Kopke,  iiber 
das  Kriegsvveisen  der  Griechen  im  heroischen  Zeitalter  &c.  Berl.  1807.  8.  cf.  Class.  Journ.  ix. 
11.  —  C.  Guiscard,  Memoires  rnilitaires  sur  les  Grecs  et  sur  les  Romains.  La  Hage,  1758.  4. 
It  contains  a  translation  of  Onosander  (cf.  P.  11.  $221),  and  plans  of  some  ancient  battles,  &c. 
Cf.  §275.  —  Gamier,  as  cited  §136.  —  Mitford' s  Hist.  ch.  ii.  sect.  3,  4. 

§  43.  The  Grecian  armies  consisted  partly  of  foot-soldiers  and  in 
later  times  of  horsemen,  partly  of  such  as  were  borne  in  chariots. 
The  foot-soldiers  were  distinguished  as  light  armed  (uukoi)  and  heavy 
armed  (onXirai).  The  Thessalians  were  early  and  especially  cele- 
brated for  their  cavalry  (faittfe).  Still  more  ancient  was  the  use  of 
40* 


474  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

war-chariots,  which  were  employed  by  the  heroes  of  Homer.  Two 
horses,  sometimes  three,  were  attached  to  these  chariots  ;  each  con- 
tained two  warriors,  one  of  whom  guided  the  horses  (;>t'o/oc),  while 
the  other  pointed  out  the  direction  (jiunu^ixrrc),  discharged  arrows, 
hurled  missiles  from  a  sling,  or  fought  with  short  arms,  and  when  the 
action  was  close  sprang  from  the  chariot  (diyQog).  Notwithstanding 
the  inconvenience  of  these  vehicles  in  battle,  they  were  in  use  for  a 
long  time,  before  cavalry  came  to  be  generally  substituted  in  their 
place. 

§  44.  The  weapons  of  the  Greek  warriors  were  of  two  kinds,  de- 
fensive and  offensive.  Among  the  former  (uXshjT^Qia,  7vqop.i'tuara,)  was 
the  helmet  (xvWq,  xqicvog,  nsQizsuxx/'.aia,  -Aovg)  made  of  hide  or  leather 
and  adorned  with  a  crest  of  hair  or  tufts  of  feathers  (<f>uZog,?.6(pog), 
and  attached  to  the  neck  by  a  strap  (£?««;) ;  the  breast-plate  (dojoa-), 
commonly  made  of  brass,  sometimes  of  leather  or  linen  ;  the  girdle 
(£«"'/),  mostly  of  brass  and  encircling  the  lower  part  of  the  body  ; 
the  greaves  (xvijurteg),  of  brass  or  some  more  precious  metal;  and 
the  shield  (aanig),  usually  round,  made  of  bullock's  hide,  and  used 
for  the  protection  of  the  whole  body  (cf.  §  139). 

1m.  The  shield  was  often  adorned  with  figures,  but  not  as  much  so  as 
Hesiod  represents  the  shield  of  Hercules  to  have  been,  and  Homer  that  of 
Achilles. 

2.  Homer's  description  of  the  shield  of  Achilles  (II.  xviii.  478)  is  consid- 
ered as  one  of  the  finest  passages  in  the  Iliad.  A  delineation  and  model  of 
the  shield  was  formed  by  the  celebrated  artist,  Flaxman,  and  several  casts 
were  made  in  silver  gilt,  bronze,  and  plaster.  He  brought  the  whole  work 
within  a  circle  of  three  feet  in  diameter.  It  contains  upwards  of  a  hundred 
human  figures  exhibited  in  relief. 

Cf.  Felton's  Iliad,  Notes.  —  See  Quatr.  de  Quincy,  Sur  la  description  du  bouchlier  d'Achille 
&c.  in  the  Mem.  Vlnst.  de  France,  C  1  a  s  s  e  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  iv.  p.  102,  with  a  colored 
plate.  —  De  Caylus,  Baucliers  d'Achille,  d'Hercule,  et  d'Enee  &x.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inner. 
xxvii.  21.  —  Glass.  Journ.  vi.  6;  vm.  409. 

§  45.  The  offensive  weapons  were,  the  spear  (86qv),  commonly 
made  of  the  ash-tree  (ueilfy),  and  of  different  lengths  and  forms  ac- 
cording as  it  was  designed  for  combat  more  or  less  close  ;  the  sword 
(t'upog),  the  belt  of  which  hung  from  the  shoulders  ;  the  hoio  (rolor), 
usually  of  wood,  with  a  string  (nvQov)  of  twisted  horse-hair  or  of 
hide;  the  arrows  (^7.r/,6io-T«),  of  light-wood,  pointed  with  iron,  and 
winged  (n.renong  ?6g)  with  feathers;  the  javelin  (uxovnor),  of  various 
lengths  and  forms;  and  the  sling  (oytvfor*]),  of  an  oval  shape,  with 
two  leathern  strings  attached  to  its  ends,  by  means  of  which  arrows, 
stones,  and  leaden  balls  (uo?.i!p9wai)  were  hurled  against  the  foe. 

The  spear  used  for  close  combat  was  called  $uqv  oqsxtov;  that  for  a  distance, 
Tia'f.ihv;  the  point,  termed  uiyutn  was  always  of  metal.  JovQudvxtj  was  the 
name  given  to  the  box  or  case,  in  which  the  spears  were  deposited  when  not 
in  use.  —  The  term  ty/og  also  designates  the  spear  ;  the  epithet  brazen  (/u?.- 

y.sov)  is  usually  applied  to  it.      Cf.  Horn.  II.  iii.  380. The  arrows  were  kept 

in  a  quiver  (quoit na),  which  with  the  bow,  was  usually  carried  on  the  back  of 
the  shoulders  (to*  wuutan).  The  quiver  had  a  lid  or  cover  (ntifta).  Cf.  Horn. 
II.  iv.  116-120. 

Various  articles  of  ancient  armor  are  seen  in  our  Plates  XIV  and  XVII.  The  bow  and  quiver 
are  given  in  fig.  t,  &.  l,  of  Plate  XIV.  In  this  Plate  also,  fig.  y,  y,  we  have  forms  of  the  Gre- 
cian javelin  .-  in  o,  o,  spear-heads  :  in  h,  a  form  of  the  clubs  (cf.  $139)  which  in  various  forms 
were  used  in  early  periods  ;  in  rig.  a,  a,  are  given  forms  of  the  club  or  battle-mallet  used  l>\  the 
Egyptians,  which  sometimes  had  leaden  heads  with  handles  four  or  five  feet  toag  :  in  fig.  i»lj 
we  have  the  Grecian  battle-are:  in  the  several  figures  s,  c,  n,  forms  of  the  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man   sword;     in   e,    a    Dacian    sword j    in   those  marked   b,   Persian   swords.  —  In  Piate 


PLATE     XIV. 


476  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

XVII,  fig.  a,  b,  e,  d,  and  e,  are  varieties  of  helmets  found  in  Egyptian  remains :  /,  g,  h,  and  i, 
are  Persian  and  Syrian  helmets  j  the  kings  are  sometimes  represented  with  crowns  of  a  similar 
appearance  :  n,  and  o,  are  given  as  Phrygian  :  I,  vi,  are  Grecian,  and  may  represent  also  the 
Roman  :  p,  and  q,  are  Dacian  :  k  is  a  form  quite  similar  to  the  latter,  said  to  be  used  also  by 
the  Syrians.  In  fig.  r,  and  on  the  Grecian  warriors  fig.  1.  and  7,  the  thorax  is  seen,  and  the 
girdle  :  5  represents  a  figure  found  buried  in  a  sitting  posture,  near  the  celebrated  Dighton  Rock, 
in  Massachusetts,  with  a  concave  breast-plate  thirteen  inches  long,  supposed  to  be  of  cast  brass, 
and  a  belt  of  the  same  material  four  and  a  half  inches  wide  having  a  reed-like  appearance ;  a 
brazen  arrow-head,  t,  was  found  with  it.  In  fig.  w,  and  on  the  warrior  fig.  7,  we  see  the  greaves; 
the  shield  in  fig.  1,  3,  7  :  the  spear  in  the  hands  of  the  Grecian  warriors  in  fig.  1,  2 ;  and  of  the 
Persian,  fig.  3  :  the  bow  &c.  in  fig.  6,  which  represents  an  Egyptian  archer. 

§  46.  Most  of  the  weapons  of  the  ancient  Greeks  were  made  of 
brass  or  copper,  which  seems  to  have  been  used  earlier  than  iron  (P.  I. 
§10),  and  was  often  used  after  the  introduction  of  iron.  For  defen- 
sive armor  iron  was  afterwards  generally  preferred.  For  the  cuirass 
or  breast-plate,  the  greaves  and  the  shield,  tin  or  lead  was  sometimes 
used.  To  adorn  the  weapons  with  gold  was  considered  as  too  ex- 
travagant and  ostentatious.  Yet  they  endeavored  to  give  their  armor 
the  highest  degree  of  brightness,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  beauty,  but 
to  inspire  fear  in  the  enemy.  On  the  shield  they  had  a  sort  of  field- 
badge,  or  military  emblem,  usually  in  bas-relief,  the  image  of  some 
god;  or  animal,  especially  the  lion.  The  horses  also  were  orna- 
mented with  much  care. 

Respecting  the  military  apparel  little  is  ascertained.  Lycurgus  directed  the 
Lacedoemonians  to  clothe  their  soldiers  in  scarlet.  —  The  Greek  soldiers  usu- 
ally carried  their  own  provisions,  consisting  chiefly  of  salt  meat,  cheese,  olives, 
onions,  &c.  For  this  purpose  each  one  had  a  vessel  made  of  wicker  with  a  long 
neck,  called  yv/.iov.     Robinson,  p.  349. 

§  47.  In  connection  with  the  affairs  of  Avar,  it  is  proper  to  notice 
the  use  of  ships  or  vessels,  which  the  Greeks  in  early  times  employed 
partly  in  piracy,  partly  in  transporting  armies,  and  partly  in  actual 
combat.  In  later  times  the  naval  battles  of  the  Greeks  were  frequent 
and  celebrated.  Their  first  ships  were  long  (uuxqui),  and  moved  by 
oars.  The  number  of  rowers  was  various,  often  very  considerable. 
Originally  there  was  but  a  single  rank  on  each  side ;  afterwards,  as 
the  ship  was  built  higher,  another  rank  of  rowers  was  added  ;  Vessels 
of  the  latter  kind  were  called  Sixoora,  those  of  the  former  uoiozootc*, 
also  uov,'tosig,  xiltjTtg.  At  a  later  period  they  were  built  with  three 
tiers  or  ranks,  Toning,  which  continued  to  be  the  most  common  form, 
although  there  were  vessels  with  four,  five,  and  six  tiers,  and  some- 
times even  more. 

It  was  early  customary  to  place  upon  ships  certain  images  and 
signs,  from  which  they  were  named.  The  ship  commonly  bore  the 
image  or  statue  of  some  god,  to  whose  protection  it  was  especially 
entrusted.  In  the  capture  of  a  vessel,  the  first  object  of  a  victor  wras 
to  plunder  this  image,  and  place  it  as  a  trophy  in  his  own  ship. 

§  48.  The  Greeks  early  practiced  in  war  the  forming  of  regular 
camps.  Their  compass  and  extent  were  such  as  not  only  to  include 
the  whole  army,  but  also  the  ships,  which  after  the  landing  of  the 
troops  were  drawn  upon  the  dry  land.  It  was  customary  to  surround 
the  camp  with  a  wall  or  ramparts  with  towers  and  breast-works.  Be- 
fore the  wall  was  a  fosse  or  ditch,  guarded  with  pointed  stakes.  For 
the  principal  officers  separate  tents  were  erected,  of  wooden  frames, 
covered  with  skins.      During  the  night,  sentinels  were  stationed  on 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS  IN  THE  EARLIER  AGES.  477 

guard,  and  beacon-fires  were  kindled.  Spies  and  scouts  were  sent  out 
from  both  parties,  when  hostile  camps  were  placed  against  each  other. 
"  Tents  like  those  now  in  use  seem  to  have  been  a  late  invention.  The  an- 
cients, on  desultory  expeditions,  and  in  marching  through  a  country,  slept 
with  no  shelter  but  their  cloaks,  as  our  light  troops  often  carry  none  but  a 
blanket;  when  they  remained  long  on  a  spot  they  hutted.  Achilles'  tent  or 
hut  was  built  of  fir,  and  thatched  with  reeds  ;  and  it  seems  to  have  had  seve- 
ral apartments.  (II.  xxiv.  488.   ix.  659)."    Mitford. 

§  49.  The  order  of  battle  was  either  to  place  the  war-chariots  in 
front  and  the  infantry  in  the  rear,  or  to  give  the  latter  the  front,  and 
support  them  by  the  chariots  from  behind.  The  whole  army  was 
drawn  into  close  array,  although  arranged  in  distinct  divisions.  On 
the  commencement  of  battle  they  implored  the  aid  of  the  gods,  and 
made  vows  of  grateful  returns.  Then  the  generals  exhorted  the  sol- 
diers to  valor,  and  proceeded  to  set  an  example.  The  onset  was  usu- 
ally accompanied  with  loud  shouting  and  clamor  to  inspirit  each  other 
and  intimidate  the  foe.  The  wounded  were  healed  with  care,  having 
nursing  and  medicine;  but  the  slain  of  the  enemy  were  left  unburied, 
or  their  corpses  even  exposed  to  insult,  unless  their  burial  was  agreed 
upon  in  some  express  stipulation. 

§  50.  The  spoils  taken  in  battle  consisted  partly  of  arms,  which 
the  captor  either  appropriated  to  his  own  use,  or  dedicated  to  the  gods, 
and  partly  in  other  utensils  and  precious  articles,  which,  together  with 
their  owners,  became  the  property  of  the  victor.  By  means  of  a  ran- 
som, however,  the  spoils,  as  well  as  the  prisoners,  could  be  redeemed. 
After  battle,  the  remaining  booty  was  often  divided  among  the  sol- 
diers by  lot;  the  general,  however,  always  received  his  portion  first 
and  without  lot.  Those  who  had  distinguished  themselves  by  valor, 
also  received  prizes  and  rewards,  by  the  promises  of  which  the  gene- 
rals often  stimulated  their  troops  before  the  action. 

"  We  find  that,  so  early  as  Homer's  time,  the  Greeks  had  improved  consid- 
erably upon  that  tumultuary  warfare  alone  known  to  many  barbarous  nations, 
who  yet  have  prided  themselves  in  the  practice  of  war  for  successive  centuries. 
Several  terms  used  by  the  poet,  together  with  his  description  of  marches,  indi- 
cate that  orders  of  battle  were  in  his  time  regularly  formed  in  ranks  and  files. 
Steadiness  in  the  soldier,  that  foundation  of  all  those  powers  which  distinguish 
an  army  from  a  mob,  and  which  to  this  day  forms  the  highest  praise  of  the  best 
troops,  we  find  in  great  perfection  in  the  Iliad.  '  The  Grecian  phalanges,' 
says  the  poet  (iv.  427),  'marched  in  close  order,  the  leaders  directing  each 
his  own  band.  The  rest  were  mute  :  insomuch  that  you  would  say,  in  so  great  $ 
a  multitude  there  was  no  voice.  Such  was  the  silence  with  which  they  re- 
spectively watched  for  the  word  of  command  from  their  officers.' 

Considering  the  deficiency  of  iron,  the  Grecian  troops  appear  to  have  been 
very  well  armed,  both  for  offence  and  defence.  Their  defensive  armor  con- 
sisted of  a  helmet,  a  breastplate,  and  greaves,  all  of  brass;  and  a  shield,  com- 
monly of  bull's  hide,  but  often  strengthened  with  brass.  The  breastplate  ap- 
pears to  have  met  the  belt,  which  was  a  considerable  defence  to  the  belly  and 
groin  :  and  with  an  appendant  skirt  guarded  also  the  thighs.  All  together 
covered  the  forepart  of  the  soldier  from  the  throat  to  the  ancle  ;  and  the  shield 
was  a  superadded  protection  for  every  part.  The  bulk  of  the  Grecian  troops 
were  infantry,  thus  heavily  armed,  and  formed  in  close  order,  many  ranks  deep. 
Any  body,  formed  in  ranks  and  files,  close  and  deep,  without  regard  to  a  spe- 
cific number  of  either  ranks  or  files,  was  generally  termed  a  phalanx  (II.  iv.  332. 
vi.  83J.  But  the  Locrians,  under  Oilean  Ajax,  were  all  light-armed ;  bows  were 
theirprincipal  weapons,  and  they  never  engaged  in  close  fight  (uy  yUtayoi). 

Riding  on  horseback  was  yet  little  practiced,  though  it  appears  to  have  been 
not  unknown  (II.  xiii.  722).     Some  centuries,  however,  passed  before  it  was 


478  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

generally  applied  in  Greece  to  military  purposes  ;  the  mountainous  ruggedness 
of  the  country  prevented  any  extensive  use  of  cavalry ,  except  among  the  Thes- 
salians,  whose  territory  was  a  large  plain.  [Cf.  Saltier,  cited  §138.]  But  in  the 
Homeric  armies  no  chief  was  without  his  chariot,  drawn  generally  by  two, 
sometimes  by  three  horses;  and  these  chariots  of  war  make  a  principal  figure 
in  Homer's  battles.  Ne"stor,  forming  the  army  for  action,  composes  the  first  line 
of  chariots  only.  In  the  second  he  places  that  part  of  the  infantry  in  which  he 
has  least  confidence  ;  and  then  forms  a  third  line,  or  reserve,  of  the  most  ap- 
proved troops. 

The  combat  of  the  chiefs,  so  repeatedly  described  by  Homer,  advancing  to 
engage  singly  in  front  of  their  line  of  battle,  is  apt  to  strike  a  modern  reader 
with  an  appearance  of  absurdity  perhaps  much  beyond  the  reality.  Before  the 
use  of  fire-arms  that  practice  was  not  uncommon,  when  the  art  of  war  was  at 
the  greatest  perfection.  Caesar  himself  gives  (De  Bell.  Gall.  v.  43),  with  evi- 
dent satisfaction,  a  very  particular  account  of  a  remarkable  advanced  combat, 
in  which,  not  generals  indeed,  but  two  centurions  of  his  army  engaged.  The 
Grecian  chiefs  of  the  heroic  age,  like  the  knights  of  the  times  of  chivalry,  had 
armor  probably  superior  to  that  of  the  common  soldiers  ;  and  this,  with  the 
additional  advantage  of  superior  skill,  acquired  by  assiduous  practice  amid  un- 
bounded leisure,  would  make  this  skirmishing  much  less  dangerous  than  on 
first  consideration  it  may  appear."  —  Mitford,  ch.  ii.  sect.  3. 

"  Another  practice  common  in  Homer's  time  is  by  no  means  equally  defen- 
sible, but  on  the  contrary  marks  great  barbarism;  that  of  stopping  in  the  heat 
of  action  to  strip  the  slain.  Often  this  paltry  passion  for  possessing  the  spoil 
of  the  enemy  superseded  all  other,  even  the  most  important  and  most  deeply 
interesting  objects  of  battle.  The  poet  himself  (II.  v.  43.  vi.  67)  was  not  una- 
ware of  the  danger  and  inconvenience  of  the  practice,  and  seems  even  to  have 
aimed  at  a  reformation  of  it.  We  find,  indeed,  in  Homers  warfare,  a  remark- 
able mixture  of  barbarism  with  regularity.  Though  the  art  of  forming  an  army 
in  phalanx  was  known  and  commonly  practiced,  yet  the  business  of  a  general, 
in  directing  its  operations,  was  lost  in  the  passion,  or  we  may  call  it  fashion, 
of  the  great  men  to  signalize  themselves  by  acts  of  personal  courage  and  skill 
in  arms.  Achilles  and  Hector,  the  first  heroes  of  the  Iliad  (xviii.  106.  252), 
excel  only  in  the  character  of  fighting  soldiers  :  as  generals  and  directors  of 
the  war,  they  are  inferior  to  many.  Indeed,  while  the  fate  of  the  battles  de- 
pended so  much  on  the  skirmishing  of  the  chiefs,  we  cannot  wonder  that  the 
prejudice  should  obtain  which  set  the  able  arm,  in  vulgar  estimation,  above  the 
able  head.  But  the  poet  obviously  means  to  expose  the  absurdity  and  mis- 
chievous consequences  of  that  prejudice,  where  he  makes  Hector  (Il.xxii.99), 
in  a  late  repentance,  acknowledge  the  superior  abilities  of  Polydamas.  Yet 
Homer's  own  idea  of  the  duties  of  an  officer,  though  he  possessed  very  exten- 
sive and  very  accurate  knowledge  both  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  war  of 
his  own  age,  was  still  very  imperfect." — lb. 

§  51.  At  the  end  of  war  the  conquered  party  either  submitted  wholly 
to  the  dominion  and  laws  of  the  conqueror,  or  a  peace  was  made  up- 
on certain  conditions.  This  was  effected  through  legates,  fully  com- 
missioned for  the  purpose.  In  forming  a  treaty  of  peace,  various  cere- 
monies were  observed,  partly  of  a  religious  character.  A  victim  was 
slain,  of  which  however  no  meal  was  made,  but  its  flesh  was  cast  aside ; 
libations  were  poured  out;  the  parties  joined  hands  in  pledge  of  good 
faith,  and  called  upon  the  gods  as  witnesses  of  their  covenant,  and  as 
avengers  of  its  violation,  especially  upon  Jupiter,  whose  thunderbolts 
were  an  object  of  terror  to  the  perjured.  The  restoration  of  plunder 
was  generally  a  preliminary  requisition  ;  and  the  conquered  party  was 
often  compelled  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  as  a  fine  or  indemnification. 
—  Sometimes  the  whole  war  was  terminated  by  a  single  combat,  the 
parties  agreeing  to  abide  by  its  issue. 


GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES.  479 


(4)  Domestic  Affairs. 

§52.  Since  social  life  was  but  gradually  introduced  in  Greece,  it 
is  not  to  be  expected,  that  the  earliest  ages  should  exhibit  much  refine- 
ment in  what  pertains  to  domestic  affairs.  During  the  heroic  ages 
their  mode  of  living  was  nearly  as  rude  as  their  morals.  Their  prin- 
cipal meat  was  the  flesh  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  goats,  and  deer,  which 
they  were  accustomed  to  roast.  The  flesh  of  birds  and  fish  was  more 
seldom  used.  The  most  common  food  was  milk,  fruit,  and  vegetables. 
The  first  and  most  common  drink  was  water ;  wine,  however,  was  in 
frequent  use ;  but,  generally,  mingled  with  water.  Large  drinking- 
vessels  were  employed  at  their  repasts.  Ordinarily  they  had  two  meals 
a  day,  at  mid-day  and  evening,  and  in  the  earlier  times  it  was  the 
Greek  custom  to  sit  at  table,  not  to  recline.  The  number  of  persons 
at  one  table  was  seldom  greater  than  ten. 

It  was  a  proverb,  ascribed  to  Theognis  (P.  II.  §31),  that  the  persons  at  a  so- 
cial repast  should  not  be  less  in  number  than  the  Graces,  nor  more  than  the 
Muses.  —  The  Roman  Varro  is  said  to  have  enjoined  this  rule,  respecting  the 
proper  number  at  a  repast  (Gell.  xiii.  11).    Adam. 

"  Homer  mentions  three  different  sorts  of  seats  :  (1)  diynoc,  which  contained 
two  persons,  commonly  placed  for  those  of  mean  rank ;  (2)  fyovog,  on  which 
they  sat  upright,  having  under  their  feet  a  footstool  termed  &Qijvvg  ;  (3)  y.7.w^ogx 
on  which  they  sat  leaning  a  little  backwards."  Robinson.  —  Cf.  Horn.  Odys.  i. 
130,  131. 

§  53.  Social  repasts  or  banquets  were  often  held,  being  occasioned 
by  public  solemnities,  festivals,  religious  celebrations,  marriages,  and 
the  like.  Sometimes  they  were  made  at  the  common  expense  of  the 
guests  (tqavog,  cf.  Odyss.  i.  226) ;  such  entertainments,  however,  were 
viewed  as  of  inferior  rank.  The  feasts  upon  victims  offered  in  sacri- 
fice have  been  mentioned  (§  27). 

At  table  the  guests  sat  according  to  a  definite  order.  The  begin- 
ning was  made  by  washing  the  hands.  In  early  times  a  separate 
board  was  placed  for  each  guest,  and  his  portion  of  food  thus  divided 
to  him.  Wine  was  brought  by  youthful  attendants,  and  the  guests 
often  drank  to  each  other,  and  reciprocally  exchanged  cups.  They 
endeavored  to  heighten  the  joys  of  the  banquet  by  conversation  and 
wit,  and  also  by  songs  and  instrumental  music.      Cf.  P.  I.  §  68. 

§  54.  The  dress  of  the  early  Greeks  was  longer,  and  more  ample, 
and  more  completely  covered  the  body,  than  that  of  later  times.  Next 
to  the  body  they  wore  a  long  robe  or  frock  (jprreSr),  which  was  kept  in 
place  by  a  girdle,  and  over  this  a  cloak  (xlatva)  of  thicker  materials, 
to  protect  against  the  cold.  Instead  of  the  latter  they  sometimes  had 
a  mantle  (cpaQog).  The  women  wore  also  long  cloaks  or  over-garments, 
called  ntnloi,  often  richly  embroidered  and  ornamented.  They  like- 
wise covered  their  heads,  while  the  men  seern  not  to  have  done  it  in 
the  earlier  ages,  except  that  they  wore  helmets  in  war.  Shoes  or  socks 
were  not  used  constantly,  but  only  in  going  out.  In  war  the  men  wore 
a  sort  of  boot  or  greaves  (§  44). 

§  55.  For  the  sake  of  cleanliness  and  of  bodily  strength,  the  early 
Greeks  practiced  frequent  bathing,  and  with  it  united  the  custom  of 
anointing.     In  bathing  they  made  much  use  of  the  sea-water,  on  ac- 


480  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

count  of  its  purifying  and  strengthening  properties.  They  also  had 
warm  baths  in  their  houses.  After  taking  the  bath  they  anointed  the 
body  with  oil ;  costly  ointments,  expressly  prepared  for  the  purpose, 
were  of  later  invention.  They  cultivated  in  every  way  the  growth  of 
the  hair,  long  hair  being  considered  as  essential  to  personal  beauty 
and  dignity.  The  color  most  esteemed  was  yellowish  or  light  brown. 
They  were  also  pleased  with  frizzled  or  curled  locks,  and  employed 
artificial  means  to  secure  such  forms  to  their  hair. 

§  5(3.  Of  the  real  architecture  and  arrangement  of  Greek  houses  in 
the  earlier  periods,  we  do  not  get  an  accurate  view  from  the  descriptions 
of  Homer,  which,  aside  from  their  poetical  character,  relate  only  to  the 
palaces  or  dwellings  of  distinguished  personages.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  232.) 
Respecting  these  we  may  remark,  that  they  were  ordinarily  surrounded 
by  some  kind  of  a  wall,  not  very  high  ;  between  the  wall  and  the  house 
itself  was  the  fore-court,  in  which  an  altar  usually  stood.  Then  fol- 
lowed a  colonnade,  a  vestibule,  and  the  main  building  or  house,  often 
highly  ornamented  without  and  within ;  although  the  art  of  building 
at  this  time  had  not  reached  by  far  the  perfection,  which  Greek  archi- 
tecture afterwards  attained.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  house  was  the 
dining-hall,  the  sleeping-room,  and  the  women's  apartment.  The 
roofs  were  flat,  as  in  oriental  countries,  and  often  served  as  places  of 
resort  both  by  day  and  by  night. 

§57.  The  Greeks  cheerfully  received  to  their  houses  the  stranger, 
and  the  needy ;  and  the  rights  of  hospitality  were  held  sacred  among 
them.  Jupiter  himself  was  considered  as  the  god  and  rewarder  of 
hospitality,  and  the  avenger  of  all  violations  of  its  laws,  and  on  that 
account  was  styled  £hio?  (P.  III.  §  25).  They  had  no  public  inns 
(cf.  §  168),  but  travelers  found  reception  with  those  who  stood  related 
to  them  by  ties  of  hospitality.  This  relation  existed  not  only  between 
particular  persons,  but  also  between  whole  cities  and  communities. 
Kings  and  distinguished  persons  exercised  hospitality  towards  each 
other  by  a  sort  of  common  understanding.  The  external  tokens  of  a 
welcome  reception  of  guests  were  joining  hands  and  embracing  with 
a  kiss.  Sometimes  this  was  accompanied  with  offering  the  bath  and 
unction.  On  separating,  it  was  common  to  unite  in  a  friendly  repast, 
and  renew  their  pledge  of  mutual  friendship  over  the  wine.  Valued 
gifts  were  sometimes  bestowed  on  the  departing  guest. 

§58.  In  speaking  of  the  occupations  of  the  Greeks,  agriculture 
may  be  first  mentioned.  This  was  their  most  common  pursuit  and 
means  of  living.  The  boundaries  of  the  fields  were  marked  by  stones, 
which  served  to  guard  the  cultivators  against  mutual  encroachments. 
The  culture  of  the  vine  and  of  trees  was  also  an  object  of  attention. 
The  raising  of  cattle  was  a  common  employment,  and  a  principal 
source  of  wealth.  These  employments  were  not  considered  in  any  way 
degrading  or  ignoble,  but  were  exercised  by  persons  of  eminence  and 
even  by  princes.  The  hunting  of  wild  beasts  should  also  be  mentioned 
here,  as  practiced  in  order  to  secure  the  flocks  and  the  fields  from 
depradation.  In  the  chase  they  made  use  of  various  weapons,  as  the 
bow  and  arrow,  and  the  spear,  with  the  help  of  the  dog.  Fowling  and 
fishing  were  likewise  a  frequent  employment. 

rfm.eilkon,  sur  la  peche  des  Anciens,  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnstihd,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Bcauc  Jlrts, 
vol.  v.  p.  35'J. 


DOMESTIC  AFFAIRS  IN  THE  EARLIER  AGES.  481 

$  59.  The  employments  of  women  consisted  partly  in  the  care  of  the 
household,  partly  in  spinning,  weaving,  and  needle-work,  not  only  for 
their  own  clothing,  but  for  that  of  the  men  also.  Grinding,  baking, 
cooking  and  washing,  were  performed  by  the  women.  In  general,  the 
female  sex  among  the  Greeks  was  in  a  state  of  great,  although  not 
slavish  subjection  to  the  male.  There  was  comparatively  little  inter- 
course between  the  sexes.  The  women  lived  chiefly  by  themselves 
in  the  apartment  assigned  to  them,  the  rvvnctxatv  or  rwar.siov ,  which 
was  in  the  interior  or  upper  part  of  the  house  (§  56).  Seldom  were 
they  allowed  to  go  abroad.  In  later  times  this  close  discipline  and 
confinement  remained  in  force,  and  women  shared  even  less  than 
previously  in  the  business  and  pleasures  of  men. 

On  the  ancient  method  of  grinding,  cf.  Mongrel,  Sur  les  meules  de  moulin  employees  par  les 
Anciens,  in  the  Mem.de  I'Institut,  Classe  d' Hist,  el  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  m.  p.  441.  —  On  the  state 
of  females,  R.  O.  Lenz,  Geschichte  der  Weiber  im  heroischen  Zeitalter.  Hanov.  1790.  8. — 
Rochefurt,  Les  mceurs  des  siecles  heroiques,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxvi.  p.  396.  —  Cf.  §  181. 

§  60.  Among  the  most  common  amusements  of  the  Greeks  were 
music  and  dancing.  The  former  consisted  of  vocal  and  instrumental, 
which  were  always  united  :  and  it  was  designed  for  instruction  as 
well  as  gratification.  Hence  music,  although  in  a  more  extended 
sense  of  the  term  (P.  I.  §  64),  was  an  essential  object  in  education. 
The  lyre  was  the  stringed  instrument  the  most  in  use,  and  of  wind 
instruments  the  flute  was  the  most  common.  The  former  enjoyed 
the  preference,  because  it  was  more  easily  accommodated  to  song, 
and  also  left  the  performer  at  liberty  to  use  his  voice.  —  The  subjects 
of  song  were  chiefly  mythical  or  historical.  Music  was  most  gener- 
ally used  at  banquets  amd  religious  festivals,  which  were  also  the 
most  common  occasions  of  dancing.  With  dancing  it  was  customa- 
ry to  join  various  sports  and  exercises  of  the  body,  as  leaping,  run- 
ning, riding,  wrestling,  and  the  like. 

§  61.  Marriage  and  nuptial  ceremonies  are  to  be  noticed  in  con- 
nection with  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Greeks.  The  dowry  of  the 
daughter  was  usually  given  by  the  father.  It  consisted  of  female  or- 
naments, a  portion  of  the  flocks  and  herds,  and  the  like.  There  were 
no  degrees  of  consanguinity  forbidden  in  marriage,  except  that  be- 
tween parents  and  children  ;  yet  is  was  considered  as  highly  censur- 
able for  brother  and  sister  to  unite.  Previously  to  marriage  the  con- 
sent of  the  parents  was  to  be  asked.  At  the  nuptials  or  wedding, 
the  bride  was  with  pomp  conducted  home  by  the  bridegroom,  who 
had  previously,  according  to  the  common  practice,  built  and  made 
ready  a  new  house.  In  this  procession  to  the  house,  nuptial  torches 
were  borne  before  the  newly  married,  and  bridal  hymns  were  sung 
by  a  retinue  of  youths  and  virgins.  Dancing  usually  accompanied 
the  music;  and  the  whole  was  followed  by  a  nuptial  feast.  A  widow 
seldom  contracted  a  second  marriage,  although  it  was  not  expressly 
forbidden.  At  least,  it  did  not  take  place  until  five  years  or  more 
after  her  widowhood. 

§  62.  Parents  of  the  better  class  took  special  care  of  the  educa- 
tion of  their  children,  both  physical  and  moral.  The  mother  was 
accustomed  to  nurse  her  own  children,  and  considered  herself  freed 
from  this  duty  by  no  rank  or  condition.  The  aid  of  others  in  this 
respect  was  sought  only  in  cases  of  absolute  necessity.  In  subse- 
41 


482  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

quent  years  the  children  had  particular  teachers  and  overseers,  who 
instructed  them  in  bodily  exercises,  in  useful  sciences,  and  in  the  art 
of  war.     Cf.  P.  I.  §64,  71. 

On  the  other  hand,  also,  children  considered  it  a  duty  to  love,  rev- 
erence, and  obey  their  parents.  They  rejoiced  in  a  father's  benedic- 
tion, and  considered  his  curse  as  the  greatest  of  evils.  They  endeav- 
ored to  repay  to  parents  in  old  age  the  care  experienced  by  them- 
selves in  childhood,  a  thing,  indeed,  expressly  required  by  law.  They 
looked  upon  it  as  their  highest  honor,  to  inflict  vengeance  on  such  as 
had  injured  their  fathers. 

On  respect  paid  to  old  age  among  the  ancients,  cf.  Class.  Journ.  in.  142,  320  ;  it.  319. 

§  63.  The  slaves  (dov?.oi)  of  the  Greeks,  male  and  female,  were 
persons  that  had  been  taken  prisoners  in  war  {ui/uic/.anoq,  uvdouzrodov), 
or  were  purchased  of  others.  Slaves  of  the  latter  class  were  not 
common  in  early  times.  The  introduction  of  commerce  or  trade  in 
slaves  is  ascribed  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Chios,  at  a  later 
period.  The  master  had  an  almost  unlimited  power  over  his  slave, 
extending  even  to  the  right  of  life  and  death.  Sometimes  the  gift  of 
liberty  was  bestowed. 

Besides  the  actual  slaves  there  was  a  class  of  day  laborers,  who 
were  accustomed  to  let  their  services  for  hire  (^yn??,  7it?.urai),  espe- 
cially in  the  agricultural  and  pastoral  employments,  which  were  orig- 
inally so  common  in  Greece.  A  retinue  of  servants  for  mere  display 
or  luxury  was  not  indulged  in  during  the  period  of  which  we  have 
thus  far  been  speaking.     Cf.  §  99. 


II — Of  the  later  and  more  flourishing  Ages. 

(1)  Religious  Affairs. 

§  64.  The  number  of  the  Grecian  divinities  increased  with  the 
advancement  of  civilization;  although  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks, 
in  its  elements,  was  chiefly  of  early  origin,  engendered  and  fostered 
by  the  ignorance,  superstition,  and  sensuality  of  the  first  ages.  The 
mythical  fictions  were  enlarged,  the  modes  of  representing  the  gods 
were  varied,  the  temples,  festivals,  and  sacrifices,  and  all  the  solem- 
nities and  rites  of  worship  were  greatly  multiplied.  The  pomp  and 
splendor  of  their  religion  became  very  imposing,  especially  at  the 
period  distinguished  for  the  flourishing  state  of  all  their  affairs.  At 
that  time  the  plastic  arts  were  in  a  great  measure  devoted  to  the  rep- 
resentation and  illustration  of  religious  story,  and  the  ornamenting 
of  religious  edifices.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  178,  197,  198,  234.)  This  circum- 
stance gives  additional  interest  and  importance  to  the  study  of  this 
branch  of  antiquities. 

§  65.  The  temples  [raol,  hnu)  were  still  built  in  a  simple  taste,  yet 
in  greater  number  and  splendor.     The   interior   had  commonly  two 


PLATE     XV 


484  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

parts,  of  which  the  innermost  was  the  sanctuary  (u8vTov)t  into  which 
the  priest  only  entered.  The  place  where  stood  the  statue  or  image 
of  the  god  to  whom  the  temple  belonged,  was  in  the  middle  of  the 
temple,  called  rUnvog,  commonly  surrounded  by  a  guard  of  lattice 
work  or  the  like,  and  therefore  also  termed  ar^og.  —  The  altars 
(/9tt«,«6i)  were  placed  towards  the  east,  and  had  various  forms,  round, 
square,  or  oblong.  They  were  ornamented  with  horns,  partly  that 
the  sacrificial  victims  might  be  bound  to  them,  and  partly  that  sup- 
plicants might  lay  hold  of  them,  when  they  fled  to  the  altars  for  ref- 
uge. Perhaps  also  they  were  considered  as  a  symbol  of  dignity  and 
power.  The  names  of  the  deities,  to  whom  the  altars  were  sacred, 
were  usually  inscribed  upon  them.  Altars,  as  well  as  temples,  were 
consecrated  to  their  proper  use  with  solemn  ceremonies,  particularly 
by  anointing. 

Originally  the  Greeks,  like  the  oriental  nations,  worshiped  on  the  top  of 
mountains  or  hills,  where  they  afterwards  first  erected  their  temples.  When 
in  the  common  creed  the  gods  were  multiplied  and  assigned  to  valleys,  rivers, 
&c.  as  their  appropriate  provinces,  temples  were  built  in  such  spots  as  were 
supposed  agreeable  to  the  several  gods.  More  than  one  deity,  however,  were 
sometimes  worshiped  in  the  same  temple;  they  were  then  called  ovrraot  or 
avvoiyJrui;  and  when  they  had  a  common  altar,  ovfipwuoi.  Different  styles 
of  architecture  w7ere  used  for  different  deities  ;  Doric  pillars,  e.  g.  for  Jupiter 
or  Mars;  Ionic,  for  Bacchus,  Apollo,  Diana;  Corinthian,  for  Vesta  the  virgin. 

In  the  temple,  some  say  at  the  door,  others  near  the  udvrov,  was  placed  a 
vessel  of  stone  or  brass  hts^i^avtt'^ior)  filled  with  holy  water  for  the  purpose 
of  sprinkling  those  admitted  to  the  sacrifices.  The  part  of  the  temple  before 
the  OTjzbg  was  called  Tiyvdouog,  that  behind  it  oma&uSouog.  The  outer  porch 
was  termed  7i^onv>.a  or  nqonvXaia.  —  There  also  belonged  to  the  temple  a 
treasury  (ao^aiov)  for  preserving  its  own  property,  or  that  of  others  entrusted 
to  it.  —  For  other  particulars  respecting  the  structure  of  the  temples,  see  P. 
1.  §234. 

Different  gods  had  altars  also  of  different  dimensions;  the  altar  of  Jupiter 
Olympus  is  said  to  have  been  22  feet  high.  The  altars  of  the  terresfrial  gods 
were  lower  than  those  of  the  celestial.  To  the  infernal,  sacrifices  were  made 
in  pits  or  trenches  (§  29)  used  instead  of  altars.  The  nymphs  were  worshiped 
in  caves  (urroa).  Altars  were  formed  of  various  materials;  often  of  earth, 
or  of  ashes,  as  that  at  Thebes  to  Apollo  Znudiog  ;  sometimes  of  horn,  as  that 
at  Delos  ;  sometimes  of  brick;  often  of  stone;  some  were  overlaid  with  gold 
(cf.  §  26). 

The  statues  and  offerings  to  the  gods  found  in  the  temples  have  been  spok- 
en of  (§  21,  28).  Statues  called  Jiojurij,  fallen  from  Jupiter,  were  kept  in 
the  most  sacred  part  of  the  temple,  and  concealed  from  the  sight  of  all  but 
the  priests. 

§  66.  The  practice  of  appropriating  sacred  groves  for  the  honor 
and  service  of  the  gods  was  also  retained  in  later  times.  Their 
agreeable  shade,  as  well  as  the  stillness  reigning  in  them,  was  favor- 
able to  pious  meditation.  Although  the  use  of  groves  was  dimin- 
ished by  the  multiplication  of  cities  and  villages,  yet  a  grove  once 
dedicated  to  the  gods  remained  for  ever  sacred  and  inviolable.  As 
well  as  temples  and  altars,  they  were  safe  asylums  for  offenders,  al- 
though this  privilege  was  conferred  upon  them  only  by  a  special  con- 
secration for  the  purpose,  and  did  not  belong  to  all  the  places  of  re- 
ligious worship  as  a  matter  of  course.  The  privilege  of  being  such 
asylums  or  places  of  refuge  was  sometimes  awarded  to  the  statues 
and  tombs  of  heroes. — Certain  portions  of  land  and  cultivated  ground 
were  also  assigned  to  the  gods,  which  were  likewise  called  t*u«i'»/,  the 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  485 

fruit  of  which  was  employed  in  offerings,  or  fell  to  the  share  of  the 
priests. 

A  particular  tract  of  land,  situated  between  Athens  and  Megara,  was  con- 
secrated to  Ceres  and  Proserpine  and  called  'OQyug. —  Trees  were  also  set 
apart  and  with  ceremony  consecrated  to  some  god  (Theoc.  Id.  xviii.  43). 

The  privileges  of  the  sacred  temples,  as  asyla,  continued  until  the  reign  of 
Tiberius  Caesar,  by  whom  they  were  chiefly  abolished,  or  greatly  abridged 
(Tac.  Ann.  iii.  60-£>3),  on  account  of  the  abuse  of  them  by  worthless  villains. 

Simon,  Les  asyles,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  m.  35.  —  S.  Pegge,  History  of  the  Asylum  &c.  in  the 
Archmologia  (as  cited  P.  I.  $243.  3.)  vol.  vni.  p.  1. 

§  67.  The  three  principal  duties  of  the  priests  {liqttg,  called  also 
itQovQyol,  -&sov(>yoi,  SvTat)  were  sacrifice,  prayer,  and  instruction.  With 
these  were  united  sometimes  the  declaration  and  interpretation  of 
oracles.  The  requisite  qualifications  for  the  priesthood  were  a  body 
free  from  all  defects  and  blemishes  {uUxlrftoq  xal  aysll.g),  lawful  birth 
(yvi'jOioc),  and  an  irreproachable  course  of  life.  Upon  the  rank  of 
the  god  depended  the  number  of  the  priests,  who  were  employed  to 
attend  upon  him,  and  who  shared  each  his  part  of  the  various  func- 
tions of  the  service.  In  every  place  there  was  one  superior  priest, 
if  not  more  (an/uoiic,  [tQodiduoxaXoi,  [tooyuvTvu),  charged  with  the  over- 
sight of  the  religious  worship  in  general  (uQxitowovvt}). — The  office 
of  the  parasites  (ttuquoitoi)  was  to  collect  the  grain  and  fruits  de- 
signed for  sacrifices  (nnooudta  utyaZa)  into  the  store-house  appropri- 
ated therefor  (naoaaiTiov). — The  heralds  (x/mvxsc)  were  ranked  among 
the  sacred  orders,  and  also  the  superintendents  (vtwxoqoi)  whose  busi- 
ness was  to  cleanse  and  adorn  the  temples. 

The  clothing  of  the  priests  was  usually  a  long  white  or  purple 
robe,  and  their  head  was  ornamented,  especially  at  sacrifices,  with  a  * 
fillet  and  a  crown  of  the  leaf  sacred  to  their  particular  god. 

In  our  Plate  XXII.  fig.  C,  is  a  view  of  a  priest  and  priestess,  in  their  robes  ;  each  has  a 
thyrsus  in  one  hand,  indicating  that  they  are  servants  of  Bacchus,  and  a  vessel  in  the  other. 
The  priestess  is  pouring  a  liquid  upon  the  flame  of  an  altar.     It  is  a  monument  from  Pompeii. 

1.  Priests  holding  their  office  by  inheritance  (§  22)  were  called  o<  is.  yirovg', 
those  who  received  it  by  lot,  */.?;oo>rot  ;  those  by  election,  uiqsroi  or  iipfjipiOfii- 
rot.  Some  of  the  Athenian  families,  in  which  the  priesthood  descended  by 
inheritance  were  the  Evuo?./ii§ui,  entrusted  with  the  oversight  of  the  Eleusi- 
nian  mysteries  ;  K>]qvxes,  descendants  of  Ceryx  ;  the  Quiv?.o)ridai,  descendants 
of  Thaulon.  There  was  a  sacred  family  at  Argos  also,  called  'AxtaroQidai. 
Priestesses  (liquat,  uQilreiQai,  aqytiquai,  itQo(puvrldtc)  were  taken  from  noble 
families.  Those  of  Ceres  were  termed  Miiioaai  ;  of  Bacchus,  Bur./ai,  Ovu- 
<5'£c,  Mairudsg.  —  Sometimes  services  connected  with  the  worship  of  the  gods 
were  performed  by  persons  not  properly  belonging  to  the  priesthood  (y.t/oiQio- 
uivoi  rijg  isQuiovrijg),  as  e.  g.  sacrificers  (itnonotol),  keepers  of  the  temple  and 
utensils  (raoipi'/.axeg),  stewards  or  treasurers  (raiilat  rthv  ieqv>v  /o^j/c'ctouj). — 
Priests  who  were  constantly  in  attendance  on  the  gods  to  offer  the  prayers  of 
the  people  at  sacrifices,  were  called  i7oo77.oP.oi  #e<»r. — All  who  served  the  gods 
were  maintained  out  of  the  sacrifices  and  offerings.  —  At  Athens,  those  en- 
trusted with  the  care  of  religion  were  required  to  render  and  account  of  their 
doings  to  certain  civil  officers  appointed  for  the  purpose.  The  '  ItQouvfaiav 
seems  to  have  been  charged  with  keeping  the  sacred  records.  The  priests 
had  attendants  called  isqo&ovXoi. 

On  the  priesthood  of  the  Greeks,  see  J.  Kreuser,  Der  Hellenen  Priesterstaat  mit  vorziiglich 
Rucksicht  auf  die  Hierodulen.  Mainz.  —  Class.  Journ.  xxxix.  350.  —  Bougainville,  Des  minis- 
tres  des  Dieux  a  Athenes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  laser,  xviii.  60  ;  xxm.  5J. —  Lctronnc,  Sur  les 
functions  des  Hieromnemons  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  PInstitut,  Classe  d'Hist.  ct  Lit.  Aac.  vol. 
vi.  221. 

2.  Purification  has  already  been  mentioned  (§23)  as  a  rite  of  great  impor- 
tance among  the  Greeks.   At  some  of  their  solemnities,  the  priests  and  priest- 

41* 


486  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

esses  were  obliged  to  take  an  oath,  that  they  were  duly  purified.  Every  per- 
son attending  the  solemn  sacrifices  was  purified  usually  by  being  washed  or 
sprinkled  with  the  water  in  the  ntqi^ttrtttqtov  (§  65).  This  water  was  conse- 
crated by  putting  into  it  a  burning  torch  from  the  altar,  or  a  branch  of  laurel 
(Sutpvij)  or  olive.  Purification  was  also  sometimes  made  by  drawing  round  the 
person  a  sea-onion  or  squill  (cfy.u.).a),  or  a  young  dog  (ay.v).az)  ;  sometimes 
eggs  were  vsed  for  the  purpose  ;  sometimes  the  blood  of  a  pig.  Some  of  the 
terms  employed  to  designate  purifying  are  ntqi^oaivnv,  ntQiftuTTtsoBai,  xu&al- 
(>tiv,  uyvititv,  [?.aoubg,  uyriciut/c,  ts2.trij}  &c. — Sometimes  in  purifications  not 
only  the  hands,  but  the  feet  and  other  parts  of  the  body  were  washed. 

§  68.  The  sacrifices  had  different  names  according  to  the  occa- 
sions of  them.  The  thank-offering  (^a^iaj^ta)  was  in  recognition 
of  some  favor  received,  often  in  fulfilment  of  some  vow  made  ;  the 
sin-offering  (Uaanxa)  was  in  order  to  propitiate  an  offended  deity; 
the  {invocation-offering  (cnrt}Tiy.u)  was  presented  in  case  of  seeking 
some  particular  favor.  There  were  other  particular  sacrifices,  which 
were  offered  in  consequence  of  the  specific  command  of  some  god 

(ottio  purre'iac). 

The  beginning  of  the  sacrifice  in  later  times  was  made  by  the  liba- 
tion (rTTTO)^;,  §  34)  ;  then  followed  the  incense,  the  burning  of  some- 
thing fragrant  (dvu'tuua) ;  and  at  length  the  sacrifice  itself,  properly 
speaking,  or  the  slaying  of  the  victim  (itQtrov).  The  principal  cere- 
monies have  already  been  mentioned  (§  27).  —  Persons  who  had  the 
right  of  being  present  at  a  sacrifice  were  termed  apifrloi,  and  those 
who  had  not,  pifaJtoil  The  latter  were  called  upon  by  the  heralds  to 
retire  before  the  ceremonies  commenced. 

Different  animals  were  offered  in  sacrifice  to  different  gods  as  has  been 
mentioned  in  treating  of  the  ancient  mythology.  One  of  the  principal  vic- 
tims, however,  was  the  ox  (?ovq)  ;  hence  the  term  (iov&vTtiv,  to  sacrifice  oxen  : 
those  assistants  who  slew  the  victims  were  called  fiovbrrai.  Bulls  (ravnui)r 
sheep  (<nf?)r  and  goats  (mysg)  were  often  offered.  The  bringing  of  the  vic- 
tims to  the  altar  was  expressed  by  such  phrases  as  n^oauyav  rta  pomco,  or  noc- 
QaaTijaai  ■frvolar  rotg  (iwiioig;  they  were  often  brought  adorned  with  garlands 
(aThiuuTa),  and  were  always  required  to  be  free  from  blemishes  (riXtioi). 
After  the  victim  was  slain  and  cut  in  pieces,  an  inspection  of  the  entrails 
(onlay /voay.oji la)  was  made  by  the  soothsayer  (o^/.ay/ruay.ojtog),  to  ascertain 
the  presages  of  the  future. 

Animals  were  not  demanded  as  sacrifices  from  the  poor,  who  were  allowed 
to  offer  cakes  of  coarse  flour  (nonavot). 

§  69.  It  is  pertinent  to  notice  here  the  solemn  oaths  of  the  Greeks^ 
in  which  they  called  upon  the  gods  to  witness  the  truth  or  avenge 
falsehood  or  injury.  They  distinguished  between  the  solemn  or 
great  oath  (6  ulyag  oQxog)  and  affirmations  in  ordinary  cases.  Jupiter 
was  considered  as  especially  the  god  and  guardian  of  oaths,  and 
avenger  of  perjury,  although  oaths  were  taken  in  the  name  of  other 
gods  also.  It  was  common,  e.  g.,  to  swear  by  the  twelve  great  supe- 
rior gods  (tile  dudsy.a  &eot}g).  Sometimes  they  swore  by  the  gods,  in- 
definitely and  generally  ;  and  sometimes  by  inanimate  objects,  vases„ 
weapons,  or  any  article  of  which  they  made  use..  Not  unfrequently 
the  oath  was  in  the  name  of  living  or  deceased  men,  such  especially 
as  had  been  highly  esteemed  and  loved.  The  oath  was  usually  joined 
with  a  distinct  imprecation  of  vengeance  on  the  swearer  himself  in 
case  of  falsehood ;  and  was  sometimes  confirmed  by  a  sacrifice,  the 
flesh  of  which,  however,  could  not  be  eaten.     Severe  punishments 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN   THE    LATER    AGES.  487 

were  decreed  against  perjury  (inioQxla).  Yet  the  Greeks,  especially 
the  Thessalians,  were  reproached  for  this  crime  by  the  ancients.  At 
least  mutual  distrust  was  characteristic  of  the  corrupt  Greeks  of  later 
times,  and  among  the  Romans  the  phrase  Grceca  fides  was  synony- 
mous with  perfidy. 

Leagues  and  covenants  were  confirmed  by  making  oaths  and  slaying  sacri- 
fices ;  hence  Soxta  rhirsiv  signifies  to  enter  into  covenant.  Notwithstanding 
the  great  perfidiousness  of  the  Greeks,  they  considered  one  who  kept  his  oath 
(svooxog)  as  of  course  a  pious  person  (njotfltie).  : '  A.riiy.)l  mang  signifies  hon- 
est faith. 

Massieu,  Sur  les  Serments  des  Anciens,  in  the  Hist,  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  i.  p.  191 ;  vol. 
iv.  p.  1. 

§  70.  The  Greek  oracles  (§  32)  probably  took  their  origin  from 
the  opinion  very  early  entertained,  that  the  gods  honored  certain  men 
especially  the  priests,  with  a  particular  intimacy.  There  were  sup- 
posed to  be  two  modes  of  revelation  ;  one  immediate,  by  direct  in- 
spiration ;  and  the  other  mediate  or  artificial,  which  was  considered 
as  the  fruit  of  great  knowledge,  experience,  and  observation.  Ora- 
cles (;ro>;o"n;o(tf,  ftttrrWa)  were  of  the  first  kind.  From  these  the  Greeks 
were  accustomed  to  seek,  in  important  circumstances  and  undertak- 
ings, predictions  of  the  result  (/Qr,au6i,  Uym,  uavTtviiara).  It  is  obvi- 
ous that  they  could  be  turned  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  priests, 
to  whose  artifice  their  existence  and  support  is  in  great  measure  to 
be  ascribed.  The  oracular  answers  were  not  given  in  any  one  uni- 
form manner,  but  sometimes  immediately,  as  was  pretended,  from  the 
gods  (Xovtauol  uvTotpwvot),  sometimes  through  an  interpreter  (Xnrtouoi 
vnowiixoi),  or  by  a  pretended  dream,  or  by  lot. 

Persons  who  consulted  the  oracles  were  termed  dtonqonoi,  SewQol,  xqtjoiio- 
(puQoi;  the  interpreters,  xqijOuoluyoi.  Presents  and  sacrifices  were  always 
requisite  before  consulting  an  oracle,  which  could  be  done  only  on  appointed 
days. 

Dr.  Clarke  (Travels,  P.  II.  sect.  2.  ch.  xvi.)  describes  a  contrivance,  which  he  supposes  was 
designed  by  the  artifice  of  the  priests  to  sustain  the  system  of  oracles.  M  We  found  at  the  foot 
of  the  hill  of  the  Acropolis,  one  of  the  most  curious  telltale  remains  yet  discovered  among  the 
vestiges  of  pagan  priestcraft  ;  it  was  nothing  less  than  one  of  the  oracular  shrines  of  Argos  al- 
luded to  by  Pausanias,  laid  open  to  inspection,  like  the  toy  a  child  has  broken  in  order  that  he 
may  see  the  contrivance,  whereby  it  was  made  to  speak.  A  more  interesting  sight  for  modern 
curiosity  can  hardly  be  conceived  to  exist  among  the  ruins  of  any  Grecian  city.  In  its  origin- 
al state,  it  had  been  a  temple  ;  the  farther  part  from  the  entrance,  where  the  altar  was,  being  an, 
excavation  of  the  rock,  and  the  front  and  roof  constructed  with  baked  tiles.  The  altar  yet  re- 
mains, and  part  of  the  fictile  superstructure  ;  but  the  most  remarkable  part  of  the  whole  is  a 
secret  subterraneous  passage,  terminating  behind  the  altar;  its  entrance  being  at  a  considera- 
ble distance  toward  the  right  of  a  person  facing  the  altar;  and  so  cunningly  contrived  as  to 
have  a  small  aperture,  easily  concealed  and  level  with  the  surface  of  the  rock.  This  was  bare- 
ly large  enough  to  admit  the  entrance  of  a  single  person  ;  who,  having  descended  into  the  nar- 
row passage,  might  creep  along  until  he  arrived  immediately  behind  the  centre  of  the  altar  ; 
where,  being  hid  by  some  colossal  statue  or  other  screen,  the  sound  of  his  voice  would  produce 
a  most  imposing  effect  among  the  humble  votaries,  prostrate  beneath,  who  were  listening  in 
silence  upon  the  floor  of  the  sanctuary.  We  amused  ourselves  for  a  few  minutes  by  endeav- 
oring to  mimic  the  sort  of  solemn  farce  acted  upon  these  occasions  ;  and  as  we  delivered  a 
mock  oracle,  ore  rotundo,  from  the  cavernous  throne  of  the  altar,  a  reverberation,  caused  by 
the  sides  of  the  rock,  afforded  a  tolerable  specimen  of  the  '  will  of  the  gods,'  as  it  was  formerly 
made  known  to  the  credulous  votaries  of  this  now  forgotten  shrine.  There  were  not  fewer 
than  twenty-five  of  these  juggling  places  in  Peloponnesus,  and  as  many  in  the  single  province  of 
Baotia;  and  surely  it  will  never  again  become  a  question  among  learned  men,  whether  the 
answers  in  them  were  given  by  the  inspiration  of  evil  spirits,  or  whether  they  proceeded  from, 
the  imposture  of  priests ;  neither  can  it  be  urged  that  they  ceased  at  the  death  of  Christ :  be- 
cause Pausanias  bears  testimony  to  their  existence  at  Argos  in  the  second  century.  Pausan. 
in  Corinth,  c.  24,  p.  165.  ed  Kuhnii.,, 

§  71.  It  may  be  proper  to  mention  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  ancient  oracles.  The  most  ancient  was  that  of  Jupiter  at  Do- 
dona,  a  city  of  the  Molossi,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Deucalion. 
Before  this  time,  however,  this  oracle,  ofPelasgic  origin  (cf.  P.I.  §41), 


488  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

seems  to  have  existed  in  that  place.  There  was  a  grove  of  oaks,  sa- 
cred to  Jupiter,  and  superstition  ascribed  the  actual  exercise  of  the 
gift  of  speech  and  prophecy  to  the  trees  themselves,  which  were  thence 
called  ftemxat  8qveg.  The  priests,  called  fatotpijTai  and  SiUel,  con- 
cealed themselves  upon  and  in  the  tr,ees,  when  they  announced  the 
pretended  declaration  of  the  gods.  The  sound  of  a  brazen  vase, 
placed  near  the  temple,  was  also  imagined  to  be  supernatural.  A  foun- 
tain in  the  place  was  likewise  celebrated  as  possessing  the  wonderful 
power,  not  only  of  extinguishing  a  torch,  but  of  kindling  it  again.  — 
Less  celebrated  was  the  oracle  of  Jupiter  in  Crete,  in  a  cave  of  Mt.  Ida; 
and  that  of  Jupiter  Ammon  in  a  desert  and  almost  inaccessible  region 
of  Africa,  chiefly  known  by  the  visit  to  it  made  by  Alexander  ttie 
Great. 

1 .  The  oracles  in  the  grove  of  Dodona  were  also  said  to  be  delivered  by  doves, 
which  arose  from  the  circumstance  that  the  priestesses,  who  sometimes  an 
nounced  them,  were  called  in  the  Thessalian  language  ni/.ttui,  and  Tits.tiudac. 
—  From  the  use  of  the  brazen  vessel  arose  the  phrase  Judwruiov  yu'f.y.ilow, 
applied  to  talkative  persons. 

Sallier,  &  De  Brosses,  L'Oracle  de  Dodona,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Iiiscr.  vol.  v.  p.  35.  xxxv.  p.  89. 

2.  The  site  of  the  temple  and  oracle  of  Jupiter  Ammon  was  discovered  by 
the  English  traveler  Browne  in  1792,  in  the  Oasis  of  Siwa.  (Cf.  RennelVs 
Geogr.  Syst.  of  Herod,  sect.  21.)  Near  it  was  the  famous  fountain  of  the  sun. 
The  spot  was  visited  by  Belzoni  in  1816.  The  ruins  of  the  temple  indicate  an 
Egyptian  origin. —  Herodotus  speaks  of  four  oracles  of  Jupiter  :  at  Egyptian 
Thebes ;  at  Libyan  Ammon  ;  at  Dodona  J  and  at  Meroe  in  Ethiopia  ;  and  says 
that  the  one  at  Thebes  was  the  original. 

§  72.  Apollo,  the  god  to  whom  inspiration  and  prophecy  were  con- 
sidered to  belong  properly,  had  numerous  oracles.  The  most  re- 
nowned was  that  at  Delphi,  a  city  of  Phocis,  where  he  had  also  a  tem- 
ple illustrious  beyond  all  others  on  account  of  its  treasures,  the  abun- 
dance and  costliness  of  the  gifts  bestowed  there.  The  spot  where  the 
answer  was  given,  was  called  Pythium  (nv&ior),  and  the  priestess, 
who  uttered  it,  Pythia  (iivdLa),  from  the  surname  which  Apollo  re- 
ceived in  consequence  of  killing  the  serpent  Python  (  ni$un).  This 
spot,  or  the  site  of  Delphi,  was  regarded  as  the  centre  of  the  inhab- 
ited earth  (iu(pa>.6g  yi;c).  According  to  common  tradition  this  oracle 
was  first  disclosed  by  a  flock  of  goats,  which,  on  approaching  an  ori- 
fice on  Mt.  Parnassus,  were  seized  with  singular  paroxysms  of  shiver- 
ing and  jumping.  The  same  happened  to  men,  who  approached  this 
opening.  This  oracle  was  very  ancient,  being  celebrated  more  than 
a  hundred  years  before  the  Trojan  war. 

1.  Some  derive  the  names  applied  to  this  oracle  and  the  priestess  from  the 
word  nvBia&at,  to  inquire,  or  learn;  but  IIi'&v>  appears  to  have  been  originally 
the  name  of  the  city  of  Delphi.  —  The  temple  was  adorned  with  statues  and 
other  splendid  works  of  art.  Its  walls  were  inscribed  with  salutary  moral  pre- 
cepts; among  them  the  celebrated  one  rrJjGi  atavrov.  (P.  II.  §  169).  Costly 
tripods  were  among  the  gifts  consecrated  to  Apollo  here.  One  of  the  most  fa- 
mous was  the  golden  one  presented  by  the  Greeks  after  the  defeat  of  Xerxes. 
This  was  removed  by  Constantine  and  placed  in  the  Hippodrome  of  Constan- 
tinople, upon  the  '  triple  heads'  of  three  brazen  serpents  twisted  into  one  pillar. 

The  pillar  still  remains  (Gibbon,  cli.  17.  p. 80.  vol.  ii.  X.  Yk.  1822).— The  three  heads  are.  said 
to  have  heen  in  good  preservation  when  Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks  ;  Mahomet  II 
then* rode  into  the  Hippodrome  and  shattered  one  of  them  with  his  battle-axe  ;  two  were  re- 
maining in  1700  ;  but  they  were  stolen  about  that  time  by  some  unknown  depredator.  (Cf.  Lond. 
Quart.  Rev.  ix.  1C9.) "  On  the  origin  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  cf.  MtifcrdP*  Greece,  ch.  3.  sect.  2. 

2.  The  great  wealth  accumulated  at  Delphi  (cf.  §  28),  and  the  celebrity  of 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  489 

the  oracle,  and  consequent  influence  possessed  by  the  state  which  had  the 
chief  authority  over  it,  occasioned  much  jealousy  among  the  Grecian  states  ; 
in  two  instances  particularly  they  were  involved  thereby  in  actual  hostilities, 
in  the  wars  commonly  called  Sacred. 

Milford's  Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  xxxvii-xlii.  —  De  Valois,  Guerres  Sacrees,  in  the  Mem.  Acad,, 
laser,  vn.  201.  ix.  97.  xn.  J77. 

§  73.  The  tripod  (rni^ovg  yoyiar^oiog),  upon  which  the  priestess  sat 
in  uttering  the  answers,  must  be  mentioned  among  the  remarkable 
things  pertaining  to  the  oracle.  It  was  dedicated  to  Apollo  by  the 
seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  and  has  been  viewed  as  having  a  three- 
fold reference,  to  the  past,  the  present,  and  the  future.  The  nvQLa 
herself  was  esteemed  as  a  priestess  of  peculiar  dignity,  and  was 
obliged  to  prepare  for  the  functions  of  her  office  by  many  ceremonies. 
In  delivering  the  oracles,  she  appeared  to  be  in  the  most  violent  ecstacy 
and  convulsion.  In  early  times,  the  oracular  response  was  commonly 
clothed  in  the  form  of  hexameter  verse ;  often  by  a  poet  employed  for 
the  purpose.  Originally  the  oracle  was  consulted  but  on  a  single  day 
in  the  year,  in  a  month  of  the  spring,  called  Bi'oiog  or  nio,og ;  after- 
wards inquiry  could  be  made  on  a  certain  day  of  every  month.  Who- 
ever wished  to  consult  the  oracle  was  required  to  make  large  presents 
and  offerings,  to  put  on  a  wreath  or  crown,  and  to  propose  his  ques- 
tions mostly  in  writing,  and  allow  himself  to  be  qualified  for  receiving 
the  answer  by  many  mystic  rites.  The  answer  was  commonly  so 
enigmatical  and  ambiguous  (?.o$6g,  hence  Joking),  that  it  would  apply 
to  any  result  that  might  happen  ;  and  whenever  it  was  clear  and  defi- 
nite, the  priests  had  informed  themselves  of  all  the  preliminary  cir- 
cumstances and  the  probabilities  respecting  the  issue. — The  Delphic 
oracle  was  suspended  at  various  times,  and  became  finally  silent  soon 
after  the  death  of  the  emperor  Julian. 

Originally,  there  was  one  Pythia  only  at  Delphi ;  but  after  the  oracle  be- 
came more  frequented,  the  number  was  increased  to  three,  chosen  from  among 
the  uneducated  inhabitants  of  Delphi,  and  bound  to  the  strictest  temperance 
and  chastity.  They  officiated  by  turns,  and  sometimes  lost  their  lives  in  the 
paroxysms  of  the  inspiration.  Those,  who  pretended  to  form  into  sentences 
their  incoherent  exclamations,  three  in  number,  were  called  ?roo(p}Tai ;  who 
always  took  care  to  ascertain  previously  much  about  the  history  and  characters 
of  those  consulting  the  oracle.  The  prophets  were  aided  in  the  sacrifices  and 
ceremonies,  which  preceded  the  placing  of  the  Pythia  on  the  tripod,  by  Jive 
priests  called  ooioi,  who  were  under  a  chief  called  ooiojt^q.  —  The  nfQirjytjral 
were  guides  to  those  who  visited  the  temple,employed  particularly  in  pointing 
out  to  them  its  curiosities.  A  great  number  of  persons  were  required  for  the 
various  services  of  the  temple  and  oracle. 

See  Hardion,  Oracle  de  Delphes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  in.  p.  137. 

§  74.  There  were  in  Greece  various  other  oracles  less  celebrated. 
The  more  important  of  them  were  the  following  :  the  oracle  of  Apol- 
lo at  Didyma,  which  was  called  also  the  oracle  of  the  Branchidge ;. 
those  of  Delos,  Abae,  Claros,  Larissa,  Tegyrae  and  other  minor  cities; 
where  answers  were  also  given  from  Apollo ;  the  oracle  of  Tropho- 
nius  at  Lebadea  in  Boeotia,  in  a  subterranean  cave,  said  to  have  been 
the  residence  of  Trophonius,  into  which  inquirers  descended,  after 
performing  solemn  ceremonies,  in  order  to  receive  a  revelation  of  the 
future  by  dreams  or  oracles;  and  the  oracle  of  Amphiaraus  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Oropus  in  Attica,  where  the  answers  were  imparted  to  the 
initiated  by  dreams.  The  number  of  the  ancient  oracles  amounted 
to  two  hundred  and  sixty. 


490  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

On  the  subject  of  oracles,  see  Van  Dale  de  Oraculis  Vet.  Ethnic.  Dissertat.— FontenclWs  His- 
toire  des  Oracles Cf.  Rollin,  bk.  x.  ch.  3.  (p.  391,  vol.  i,  ed.  cited  §  13.) 

§  75.  The  pretended  revelation  of  the  future  mediately  (cf.  §  70), 
or  by  means  of  some  system  or  art  of  divination  (uuvTixi,),  was  effected 
in  various  ways.  The  most  important  was  by  theomancy  (s-Bouavrsia), 
an  art  possessed  by  a  class  of  persons  who  were  called  ^touuvrug,  and 
claimed  to  be  under  divine  inspiration.  This  class  comprised  three 
varieties ;  some  were  considered  as  interpreters  of  the  daemons  by 
whom  they  were  possessed,  and  called  dauior^hjTiroi  or  nvAoirsg  ;  others 
were  called  h&ovaiaaral  or  iv&saarixoi,  and  enjoyed  only  the  intima- 
tions of  some  particular  divinity ;  and  others  still  were  termed 
zxoruTixoi,  and  boasted  of  high  discoveries  obtained  during  a  wholly 
supernatural  state  of  mind,  which  they  sought  to  render  credible  by 
the  pretext  of  a  long  trance,  insensibility,  or  sleep. 

Besides  what  was  termed  in  general  theomancy,  there  were  several  methods 
of  divination,  of  which  the  following  were  the  principal.  —  (1)  By  dreams. 
The  Greeks  ascribed  very  much  to  dreams  as  supernatural  (a),  and  viewed 
them  either  as  revelations  and  warnings  from  the  gods  or  from  demons,  or  as 
pictures  and  images  of  future  events.  The  expounders  of  dreams  were  called 
ovtiooy.nirat,  ovatooay.6 ;ioi,  or  6veiQ07c6?.oi.  Three  varieties  of  the  dream  are 
named;  /QijuuTioubg,  when  a  god  or  spirit  conversed  with  one  in  his  sleep  ; 
onauix,  when  one  saw  a.  vision  of  future  occurrences;  ovttoog,  in  which  the 
future  was  set  forth  by  types  and  figures  («/.;:>;yoo/^wg).  Two  other  varieties 
are  also  mentioned,  in'rcviov  and  (puvTucrua,  but  are  not  considered  as  affording 
much  help  in  divination  ;  iyiulriig,  incubus,  night-mare,  was  supposed  some- 
times to  indicate  the  future.  Dreams  were  supposed  to  be  sent  from  the  god 
of  sleep  (P.  III.  §  113).  A  goddess  called  Brizo  (pniinv,  to  sleep)  was  thought 
to  preside  over  the  interpretation  of  dreams,  and  was  worshiped  particularly 
in  Delos.  Dreams  which  occurred  in  the  morning  were  most  regarded  in  di- 
vination.  (2)    By  sacrifices.     This  was  called  Hieromancy  (tsoouarreia) 

or  Hieroscopy  {li^oay.onia).  It  comprehended  the  observations  of  many  par- 
ticulars connected  with  the  offering  of  a  victim,  as  portending  good  or  ill. 
One  of  the  principal  things  was  the  inspection  of  the  entrails,  especially  the 
liver  (^.laroaxonla),  and  the  heart.  The  fire  of  the  sacrifice  was  also  noticed 
(nvoouavji'ia)  ;  likewise  the  smoke  (x.vc7crouavTt'ia),  the  wine  (oivouumia),  and 
the  water  1 ^uoiiavTi'm,  TctjyoiiavTtlix).  There  were,  in  short,  various  kinds  or 
forms  of  this  divination  according  to  the  different  victims  or  materials  of 
the  sacrifices  and  the  different  rites  ;  e.  g.  there  was  altvoouarrtia,  by  the 
flour  or  meal  used  ;  i^&voiiavTs'ta,  by  the  entrails  of  fishes  ;  mooxotc'iu,  by  eggs. 

(3)  By  Birds.     Those,  who  observed  Jind   interpreted  omens  by  birds, 

were  called  onrtooy.unoi,  oQvi&ouuvTstg.  Some  birds  were  observed  in  respect 
to  their  flight  (raw;criQvytc);  others  in  respect  to  their  singing  (udixai). 
Unlucky  birds,  or  those  of  ill  omen,  were  called  t'ztu?.atuot,  pernicious,  and 
y.oilvriy.ai,  hindering  from  designed  undertakings,  and  by  similar  epithets; 
among  this  class  were  the  hawk,  the  buzzard,  and  except  at  Athens,  the  owl ; 
the  dove  and  swan,  on  the  other  hand,  were  considered  as  lucky  birds;  and 
the  crowing  of  the  cock  was  auspicious.  When  the  observer  of  the  flight  of 
birds  was  watching  for  omens  he  looked  towards  the  north,  and  appearances 
in  the  east,  which  was  on  his  right,  were  considered  as  favorable  ;  hence  the 
use  of  dtubg,  right,  to  signify  fortunate.  —  Omens  were  also  drawn  from  in- 
sects and  reptiles,  and   various  animals.     Toads,  serpents,  and  boars  were  of 

ill  omen.     Bees  and  ants  were  often  thought  to  foretoken  good. (4)  By 

signs  in  the  heavens  and  other  physical  phenomena.  Comets,  eclipses,  and 
earthquakes  were  all  unlucky  signs.  Thunder  and  lightning  were  lucky  if 
observed  on  the  right  hand  ;  but  unlucky  if  on  the  left.  To  be  struck  with 
thunder  (pftovTurbf)  was  unlucky;  in  places  tiius  struck,  altars  were  erected 
and  oblations  made  to  appease  the  gods,  after   which  none  dared  to  approach 

them. (5)  By  lots.     The  two  principal  modes   were  those  termed  anxo- 

uavTtLu  and  y/.^ouuarreia  ;  in  the  former  little  pieces  of  paper,  having  fatidical 


RELIGIOUS  AFFAIRS  IN  THE  LATER  AGES.  491 

lines  (ari/og)  written  upon  them,  were  drawn  from  an  urn,  and  were  sup- 
posed to  indicate  the  prospects  of  the  person  by  or  for  whom  they  were  drawn 
out ;  in  the  other,  various  small  articles,  as  beans  black  and  white,  pebbles, 
dice,  and  the  like,  which  were  all  called  x/Lijqot,  and  were  considered  as  being 
of  different  significancy,  were  drawn  from  an  urn  or  other  vessel.  —  Other 
modes  were  nuSdouamiu,  by  rods,  and  (hlouarrtla,  by  arrows,  in  which  the 
lot  was  decided  by  the  manner  in  which  they  fell  from  an  erect  posture  or 
from  the  quiver.  Another  was  by  the  use  of  the  nival  uyvnrixog,  on  which 
certain  prophetic  verses  were   inscribed,  and   the  fate  was  indicated  by  the 

verse  on  which  the   dice  fell. (6)   By  magical  arts.     These  were  said  to 

have  originated  in  Persia  (b)  among  the  Magi,  uuyoi.  The  degree  of  atten- 
tion given  among  the  Greeks  to  these  arts  (ntnisnya)  is  evinced  by  a  striking 
fact  recorded  in  the  Bible  (Acts,  xix.  19),  which  seems  to  imply  that  a  great 
number  of  books  were  composed  on  the  subject.  A  few  only  of  the  various 
modes  need  be  named  ;  rexoouarrtia,  oxtouairsia,  and  U'vyouam'nji.,  in  which 
the  dead  were  supposed  to  appear  or  speak  ;  yaoTQouuvrsia,  in  which  demons 
were  imagined  to  speak  from  the  bellies  of  men,  or  omens  were  drawn  from 
the  appearances  of  water  in  the  middle  part  (yuOTQtf)  of  certain  glass  vessels 
surrounded  with  lighted  torches;  y.ijnouarTsia,  in  which  the  performers  ob- 
served the  forms  assumed  by  drops  of  melted  wax  ;  there  were  numerous  oth- 
er modes.  —  It  is  proper  to  mention  here  some  of  the  magical  arts,  by  which 
mysterious  effects  were  supposed  to  be  wrought;  as,  e.  g.,  ipunuaxtia,  in 
which  medicated  herbs,  minerals,  and  the  like  (ipuouaxa)  were  used;  and  (lua- 
r.aviu,  which  was  a  sort  of  fascination  or  malign  influence  which  certain  per- 
sons were  supposed  to  exert. (7)  Finally  divination  was  also  made  from 

various  things  included  under  the  general  name  of  omens  (ovuffolet).  One 
class  of  these  consisted  of  such  as  were  drawn  from  the  person  himself,  as 
ria/.uoi,  palpitations  of  some  part  of  the  system  ;  Aiu&og,  a  ringing  of  the  ears  ; 
nraouoi,  sneezings,  &c.  Another  class  consisted  of  those  drawn  from  objects 
external  to  the  person  ;  as  the  meeting  of  certain  objects  or  animals  on  the 
road  (Iro&ia  ovftfioZa),  or  certain  occurrences  at  home  (to  6tx.oax.o7ity.6r).  Cer- 
tain words  were  also  ominous  ;  such  were  called  orrut,  y./.rjSvrsc,  (pijuai.  The 
Greeks,  especially  the  Athenians,  sought  to  avoid  words  of  ill  omen,  carefully 
substituting  others;  as,  e.  g.  *EvutvLdeg  instead  of  'fgtm/'tf,  and  ipt?.arilg  in- 
stead of  yJ.ijirtjg. 

(a)  Cf.  Artemidorus,  cited  P.  II.  $887. — Bm yw,  Songez  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr. 

xxxviii.  p.  74. (b)  See  Bonamy  and  Le  Blond,  as  cited  $227.  —  On  divination  by  the  cup, 

Cf.  Class.  Journ.  x.  232. 

§  76.  The  festivals  formed  an  important  part  of  the  religious  wor- 
ship of  the  Greeks.  Their  establishment  and  support  was  partly  for 
the  sake  of  honoring  and  supplicating  the  gods,  and  commemorating 
persons  of  merit,  and  partly  for  the  sake  of  rest,  recreation,  union, 
and  harmony  of  social  feeling.  Their  number  greatly  increased  with 
the  multiplication  of  the  gods  and  the  progress  of  luxury  and  wealth  ; 
the  variety  and  splendor  of  the  accompanying  ceremonies  increased 
in  the  same  proportion.  Especially  was  this  the  case  at  Athens. 
They  were  mostly  held  at  the  public  expense,  the  means  being  drawn 
from  various  sources. 

See  M.  G.  Hermann,  Die  Feste  von  Hellas  historisch  — philosophisch  bearbeitet  und  zum  er- 
stenmal  nach  ihrem  Sinn  und  Zvveck  erliuteit.    Berlin,  181)3. 2.  Th.  8. 

§  77  t.  Some  of  the  most  important  festivals  have  been  mentioned 
(P.  III.)  in  the  history  of  particular  gods,  under  the  head  of  Myth- 
ology. A  slight  notice  of  them  here  must  suffice.  The  principal 
out  of  an  almost  countless  multitude,  will  be  named  in  alphabetical 
order,  and  then  some  particulars  added  respecting  a  few  of  these. 

\u.  *  A  y  o  t  div  i  a,  a  nocturnal  festival  instituted  in  honor  of  Bacchus. 

iA  S  (6  v  i  a,  dedicated  to  Venus  and  the  memory  of  Adonis. r A  ?.  65  a,  to 

Bacchus  and  Ceres. 'A  v  Qe  ax  i'tq  t  «,  observed  at  Athens  three  days,  also 

in  honor  of  Bacchus. 'A  tc  a  r  o  v  q  t  a,  at  Athens,  in  commemoration  of  a 


492  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

victory  obtained  by  Melanthus,  through  stratagem,  over  the   Boeotian  king 

Xanthus,  likewise  in   honor  of  Bacchus,  and  other  gods. ' A  </>  o  q  8  I  a  i  a, 

a  festival  of  Aphrodite  or  Venus,  particularly  on  the  island  of  Cyprus. 

BoavQujvia,  sacred  to  Diana,  in  Attiea,  celebrated  every  fifth  year. 

J  a  (p  v  tj  cp  6  (j  i  a,  to  Apollo  in  Boeotia,  onlv  every  ninth  year. J  t]  1 1  a,  al- 
so to  Apollo,  on  the  island  of  Delos,  every  fifth  year. J  >j  u  ?Jtoik,  sa- 
cred to  Demeter  or  Ceres.  — —  J  i  i  n  o  ?.  s  la,  an  Athenian  festival,  instituted 

in  honor  of  Jupiter,  as  tutelary  god  of  the  city  (IloXistg). A  i  o  v  v  a  i  a, 

to  Dionysus  or  Bacchus  ;  a  greater  and  more  solemn  festival  in  the  cities  ; 
and  a  lesser  one  in  the  country  ;    the  same   that  was  called  by  the   Romans' 

Bacchanalia.     There  were  innumerable  forms  of  this  festival. 'Ex  a  To«- 

(ia  tec,  dedicated  by  the  Argives  to  Juno,  to  whom  they  sacrificed  a  hecatomb 
on  the  first  day  of  this  festival. *E  X  *  v  if  i>  e  a,  the  most  celebrated  festi- 
val of  Ceres,  a  greater  and  smaller,  connected  with  the  well  known  myste- 
ries.   "Eq  u  ki«,  a  festival  of  Mercury,  in   Elis,  Arcadia,  and  Crete. 

3E  <p  i  a  i  a,  a  festival  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. " Hq  a  i  a,  a  festival  of  Juno  at 

Argos. CH  <p  a  I  o  t  s  i  a,   sacred  to  Vulcan   at   Athens,   accompanied   by 

races   with  torches. 0  s  au  o  tp  o  o  t  a,  the  festival  of  legislation  in  honor 

of  Ceres,  at  Athens  and  other  Greek  cities. K uqv  s  i  a,  sacred  to  Jupiter 

and  Apollo,  almost  throughout  all  Greece,  for  nine  days. Avxaia,  an 

Arcadian  festival  in  honor  of  Jupiter,  instituted  by  Lycaon.  [But  this  term 
usually  designates  a  festival  of  Pan  corresponding  to  the  Roman  Lupercal. 

Cf.  P.  III.  §  80.] yO  a  x  o  <p  6  q  i  a,  a  festival  of  the   Athenians  instituted 

by  Theseus,  and  so  called  from  the  custom  of  carrying  branches  about  on  the 

occasion. JIa  v  a  &  »/'  v  a  i  a,  one  of  the  most  solemn  festivals  at  Athens, 

dedicated  to  Minerva.  The  lesser  was  celebrated  annually ;  the  greater  every 

fifth  year.     Both  were  connected  with  various  contests  and  games. 27 e - 

2.  &>  q  i  a,  a  Thessalian  festival  dedicated  to  Jupiter,  having  some  resemblance 
to  the  Saturnalia  of  the  Romans. cS2q  a  ta,  a  general  name  applied  to  sol- 
emn sacrifices,  which  were  brought  to  the  gods  in  the  different  seasons,  with 
a  view  to  secure  good  weather. 

For  a  more  complete  enumeration,  cf.  Potter,  Archseol.  Griuca.  —  Cf.  Larcher,  on  certain 
Greek  festivals,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlv.  p.  412;  and  xlviii.  p.  252. 

2.  "  The  festival  called  "ASiovia  was  celebrated  in  most  of  the  cities  of 
Greece.  The  solemnity  continued  two  days.  On  the  first,  certain  images  or 
pictures  of  Adonis  and  Venus  were  brought  forth  with  all  the  pomp  and  cere- 
monies used  at  funerals  ;  the  women  tore  their  hair,  beat  their  breasts,  and 
counterfeited  other  actions  usual  in  lamenting  the  dead.  This  lamentation 
was  called  aStmiaaubt;  or  aSwv'm,  and  hence  adoviav  aytiv  signifies  the  same  as 
"*A8o)viv  x?.aUiv,  to  weep  for  Adonis  ;  and  the  songs  on  this  occasion  were  de- 
nominated aSortdia.  With  the  images  were  also  carried  shells  filled  with 
earth,  in  which  grew  several  sorts  of  herbs,  particularly  lettuces;  in  memory 
that  Adonis  was  laid  out  on  a  bed  of  lettuces.  These  were  called  xijjiot,  gar- 
dens ;  and  hence  'AdwvtSog  xtrcot  were  proverbially  applied  to  things  unfruit- 
ful and  fading,  because  those  herbs  were  sown  only  so  long  before  the  festi- 
val as  to  be  green  at  that  time,  and  were  presently  cast  out  into  the  water. 
The  flutes  used  on  this  day  were  called  yiyyoiai  from  yiy/Qys,  the  Phoenician 
name  of  Adonis;  the  music,  yiyyqaaubg  ',  and  the  songs  were  called  yiyyQccvru. 
The  sacrifice  was  denominated  xadidna,  because  the  days  of  mourning  were 
called  by  that  name.  The  second  day  was  spent  in  all  possible  demonstrations 
of  joy  and  merriment  ;  in  memory,  that  by  the  favor  of  Proserpine,  Venus 
obtained  that  Adonis  should  return  to  life,  and  dwell  with  her  one  half  of 
every  year.  This  fable  is  applied  to  the  sun  which  produced  the  vicissitudes 
of  summer  and  winter." 

Cf.  P.  III.  §  47.  —  Banier,  Culte  d' Adonis,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  m.  p.  98. 

3.  "The  J  iovv  a  ta  were  sometimes  called  by  the  general  name  of  "Oq- 
ytct,  which,  though  sometimes  applied  to  the  mysteries  of  other  gods,  more 
particularly  belonged  to  those  of  Bacchus.  They  were  also  sometimes  de- 
nominated Baxyji*.  They  were  observed  at  Athens  with  greater  splendor, 
and  with  more  ceremonious  superstition,  than  in  any  other  part  of  Greece  ; 
the  years  were  numbered  by  them  ;  the  chief  archon  had  a  share  in  their 
management ;  and  the  priests  who  officiated  were  honored  with  the  first  seats 


RELIGIOUS  AFFAIRS  IN  THE  LATER  AGES.  493 

at  public  shows.  At  first,  however,  they  were  celebrated  without  splendor, 
being  days  set  apart  for  public  mirth,  and  observed  only  with  the  following 
ceremonies: — a  vessel  of  wine  adorned  with  a  vine  branch,  was  brought 
forth  ;  next  followed  a  goat  ;  then  was  carried  a  basket  of  figs;  and  after  all, 
the  phalli.  —  At  some  of  them,  the  worshipers  in  their  garments  and  actions 
imitated  the  poetical  fictions  concerning  Bacchus  ;  they  put  on  fawns'  skins, 
fine  linen,  and  mitres;  carried  thyrsi,  drums,  pipes,  flutes,  and  rattles; 
crowned  themselves  with  garlands  of  ivy,  vine,  fir,  and  other  trees  sacred  to 
Bacchus.  Some  imitated  Silenus,  Pan,  and  the  Satyrs,  and  exhibited  them- 
selves in  comic  dresses  and  antic  motions;  some  rode  upon  asses  ;  and  others 
drove  goats  to  the  slaughter.  In  this  manner  persons  of  both  sexes  ran  about 
the  hills  and  deserts,  dancing  ridiculously,  personating  men  deranged  in  their 
intellects,  and  crying  aloud,  Euol  Zuput,  Eioi  Bu/.ye,  w  ^laxyi-,  'Ivpaxys,  or 
*  la  Buy.yz. 

The  great  festival,  Jton'ota  fisyu/.a,  was  sometimes  called  uarr/.u,  or  ru  y.ar' 
aorv,  because  celebrated  within  the  city  of  Athens,  in  the  beginning  of  spring, 
in  the  month  'Eiaipipo'/.iojv.  It  was  sometimes  by  way  of  eminence  called 
J  i  o  v  v  a  i  a,  because  it  was  the  most  celebrated  of  all  festivals  of  Bacchus  at 
Athens,  and  was  probably  the  same  as  Jiovraia  un/ai6reqa. 

The  less,  Jiovraia  iuzo«,  was  sometimes  called  ra  xar'  ayyovg,  because  it 
was  observed  in  the  country.  It  was  a  sort  of  preparation  to  the  former  and 
greater  festival,  and  was  celebrated  in  autumn,  in  the  month  JTIoasiSshiv  or 
raurjj.iwv.  Some  are  of  opinion,  that  it  was  the  same  as  Jiovvoiu  /.tjvai'u, 
which  received  its  name  from  lijvbg,  a  wine-press." 

Cf.  Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Grecque,  vol.  if.  p.  5,  as  cited  P.  II.  $7.  9.  —  On  festivals  of  Bacchus, 
see  also  P.  III.  $  59 ;  P.  I.  $  66.  2. 

4.  "  The  'E  ?.  £  v  a  L  v  i  *  was  a  solemnity  observed  by  theCeleans  and  Phli- 
asians  every  fourth  year;  by  the  Pheneata;,  the  Lacedaemonians,  Parrha- 
sians,  and  Cretans,  but  more  especially  by  the  Athenians,  every  fifth  year,  at 
Eleusis,  a  borough  town  of  Attica.  It  was  the  most  celebrated  solemnity  in. 
Greece,  and  was,  therefore,  by  way  of  eminence,  called  ru  uvart'^ta,  the  mys- 
teries, and  ri/.ertj.  It  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  instituted  by  Ceres  her- 
self, when  she  had  supplied  the  Athenians  with  corn  in  a  time  of  famine. 
Some  say  that  it  was  instituted  by  king  Erectheus  ;  and  others,  by  Eumolpus. 

It  was  divided  into  the  uiy.qu  and  ii£yu).a  u var i'tQia,  lesser  and  greater  myste- 
ries;  and  then  the  latter  were  in  honor  of  Ceres,  the  former  in  that  of  her 
daughter  Proserpine.  Mixqu  ^ivan'^ia,  the  lesser  mysteries,  were  observed 
in  the  month  'Av&soTtjQiajv  at  Agra?,  a  place  near  the  river  Ilissus ;  and  the 
usyu?.a  uvoTilQia,  greater  mysteries,  were  celebrated  in  the  month  Botjdoouitov, 
at  Eleusis,  a  borough-town  of  Attica,  from  which  Ceres  was  called  Eleusinia. 
In  later  ages  the  lesser  festival  was  used  as  a  preparation  to  the  greater,  in 
which  they  could  not  be  initiated  till  they  had  been  purified  at  the  former. 

About  a  year  after  purification  at  the  lesser,  they  sacrificed  a  sow  to  Ce- 
res, and  were  admitted  to  the  greater  myteries,  the  secret  rites  of  which  (with 
the  exception  of  a  few  known  only  to  the  priests)  were  openly  revealed  to 
them  ;  and  hence  they  were  called  hpoooi  and  inonrai,  inspectors.  Persons 
of  both  sexes  and  of  all  ages  were  initiated  at  this  solemnity.  To  neglect  the 
initiation  into  these  mysteries  was  considered  a  crime  of  a  very  heinous  na- 
ture, and  formed  a  part  of  the  accusation  for  which  Socrates  was  condemned 
to  death.  —  All  the  Greeks  might  claim  initiation  into  the  mysteries  ;  but  the 
people  of  every  other  nation  were  excluded  by  an  ancient  law  ;  and  persons 
convicted  of  sorcery  or  of  any  atrocious  crime,  and  especially  if  they  had 
committed  homicide,  even  though  involuntarily,  were  debarred  from  these 
mysteries. 

The  manner  of  initiation  was  as  follows.  The  candidates,  being  crowned 
with  myrtle,  were  admitted  by  night  into  a  place\ called  uvany.bg  atjy.bg,  the 
mystical  temple,  or  uvarofiuxog  ootibg,  which  was  an  edifice  very  capacious 
(P.  III.  §  63).  At  their  entrance  they  washed  their  hands  in  holy  water,  and 
at  the  same  time  were  admonished  to  present  themselves  with  minds  pure 
and  undefiled,  without  which  the  external  cleanness  of  the  body  would  not 
be  accepted.  After  this,  the  holy  mysteries  were  read  to  them  out  of  a  book 
called  nirqama,  from  jtirqa,  a  stone,  because  the  book  was  only  two  stones  cc 

42 


494  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

merited  together.  Then  the  priest  who  initiated  them,  and  who  was  called 
[eaocpuvrtjc;,  proposed  to  them  certain  questions,  to  which  they  returned  an- 
swers. Soon  after,  they  beheld  strange  and  frightful  objects  :  sometimes  the 
place,  in  which  they  were,  appeared  bright  and  resplendent  with  light  and  ra- 
diant fire,  and  instantly  was  covered  with  pitchy  darkness  ;  sometimes  a  hol- 
low sound  was  heard,  and  the  earth  seemed  to  groan  beneath  their  feet.  The 
being  present  at  these  sights  was  called  aVroxpla,  intuition.  They  were  then 
dismissed  in  these  words,  Koyz,  *Ofi7ca$.  The  garments  in  which  they  were 
initiated  ware  deemed  sacred,  and  efficacious  in  averting  evils  and  incan- 
tations. 

The  hierophantes  had  three  assistants  :  the  first  was  called  da  Sov/o g,  torch- 
bearer,  to  whom  it  was  permitted  to  marry  ;  the  second,  y.r;$vc,  the  crier;  and 
the  third,  6  Irci  (jbuw,  from  his  ministering  at  the  altar.  f ItqotpuvTfjg  is  said 
to  have  been  a  type  of  the  Great  Creator  of  all  things ;  §a§ov%og,  of  the  sun  ; 
y.ijQv'i,  of  Mercury  ;  and  6  in'i  (ionico,  of  the  moon. 

There  were  also  certain  public  officers  whose  business  consisted  in  seeing 
that  all  things  were  performed  according  to  Custom.  Of  these  was  {iaoi?.avg, 
the  king,  who  was  one  of  the  archons,  and  who  was  obliged  to  offer  prayers 
and  sacrifices  at  this  solemnity,  and  to  observe  that  no  indecency  or  irregu- 
larity was  committed  during  the  festival ;  four  tn  iue%  tjTaif  curators,  who  were 
elected  by  the  people  ;  and  ten  persons  who  assisted  at  this  and  some  other 
solemnities,  and  who  were  called  [bqotcoiol,  from  their  offering  sacrifices. 

This  festival  continued  nine  days,  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  twenty-third 
day  of  the  month  Botjd^ouiwv.  During  this  time  it  was  unlawful  to  arrest 
any  man,  or  to  present  any  petition  ;  and  they  who  were  found  guilty  of  such, 
practices  were  fined  one  thousand  drachms,  or,  as  others  say,  put  to  death. 

On  the  fourth  day  of  the  festival,  they  made  a  solemn  procession,  in  which 
the  y.a?.a6iov,  holy  basket  of  Ceres,  was  carried  in  a  consecrated  cart,  crowds 
of  persons  shouting  as  they  went,  Xatqs,  JtytifTtQ  (Hail,  Ceres).  After 
these,  followed  certain  women  called  xiorocpoQoi,  who  carried  baskets  in  which 
were  contained  carded  wool,  grains  of  salt,  a  serpent,  pomegranates,  reeds,  ivy 
boughs,  a  sort  of  cakes  called  (p&otg,  poppies,  &c.  —  The  fifth  was  called  CH 
t&v  ?.au7iuduiv  ijiiiqa,  the  torch-day ;  because,  the  night  following,  the  men 
and  women  ran  about  with  torches  in  their  hands.  It  was  also  customary  to 
dedicate  torches  to  Ceres,  and  to  contend  who  could  present  the  largest ;  and 
this  was  done  in  memory  of  the  journey  of  Ceres,  who  sought  Proserpine 
with  a  torch  lighted  at  the  flames  of  iEtna.  — The  sixth  day  was  called  "lax* 
yog,  from  Iacchus,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres,  who  with  a  torch  in  his  hand 
accompanied  the  goddess  in  her  search  after  Proserpine.  His  statue,  crowned 
with  myrtle,  and  bearing  a  torch,  was  carried  from  the  Ceramicus  to  Eleusis, 
in  a  solemn  procession  called  "lax/og. —  On  the  seventh  day  were  sports,  in 
which  the  victors  were  rewarded  with  a  measure  of  barley,  which  was  the 
first  grain  sown  in  Eleusis." 

Robinson,  Archaeol.  Gneca.  —  Cf.  the  references  given  P.  III.  §63. 

5.  The  OsouocpoQia  was  a  festival  in  honor  of  Ceres,  surnamed  Ssouo* 
tf.voog  (legifera  or  lawgiver),  because  she  was  said  to  have  first  taught  man- 
kind the  use  of  laws.  It  was  celebrated  in  many  Grecian  cities  ;  by  the  Spar- 
tans, the  Thebans  in  Boeotia,  the  Syracusans  in  Sicily,  and  others.  —  "But 
^he  Athenians  observed  this  festival  with  the  greatest  show  of  devotion;  the 
worshipers  were  freeborn  women  (it  being  unlawful  for  any  of  servile  condi- 
tion to  be  present),  whose  husbands  were  wont  to  defray  the  charges;  and 
were  obliged  to  do  so,  if  their  wives'  portion  amounted  to  three  talents. 
These  women  were  assisted  by  a  priest  called  STtyarriipoQog,  because  his  head 
was  adorned  with  a  crown  ;  and  by  certain  virgins,  who  were  kept  under  se- 
vere discipline,  being  maintained  at  the  public  charge  in  a  place  called  Qsa-  . 
fio(pootiov.  The  women  were  ciad  in  white  apparel.  —  Three  days  at  least 
were  spent  in  making  preparations.  Upon  the  eleventh  of  Pyanepsion,  the 
women,  carrying  books  upon  their  heads,  wherein  the  laws  were  contained, 
went  to  Eleusis,  where  the  solemnity  was  kept;  whence  this  day  was  called 
h'AvoSog,  the  ascent.  Upon  the  fourteenth  the  festival  began,  and  lasted  until 
the  seventeenth.  Upon  the  sixteenth  they  kept  a  fast,  sitting  upon  the  ground 
in  token  of  humiliation  ;  whence  the  day  was  called  i\r»;(7Tfiu,  a.  fast." 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  495 

Potter,  Boyd's  ed.  p.  378.  — On  the  fasts  of  the  ancients,  Morin,  L'Usage  du  Jeune,  chez  les 
Anciens  <&c.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  iv.  p.  29. 

6.  "The  Jlav  a&  t'jv  aia  was  an  Athenian  festival  in  honor  of  Minerva, 
the  protectress  of  Athens.  It  was  first  instituted  by  Erichthonius,  who  called 
it  3A&t\vuia;  and  it  was  afterwards  revived  by  Theseus,  when  he  had  united 
into  one  city  all  the  Athenian  people,  and  by  him  was  denominated  Iluradi} 
rata.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  it  was  the  same  as  the  Roman  Quinquatria 
At  first  it  continued  only  one  day  ;  but  it  was  afterwards  prolonged  several 
days,  and  celebrated  with  great  magnificence. 

There  were  two  solemnities  of  this  name,  one  of  which  was  called  MtyaJ.a 
7Iarad>'iraia,  the  Great  Panathenaea,  and  was  celebrated  once  in  five  years, 
beginning  on  the  twenty-second  of  Hecatombaeon  ;  the  other  was  denominat- 
ed Miy.ou  Ilavu6tjvixiai  the  Less  Panathenaea,  and  was  observed  every  third 
year,  or,  as  some  think,  every  year,  beginning  on  the  twentieth  or  twenty- 
first  of  Thargelion.  In  the  latter  were  three  games,  managed  by  ten  presi- 
dents who  were  elected  from  the  ten  tribes  of  Athens,  and  who  continued  in 
office  four  years.  On  the  first  day  was  a  race  with  torches,  in  which  first  foot- 
men and  afterwards  horsemen  contended,  and  which  was  also  observed  in  the 
greater  festival.  The  second  contention  was  svavdQ'uxg  aywv,  a  gymnastic  ex- 
ercise in  which  the  combatants  gave  proof  of  their  strength  or  manhood.  The 
place  of  these  games  was  near  the  river,  and  was  called  from  the  festival  JJav- 
adi]vaiy.bv.  The  third  was  a  musical  contention  instituted  by  Pericles  ;  the 
subject  proposed  was  the  eulogium  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton,  and  also  of 
Thrasybulus,  who  had  rescued  the  republic  from  the  yoke  of  the  tyrants  by 
which  it  was  oppressed.  The  poets  also  contended  in  four  plays,  which  from 
their  number  were  called  rarqaloyiu.  Besides  these  there  was  a  contention 
at  Sunium,  in  imitation  of  a  sea-fight.  (Cf.  Herod,  viii.  55.  —  Pausan.  i.  27. 
§  2.)  The  victor  in  either  of  these  games  was  rewarded  with  a  vessel  of  oil 
and  with  a  crown  of  the  olives  which  grew  in  the  Academy,  and  which  were 
called  uoQivct  from  uooog,  death,  or  from  uioog,  a  part.  There  was  likewise  a 
dance  called  Pyrrhichia,  performed  by  boys  in  armor,  who  represented  to'  the 
sound  of  the  flute  the  battle  of  Minerva  with  the  Titans.  No  man  was  per- 
mitted to  be  present  at  these  games  in  dyed  garments,  under  a  penalty  to  be 
imposed  by  the  ayaivo&irtjg,  president  of  the  games.  Lastly  a  sumptuous  sac- 
rifice was  offered,  to  which  every  Athenian  borough  contributed  an  ox  ;  of  the 
flesh  that  remained,  a  public  entertainment  was  made  for  the  whole  assembly  ; 
and  at  this  entertainment  cups  of  an  unusual  size  were  employed. 

In  the  greater  festival  most  of  the  same  rites  and  ceremonies  were  ob- 
served, but  with  greater  splendor  and  magnificence,  and  the  addition  of  some 
other  matters.  In  particular,  at  this  solemnity  was  a  procession,  in  which 
was  carried  the  sacred  ninlog,  garment  of  Minerva.  This  nin?.og  was  woven 
by  a  select  number  of  virgins,  who  were  called  iQyaany.ai,  from  tQyor,  a  work, 
and  who  were  superintended  by  two  of  the  u^tupoooi,  and  commenced  their 
employment  at  the  festival  Xalxeia,  which  was  on  the  thirtieth  of  Pyanepsion. 
The  garment  was  white,  without  sleeves,  and  embroidered  with  gold :  upon  it 
were  described  the  achievements  of  Minerva  against  the  giants,  of  Jupiter, 
of  the  heroes,  and  of  men  renewed  for  valor  and  great  exploits ;  and  hence 
men  of  courage  and  bravery  were  said  to  be  a^ioi  TtinXov,  worthy  of  being 
portrayed  on  the  garment  of  Minerva.  The  ceremonies  attending  the  pro- 
cession with  the  niJcXoe  were  as  follows.  In  the  Ceramicus  without  the  city, 
was  an  engine  built  for  the  purpose  in  the  form  of  a  ship,  upon  which  the 
■iiknlog  was  hung  in  the  manner  of  a  sail,  which  was  put  in  motion  by  con- 
cealed machinery.  The  ninlog  was  thus  conveyed  to  the  temple  of  Ceres 
Eleusinia,  and  thence  to  the  citadel,  where  it  was  placed  upon  Minerva's 
statue,  which  was  layed  on  a  bed  strewed  with  flowers,  and  called  ftXaxlg. 
This  procession  was  composed  of  a  great  number  of  persons  of  both  sexes, 
and  of  all  ages  and  conditions.  It  was  led  up  by  old  men,  and,  as  some  say, 
by  old  women,  carrying  olive  branches  in  their  hands  ;  and  hence  they  were 
called  -SvdJi.cxpoQoi,  bearers  of  green  boughs.  After  these  came  middle-aged 
men,  who,  armed  with  lances  and  bucklers,  seemed  only  to  respire  war,  and 
who  were  accompanied  by  the  uhoixot,  sojourners,  carrying  little  boats  as 
emblems  of  their  being  foreigners,  and  therefore   called   oxacpr^ponoi,  boat- 


496  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

bearers.  Then  followed  the  women,  attended  by  the  sojourners'  wives,  who 
were  called  vdonxqunoi,  from  carrying  water-pots  in  token  of  servitude.  These 
were  followed  by  young  men,  who  sang  hymns  in  honor  of  the  goddess,  and 
who  were  crowned  with  millet.  Next  proceeded  select  virgins  of  high  rank, 
whose  features,  shape,  and  deportment,  attracted  every  eye,  and  who  were 
called  xavijifuooi,  from  their  carrying  baskets,  which  contained  sacred  utensils, 
cakes,  and  all  things  necessary  for  the  sacrifices.  These  utensils  were  in  the 
custody  of  one  who,  because  he  was  chief  manager  of  the  public  processions, 
was  called  ao/t&twnog.  The  virgins  were  attended  by  the  sojourners'  daugh- 
ters, who  carried  umbrellas  and  folding-chairs,  and  who  were  thence  denomi- 
nated oy.iuSmpuQoi,  umbrella-carriers,  and  dt(poo(poQot,  seat-carriers.  It  is  prob- 
able that  that  the  rear  was  brought  up  by  boys,  who  walked  in  coats  used  at 
processions,  and  were  called  jtavdainy.oL.  The  necessaries  for  this  and  other 
processions  were  prepared  in  a  public  hall  erected  for  that  purpose  between 
the  Pirsean  gate  and  the  temple  of  Ceres  ;  and  the  management  of  the  whole 
business  belonged  to  the  vouocpi/.ay.sg,  who  were  appointed  to  see  that  the  an- 
cient customs  were  observed." 

Robinson.  —  Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xiv.  517. Among  the  monuments  of  ancient   art  still 

in  preservation  are  certain  vases  called  Panathenaic  Vases,  as  they  are  supposed  from  inscrip- 
tions on  them  to  have  been  actually  employed  to  contain  the  sacred  oil  bestowed  upon  victors 
in  these  games  as  a  part  of  their  prize.  —  See  P.  O.  Bronsted,  on  the  Panathenaic  Vases;  in 
the  Transact,  of  the  Roy.  Soc.  of  Literature,  vol.  n.  p.  102.  Lond.  1834. —  Dc  Caylus,  Vases 
dont  les  anciens  faisoient  usage  dans  les  festives,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Iiiscr.  xxm.  342. 

§  78.  The  great  public  games  of  the  Greeks  were  also  a  part  of 
their  religious  customs.  They  were  looked  upon  as  sacred,  and  were 
originally  established  in  honor  of  the  gods.  They  were  always  be- 
gun and  ended  with  sacrifices.  It  also  entered  into  their  design,  and 
was  their  effect  to  render  religion  more  attractive  by  association  with 
sensible  objects,  to  bring  into  nearer  contact  the  several  portions  of 
Greece,  and  to  stimulate  and  publicly  reward  superior  talents.  — The 
exercises  of  these  games  were  of  five  sorts,  and  had  therefore  the 
common  name  nirtadXtv.  They  were  running,  leaping,  wrestling, 
throwing  the  discus,  and  hurling  the  javelin,  or  boxing,  which  some 
put  in  the  place  of  the  contest  with  the  javelin. 

See  Burette,  on  these  exercises,  (la  Lutte  des  anciens  —  Pugilat,  Course,  Disque  &c.)  in  the 
Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  m.  p.  222  ss. 

§  79.  The  race  (Sq6uog)  was  between  fixed  boundaries,  the  start- 
ing place  (a<p*oi<;,  p*X(ilg),  and  the  goal  or  end  (axonog,  rcgua),  on  a 
piece  of  ground  measured  off  for  the  purpose  (av?.6g,  aruSior),  125 
paces  in  extent.  The  racers  were  sometimes  clad  in  full  armor 
(oTiU'cofyouoi).  — There  were  also  chariot-races  and  horse-races. 

Those  who  only  ran  once  over  the  stadium  were  called  aradtoSfJvuoi ;  those 
who  ran  over  the  space  doubled  (diavlog),  that  is,  both  to  the  goal  and  back, 
were  called  SiavXodoouoi ;  those  who  ran  over  the  space  12  times  in  going  and 
returning,  i.  e.  24  stadia,  or  according  to  others  only  7  stadia  (du?.ijog),  were 
termed  cW//o<J()omoi.  —  The   prize    (ix&Xov,  (joapiior)   was  commonly  merely  a 

crown  of  olive,  pine,  or  parsley. The  term  xiXtjrti   was  applied  to  horses 

which  performed  in  the  horse-race  single.  Two  horses  were  also  used,  upon 
one  of  which  the  performer  (arupartjg)  rode  to  the  goal,  and  then  leaped  upon 
the  other.  In  the  chariot-race,  two,  three,  four,  or  more  horses  were  em- 
ployed to  draw  the  chariot  (<xquu);  hence  the  terms  dvtoqat,  t*8oititioi,  tstqucj- 
qoi,  &c.  The  chariots  were  sometimes  driven  over  the  course  12  times  (dvw 
dsxadqufioi).  It  was  an  object  of  emulation  among  the  wealthy  to  send  char- 
iots for  the  race  to  the  public  games  of  Greece. 

Gcdoyn,  Les  Courses  de  Chevaux  et  de  chars  dans  les  jeux  Olympiques,  in  the  Mem.  Acad. 
Jnscr.  vm.  314,  33;);  ix.  360.—  Quatrim.  de  Qumcy,  Sur  la  Course  arniee  et  les  oplitodrom  s, 

in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnstitut,  Classe  iVJIist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  iv.  p.  1(35,  with  figures. On  the 

Olympic  Stadium,  cf.  Lund.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  v.  p.  277. 

§  80.    For  the  leap  («£pa)  also  boundaries  were  marked,  the  place 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  497 

from  which  (^t^),  arid  the  place  to  which  (oxuuua),  it  was  made. 
This  exercise  was  performed  sometimes  with  the  hands  empty,  but 
oftener  with  metallic  weights  in  them,  usually  of  an  oval  shape 
(as.TijQtg),  sometimes  with  weights  attached  to  the  head  or  the 
shoulders. 

The  distance  leaped  over  was  called  y.avwv.  The  point  to  which  the  per- 
formers were  to  leap  was  marked  by  digging  the  earth  ;  hence  its  name  from 
oxvmrw.  The  phrase  rirficiv  vjiiq  ra  ioxuuuivu,  applied  to  signify  excess  or  ex- 
travagance, was  taken  from  this  exercise. 

§  81.  Wrestling  (nui.tj,  y.arap.iiny.l)  was  commonly  performed  in  a 
covered  portico  (^vorog),  the  combatants  being  naked,  and  making 
the  most  violent  exertions  to  throw  each  other  to  the  ground.  When 
one  had  done  this  with  his  adversary  three  times  (6  xqla^ag),  he  re- 
ceived the  prize.  There  were  two  modes  of  this  exercise,  one  in 
the  erect  posture  (ooOoTruXrj),  the  other  in  the  lying  posture  in  which 
the  parties  contended  rolling  on  the  ground  (avayJ.ivgnain).  —  When 
wrestling  was  united   with  boxing,  it  was  called  Uayy.nlx.nov  or  nau- 

iiixyiQv. 

After  the  names  of  the  candidates  had  been  announced  by  a  herald,  they 
were  matched  by  lot.  For  this  purpose  a  silver  urn  was  used  containing  as 
many  balls  as  there  were  candidates.  The  same  letter  was  inscribed  on  two 
balls,  and  those  who  drew  the  same  letter  were  antagonists  in  the  contest.  In 
case  of  an  odd  number,  he  who  drew  the  odd  lot  was  called  tyidoog,  and  re- 
quired to  contend  with  those  who  conquered.  A  competitor  confessed  his 
defeat  by  his  voice,  or  by  holding  up  his  finger  ;  hence  aios  duy.rv/.ov  became 
proverbial  to  signify  confess  that  you  are  conquered. 

In  the  strict  wrestling,  blows  were  not  allowed,  nor  in  boxing  was  it  proper 
for  the  competitor  to  throw  his  antagonist;  but  in  the  Pancratium,  both 
modes  were  practiced.  « 

§  82.  The  quoit  or  discus  (sioy.og,  oUog)  was  made  of  stone,  brass, 
or  iron,  of  a  roundish  form,  and  about  3  inches  thick.  It  was  thrown 
by  means  of  a  thong  (y.a/.^iov)  passing  through  a  hole  in  the  centre. 
He  who  threw  the  farthest  took  the  prize. The  hurling  the  jav- 
elin (fixing,  uxovTioig)  was  practiced,  either  with  the  hand  alone,  or  by 
means  of  a  thong  attached  to  the  shaft.     (Cf.  Plate  xiv.  fig.  y.) 

Some  state  that  the  SLoxog  was  of  stone,  and  the  ao?.og  of  iron  ;  others  that 
the  former  was  carefully  made  and  polished,  the  latter  a  rough  mass  of  iron; 
the  difference  may  have  been  wholly  in  their  form  or  shape.  —  The  exercise 
is  said  to  have  originated  with  the  Lacedaemonians. 

§  83.  Boxing  (nvyul)  was  performed  with  clenched  fists,  around 
which  they  sometimes  bound  the  cestus  (iuug),  i.  e.  a  thong  or  piece 
of  hide  loaded  with  iron  or  lead.  The  chief  art  in  this  game  was 
to  parry  the  blows  of  the  antagonist,  which  were  usually  aimed  at 
the  face. 

The  combatant  was  called  JTvxrtjg,  from  nvc,  &fst.  The  cestus,  originally 
reaching  no  higher  than  the  wrist,  was  afterwards  extended  to  the  elbow  and 
sometimes  to  the  shoulder,  and  at  last  came  to  be  used  both  for  defence  and 
attack.  The  exercise  was  violent  and  dangerous.  The  combatants  often  lost 
their  lives,  and  victory  was  always  dear  bought.  Bruises  on  the  face  by  blows 
were  called  vuojjuu. 

Besides  these  exercises  of  bodily  strength  and  agility,  there  were  at  the 
public  games  of  the  Greeks  contests  in  music,  poetry,  and  rhetoric,  of  which 
mention  has  already  been  made  (P.  I.  §  65,  66). 

§  84.  The  four  most  grand  and  solemn  games  of  the  Greeks  were 

42* 


498 


GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 


the  Olympic,  Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemean,  which  were  called  by 
way  of  eminence  Sacred  games  {hy&vtg  haul). 

The  first  and  most  distinguished  were  the  Olympic,  named  from 
the  place  Olympia  in  Elis,  and  dedicated  to  the  Olympian  Jupiter. 
By  some,  Jupiter  was  considered  as  their  founder  ;  by  othersy  an 
earlier  Hercules  belonging  to  the  Idaean  Dactyli ;  by  others  Pelops; 
by  most  Hercules  the  hero,  who  was  the  first  victor  in  all  the  exer- 
cises, except  in  wrestling.  They  were  renewed  by  Iphitus,  a  con- 
temporary of  Lycurgus,  about  B.  C.  S£8,  and  afterwards  by  Choree- 
bus,  B.  C.  776.  Afterwards  they  were  an  object  of  special  care  to 
the  people  |)f  Elis.  Several  inspectors  (l^Xikai,  (>a^dov/oi)  had  charge 
of  the  external  arrangements,  under  the  direction  of  a  chief  inspec- 
tor  \a).VTuQXrl?r 

1  u*  Those,  who  wished  to  appear  as  combatants,  were  obliged  to  spend  ten 
months  at  the  Gymnasium  in  Elis,  practicing  the  games  and  various  prepara- 
tory exercises  under  the  instruction  of  the  judges,  who  were  in  the  Olympic 
games  especially  termed  'EU.avo8ly.ai.  The  order  in  which  they  successively 
engaged  in  the  contests  was  decided  by  lot.  The  prize  was  a  crown  or  wreath 
of  olive  {y.vnvoc).  —  Among  the  Olympic  victors,  Alcibiades  was  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  ;  the  names  of  thirteen  others  Pindar  has  preserved  to  pos- 
terity by  his  Olympic  odes.  Statues  were  often  erected  to  the  conquerors  in 
the  grove  of  Jupiter.  Their  fame  was  spread  the  more  widely  on  account  of 
the  vast  multitudes  of  spectators,  that  flocked  to  the  games  from  every  part 
of  Greece,  and  from  Asia,  Africa,  and   Sicily.     Originally  females  were  pot 

allowed  to  attend. The  games  were  repeated  every  fifth  year,  in  the 

month  cEyarou(iai(or,  answering  partly  to  July,  and  continued  five  days. 
They  gave,  rise  to  the  custom  of  reckoning  time  and  dating  events  by  Olym- 
piads. Each  Olympiad  consisted  of  four  years.  The  first  Olympiad  is  gen- 
erally considered  in  Chronology  as  corresponding  with  the  year  776  B.  C. 

2.  One  judge  at  first  presided  over  the  games  ;  afterwards  two';  subsequent- 
ly there  were  12 ;  then  8,  one  from  each  tribe  of  the  Eleans.  The  place, 
where  these  assembled  and  superintended  the  preparatory  exercises  (nooyvu- 
ruokiara)  of  the  combatants,  was  called  '  Eu'/.r^oSixaiov.  They  took  the  most 
solemn  oaths  to  adjudge  the  prizes  impartially.  Although  women  were  strict- 
ly excluded  from  witnessing  these  games  at  first,  they  were  afterwards  al- 
lowed not  only  to  be  present,  but  even  to  contend  in  them. 

3.  Much  has  been  said  respecting  the  various  favorable  influences  which 
these  games  exerted  in  Greece.  They  are  said  to  have  promoted  peace  and 
harmony  between  the  different  sections  and  states,  as  they  drew  together 
spectators  from  every  quarter,  who  thus  constituted  the  great  assembly  (Uav- 
yyvQtg)  of  Greece.  Olympia  was  in  fact  called  nuyxoivog  %(oQa,  the  common 
country  of  all.  Hardihood  and  valor  among  the  soldiery  are  also  mentioned 
as  natural  effects  of  the  various  athletic  exercises  performed  at  them.  They 
could  not  fail  to  stimulate  to  literary  exertion,  as  they  furnished  poets,  histo- 
rians and  orators,  with  the  best  opportunities  to  rehearse  their  productions. 

Bancroft's  Heeren,  p.  129. —  G.  West's  Diss,  on  the  Olymyie  games,  in  his  Transl.  of  Pin- 
dar, cited  P.  II.  §  60.  5.  —  Cf.  Suker's  Allg.  Theorie,  close  of  article  Pindar. 

§  85.  The  Pythian  games  were  celebrated  upon  the  Crissaean 
plains,  in  the  vicinity  of  Delphi,  which  was  once  called  Pytho  from 
the  surname  of  Apollo.  The  games  were  sacred  to  this  god,  and 
were  a  commemoration  of  his  victory  over  the  Pythian  serpent. 
They  were  instituted  either  by  himself,  or  by  Amphictyon  or  Diome- 
des.  Originally  they  were  held  at  the  beginning  of  every  ninth  year 
(hvtaTijnlg),  afterwards,  like  the  Olympic,  at  the  beginning  of  every 
fifth  year  (/7j?r«£r^n'c).  The  Pythiad  was  sometimes  used  as  an  era 
in  chronology,  but  not  commonly  ;  it  appears  to  have  been  reckoned 
from  the  3d  year  of  the  49th  Olympiad,  B.  C.  582.     As  a  reward  or 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS    IN   THE    LATER    AGES.    '  499 

prize  the  victors  received  certain  apples  sacred  to  Apollo,  often  also 
a  crown  of  laurel. 

1  u.  The  contests  appear  to  have  been  at  first  only  in  music,'  and  to  have 
been  rewarded  with  silver,  gold,  or  something  of  value.  The  song  called 
JIv&iy.us  vouog,  which  was  performed  in  these  contests,  celebrated  the  victory 
of  Apollo  over  the  serpent ;  it  consisted  of  five  or  six  distinct  portions,  which 
represented  so  many  separate  parts  and  steps  in  the  undertaking  and  achieve- 
ment. Of  the  same  import  was  the  customary  solemn  dance,  composed  of 
five  parts. 

2u.  All  the  exercises  in  use  at  the  Olympic  games  were  gradually  intro- 
duced into  the  Pythian.  The  Amphictyuns  had  the  oversight  of  them ;  to 
these  the  candidates  were  required  to  present  themselves.  Nine  conquerors 
are  especially  celebrated  in  the  Pythian  odes  of  Pindar.  The  spot  where 
these  games  were  held  was  a  plain  between  Delphi  and  Cirrha,  sacred  to 
Apollo. 

§  86.  The  Nemcan  games  derived  their  name  from  Nemea,  a  city 
in  Argolis  between  Cleonae  and  Phlius,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  they 
were  celebrated.  They  were  held  every  third  year,  so  as  to  fall  on 
every  second  and  fourth  Olympic  year.  It  was  never  common  to 
compute  time  by  Nemeads.  The  superintendents  and  judges  were 
selected  from  the  neighboring  cities,  Argos,  Corinth,  and  Cleonae, 
and  were  persons  distinguished  particularly  for  their  love  of  justice. 
Their  dress  was  black,  because  the  games  were  first  instituted  as  a 
funeral  solemnity  {hywv  Iniruipio?)  in  honor  of  Opheltes,  or  Anchem- 
orus  ;  although  others  state,  that  they  were  instituted  and  dedicated 
to  Jupiter  by  Hercules,  after  slaying  the  Nemean  lion.  The  prize 
of  the  victor  was  a  crown  of  parsley.  Ten  conquerors  in  the  Neme- 
an games  are  celebrated  by  Pindar. 

Villoison,  Les  jeux  Nemeans,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxvm.  p.  29. 

§  87.  The  Isthmian  games  were  so  called  from  the  place  of  their 
celebration,  the  Corinthian  isthmus,  or  the  neck  of  land  joining  Pelo- 
ponnesus with  the  continent.  They  were  instituted  in  honor  of  Me- 
licertes,  a  son  of  Ino  and  Athamas,  who  under  the  name  of  Palcsmon 
was  received  by  Neptune  into  the  number  of  sea  gods.  Others  rep- 
resent Theseus  as  the  founder  of  the  games,  and  Neptune  as  the  god 
to  whom  they  were  consecrated.  With  the  Corinthians,  all  the  other 
states  of  Greece  (except  the  Eleans,  who  were  excluded  by  some 
dreadful  execration,)  united  in  celebrating  these  games.  They  were 
held  at  the  beginning  of  every  third  year  (rqur^ixol)]  and  were  at- 
tended with  the  musical  contests  as  well  as  those  in  all  the  athletic 
evercises.  The  prize  was  originally,  and  also  in  later  times  again,  a 
crown  of  pine  ;  for  a  period  between,  it  was  a  crown  of  dry  parsley. 
The  judges  were  at  first  selected  from  the  Corinthians,  afterwards 
from  the  Sicyonians.  Pindar,  in  his  Isthmian  odes  yet  extant,  has 
sung  the  praise  of  eight  victors,  mostly  Pancratiasts,  who  gained  the 
prize  in  wrestling  and  boxing  at  the  same  time. 

In  our  Plate  XIII.,  are  seen  various  forms  of  ancient  crowns  and  garlands.  Fig.  8.  repre- 
sents the  Isthmian  crown  ;  fig.  9,  the  crown  of  myrtle  ;  fig.  10,  the  laurel. 

§  88.  On  account  of  the  great  estimation  in  which  Athletics  were 
held  among  the  Greeks,  and  their  intimate  connection  with  religion 
and  the  interests  of  the  state,  the  subject  deserves  a  few  additional 
remarks. 

lu.    In  the  most  general  sense,  the  term  included  intellectual  as  well  as 


500  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

bodily  exercises,  pursued  with  earnestness  and  zeal ;  but  it,  was  commonly 
used  to  signify  those  more  frequent  and  violent  bodily  exercises,  which  were 
so  much  practiced  in  Greece,  especially  at  the  games  already  described,  and 
which  were  viewed  as  an  essential  part  of  education,  and  constituted  a  great 
object  of  the  Gymnastic  system.  Many  of  those  who  had  enjoyed  full  in- 
struction therein,  made  these  exercises  the  main  business  of  their  life.  Such 
were  called  a&ltrrui  and  aywviOTui.  The  teacher  of  the  system  or  art  was 
called  yvfivaCT)ts  and  g,varaa/rtg,  superintendent  of  Si^varbg,  which  was  a  cov- 
ered gallery  where  the  exercises  were  performed  in  winter,  and  was  so  called 
from  the  floor  being  made  smooth  and  level.  Although  the  Athletae  were  not 
strictly  in  the  service  of  the  state,  yet  they  received  great  honor.  Their 
whole  mode  of  life  was  conducted  with  reference  to  augmenting  their  bodily 
strength,  and  they  submitted  to  many  rigid  precepts.  In  most  of  the  exer- 
cises they  were  naked  ;  in  casting  the  quoit  and  the  javelin  they  wore  a  light 
covering.  By  frequent  anointing,  rubbing,  and  bathing,  they  rendered  their 
bodies  more  strong  and  supple.  In  preparation  for  a  combat,  they  covered 
themselves  with  dust  or  sand,  in  order  that  they  might  take  better  hold  of 
each  other,  and  avoid  too  great  perspiration  and  exhaustion.  Generally  the 
ground,  or  surface  of  the  area,  on  which  they  exercised,  was  wet  and  slippery. 
2u.  Before  being  permitted  to  enter  this  area,  they  were  subjected  to  an  ex- 
amination and  a  rigid  preparation.  For  this  purpose  judges  (ah.o&irai,  aywvo- 
6irai,  cE?.?.uvoSiy.ai)  were  appointed,  whose  number  was  not  always  the  same, 
who  decided  concerning  the  prize,  and  excited  the  combatants  by  animated 
exhortations.  The  rewards  of  the  conquerors  were  the  applause  and  admira- 
tion of  the  people,  the  public  proclamation  of  their  names,  the  laudatory  song 
of  the  poet,  the  crown  of  victory,  statues,  solemn  processions,  banquets,  and 
other  privileges  and  advantages. 

Cf.  P.  I.  §G4. —  C.  F.  A.  Hockheimer's  Versuch  eines  Systems  der  Erziehung  der  Griechen,  as 
cited  P.  II.  $  1.  a  work  very  instructive  on  this  topic  and  on  Grecian  education  generally.  — 
John's  Treatise  on  Gymnastics.  Northampt.  1828.  8.  —  Amer.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  lit.  p.  125.  —  Bu- 
rette, Histoire  des  Athletes,  in  the  ttst.  de  I' Acad,  des  loser,  vol.  l.  p.  211. 

§  89.  It  has  been  already  stated  (P.  I.  §  66),  that  dramatic  representations 
or  theatrical  performances,  among  the  Greeks,  belonged  appropriately  to  relig- 
ious festivals;  and  had  their  origin,  in  fact,  in  religious  ceremonies  (P.  II. 
§  36,  37,  47),  particularly  in  the  rites  connected  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus 
at  Athens.  Some  account  of  the  Greek  theatres  has  also  been  given  (P.  I. 
§  235J.  Besides  what  has  been  said  in  the  sections  referred  to,  a  few  remarks 
may  be  added  properly  in  this  place. 

1.  In  their  theatrical  exhibitions  the  Greeks  employed  various  mechanical 
contrivances.  Among  these  were  the  following  :  the  0so?.oytiov,  a  platform 
concealed  by  clouds  and  supporting  the  gods  in  conversation ;  the  Mij/av/j 
andPthe  rinarog,  instruments  employed  to  bring  a  god  or  other  personage  sud- 
denly upon  the  stage,  or  withdraw  him  or  lift  him  into  the  skies;  the  Aim^at, 
ropes  to  enable  him  to  walk  apparently  in  the  air ;  Bqovrhiov  and  the  Ksyav- 
roazoTciior,  contrivances  for  imitating  thunder  and  lightning. 

2.  The  number  of  actors  (vnoxqiral)  in  the  whole  of  a  play  was  of  course 
various;  but  no  more  than  three  at  once  appeared  on  the  stage  (ay.tjrij  in  the 
part  appropriated  to  speakers  (loyeior).  Although  the  author  of  the  piece  rep- 
resented was  sometimes  obliged  to  be  one  of  the  actors,  yet  those  who  were 
actors  by  profession  were,  as  a  class,  of  low  character  and  loose  morals.  In 
order  that  the  voices  of  the  speakers  might  oe  aided  and  the  sound  spread  over 
the  whole  of  the  theatre,  artificial  helps  were  employed;  among  these  were 
the  brazen  vessels  (t]xiiu)  resembling  bells,  which  were  placed  in  different 
parts  of  the  structure.  In  the  rude  state  of  the  art  the  features  of  the  actor 
were  concealed  or  altered  by  smearing  the  face  with  wine-lees,  or  by  some 
rude  disguise.  iEschylus  (P.  II.  §  39,  61),  introduced  the  regular  mask  (.tooo- 
oj/ctiov  perso?ia)  ;  which,  ultimately,  was  formed  of  brass  or  some  sonorous 
metal,  or  at  least  had  a  mouth  so  prepared  as  to  increase  the  sound  of  the  voice. 
There  was  a  vast  variety  in  the  form,  color,  and  appendages  of  the  masks,  so 
as  to  represent  every  age,  sex,  character,  and  condition  ;  no  less  than  twenty- 
six  classes  of  tragic  masks  are  enumerated  by  Julius  Pollux.  The  tragic  mask 
often  had  a  great  elevation  of  the  head  and  hair  (called  uyxog)  to  heighten  the 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  501 

stature  of  the  actor.  For  the  same  purpose,  the  tragic  actor  wore  a  very  thick- 
soled  boot  (y.u&oorog,  $ufiu$). 

On  masques  «Scc.  cf.  §23$.— Pompeii  (as  cited  P.  I.  §  226)  p.  211.— Schlea-d,  on  the  Drama,  lect. 
iii. —  Mtmgez,  stir  les  masques  des  Anciens,  in  the  Mem.  dc  PInstitut,  Classe  aVHist.  et  Lit.  Anc. 
vol.  i.  256?  vii.  85. — Same,  (on  use  of  masks  for  increasing  the  power  of  the  voice)  in  the  Mem. 
de  PList.,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts,  vol.  v.  p.  89. 

3.  The  Choir  (  /oq'oq)  was  composed  of  performers  wholly  distinct  from  the 
actors  ;  yet,  by  its  leader,  it  often  took  part  in  the  dialogue.  We  have  before 
alluded  to  the  vast  expense  of  maintaining  the  Chorus  ;  one  great  source  of 
this  expense  was  the  dresses  and  decorations,  which  were  of  the  most  splendid 
kind.     See  P.  II.  $37,  and  the  references  there  given. 

§  90.  As  the  theatre  was  opened  at  sunrise,  or  even  as  soon  as  day-break, 
the  spectators  assembled  very  early  in  order  to  secure  good  seats,  which,  as 
the  edifices  were  built  at  the  public  expense,  were  at  first  free  for  every  per- 
son. In  consequence  of  the  contest  for  places,  which  this  occasioned,  a  law 
was  passed  at  Athens,  under  which  a  fee  for  admission  was  demanded.  This 
was  fixed,  for  a  time  at  least,  at  two  oboli.  But  under  the  influence  ol  Pericles, 
another  law  was  also  enacted  requiring  the  proper  magistrate  to  furnish  from 
the  public  treasury  the  amount  of  this  fee  to  every  one,  who  applied  for  it  that 
he  might  attend  a  dramatic  performance.  The  money  thus  used  was  termed 
QewQ-ixU  yQi[uuTa,  and  the  magistrate,  Tauiug  roiv  &ih)Qiy.(ov.  The  number  of 
spectators  was  often  very  great  (P.  I.  §  235).  Barthelemy  has  given  a  vivid 
description  of  their  crowding  to  the  theatre. 

Travels  ofAnachtrsis  (as  cited  P.  II.  $  153.  2),  ch.  xi.  Cf.  also  ch.  lxx.— Barthelemy,  Nombre 
des  pieces  qu'on  representoient  en  un  jour  a  Athenes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxxix.  172.  — 
On  Greek  theatrical  performances,  cf.  P.  II.  §  36-47.— Load.  Qjiart.  Rev.  xn.  119.— J.  Proudfit, 
in  the  Bibl.  Repository,  vol.  i.  of  2d  Series,  p.  449. 

(2)    Civil  Affairs. 

§  91.  After  what  has  been  already  said  (§  33  ss)  of  the  original 
circumstances  and  constitution  of  the  Greek  states,  we  may  confine 
ourselves  now  to  their  characteristics  and  peculiarities  in  later  times. 
The  account  of  the  various  changes  of  their  constitution  and  the 
consequences  thereof  belongs  to  history  rather  than  antiquities. 
The  latter,  properly  considered,  will  treat  chiefly  of  the  civil  regula- 
tions of  the  most  flourishing  republic,  Athens,  without  overlooking 
those  of  the  other  considerable  states,  especially  the  Spartans,  who 
were  distinguished  by  many  peculiarities  from  the  Athenians,  al- 
though they  had  also  many  points  of  resemblance. 

§  92.  The  early  political  changes  at  Athens  have  been  mentioned 
(§  39).  After  the  kings,  whose  power  was  greatly  circumscribed  by 
the  chiefs  of  noble  families,  and  of  whom  Codrus  was  the  seven- 
teenth and  last  (1068  B.  C),  the  chief  magistrates  were  the  Archons. 
When  these  became  despotic,  Draco  (624  B.  C.)  introduced  a  code 
of  laws,  which  soon  occasioned  new  troubles  by  their  severity.  Re- 
course was  then  had  to  Solon  (594  B.  C),  who  abolished  all  the 
laws  of  Draco,  except  the  one  respecting  murder.  Solon  changed 
the  form  of  government  in  many  points,  diminished  very  much  the 
authority  and  power  of  the  Archons,  gave  the  people  a  share  and 
voice  in  judicial  inquiries,  and  thus  transformed  the  aristocracy  pre- 
viously existing  into  a  mixed  and  moderate  democracy. 

§  93.  Originally  the  people  had  been  divided  into  4  tribes  (yvkat), 
and  also  divided,  according  to  their  places  of  residence,  into  a  num- 
ber of  boroughs  or  wards  (S^uoi).  Each  tribe  likewise  was  subdivided 
into  three  curies  (^outo/u/,  Urt{)  according  to  their  consanguinity,  and 
each  of  the  curiae  into  families  (yirtt,  r^iuy.udeg).     But  Solon  divided 


502  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

the  citizens  according  to  their  wealth  into  4  classes ;  1.  iiivray.oGco- 
fiiSiuvoi,  those  who  gathered  from  their  fields  in  moist  and  dry  crops, 
at  least  500  ptfiuvot;  2.  'innng,  those  whose  grounds  yielded  300 
fiiSiuvoL,  and  who  were  able  to  maintain  a  war-horse  (innog  no?.ttuiort:r 
Qiog) ;  3.  Zivyirat,  those  whose  lands  produced  200  (or  150)  uidtuvoi, 
and  who  owned  the  space  of  one  acre  or  ttvyog ;  4.  0>jts?,  those  who 
had  any  less  income.  All  the  citizens  were  admitted  to  the  assembly 
of  the  people  (§  106),  but  only  the  first  three  of  the  above  classes 
shared  in  the  burdens  and  expenses  of  the  state,  and  therefore  they 
alone  could  receive  offices,  and  from  them  alone  the  senate  (povki,, 
<§  107)  was  chosen,  which  at  that  time  consisted  of  400.  Solon  also 
advanced  the  authority  of  the  Areopagus  (§  108),  as  he  gave  it  juris- 
diction of  the  most  criminal  cases. 

§  94.  Athens  remained  under  these  regulations  only  about  34 
years.  Then,  even  before  the  death  of  Solon,  Pisistratus  became 
sole  master  of  the  state,  and  notwithstanding  all  opposition,  contin- 
ued such  until  his  death,  528  B.  C.  His  two  sons,  Hippias  and  Hip- 
parchus,  succeeded  him,  These  were  soon  stripped  of  their  power; 
Hipparchus  being  slain  by  Harmodius,  who  was  offended  on  account 
of  his  sister  (Thuc.  vi.  544)  and  was  aided  by  his  friend  Aristo- 
giton :  and  Hippias  being  driven  into  banishment  by  the  people. 
After  this,  the  constitution  received  a  new  form  under  the  influence 
of  Clisthenes. 

The  number  of  the  tribes  ((pv?.al)  was  now  increased  to  ten.  From 
each  of  these,  50  senators  (poviavral)  were  yearly  elected,  so  that  the 
Senate  consisted  of  500.  After  this  the  power  of  the  people  was  still 
more  increased.  Aristides  effected  the  abolition  of  the  law  of  Solon, 
which  excluded  from  offices  the  lowest  of  the  four  classes  of  citizens. 
Pericles,  with  the  assistance  of  Ephialtes,  deprived  the  Areopagus 
of  a  great  portion  of  its  power  ;  he  also  occasioned  many  important 
changes  in  the  constitution,  which  were  gratifying  to  the  lower  class- 
es, and  by  which  the  democracy  became  less  guarded  and  restrained, 
and  the  way  was  opened  for  the  ochlocracy  that  soon  followed. 

§  95.  After  various  changes  in  the  government,  Athens  was  taken 
by  Lysander,  B.  C.  404.  The  supreme  power  was  then  vested  in  the 
thirty  tyrants,  who  were,  however,  deprived  of  their  authority  after 
three  years,  by  Thrasybulus,  and  banished.  In  their  stead  decemviri 
(dsy.adov/oi)  were  instituted,  who  likewise  abused  their  power,  and 
were  exiled,  after  the  former  democracy  was  restored.  This  form 
was  retained  unto  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  when  it  was 
overturned  by  Antipater,  and  the  government  vested  in  a  certain 
number  of  nobles  or  chiefs.  After  the  death  of  Antipater,  Cassan- 
der  committed  the  republic  to  a  lieutenant,  and  under  Demetrius  Po- 
liorcetes  it  enjoyed  again  freedom  and  popular  power.  With  some 
changes,  this  state  of  things  continued  until  the  time  of  Sulla,  who 
in  the  Mithridatic  war  conquered  Athens  and  subjected  her  to  the 
Romans.  The  final  destruction  of  the  city  happened  towards  the 
end  of  the  4th  century  by  the  hands  of  Alaric,  king  of  the  West- 
goths. 

§  96.  Athens  was  the  most  beautiful  and  splendid  city  in  Greece. 
Its  circuit  was  about  one  hundred   and  seventy-eight  stadia.     One 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER   AGES.  503 

part  of  it  was  the  citadel,  which  lay  upon  a  steep  rock;  this  at  first 
constituted  the  whole  city  under  the  name  of  Cecropia,  and  was  af- 
terwards termed  Acropolis.  The  most  remarkable  buildings  on  the 
Acropolis  were  the  noonvlaia,  Propylcea,  the  ilaQ&tvwr,  or  temple  of 
Minerva  with  the  famous  statue  of  this  goddess  by  Phidias,  and  the 
joint  temple  of  Neptune  Erectheus  and  Minerva  Polias.  In  the  oth- 
er portion  of  the  city,  the  temples  of  Vulcan,  Venus  Urania,  The- 
seus, Jupiter  Olympus,  and  the  Pantheon  sacred  to  all  the  gods,  were 
among  the  most  remarkable.  Of  the  numerous  covered  porticos, 
the  Pozcile  (P.  I.  §  74)  was  the  most  renowned,  and  adorned  with 
the  most  magnificent  paintings  and  ornaments.  The  Odeum,  built 
by  Pericles  and  devoted  to  musical  and  literary  exercises,  has  been 
before  mentioned  (P.  I.  §  235).  The  name  of  Ceramicus  was  given 
to  two  extensive  spaces,  one  within  and  the  other  without  the  city, 
the  former  enriched  with  beautiful  edifices,  the  latter  used  as  a  burial 
ground.  There  were  several  market  places  (tryoqal),  with  different 
names  according  to  their  specific  uses.  The  Gymnasia  also,  and  the 
Baths,  the  Stadium  ascribed  to  Herodes  Atticus,  the  Academy,  the 
Cynosarges,  the  Hippodrome,  and  the  Theatres,  belong  to  the  re- 
markable and  interesting  works  which  adorned  the  city  of  Athens. 
The  three  harbors,  Pirasus,  Munychia,  and  Phalerum,  should  like- 
wise be  mentioned  here. 

Some  further  account  of  the  buildings  and  monuments  of  the  city  of  Athens  will  be  found 
in  the  portion  of  this  work  which  gives  an  Epitome  of  Classical  Geography.  Cf.  P.  V.  ^104- 
116.  —  For  a  view  of  the  Parthenon,  see  Plate  XVI.  fig.  1 ;  in  the  same  Plate,  fig.  2.  is  the 
temple  of  the  Winds  ;  fig.-  3,  the  temple  of  Theseus.  —  For  a  Plan  of  Athens,  see  Plate  XXIX. 

§  97.  The  inhabitants  of  Athens  and  of  the  whole  of  Attica  were 
either  noUrai,free  citizens,  uiroiy.oi,free  commoners,  resident  aliens  or 
sojourners,  or  SovXot,  slaves.  The  first  class  was  the  most  rsspecta- 
ble,  the  last  the  most  numerous.  The  number  of  resident  foreigners, 
however,  was  not  insignificant.  The  right  of  citizenship  was,  in 
the  flourishing  times  of  the  republic,  a  high  privilege,  which  was  con- 
ferred only  upon  men  of  honorable  descent  and  distinguished  merit, 
and  upon  such  not  without  difficulty,  since  the  agreement  of  six 
thousand  citizens  was  first  requisite.  Free  born  Athenians  were 
those  whose  parents  were  born  at  Athens,  or  at  least  one  of  whose 
parents  was  born  there;  and  those  of  the  latter  class  held  a  lower 
rank,  and  privileges  in  some  respects  less  than  the  former. 

1  u.  By  Cecrops  the  Athenians  were  divided  in  four  tribes  (cf.  §  93)  as  fol- 
lows ;  1.  KtxQonlc,  from  his  own  name  ;  2.  3uivrvj(6o)v ;  3.  ^Axraia;  4.  LTa- 
^a'/.'ia.  To  each  of  these  tribes  belonged  several  districts,  boroughs,  or  wards 
(driiot),  of  which  there  were  at  length  174  in  Attica,  and  which  differed  from 
£ach  other  in  various  points  of  manners  and  customs.  The*  names  of  the 
tribes  were  afterwards  changed,  and  the  number  increased  to  ten  (§  94),  fi- 
nally to  twelve.  The  number  of  citizens,  TtoXlrai,  in  the  time  of  Pericles 
amounted  to  14,040  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Demetrius  Phalereus,  according  to  a 
census  taken  by  his  direction,  B.  C.  309,  the  number  was  21,000. 

2.  From  the  census  of  Demetrius,  the  whole  population  of  Attica,  includ- 
ing aliens  (§  98),  women,  children,  and  slaves  (§  99),  has  been  estimated  at 
500,000. 

See  Jlmer.  Quart.  Register,  on  populousness  of  Ancient  Nations,  vol.  ix.  p.  143.—  Sainte 
Croix,  Sur  la  population  de  l'Attique,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlviii.  p.  147.  — And  Lc 

Ironnc,  in  the  Mem.  de  VInstitut,  Classe  A,Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  vi.  165. On  the  4>]uoi  of 

Attrca,  see  W.  M.  Leake,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature }  a  full  account, 
with  a  good  map. 


5p4  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

§  98.  The  uiroixoi  were  those  foreigners,  or  persons  not  natives  of 
Attica,  who  became  residents  in  the  city  or  territory.  They  took  no 
part  in  the  government,  being  admitted  neither  to  the  assemblies  of 
the  people  nor  to  public  offices,  but  were  subject  to  all  the  laws  and 
usages  of  the  land.  They  were  obliged  to  select  from  the  free  citi- 
zens a  patron  or  guardian  (.roooTurtjc),  in  whose  name  they  could 
manage  business  and  maintain  actions  in  the  civil  courts,  and  to 
whom  they  must  tender  certain  services.  Certain  services  to  the  state 
were  also  required  of  them,  besides  which  an  annual  tribute  (,u»ro£- 
y.iov)  was  exacted,  ten  or  twelves  drachms  for  each  man,  and  six  for 
each  woman  without  sons,  mothers  with  sons  that  paid  being  free 
from  the  tax.  Sometimes  exemption  from  taxation  (uxiUiu)  was 
conferred*  upon  individuals  as  a  reward  for  meritorious  services. 
Demetrius  found,  by  his  census,  10,000  of  the  class  of  foreign  res- 
idents. 

The  term  ctrot  was  applied  to  foreigners  remaining  in  the  city  or  country 
for  a  short  time  only ;  it  was  also  applied  reciprocally  to  persons  who  were 
mutually  pledged,  by  former  acquaintance,  or  in  any  other  way,  to  treat  each 
other  with  hospitality.  —  If  a  mctic  neglected  to  pay  the  imposed  tax,  he  was 
liable  to  be  sold  for  a  slave.  Diogenes  Laertius  was  actually  sold,  because 
he  had  not  the  means  of  paying  it ;  but  was  redeemed  by  Demetrius. 

Cf.  Sainte  Croix,  Sur  les  Metoeques  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  VJicad.  Acs  Inscr.  vol.  xlviii.  p.  176. 

§  99.  The  slaves  (dov?.oi)  were  of  different  sorts,  those  belonging 
to  the  public  (dov/.oi  typodioi),  and  those  belonging  to  private  citizens 
.{d&tTai).  The  latter  were  completely  in  the  power  of  the  master, 
and  were  often  treated  with  great  severity.  Yet  they  sometimes  pur- 
chased freedom  by  their  own  earnings,  or  received  it  by  gift  as  a  re- 
ward for  merit.  Public  slaves  also  were  often  set  at  liberty,  when 
they  had  rendered  the  state  some  valuable  serviced  Freedmen  very 
seldom,  if  ever,  obtained  the  rights  of  citizens,  and  were  still  termed 
dovloi.  In  general,  the  condition  of  the  slaves  in  Attica,  abject  and 
miserable  as  it  was,  appears  to  have  been  in  some  respects  less  so, 
than  in  other  states  of  Greece,  especially  in  Lacedsemon.  The  slaves 
of  Attica  amounted  to  400,000  in  the  time  of  Demetrius. 

At  Athens  slaves  were  not  allowed  to  imitate  freemen  in  the  fashion  of  their 
dress  or  the  cut  of  their  hair  ;  their  coats  must  be  with  one  sleeve  only  (fTf- 
•Qouuoxaloi)  and  the  hair  cut  in  the  servile  form  (difi£  avdoanodiodtjc).  They 
could  not  properly  bear  the  names  of  Athenian  citizens,  but  must  be  called 
by  some  foreign  or  low  name.  They  were  allowed  to  bear  arms  only  in  ex- 
treme cases.  The  punishments  inflicted  were  severe  ;  for  common  offences 
they  were  whipped  (uuoTiyiaui) ;  for  theft  or  running  away  they  were  bound 
to  a  wheel  and  beaten  (inl  tqo/ov)  ;  for  some  crimes  they  were  sentenced  to 
grind  in  the  mills  (uvZwvtc)  ;  sometimes  they  received,  upon  their  forehead 
or  some  other  part,  the  brand  with  hot  iron  (oriyfta).  In  giving  testimony  in 
court  they  were  also  subject  to  torture  ((iuoarog).  —  Yet  at  Athens  the  slaves 
could  bring  civil  actions  against  their  masters  and  others  for  violation  of  chas- 
tity and  for  unlawful  severity  (v^tmg  diy.ij  and  ur/.lag  Siy.yj).  When  greatly 
oppressed,  they  could  also  flee  to  the   temple  of  Theseus,  from  which  it  was 

held  as  sacrilege  to  force  them. Slaves  carried  on  the  whole  business  of 

the  Athenians  ;  even  the  poorer  citizens  depended  on  them.  There  was  a 
sale  of  slaves  on  the  first  day  of  every  month  by  merchants  (tniha/ioSoxuTcyj' 
7.ot)  ;  usually  announced  by  a  crier  standing  on  what  was  called  the  vender's 
stone  (jiout^o  /.i6og).  The  price  varied  according  to  their  abilities.  Many 
were  skillful  in  the  elegant  arts,  and  versed  in  letters  ;  while  others  were  only 
qualified  to  toil  in  the  mines. 


PLATE     XVI, 


43 


506  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

See  Reitemeier,  Geschiehte  und  Zustand  der  Sclaverey  &c.  (History  of  Slavery  and  Villa- 
nage  in  Greece.)    Berl.  1789.  — Bibl.  Rtpos.  and  Quart.  Observer,  No.  xvu.  p.  138. 

§100.  The  magistrates  at  Athens  were  divided,  in  reference  to  the 
mode  of  their  appointment  to  office,  into  three  classes,  the  ^s/ootojjjtoi, 
the  zAtowroi,  and  the  Uiqiroi.  The  first  named  were  chosen  by  the 
whole  people  raising  the  hand  ;  the  second  were  appointed  by  lot  by 
the  Thesmothetae  in  the  the  temple  of  Theseus;  and  the  last  were 
chosen  by  particular  portions  of  the  people,  by  the  tribes  and  the  dis- 
tricts, from  among  their  own  number. — The  magistrates  were  re- 
quired, on  the  expiration  of  their  offices,  to  render  an  account  of 
their  administration  to  a  tribunal,  which  was  constituted  by  ten  ac- 
countants (/.oyiorul)  and  ten  directors   or  judges  (ivbhei,  called   also 

i$£TaoTitl). 

In  choosing  the  Archons  and  other  magistrates  by  lot,  the  ordinary  method 
was  to  put  the  names  of  the  candidates,  inscribed  on  brazen  tablets  (.uvuzia), 
into  aa  urn  with  black  and  white  beans  (xva/ioi)  ;  and  those  whose  tablets 
were  drawn  out  with  white  beans  were  elected. 

On  Athenian  magistrates,  cf.  Blanchard,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  laser,  vn.  51. 

§101.  The  most  important  magistrates  were  the  Archons  (l;o/orrig). 
There  were  usually  nine  Archons,  chosen  by  lot  (yj.ijourroi),  but  sub- 
jected to  an  examination  as  to  their  qualifications,  before  they  were 
admitted  to  take  the  oath  and  enter  their  office. 

1.  The  examinations  of  the  Archons  was  twofold;  one  in  the  senate  called 
^Avuxoiotc,  the  other  in  the  forum,  called  Joxiinxoia,  before  the  Hcliastce  (>/u- 
aarui  §  110).  Among  the  points  of  examination  were,  whether  their  ances- 
tors for  three  generations  had  been  Athenian  citizens,  whether  they  had  a 
competent  estate,  and  whether  they  were  free  from  bodily  defects  (ucpf/.stg). 

2u.  The  first  of  the  nine  in  rank  was  styled  Archon  by  way  of  eminence,  6 
* Aqxmv  ;  sometimes  *'  At*%u>v  tTitbrvuoc,  because  the  year  was  named  from  him. 
He  attended  to  the  domestic  affairs  of  citizens,  decided  differences  which 
arose  between  relatives,  bad  the  care  of  widows,  appointed  guardians,  and 
took  the  oversight  of  certain  festivals  and  solemnities,  and  also  of  theatres. 
— -■  The  second  was  called  King,  or  archon  king,  Sgjpw  ^aatltvq.  To  him  were 
assigned  certain  duties  pertaining  to  religious  worship,  which  were  originally 
performed  by  kings  exclusively  ;  he  was,  in  general,  overseer  of  religious  af- 
fairs. The  third,  named  Polemarch,  Tio/Juao^oc,  attended  to  the  domestic  af- 
fairs of  strangers  and  sojourners,  performing  the  same  duties  in  reference  to 
them,  which  the  first  archon  did  for  the  citizens.  In  the  time  of  the  Persian 
war,  he  had  an  important  share  in  managing  military  affairs.  The  six  re- 
maining archons  were  called  Tkcsmothetce  (^eafio&irui),  and  were  chiefly  oc- 
cupied with  legislative  affairs;  they  also  took  cognizance  of  such  judicial 
matters  as  did  not  fall  under  other  jurisdiction. 

3.  The  three  principal  archons  usually  selected  each  two  assistants,  called 
rruQeSnoi,  assessors,  who  sat  on  the  bench  with  the  Archons,  having  been  sub- 
jected to  the  same  examinations  with  other  magistrates,  and  being  required 
to  render  in  the  same  way  an  account  (iv&irij)  of  their  office. 

§  102.  Another  magistracy  at  Athens,  was  that  of  the  Eleven,  6i 
-Evdsxa,  ten  of  whom  were  taken  one  from  each  of  the  ten  tribes, 
and  the  other  was  their  secretary  (yitayuaTevg).  They  were  properly 
overseers  of  the  prisons,  and  directed  in  the  execution  of  capital 
punishments.  In  later  times  they  were  also  called  roieoqn/iaxtf. — 
These  were  different  from  the  Phylarchi  (</>r;.«o/o/),  who  were  orig- 
inally the  inspectors  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  afterwards  commanders  in 
war.  The  Demarchi  (d/uan^oi)  performed  similar  duties  in  relation 
to  the  districts  (j/>o/).  —  The  Jr£iaQx<H  had  the  care  of  the  public 
register  (.Wxwua),  and  made  scrutiny  in  the  assemblies,  and  collected 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  507 

fines  of  those  not  present.  They  were  six  in  number ;  but  were 
aided  by  the  Tozotou,  who  were  a  sort  of  bailiffs  or  deputy  sheriffs,  to 
the  amount  of  1000.  — The  tftmoAiTai  were  also  1000  in  number,  and 
were  charged  with  the  examination  of  past  laws  to  see  if  any  were 
injurious  or  useless,  and  with  some  minor  matters  of  police. 

Besides  the  magistrates  above  named  there  were  many  others  connected 
with  the  treasury,  the  senate  and  assembly  of  the  people,  and  the  courts  of 
justice ;  the  most  important  of  them  will  be  noticed  in  connection  with  those 
topics.  There  were  also  various  other  public  functionaries,  who  were  not, 
strictly  speaking,  magistrates,  but  ought  perhaps  some  of  them  to  be  named 
here.  —  The  cPt'lroqtg1  orators,  were  ten  in  number,  appointed  by  lot  to  plead 
public  causes  in  the  senate  and  assembly  ;  they  were  sometimes  called  ovvt'j- 
yonoi,  and  were  a  different  body  from  the  ovrdixoi,  who  were  appointed  by  the 
people.  —  The  ZJty«0/9«f$,  ambassadors,  were  chosen  usually  by  the  people, 
sometimes  by  the  senate,  to  treat  with  foreign  states.  When  sent  with  full 
power,  they  were  called  notopsic  avToxquTOQtg  ;  generally  their  power  was 
limited  (§  143J.  They  were  usually  attended  by  heralds  (xi'^vxtg)  ;  this  name 
however  was  sometimes  given  to  the  persons  sent  on  an  embassy.  —  We  may 
also  mention  the  notaries,  yoainianic;  besides  the  great  number  employed  by 
the  various  magistrates,  there  were  three  publicly  chosen  ;  one  by  the  assem- 
bly of  the  people,  to  recite  before  them  ;  and  two  by  th%  senate,  one  to  keep 
the  laws,  and  the  other  the  records  in  general.  The  office  was  not  at  Athens 
very  honorable,  and  was  sometimes  held  by  well  educated  slaves,  called  Ji\- 
fiooioi  (§  99). 

§  103.  The  or dinary  revenues  were  of  four  sorts:  (1)  Tilt;,  rents 
from  public  domains  and  other  public  property,  and  duties  paid  on 
articles  of  commerce  and  on  certain  pursuits  and  persons ;  (2)  &6001, 
tributes,  or  annual  payments  exacted  from  allied  or  subjected  cities 
and  states  ;  (3)  Tiu/tiuTUfJines,  which  all  went  to  the  public  treasury, 
except  the  tenth  part  devoted  to  the  service  of  Minerva,  and  one  fif- 
teenth appropriated  for  the  other  gods  and  the  heroes,  that  were  pat- 
rons of  the  city;  (4)  Jettovoylai  lyy.rxiio,,  periodical  liturgies,  or  ser- 
vices, in  which  individuals  were  required,  for  a  time,  to  perform  cer- 
tain duties  or  maintain  certain  public  establishments  at  their  own 
expense.  —  Besides  the  ordinary,  the  necessities  of  the  state  some- 
times required  an  extraordinary  revenue;  and  then  special  taxes 
(itacfooui)  laid  upon  citizens  and  residents  formed  an  important  re- 
source. 

Under  riai'iiara  or  fines,  must  be  included  the  fees  or  deposits  (jrnvravua), 
which  were  demanded  of  both  parties  before  beginning  a  suit  in  court ;  these 
deposites  were  large  in  proportion  to  the  sum  brought  into  question  by  the 
trial.  To  the  same  head  must  be  referred  also  the  proceeds  of  confiscated 
property  (SruioTioaTu). 

Under  the  Liturgies  (Xtirovoylat)  were  included  chiefly  three,  xooyyia,  yvit- 
vaoianyia,  and  hrsTiuaig.  Those,  who  rendered  the  first  named  service,  (/oqij- 
yol,)  were  required  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  whole  chorus  employed  at  the 
public  festivals  and  theatrical  exhibitions  (cf.  §  89.  3).  Those  to  whom  the 
second  was  assigned  were  obliged  to  furnish  the  oil  and  the  various  necessa- 
ries for  the  wrestlers  and  other  combatants  in  the  public  games.  In  the  third 
service  mentioned,  certain  persons  (saTturootg  xAv  tpvXtor)  provided  entertain- 
ment or  banquets,  on  the  public  festivals,  for  a  whole  tribe. —  These  services 
were  always  assigned  to  the  most  wealthy  citizens.  In  the  time  of  Demos- 
thenes there  was  the  following  system  :  each  of  the  ten  tribes  pointed  out  120 
of  the  wealthiest  citizens  belonging  to  it ;  the  1200  thus  selected  were  divid- 
ed into  two  portions  according  to  their  wealth,  the  tcuw  Trioi'aioi  and  the 
ijrrov  nloraioi ;  these  two  parts  were  each  formed  into  ten  classes  or  compa- 
nies, called  ovuuo\)'mi ;    from  the  ten  ovuiioqltxi  of  the  more  wealthy,  300  of 


508  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

the  wealthiest  men  were  selected,  who  were  required  to  furnish  the  republic 
with  the  necessary  supplies  of  money  and  with  the  rest  of  the  1200  to  per- 
form all  extraordinary  duties  in  rotation.  If  any  one  of  the  300  could  name 
a  person  more  wealthy  than  himself,  he  was  excused.  The  residents  (piroi- 
y.oi)  sometimes  performed  these  services.  —  Besides  the  ordinary  /.sirovnyiai 
above  mentioned,  there  were  some  extraordinary  ;  particularly  two  in  a  time 
of  war,  rni^nuo/iu  and  tiocpoou.  The  Toulqaayui  were  obliged  to  provide  nec- 
essaries for  the  fleet  and  building  of  ships.     The  tlayiqovrtg  were  required  to 

contribute  money   according  to  their  ability  for  different  purposes. The 

manner  in  which  they  performed  such  of  these  services  as  were  assigned  to 
them,  and  the  degree  of  expense  and  splendor  to  which  they  went,  became 
sometimes  a  subject  of  emulation  among  the  rich  and  ambitious  Athenians. 

On  the  whole  subject  of  the  Athenian  revenues  and  expenditures,  see  Jlug.  Sockh's  Staats- 
haushaltune;  der  Athener.  ftlit  21  Inschriften.  Berl.  18J7.  2  vols,  8.  Same,  Eng.  Transl.  Public 
Economy  of  Athens.  —  Cf.  Bancroft's  Heeren,  ch.  viii.  — Miiford,  ch.  xxi.  sect.  1.  —  Xenophon, 
On  the  Revenues  of  Attica  (cf.  P.  II.  §  186.  2). 

§  104.  The  legislative  control  of  the  financial  concerns  belonged 
to  the  people,  and  their  administration  and  management  to  the  sen- 
ate. But  a  particular  officer  was  at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  called 
rauiag  rrtg  y.oivijg  tiqoooSov,  because  he  had  charge  of  the  public  reve- 
nue, and  also  rauiag  rijg  8ioiy.>\atwg,  as  having  charge  likewise  of  the 
public  expenditures.  He  was  chosen  by  the  people  (znooToria)  for 
four  years. 

1  u.  There  were  many  subordinate  officers  in  the  department  of  finance. 
One  class  consisted  of  such  as  attended  to  the  collecting  of  the  revenue,  and 
to  the  previous  arrangements.  To  this  class  belonged  the  Tto)J>.t]rai,  ten  in 
number,  one  from  each  tribe,  having  the  care  of  whatever  the  state  sold  or 
leased;  the  nouxroQig,  who  received  all  fines  imposed;  the  intyQaysig,  who 
assessed  the  imposts  and  tributes  ;  the  dtayoaytrc,  who  enrolled  the  names  of 
families  and  individuals,  and  assessed  to  them  their  part  in  raising  an  extra- 
ordinary revenue  ;  the  txZoysig,  who  collected  the  taxes,  duties,  rents,  &c. 
TzhTivai  were,  properly,  not  officers,  but  such  persons  as  took  leases  of  public 
lands  or  other  pubfc  property,  and  paid  the  rent  to  the  officers.  — A  second 
class  consisted  of  such  officers  as  kept  the  moneys  collected,  and  distributed 
them  for  public  uses.  Of  this  class  were  the  anodixrat,  ten  in  number,  chos- 
en by  lot ;  and  the  rau'iai  roiv  [tQoiv  ynr^utwv,  who  had  the  care  of  the  treas- 
ures in  the  temples  (§  28).  —  Such  officers  as  were  employed  in  keeping  or 
examining  the  multifarious  accounts  of  the  department  may  be  considered  as 
a  third  class,  including  the  ynauuarstg,  clerks,  and  vnoy  quit  uar  tig,  under-clerks, 
and  the  atriyQaiptig,  checking-clerks  or  auditors.  Among  the  latter  may  be 
named  particularly  the  avTiyqaiptvg  r^g  dioix^otwg,  controller  of  the  expen- 
diture. 

2.  Some  of  the  causes  of  expenditure  from  the  public  treasury  should  be 
noted  here.  The  public  edifices  and  other  works  were  built  only  at  a  very 
great  expense,  and  could  be  preserved  in  order  only  at  a  great  annual  cost. 
Pericles  expended  many  thousands  of  talents  upon  works  of  architecture  in 
Athens. The  festivals  were  another  source  of  expense  ;  when  we  consid- 
er their  number,  and  think  of  the  cost  of  the  sacrificial  victims  and  offerings, 
the  banquets,  the  processions  {nounai),  the  theatrical,  musical,  and  gymnas- 
tic entertainments,  and  the  rich  prizes  sometimes  bestowed,  it  is  obvious  that 
immense  sums  must  have  been  expended  in  maintaining  them.  —  Much  was 
expended  also  in  distributions  or  donations  to  the  populace  (dtavopal,  (Wrvurtf  <c); 
the  most  important  expenditure  in  this  way  was  by  the  &t&(ioitd,  or  distribu- 
tion of  the  oboli  to  each  poor  citizen  as  theoric  money  (dtowixu,  §90). — 
Means  of  support  jor  poor  and  disabled  citizens  (uih'ruToi),  and  also  for  chil- 
dren whose  fathers  had  fallen  in  battle,  were  likewise  furnished  from  the 
public  treasury,  and  formed  another  item  of  expense.  — In  addition  to  these, 
we  must  mention  the  expenses  of  the  government,  including  the  salaries  of  all 
the  various  magistrates  and  officers  of  different  grades,  and  the  wages  of  the 
senators  (uta&og  ^ov7.bvtixoq),  and  of  those  who  attended  the  assembly  (juoQbg 
ixxltioiaoi ixbg).  —  The  support  of  the  army  and  navy  required  also  large  suma 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER   AGES.  509 

of  money,  even  in  time  of  peace.     In  time  of  war,  the  expenses,  not  only  of 

this  class,  but  of  many  others  also,  must  have  been  greatly  increased. It 

may  be  impossible  to  form  any  satisfactory  estimate  of  the  amount  of  these 
various  expenditures.  The  comparative  value  of  the  precious  metals  in  an- 
cient and  modern  times  must  not  be  overlooked  here,  as  they  were,  at  least, 
three  times  as  valuable  then  as  now. 

§  105.  Among  the  public  assemblies  of  the  Greeks,  which  took 
into  consideration  the  affairs  of  the  whole  state,  the  council  of  the 
Amphictyons  (ovroSog  Autpixxvovmv^  Autpixxvovia)  is  especially  worthy  of 
notice.  According  to  common  opinion,  it  was  first  instituted  by 
Amphictyon,  son  of  Deucalion  ;  according  to  some,  by  Acrisius, 
kino-  of  Argos.  The  twelve  people  or  states  united  in  this  council 
(rb  rwv  'EXXtivwv  ouviSqiov)  used  to  meet  by  their  delegates,  two  from 
each  city  ordinarily,  at  Thermopylae  ;  from  this  circumstance  the 
deleo-ates  were  called  Hvlayoqaty  and  the  council  itself  llvXata.  Some- 
times they  met  at  Delphi.  They  assembled  only  twice  a  year,  in 
spring  and  autumn,  unless  on  some  extraordinary  occasion.  Th 
design  of  the  council  was  to  adjust  and  settle  public  national  disputes 
or  difficulties,  and  the  delegates  had  full  power  to  make  salutary 
changes  and  regulations.  Some  very  important  disputes,  as  e.  g.  be- 
tween the  Platseans  and  Lacedaemonians,  and  between  the  Thebans 
and  Thessalians,  were  terminated  by  this  diet,  which  was  continued 
to  some  time  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. 

Some  writers  have  taken  a  different  view  of  the  origin  and  design  of  this 
council.  They  assert  that  the  Amphictyons  were  only  an  association  of  per- 
sons residing  about  or  near  Delphi,  or  some  other  place;  auyixxvortg  being 
nearly  equivalent  to  aiapixriortg ;  and  that  the  assembly  was  originally  held 
simply  for  purposes  of  mutual  gratification  and  religious  festivity,  having  no 
precisely  definite  common  object,  and  being  different  from  a  confederation  for 
mutual  defence,  or  a  congress  for  mutual  deliberations. 

This  is  the  view  of  Hermann,  cited  §  33.  —  Similar  is  that  of  Sainte  Croix,  Des  Anciens  Gou- 
vernemens  Federatifs.  Par.  1799.  —The  political  character  and  design  of  the  council  is  main- 
tained by  F.  W.  Tittmann,  Ueber  den  Bund  der  Amphictyonen.  Berl.  1812.  8.  —  Cf.  also  Mit- 
ford,  Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  iii.  sect.  3.  —  De  Valois,  Sur  les  Amphictyons,  in  the  Mem.  deVAcad. 
des  laser.  &c.  vol.  ill.  p.  191 ;  and  v.  p.  405.—  T.  Lelaiid,  Discourse  pref.  to  his  Life  of  Philip 
of  Macedon. 

§  106.  Assemblies  of  the  people  (ixx?.t}oiai)  were  very  frequent  at 
Athens,  and  had  an  important  influence.  In  these  the  acts  of  the 
senate  were  canvassed,  laws  were  proposed  and  approved  or  rejected, 
magistrates  appointed,  war  declared,  and  the  like.  The  place  where 
they  met  was  either  the  rnarket-place  (ayooi),  or  a  broad  space  near 
the  mountain  called  the  Pnyx  (nvvi),  or  the  theatre  of  Bacchus. 
The  ordinary  assemblies  (itcnXtpim  xvqlat)  were  held  monthly  on  es- 
tablished days;  the  extraordinary  (ixxXraLui  avyx?.rtroi)  were  called  on 
pressing  and  important  emergencies. 

1  u.  These  meetings  were  managed  and  conducted  by  the  JTqvtuvbic,  the 
Iloosdooi,  and  the  'Efrieranjg.  Before  entering  upon  business  a  sacrifice, 
usually  of  a  young  pig,  was  offered.  Then  the  herald  ordered  silence,  offered 
a  prayer  to  the  gods,  and  stated,  on  the  direction  of  the  LTuuednoi,  the  subject 
to  be  discussed  by  the  assembly,  and  those  above  fifty  years  of  age  were  first 
invited  to  speak  ;  after  which  any  one  above  thirty,  of  fair  character,  had  the 
liberty.  Whatever  came  before  the  assembly  had  already  been  discussed  in 
the  senate,  whose  decision  upon  it  (7tQ4{lov?.*vua,  xi'i'^fiaua  r>;$  (iov&i}$)  received 
its  full  legality  only  by  the  vote  of  the  assembly,  and  was  then  called  em- 
phatically a  decree,  \pt't(ptoua.  Often,  however,  a  decision  of  the  senate  with- 
out the  confirmation  of  the  assembly  was  in  force  for  a  year  j  at  least  it  was 

43* 


510  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES, 

so  in  those  cases  in  which,  in  order  to  avoid  too  frequent  meetings,  the  people 
had  granted  an  independent  validity, 

2.  The  people  voted  by  stretching  forth  their  hands  (/siqotoviu),  and  some- 
times by  a  mode  of  balloting  in  which  beans  (y.rauoi)  and  stones  (if>ijq>o() 
were  cast  into  vessels  prepared  for  the  purpose  (xuSot).  —  When  the  business 
was  completed,  the  TJovruvtig  dismissed  the  assembly. 

6.  F.  Schumann,  De  Comitiis  Atheniensium  lib.  III.  Gryphisw.  1819.  8. 

§  107.  The  senate  or  higher  council  (,;  h>a  pov?.l)  consisted,  ac- 
cording to  the  arrangements  of  Clisthenes,  of  500 ;  and  was  there- 
fore styled  the  senate  or  council  of  the  500  (})  ^ovXlt  row  narnxy.ooiwv). 
In  earlier  times  it  consisted  of  400,  and  in  later  of  600  members. 

1m.  The  500  were  chosen  annually  by  lot,  50  from  a  tribe,  which  furnished 
a  ready  division  of  the  senate  into  ten  equal  parts.  Each  of  these  divisions,, 
containing  50  members,  took  charge  of  the  public  business  for  35  or  36  days, 
in  an  order  of  rotation  decided  by  lot;  and  the  members  of  the  division  hav- 
ing this  charge  at  any  one  period  were  called  JIqvtuvhiq  for  the  time,  and  the 
period  itself  was  called  Tlovrurtla.  The  50  IJQ.vrurug  were  subdivided  into 
5  portions  of  10  members.  These  portions  attended  to  their  business  in  rota- 
tion, each  for  a  period  of  7  days,  and  the  members  were  called  Tlyusdooi  for 
that  time,  the  name  being  taken  from  their  sitting  in  the  senate  as  presiding 
officers.  From  the  Ilnusdnoi  was  elected  the  ""EjuoTuTyjg,  who  was  at  their 
head,  and  of  course  at  the  head  of  the  senate,  but  held  the  place  only  for  a 
single  day. —  It  was  the  business  of  the  TlyuTursig  to  assemble  the  senate, 
and  propose  the  subjects  of  deliberation.  They  also  conducted  the  meetings 
of  the  people,  in  which  however  they  only  presided  in  connection  with  nine 
Uqos^qoi,  who  were  chosen  out  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  senate  and  had 
an  'EjriOTuTfjg  at  their  head.  The  riQvTuvtig  had  a  common  hall,  where  they 
passed  most  of  their  time  daily,  called  the  Prytaneum  (nyvravsior),  near  the 
senate-house  (Bovs.eLor). 

2u.  The  members  of  the  senate  expressed  their  opinions  standing,  after  which 
the  votes  were  taken.  They  received  a  drachma  (3Qu^uit)  per  day  for  every 
day's  attendance.     The  power  of  the  senate  was  very  great. 

3.  The  senate  commonly  assembled  every  day,  excepting  festivals  and  days 
considered  as  unlucky.  The  senators  were  all  required  to  take  what  was 
called  the  senatorial  oath  (rbv  povl.tvTixbv  vQy.or)  to  do  nothing  contrary  to  the 
laws.  In  voting,  they  cast  each  a  black  or  white  bean  into  the  box  or  chest 
for  the  purpose  :  if  the  number  of  white  exceeded  that  of  the  black,  the  de- 
cree or  resolution  was  affirmed  ;  otherwise  rejected. 

§  108.  No  court  of  justice  in  Greece  was  more  celebrated  than 
the  Areopagus  at  Athens,  Its  name,  >  Aosilmayog,  signifies  Hill  of 
Mars,  and  was  derived  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  court  was 
held  on  a  hill  so  called,  near  the  citadel.  Others  derive  the  name 
from  the  tradition,  that  the  god  Mars  was  the  first  criminal  tried  be- 
fore this  tribunal.  The  time  of  its  establishment  is  uncertain,  but 
was  very  early,  before  the  age  of  Solon,  who  did  not  institute  it,  but 
enlarged  its  jurisdiction  and  power.  The  members  of  this  body 
QjigHonay&ai)  were  originally  the  most  upright  and  judicious  citi- 
zens of  every  condition,  but  after  the  modifications  made  by  Solon, 
only  such  as  had  been  elected  Archons.  Their  office  was  held  for 
life.  All  high  crimes,  as  theft,  robbery,  assassination,  poisoning,  ar- 
son, and  offences  against  religion,  came  before  this  court,  which  in- 
flicted in  such  cases  death  or  fines.  At  first  its  sittings  were  only  on 
the  last  three  days  of  each  month  ;  but  afterwards  they  were  more 
frequent,  and  at  last  daily ;  they  were  always  in  the  open  air,  and  at 
night. 

1  u.  The  sitting  was  opened  with  a  sacrifice,  upon  which  both  the  accuser 
and  the  accused  took  an  cath  with  direful  imprecations.     Then,  either  per- 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER   AGES.  511 

sonally  or  by  attorneys,  they  urged  their  cause;  but  no  ornaments  of  rheto- 
ric, no  attempts  to  move  the  passions,  were  ever  allowed.  After  this  the 
judges  gave  their  decision  by  means  of  white  or  black  stones.  As  the  court 
always  sat  in  the  dark,  the  white  pebbles  were  distinguished  by  holes  bored 
in  them.  Two  urns  were  used,  one  of  wood  to  receive  the  white  stones, 
which  were  votes  to  acquit  the  defendant,  and  one  of  brass  to  receive  the 
black,  which  on  the  other  hand  were  votes  for  his  condemnation.  The  sen- 
tence was  immediately  put  in  execution.  In  early  times  the  dignity  and  pu- 
rity of  this  tribunal  stood  very  high  ;  but  afterwards  its  character  fell  in  the 
general  corruption  of  morals. 

2.  In  their  oath  (Siwuoaiu)  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  swore  by  the  furies 
(oiuvul  5fut).  In  the  trial  they  were  placed  upon  what  were  called  the  silver 
stones  (aQyuQovg  Xi8ov$),  the  plaintiff  on  that  of  Injury  (v/fy*$),  and  the  de- 
fendant on  that  of  Impudence  (avuidtux),  or  of  Innocence  (uruiria).  —  The  bra- 
zen urn  stood  in  front  of  the  other,  and  was  called  o  MfinQ«o6»rj  also  o  y.iqiog, 
because  votes  cast  into  it  declared  the  accusation  valid;  and  6  -fruitxTov,  as  ii 
decreed  death.     The  wooden  was  termed  6  6niou>,  6  ixxvqog,  or  6  t/Jov. 

Respecting  the  pebbles  used  in  decisions,  cf.  Anthon,s  Note  to  Potter,  p.  71. On  the  Are- 
opagus and  the  other  courts  of  Athens,  see  A.  W.  Heffler,  Die  Athenaische  Gerichtsverfassung. 

Cceln,  1832.  8. M.  H.  E.  Meir  und  O.  F.  Schomann,  Der  Attische  Process.     Vier  Biicliei. 

Halle,  1824.  8. — ibbe  Caitaye,  L'Areopagus,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vn.  174. 

§  109.  The  'Eifirai  were  also  persons  of  distinguished  merit,  who 
constituted  the  court  called  'Enl  naUadlw  from  the  statue  of  Miner- 
va (said  by  some  to  have  been  brought  from  Troy)  in  the  temple, 
where  it  was  held.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  Demophoon,  a  son  of 
Theseus,  and  by  others  to  Draco,  who,  if  he  did  not  first  institute  it, 
certainly  modified  it  anew.  The  judges  were  fftij-one,  selected  from 
noble  families,  five  from  each  tribe,  and  one  appointed  by  lot,  all 
over  fifty  years  of  age.  Solon  confirmed  the  powers  of  this  court ; 
but  referred  to  the  Areopagus  all  the  more  important  questions,  leav- 
ing to  the  'Eiptrai  jurisdiction  only  over  homicide,  injuries  followed 
by  death,  and  the  like. 

There  were  three  other  less  important  courts  belonging  to  the 
class  which  had  cognizance  of  actions  concerning  blood  (ihi  t«v  </>o- 
rix$v).  —  The  court  'Eni.  Jtltpivlm  was  held  in  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Delphinius,  and  took  cognizance  of  cases  where  the  defendants  con- 
fessed the  fact  but  pleaded  seme  justification.  —  The  court  'Ev  jjqv- 
ravilco  was  held  at  the  Prytaneum  (§  107)  and  investigated  cases  of 
deaths  by  accidents,  unknown  agents,  or  persons  that  had  escaped. 
—  The  court  >Ev  <f>ofurror  was  held  upon  the  sea-shore  in  the  Piraeus, 
and  heard  the  causes  of  such  criminals  as  had  fled  out  of  their  own 
country.  —  In  all  these  courts  the  'Eyirai  presided  and  pronounced 
the  sentence. 

§  110.  Besides  the  courts  already  described,  there  was  another 
class  having  jurisdiction  only  in  civil  cases  (inl  twv  <fyu  on  *«»•),  of 
which  there  were  six.  The  most  important  was  the  rH?.iuia.  Its 
name  was  either  from  tela,  multitude,  on  account  of  the  throng  at- 
tending it,  or  from  t-Xtog,  sun,  on  account  of  its  being  held  in  the 
open  air.  The  number  of  its  judges  (ij.taarai  Sixaar'a,)  was  not  al- 
ways the  same ;  the  whole  number  amounted  to  6000,  who  were 
chosen  for  qne  year  by  lot;  out  of  these  were  taken  the  number 
requisite  in  each  particular  trial  or  action.  The  least  number  that 
sat  was  50  ;  sometimes  the  whole  6000  were  assembled  ;  the  more 
usual  number  was  200  or  500.  It  was  the  province  of  the  Stauo&itai 
(§  101)  to  introduce  the  action  into  court  (iiouyeiv  dL%rtv  hg  to  <5i*uct>;- 


512  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Qfov),  and  full  power  was  given  by  them  to  the  judges  to  investigate 
and  decide  the  case. 

1  u.  When  the  accused  did  not  deny  the  jurisdiction  (naqayQaif'^)  or  request 
a  delay  (vTiouoala),  both  he  and  the  accuser  were  put  under  oath.  Then  the 
parties  deposited  a  sum  of  money  as  security  (7Z(WT0vtfu),  and  proceeded  to 
bring  forward  the  cause.  In  doing  this  they  were  limited  to  a  definite  time, 
measured  by  a  water-clock  (xlttfritya).  The  decision  was  given  in  the  same 
way  as  in  the  Areopagus  (§  108  J  ;  and  the  defendant,  in  case  of  a  sentence 
of  death,  was  given  over  to  the  " EvSixa  (§  102),  and  in  case  of  fine,  to  the 
JlQuy.Toqtc  or  Ey./.oyiig  (§  104).  If  he  could  not  pay  the  fine,  he  was  cast  into 
prison;  and  if  he  died  in  confinement,  not  only  the  disgrace,  but  the  punish- 
ment also,  fell  upon  his  son. 

2.  The  bailiff  or  deputy  employed  to  summon  (Tiqooxaliio&ai)  the  defend- 
ant before  the  Thesmothetae,  or  witnesses  before  the  court,  was  termed  x?.i'r 
ruiQ  ;  the  oath  of  the  plaintiff  before  the  opening  of  the  trial  was  called  ti^o- 
wuoala,  that  of  the  defendant  avToniooiu  ;  a  name  for  both  was  Stumoaiu.  Door- 
keepers {y.iyy.i. idtc)  were  appointed  by  a  magistrate  to  guard  the  court  from  a 
crowd.  The  amount  of  the  security-money  was,  as  has  been  hinted  (§  103), 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  at  stake  in  the  action.  In  trivial  cases  it  was  a 
drachm  and  called  nuoaaruoic  ;  the  deposite  made  by  one  who  sued  for  goods 
confiscated  by  the  state,  or  for  inheritances  of  a  certain  kind,  was  termed  nw 
ffaxura^ol^.  If  the  plaintiff  (Sitoxw)  failed  of  proving  the  indictment  (itria) 
against  the  defendant  (ipn'yon),  he  paid  a  fine  called  IxofUlla.  While  the 
action  (diw'ztc)  was  proceeding  or  was  in  suspense,  a  notice  of  it,  inscribed  on 
a  brazen  tablet,  was  hung  up  (ixx*io6txi)  in  one  of  the  most  public  places  of 
the  city.  The  witnesses  (uuuti'q(c)  were  all  put  under  a  solemn  oath,  which 
they  took  together  at  the  altar  erected  in  the  court-room.  Their  testimony 
was  called  for  by  the  advocates  (awi'juQoi)  as  they  wanted  it  in  proceeding 
with  their  pleas.  —  See  Sir  JVm.  Jones's  Preface  to  Isseus  (cf.  P.  II.  §  104.  3). 

The  office  of  the  judges,  iixaorat,  resembled  that  of  our  jurymen;  they 
were  usually  paid  three  oboli  a  day.  The  number  of  prosecutions  and  trials 
was  very  great.  There  were  many  in  Athens  who  seem  to  have  made  it  their 
business  to  discover  grounds  of  accusation  against  the  wealthy.  These  men 
gained  the  name  of  ovxotpurrai,  a  term  which  was  first  applied  to  such  as  pros- 
ecuted persons  that  exported  figs  («/io  rov  ovxu  tpuiniv),  a  law  prohibiting 
such  exportation  having  been  enacted  at  a  time  when  their  was  a  great  scarc- 
ity of  that  fruit.     Cf.  Alitford,  ch.  xxxi.  sect.  1. 

The  judicial  process  was  substantially  the  same  in  the  various  courts. — The 
other  civil  courts  besides  the  Helicea,  were  those  called  IliXQu^varor,  Totywvov, 
To  Kutvov,  To  Ini  Arxov,  and  To  Mrfilyov. 

§111.  In  addition  to  the  ten  public  courts,  there  was  also  a  judi- 
cial body,  called  6i  rtaaaquxorra,  consisting  of  40  persons  chosen  by 
lot,  who  held  their  courts  successively  in  the  several  districts  of  At- 
tica having  cognizance  of  cases  where  the  sum  or  value  at  stake  did 
not  exceed  10  drachmas.  There  was  likewise  a  body  of  Arbitrators, 
JiouTi.Tal,  consisting  of  440  aged  men,  44  from  each  tribe,  holding 
office  for  a  year,  and  authorized  to  settle  minor  controversies  within 
their  respective  tribes,  but  subject  to  appeal.  These  were  called 
Klqgpnroi,  being  chosen  by  lot.  Disputing  parties  were  allowed  to 
choose  arbitrators  for  themselves  ;  these  were  called  SutXi^xr^oiot  or 
xar'  ijiiTQ07cttY  Jiaixr,ral.  Minor  causes  could  not  be  entered  in  the 
superior  courts,  until  they  had  been  heard  before  some  court  of  ar- 
bitrators. 

The  number  is  stated  by  some  at  40,  and  4  from  each  tribe,  by  a  different 
reading  of  the  passage  in  Ulpian  upon  Demosthenes. 

Class.  Journ.  xxxix.  350. —  Jif.  H.  Hu-'swaleker,  Ueber  den  Schiedsrichter  Di'iteten  in  Athen, 
und  den  Process  von  demselben.   Jena,  1812. 

§  112.    Actions  or  suits  were  divided  into  two  classes,  public  (^t'- 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN   THE    LATER    AGES.  513 

xai  Si]u6(fiai,  xartjYOQiut),  such  as  concerned  the  whole  state,  and  pri- 
vate (dly.ai  cdlut,  and  Siy.ai  simply),  which  concerned  only  individuals. 
Of  the  former  class  were  the  following :  r^aipi,  an  action  for  the 
highest  crimes,  as  e.  g.  murder  (^oioc),  poison  ((puQuaxur),  arson  (nvq- 
xailc),  sacrilege  ({tooovtia),  and  many  others  esteemed  less  heinous; 
truest;,  an  action  for  the  crime  of  embezzling  or  in  some  way  squan- 
dering public  property  ;  "EvfeiZtg,  an  action  against  persons  usurping 
prerogatives  not  belonging  to  them,  or  refusing  trial  although  con- 
fessing guilt;  'Anaywy*,*  an  action  against  a  criminal  taken  in  the 
act ;  'Eipi'jr^iq,  against  a  criminal  found  in  concealment  and  there 
visited  by  a  magistrate;  >  Avfyolqyla,  against  such  as  concealed  a 
murderer,  which  allowed  the  relatives  of  the  murdered  person  to 
seize  three  persons  connected  with  the  concealing  party  and  retain 
them  until  further  satisfaction  ;  *Ei<tayf*Hmt  and  action  for  a  public 
offence  against  the  state,  or  for  a  breach  of  trust,  or  against  the  Jtai- 
niral  when  one  was  dissatisfied  with  their  decisions.  —  Actions  be- 
longing to  the  class  called  private  were  far  more  numerous,  and 
were  named  according  to  their  various  occasions. 

Some  of  the  public  actions  included  under  the  general  denomination  of 
yqayt],  and  not  named  above,  were  the  following:  tquvuu  ix  nQorotag,  a 
wound  given  by  design  ;  (iorl.ivoig,  conspiracy;  aofptia,  impiety;  Tigodooia, 
treachery;  desertion,  whether  from  the  army,  Ihtiootqutiov,  or  the  fleet,  Xti- 
Tcovitirtov,  or  from  a  particular  station,  /.siTioTuhov  ;  frivolous  prosecution,  ov- 
xoiparTta',  bribery  both  against  the  giver,  dtxaopbg,  and  against  the  receiver, 
itioadoxLa. 

Some  of  the  private  actions  or  suits  were  the  following  :  xaztjyoQutg  8ixr}t 
an  action  of  slander  ;  ^otovg  Siy.tj,  an  action  for  usury  ;  uiy.lug  diy.t;,  an  action 
of  battery;  (iJMfyg,  of  trespass;  y.?.o7ii;g,  of  theft ;  xpevdouaorvoiov,  f«r  perjury. 

§  113.  The  kinds  of  punishment  were  various  according  to  the 
nature  and  degree  of  the  offence,  for  which  they  were  inflicted.  Of 
those  not  capital,  the  following  were  the  principal:  (1)  Tiu/uara, 
pecuniary  fine,  called  also  Ztjuiu  ;  this  was  sometimes  aggravated  by 
corporeal  punishment:  (2)  "Aruda,  disgrace,  which  was  of  three 
kinds;  first,  the  loss  of  some  privilege  but  not  of  possessions;  sec- 
ond, the  loss  of  the  rights  of  a  citizen  with  confiscation  of  property; 
third,  the  loss  of  all  privileges  civil  and  sacred,  both  by  the  criminal 
himself  and  his  whole  posterity  for  ever:  (3)  jovXda,  slavery;  this 
however,  by  Solon's  laws,  could  be  inflicted  only  on  freed  men,  so- 
journers, and  such  as  had  been  disgraced  (unuoi) :  (4)  Sxlypvm* 
brand-marks,  by  a  hot  iron  on  the  forehead  or  hands,  inflicted  chiefly 
on  run-away  slaves  or  freedmen  :  (5)  j?t//?;,  in  which  the  name  of 
the  offender  and  his  crime  were  inscribed  on  a  pillar,  exposed  to 
public  view:  (6)  Jtoabg,  bonds  ;  of  which  there  were  several  kinds; 
as  the  y.i'(pon>  (also  *2oio$),  a  wooden  collar,  which  bent  down  the  head 
and  neck ;  the  /out;,  a  kind  of  stocks,  in  which  the  feet  or  legs  were 
made  fast;  the  auric,  a  piece  of  wood  to  which  the  offender  was 
bound  as  to  a  pillory  ;  and  the  tqo/1»c,  a  sort  of  wheel,  applied  to 
slaves  who  were  bound  to  it  and  tortured:  (7)  <pvylh aeupvyU,  banish- 
ment, with  confiscation  of  goods. 

§  114.  The  Ostracism,  dar^axttfubg,  was  not,  properly  speaking,  a 
a  judicial  punishment.  It  was  a  banishment  for  ten  years,  of  such 
persons  as  were  thought  to  be  dangerous  to  the  state.     The  votes 


514  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

were  given  by  shells,  oar^axa ;  each  man  marked  upon  his  Zotqukot 
the  name  of  the  person  he  would  banish  ;  if  the  same  name  was  up- 
on the  majority  of  6900  shells,  the  person  was  sentenced  to  banish- 
ment. The  most  upright  and  most  distinguised  citizens  fell  under 
this  sentence  ;  and  the  Athenians  finally  abolished  it,  as  the  Syracu- 
sans  did  a  similar  custom  among  them.  The  Syracusan  punish- 
ment was  called  iiira'/.iaubg,  because  the  name  were  written  on  leaves, 

7tiru?.a. 

The  ostracism  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  instituted  by  Hippias,  son  of 
Hipparchus ;  others  say  by  Clisthenes,  B.  C.  about  510,  who  was  first  ban- 
ished by  it.  It  continued  about  100  years;  it  was  abolished  B.  C.  about  412, 
and  because  it  was  then  degraded  by  being  employed  on  a  very  contemptible 
person  by  the  name  of  Hyperbolus.  Among  the  illustrious  Athenians,  who 
were  driven  from  the  city  by  this  pernicious  custom,  were  Themistocles,  Thu- 
cydides,  Cimon,  and  Aristides. 

Geinoz,  L'Ostracism,  in  the  Mem.  dt  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  xn.  p.  145. 

§  115.  The  punishment  of  death,  Gararog,  was  inflicted  in  several 
modes ;  as  by  the  sword,  ZUpog,  beheading ;  by  the  rope,  Bt^/og, 
strangling  or  hanging ;  by  poison,  <PuQuaxor,  drinking  hemlock  (*w- 
vaov)  usually  ;  by  the  precipice,  K^^urbg,  casting  from  a  rock  or 
height ;   by  the  Karanovnoubg,  drowning. 

Other  modes  of  inflicting  death  were,  by  the  SravQoc,  crucifying,  a  mode 
used  by  the  Greeks  less  frequently  than  by  the  Romans  ;  by  the  cudgels, 
Ti'uuara,  or  beating,  in  which  the  malefactor  was  hung  on  a  pole  ;  by  throw- 
ing into  a.  pit,  Bu-juBqov,  which  was  a  noisome  hole  with  sharp  spikes  at  the 
top  and  bottom  (called  also"Oot;yi/a)  ;  by  stoning,  Ji&o{io?.ia  ;  and  by  burning, 

JIvq. The  punishment  of  death  could  not  be  lawfully  inflicted  upon  any 

citizen  of  Athens  during  the  absence  of  the  sacred  galley  (>,  7tuQa?.og  tou^ijs) 
which  was  annually  sent  to  the  island  Delos  with  a  solemn  sacrifice. 

§  116.  Public  rewards  and  honors  were  awarded  to  meritorious 
persons.  Among  these,  were  the  following;  (1)  nooiSn'm,  the  front 
or  Jirst  seat,  in  the  theatres,  at  the  festivals  and  on  all  public  occa- 
sions; (2)  'Eiy.MV,  a  statue,  erected  in  a  public  place  ;  (3)  Zrlyavoi, 
croicns,  conferred  by  the  senate,  or  the  people,  or  by  particular  tribes 
and  boroughs  upon  their  own  members ;  these  were  most  frequently 
a  reward  for  valor  and  military  skill ;  (4)  'jtrUtla,  exemption  from 
taxes,  which  was  of  various  degrees,  but  seldom  extended  to  the  con- 
tributions required  for  war  and  for  the  navy;  (5)  ziTrjOtg  h  Hqvtonnimt 
entertainment  in  the  common  hall,  called  Prytaneum ;  originally 
limited  to  a  single  day ;  but-  afterwards  daily  and  permanent  in  the 
case  of  some  (utiairoi)  ;  it  was  an  honor  bestowed  on  the  most  worthy 
men,  sometimes  upon  whole  families,  and  was  viewed  as  a  high  dis- 
tinction. After  the  death  of  such  as  had  received  special  honors, 
their  children  and  descendants  enjoyed  in  some  measure  the  benefit 
of  the  same.  These  honors  were  obtained  with  difficulty  in  the  bet- 
ter times  of  the  republic,  but  became  quite  common  afterwards,  and 
lost  their  salutary  influence  in  a  state  of  corrupted  manners. 

§  117.  No  people  of  antiquity  was  so  much  celebrated  for  the 
wisdom  of  their  laws  as  the  Greeks.  The  first  legislation  in  Greece 
is  ascribed  to  Ceres  and  Triptolemus  (P.  III.  §  61).  Afterwards, 
Theseus,  Draco,  Solon,  Clisthenes,  and  Demetrius  Phalereus,  were 
the  most  distinguished  authors  of  the  laws  adopted  by  the  Atheni- 
ans.    The  number  of  the  Attic  laws  was  constantly  increased  with 


CIVIL  AFFAIRS  IN  THE  LATER  AGES.  515 

the  changing  circumstances  of  the  state.  It  was  commonly  the  prov- 
ince of  the  nnvrursig  to  propose  laws.  A  proposal  adopted  in  the 
assembly  was  called  either  a  decree,  yfoioua,  when  it  had  only  some 
specific  application,  or  a  laic,  rLuog,  when  its  obligation  was  univer- 
sal and  unchanging.  An  ordinance  of  Solon  required  an  annual 
revision  of  the  laws,  to  ascertain  what  alterations  or  additions  might 
be  necessary.  His  own  laws  were  inscribed  on  tables  of  wood  (cf. 
P.  I.  §  53). 

If  one  wished  to  introduce  a  law,  he  named  it  to  the  JTqvtuv(is,  who  brought 
it  before  the  senate  ;  if  the  senate  approved,  it  was  called  a  JjQo^or).tvuu  ;  it 
was  written  by  the  Tlnvravug  upon  a  tablet,  which  was  fixed  up  publicly  at 
the  statues  of  the  * Eiiojvvuoi,  some  days  before  the  meeting  of  the  assembly  > 
from  this  circumstance,  it  was  also  called  nrtoyouiiua. 

It  will  not  comport  with  the  limits  of  this  sketch  to  detail  particular  Athenian  laws.  -- 
These  may  be  found  in  Sam.  Petiti  ad  leges  Atticas  Commentar.  (Cf.  P.  II.  $  55.  3),  and  in 
Jurisprudentia  Romanna  et  Attica,  T.  iii.  — Comp.  Jo.  Mcursii  Themis  Attica,  L.  B.  1624.  4.  — • 
See  also  Potter's  Archceologia  Gneca,  bk.  i.  ch.  xxvi. 

The  most  remarkable  laws  of  the  Greeks  generally  are  exhibited  by  Kbpke  in  Nitsch's.Be- 
Bchreibung  &x.  cited  §  13. 

§  1 18.  Next  to  Athens,  Lacedsemon  was  the  'most  flourishing  of 
the  Grecian  states,  and  its  most  remarkable  antiquities  should  be 
briefly  noticed  (§  40).  The  province  in  which  this  city  lay  bore  the 
same  name,  but  was  called  also  Lelegia,  CEbalia,  Laconia  or  Laconi- 
ca,  and  was  the  largest  part  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  city  of  Lac- 
edaemon  or  Sparta  was  situated  in  an  unbroken  plain,  on  the  river 
Eurotas,  and  was  in  early  times,  according  to  the  direction  of  Ly- 
curgus,  without  walls.  Its  soil  was  fertile,  and  its  internal  plan  and 
its  edifices  such  as  to  be  respectable,  although  they  did  not  give  a 
just  idea  of  the  power  and  resources  of  the  state. 

On  the  civil  constitution  of  this  state,  we  may  refer  to  /.  K.  F.  Manso,  Sparta,  ein  Versuch 
Tur  Aufklaeiung  der  Geschichte  und  Verfassung  dieses  Staats.  Leipz.  1800-1805.  3  vols.  8.  — 
JSfttsch,  Beschreibung  &c.  as  cited  §  13.  —  Muller,  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Doric  Race* 
Transl.  by  Tufnell  <$*  Lewis.  Oxf.  1830.  2  vols.  8.  —  W.  Drummond,  Review  of  the  Governments 
of  Sparta  and  Athens. —  On  the  topography  of  Sparta,  see  P.  V.  $  126. 

§  119.  In  Lacedaemon  the  citizens  were  of  two  kinds,  such  as  had 
received  the  rights  of  citizenship  by  inheritance  from  their  parents, 
and  such  as  had  acquired  them  personally.  They  were  together  di- 
vided into  6  tribes,  of  which  that  of  the  Heraclidse  was  the  first. 
Each  of  these  was  again  sub-divided  into  five  classes,  called  &{kti, 
making  30  in  all.     The  presidents  or  leaders  of  these  were  called 

JTeQuaxTiii. 

The  first  class  of  citizens,  being  of  free-born  parents,  and  having  complied 
with  all  the  Spartan  discipline,  were  called  the  ouotot,  or  equals;  while  the 
other  class  were  termed  vTiousiortg,  inferiors,  including  freedmen  and  sons  of 
freedmen,  and  all  such  as  had  not  fully  conformed  to  the  Spartan  discipline. 

The  division  into  6  tribes,  above  referred  to,  was  made  by  Lycurgus.  Some 
state  5  as  the  number,  not  considering  the  Heraclidce  as  a  separate  tribe.  The 
others  were  the  Atuvurai,  so  called  from  their  residing  near  the  marsh  or  mo- 
rass (Xluvtf)  on  the  north  side  of  the  city;  the  KwooovqeCg,  ho  called  from 
their  vicinity  to  a  branch  of  mount  Taygetus  termed  Kwooov^u  (dog's-tail) 
on  account  of  its  figure  ;  the  Unavuiui ;  the  Mzoooarai ;  and  the  AiyiiStn) 
who  received  this  name  because  they  resided  near  the   tomb  of  iEgeus,  Al- 

ytvg. Midler  asserts,  that  in  every  Doric  state  there  were  three  tribes,  Hyl~ 

leis,  Dymanes,  Pamphyli,  or  Hyllean,  Dymanatan,  and  P amp hylian  ;  and  says, 
we  cannot  suppose  the  existence  in  Sparta  of  any  other  than  these  genuine 
Doric  tribes.  He  represents  each  of  these  as  divided  into  10  o>Sul,  and  adds, 
that  two  and  probably  more,  yet  not  all,  of  the  mfiui  of  the  Hyllean  tribe  must 


516  GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

have  been  Heraclida.     (Hist,  and  Ant.  of  Dor.  Race,  as  above  cited,  vol.  If. 
p.  76,  79,  80.) 

There  was  another  division  of  the  Spartans,  into  6  filnai,  consisting  only 
of  such  as  were  of  a  proper  age  for  military  service.  — Robinson  s  ArchaeoL 
Grasc.  p.  138. 

§  120.  It  is  known,  that  the  Spartans  were  obliged,  on  the  birth 
of  their  children,  to  subject  them  to  a  close  scrutiny  as  to  their  vigor 
and  soundness  of  constitution,  and  to  submit  it  to  the  decision  of  the 
presidents  of  the  &pal,  or  clans,  whether  they  were  suitable  to  be 
preserved  and  raised  ;  a  regulation  designed  to  prevent  a  population 
of  weak  and  sickly  citizens.  The  education  of  the  children  was 
treated  with  the  greatest  care.  All  the  citizens  not  only  had  equal 
rights,  but  also  a  community  of  goods  and  privileges.  The  lands 
were,  by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  equally  apportioned  among  them. 

As  soon  as  a  child  was  bDrn,  it  was  carried  to  a  place  called  Lesche  (Jiaxv) 
to  be  examined  by  the  elders  of  the  family  or  clan.  If  disapproved  as  having 
an  imperfect  frame  or  a  weak  constitution,  it  wTas  cast  into  a  gulf,  called 
'AnodiTui,  near  mount  Taygetus.  If  approved,  a  share  of  the  public  lands 
was  assigned  to  it,  and  it  was  taken  back  to  the  father's  house  and  laid  on  a 
shield  with  a  spear  placed  near  it.  The  whole  education  was  entrusted  to  the 
parent  until  the  child  reached  the  age  of  seven;  then  the  regular  public  edu- 
cation (aj'or//,)  commenced.  The  boys  at  this  age  were  enrolled  in  the  classes 
termed  Agela  (uyi/.cu  or  (iovai,  herds)  ;  such  as  refused  this  lost  the  rights  of 
citizenship ;  none  but  the  immediate  heir  to  the  throne  was  excepted ;  the 
other  sons  of  the  kings  were  obliged  to  submit  to  the  correction  of  the  mas- 
ter (IIatdor6uoc).  The  discipline  was  more  strict  after  the  age  of  twelve.  At 
about  sixteen  they  were  called  oitisvrai.  At  eighteen  they  entered  the  class- 
es termed  t(ftt1oi,  and  about  two  years  after  received  the  appellation  of  ttQertg, 
and  were  admitted  to  the  public  banquets.  At  thirty  they  were  ranked  as 
men,  tztjpoi,  and  were  allowed  to  undertake  public  offices.  —  Midler,  as  cited 
§  118,  vol.  ii.  p.  313. 

§  121.  The  slaves  among  the  Lacedaemonians  were  treated  with 
great  cruelty  (cf.  §  99).  There  appears  to  have  been  but  one  class, 
viz.  the  Helots  ('EO.utic),  who  according  to  the  common  account 
were  derived  from  the  maritime  town  Helos  (' •E.'.og)  captured  by  the 
Spartans.  Others  consider  the  name  as  derived  from  the  verb  ?/«, 
and  signifying  prisoners.  The  unhappy  Messenians  taken  in  the 
second  Messenian  war  were  incorporated  among  the  Helots. 

1  u.  The  Helots  were  required  to  cultivate  the  land,  and  perform  the  most 
laborious  and  dangerous  services  in  war.  They  were  exposed  to  every  sort 
of  abuse,  and  even  to  the  murderous  attack  of  the  young  Spartans,  especially 
in  the  custom  termed  Kqv7irtia,  which  was  an  annual  legalized  hunt  against 
these  degraded  subjects.  Yet  some  among  them,  as  a  reward  of  distinguished 
merit,  obtained  liberty  and  citizenship,  on  occasion  of  receiving  which  they 
were  crowned  with  garlands  and  led  about  the  temples.  They  then  were 
called  i/rti'vuy.Toi,  or  aytTat,  or  vto8auo>Sets.  The  last  epithet  seems  to  have 
designated  such  as  enjoyed  more  of  civil  rights,  than  the  common  freedmen, 
whose  rank  was  far  below  that  of  the  free-born.  The  number  of  slaves  in 
this  state  was  very  large. 

2.  There  was  another  class  of  inhabitants  in  the  province  of  Lacedasmon, 
who  although  not  slaves  were  yet  held  in  a  state  of  subjection  by  the  Spar- 
tans. They  were  the  natives  of  towns  reduced  by  the  latter  to  a  tributary 
and  dependent  state;  they  were  called  Pcriceci  (Jlt^ioiy.ot). 

Respecting  these  and  the  Helots,  see  MtiUer,  vol.  n.  p.  17,  30.  —  Capperonicn,  Sur  l'esclavage 
des  Hilote?-,  in  the  Mem.  Acad  laser,  xxm.  271. 

§  122.  At  the  head  of  government  were  two  kings  or  leaders 
(^jy-«-/*TU(),  who  must  be  certainly  descended  from  the  Heraclidae, 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN   THE   LATER   AGES.  517 

and  possess  an  unexceptionable  exterior.  They  did  not  possess  the 
full  regal  authority  (^qftHttJUta),  but  a  power  limited  by  the  laws,  to 
which  they  were  accustomed  every  month  to  swear  obedience.  In 
war  their  power  was  greatest.  They  had  also  the  oversight  of  the 
worship  of  the  gods,  and  sometimes  performed  the  office  of  priests. 

In  peace  their  chief  civil  prerogative  was  to  preside  in  the  senate  and  pro- 
pose the  subjects  for  deliberation  ;  and  each  could  give  his  vote  on  any  ques- 
tion. Irt  war  the  Spartan  kings  had  unlimited  command  (aTQarij'/oc  avroxQa-* 
two),  and  could  even  put  to  death  without  trial  (I*  /fioog  vuiioj).  Many  dis- 
cussions grew  out  of  the  double  monarchy  (Siuo/^).  The  royal  revenue  was 
very  great.     Cf.  Midler,  n.  p.  106. 

§  123.  Lycurgus  established  a  senate  of  28  men,  of  blameless 
character,  and  upwards  of  GO  years  old,  which  was  called  ytnovoia,  or 
ytqcovia.  The  members  had  an  equal  right  of  voting  with  the  two 
kings,  and  rendered  no  account  of  the  manner  of  discharging  their 
office.  —There  were  also  5  Ephori  (fyooo<),  who  had  an  oversight  of 
the  whole  state,  and  whose  duty  required  them  to  assert  the  rights 
of  the  people  against  the  kings.  They  were  chosen  from  among  the 
people,  without  reference  to  condition.  — The  BstSiuioi  were  a  class 
of  officers,  who  were  placed  over  the  ttp^ot,  between  the  age  of  18 
and  20. 

The  Ephori  enjoyed  a  power  which  was  called  laorrQawoq,  and  were  not 
required  to  give  any  account  of  their  discharge  of  it ;  but  they  were  appoint- 
ed only  for  one  year.  Their  tribunal  (ttpoQttav)  was  in  the  forum.  —  The  Bet- 
,  tiiaiot  were  five  in  number,  with  a  sixth  as  their  niiinpvq.  They  had  the  in- 
spection of  the  gymnastic  exercises,  called  n lax unarm,  because  performed  in 
a  spot  surrounded  with  plane  trees ;  it  was  their  province  to  decide  disputes 
arising  at  the  gymnasia.  They  had  their  tribunal  or  place  of  council  also  in 
the  forum.  The  common  name  for  the  council-halls  of  these  and.  other  mag- 
istrates was  aoynu. 

§  124.  The  Spartans  had  other  magistrates ;  as  the  Nouoipi'?.ay.tg> 
who  saw  that  the  laws  were  maintained  and  executed  ;  the  eAf>u6ovroit 
to  whom  was  entrusted  the  oversight  of  the  women,  to  observe  their 
lives  and  manners  and  direct  their  exercises  ;  the  'Efmik^qoi,  who 
preserved  order  and  decorum  in  assemblies  of  the  people,  and  at- 
tended in  general  to  the  police  of  the  forum  or  market ;  the  m'Giot* 
four  in  number,  appointed  by  the  kings,  and  employed  to  consult 
oracles;  the  ziqv^voi,  who  were  also  appointed  by  the  kings,  and 
had  charge  of  the  reception  of  strangers;  the  iiqoSixoi,  who  had  the 
care  of  the  young  kings  as  tutors;  the  i7«»(Wo«o«,  whose  office  was 
to  oversee  and  manage  the  boys  put  under  their  care  at  the  age  of  7; 
the  'Anuoaxal,  who  were  a  sort  of  sheriffs  in  the  city  and  province ; 
the  noUuuQxoiy  who  under  the  kings  superintended  the  affairs  of  war, 
and  also  attended  to  some  matters  of  police  in  the  city;  the  'innay- 
jQirat,  three  officers,  who  commanded  each  a  chosen  band  of  100 
horsemen. 

§  125.  The  assemblies  (ir.y.hjoiai)  of  the  people  were  similar  to 
those  at  Athens.  In  some  of  them  only  native  citizens  of  Sparta 
met ;  in  others  there  were  also  delegates  from  the  towns  and  cities 
belonging  to  the  province  Laconia ;  in  assemblies  of  the  latter  class 
were  discussed  all  affairs  of  common  interest  and  importance  to  the 
whole  state.  Originally  the  kings  and  senate  had  the  power  of  con* 
vening  the  assemblies;  it  was  afterwards  vested  in  the  Ephori,  who 
44 


618  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

also  presided  in  them.  The  votes  were  given  by  utterance  of  voice 
(po>}  xul  ov  U'l'^pco),  and  the  majority  decided  by  the  loudest  acclama- 
tion, or  by  a  subsequent  division  and  counting  of  the  two  parties. 

The  assembly  composed  only  of  the  citizens  of  Sparta  was  called  uueoa  **- 
xhfola,  and  usually  met  once  every  month.  Every  citizen  capable  of  bearing 
arms  might  attend,  and,  if  above  the  age  of  30,  might  speak.  The  meetings 
were  originally  in  the  open  air,  but  at  a  later  period  were  held  in  an  edifice 
called  oxiixg  erected  for  the  purpose.  —  The  other  assembly  was  called  simply, 
or  by  way  of  eminence,  iy.x?.rtoict.  It  consisted  of  the  kings,  the  senators,  the 
magistrates,  and  the  deputies  of  Laconia. 

§  1^6.  The  assembly  also,  which  was  collected  at  the  public  and 
common  meals  and  termed  avaetria,  (psidirta,  and  m)Aria,  Was  designed 
for  the  purpose  of  speaking  upon  matters  of  public  importance. 

In  this  assembly,  kings,  magistrates,  and  certain  citizens,  met  together  in 
certain  halls,  where  a  number  of  tables  were  set,  for  fifteen  persons  each.  No 
new  member  could  be  admitted  to  any  table  but  by  the  unanimous  consent  of 
all  belonging  to  the  same.  Every  member  contributed  to  the  provisions  from 
his  own  stores  ;  a  specified  quantity  of  barley  meal  or  cakes  (uatai),  wine? 
cheese,  and  figs,  and  a  small  sum  of  money  for  meat,  was  expected  from  each. 
A  close  union  was  formed  between  those  of  the  same  table.  The  regular  meal 
was  termed  uix/.ov  ;  after  this  was  a  desert  called  iftuixXov.  The  men  only 
were  admitted  ;  small  children  were  allowed  to  sit  on  stools  near  their  fathers 
and  receive  a  half  share  without  vegetables  (upuupuxtvoTu)  ;  the  youth  and 
boys  ate  in  other  companies.     At  table  they  sat  or  reclined  on  couches  of  hard 

oak.     The  chief  dish  was  the  black  broth  (fii?.ag  Lvuug). —  Midler,  ii.  289. 

The  Spartans  had  also  another  kind  of  solemn  feast,  called  xoTtig,  to  which 
foreigners  and  boys  were  admitted  along  with  the  citizens. —  Robinson,  p.  159. 

The  reader  may  be  amused  by  the  following  passage  from  Sir  Henry  Blount,  who  traveled 
in  Turkey,  in  1634.  "  The  Turks  have  a  drink,  called  cauphe,  made  of  a  berry  as  big  as  a 
small  bean,  dried  in  a  furnace  and  beat  to  powder,  of  a  sooty  color,  in  taste  a  little  bitterish, 
that  they  sethe  and  drink,  hot  as  may  be  endured  ;  it  is  good  at  all  hours  of  the  day,  but  espe- 
cially morning  and  evening,  when  to  that  purpose  they  entertain  themselves  two  or  three 
hours  in  cauphe-houses,  which  in  Turkey  abound  more  than  inns  and  ale-houses  with  us.  It 
is  thought  to  be  the  old  black  broth  used  so  much  by  the  Lacedcemonians.  It  drieth  ill  humours  in 
the  stomach,  comforteth  the  brain,  never  causeth  drunkenness,  nor  any  other  surfeits,  and  is  a 
harmless  entertainment  of  good  fellowship." 

§  127.  Judicial  actions  were  very  summary  among  the  Spartans* 
Eloquence  found  no  place  in  them  ;  no  advocates  were  employed ; 
every  one  was  obliged  to  plead  his  own  cause.  There  were  three 
distinct  jurisdictions,  that  of  the  kings,  the  senate,  and  the  Ephori, 
each  of  which  formed  a  tribunal  for  the  decision  of  a  certain  class 
of  questions.  The  most  important  questions  and  particularly  all  of 
a  capital  nature  belonged  to  the  senate.  In  minor  disputes,  the  par- 
ties were  allowed  to  choose  arbitrators  for  themselves. 

Cf.  Robinson,  bk.  ii.  ch.  xxii.  —  On  the  authority  of  the  Ephori,  M'uller,  bk.  hi.  ch.  vii.  and 
bk.  iii.  ch.  ii.  $2  on  the  Spartan  Courts. 

§  128.  The  punishments  were  various  and  in  part  similar  to  those 
at  Athens.  The  most  common  mode  of  inflicting  death  was  by 
strangling  or  suffocation.  —  Stealing  was  punished   not  so  much  for 

do  a  i 

the  theft  committed,  as  for  the  want  of  shrewdness  and  dexterity  be- 
trayed by  the  offender  in  allowing  himself  to  be  detected. 

There  were,  on  the  other  hand,  various  rewards  and  distinctions 
bestowed  on  persons  of  merit,  both  while  living  and  after  death. 

Strangling  was  effected  by  means  of  a  rope  (Pi>o/og,  (touyxoc) ;  it  was  al- 
ways done  in  the  night  and  in  a  room  in  the  public  prison  called  Atxug.  Death 
was  also  inflicted  by  casting  the  malefactor  into  the  pit  called  Kuiudag  ;  this 
was  always  done  likewise  by  night.  Aristomenes  the  Messenian  was  cast 
into  this,  but  survived  the  fall  and  effected  an  escape,  which  was  considered 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER   AGES.  519 

as  very  wonderful.  Cf.  Mitford,  ch.  iv.  sect.  4. Besides  the  punish- 
ments Zttuia,  ^Aniila,  and  Kvtpuv  or  y.loibg,  mentioned  among  Athenian  pen- 
alties (§  113),  the  Spartans  had  Maariyv^oig,  whipping,  which  the  offender  re- 
ceived as  he  was  driven  through  the  city,  and  KirrtjOig,  goading,  which  was 
a  similar  punishment.  Banishment,  4>t/y^,  seems  not  to  have  been  a  regular 
punishment  inflicted  by  sentence  ;  but  was  voluntary,  and  chosen  in  order  to 
escape  death  or  infamy  (aripiu).  —  Cf.  Midler,  n.  235. 

Among  the  distinctions  conferred  on  the  meritorious,  the  TlQoiSqa,  first  seat 
in  a  public  assembly,  was  highly  honorable.  Much  value  was  attached  to  the 
olive-crown,  'EXaTttf  axiipavog,  as  a  reward  for  bravery,  and  to  the  thongs,  Bati- 
kontg,  with  which  victors  in  the  contests  were  bound.  But  it  was  one  of  the 
highest  honors  of, the  city  to  be  elected  into  the  number  of  the  three  hundred 
constituting  the   three   chosen  bands  of  horsemen  (§  124j,  termed  JoyuStg. 

To  commemorate  the  dead,  statues,  cenotaphs   (y.svoru(piu),  and  other 

monuments  were  erected. 

§  129.  The  legislation  of  Sparta  had  Lycurgus  chiefly  for  its  au- 
thor, and  was  marked  by  some  strong  peculiarities.  The  form  of 
government  was  distinguished  from  that  of  all  the  other  states  by  its 
union  of  monarchical  with  aristocratical  and  democratical  traits. 
There  were  in  Sparta  no  written  laws;  they  were  transmitted  orally 
from  one  generation  to  another;  on  this  account  Lycurgus  styled 
them  £,;toui.  They  were  not  numerous,  and  were  chiefly  designed 
to  promote  bravery  and  hardihood,  and  hinder  all  luxury  and  volup- 
tuousness. Although  they  underwent  many  alterations  in  minor 
points,  they  retained  their  authority  through  a  period  of  above  800 
years.     (Cf.  Mueller,  n.  p.  97,  235.) 

§  130.  Next  to  the  states  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  the  island  of 
Crete  presents  a  constitution  the  most  remarkable.  It  is  here,  as  has 
been  stated  (§  38),  that  we  find  the  origin  of  the  institutions  of  Ly- 
curgus. During  the  republican  government  which  succeeded  the 
monarchical,  it  was  customary  to  elect  ten  officers  annually  as  chief 
magistrates.  These  were  called  Cosmi,  x6ouot,  and  were  taken  only 
from  particular  families.  Under  them  was  a  Senate,  which  was  con- 
sulted only  on  important  questions  ;  it  consisted  of  28  members,  who 
for  the  most  part  had  previously  held  the  office  of  Cosmi.  There 
was  also  an  order  of  knights,  who  were  required  to  keep  horses  at 
their  own  expense  for  the  public  use,  and  to  serve  in  time  of  war. 
The  power  of  popular  assemblies  was  not  great;  they  usually  did 
nothing  but  confirm  the  decrees  of  the  higher  authorities.  (Cf. 
Mueller,  n.  99,  134.) 

§  131.  The  Cretan  laws  were  in  general  wise,  as  appears  from 
some  traces  of  them  found  in  different  writers.  —  Like  the  Spartans, 
the  citizens  of  Crete  had  public  meals,  which  they  called  avdQua. — 
Slaves  were  treated  with  comparative  mildness. 

1.  "  Curiosity  is  excited,"  observes  Mitford,  "by  that  system  of  laws  which, 
in  an  age  of  savage  ignorance,  violence,  and  uncertainty  among  surrounding 
nations,  inforced  civil  order,  and  secured  civil  freedom  to  the  Cretan  people ; 
which  was  not  only  the  particular  model  of  the  wonderful  polity,  so  well 
known  to  us  through  the  fame  of  Lacedaemon,  but  appears  to  have  been  the 
general  fountain  of  Grecian  legislation  and  jurisprudence ;  and  which  con- 
tinued to  deserve  the  eulogies  of  the  greatest  sages  and  politicians,  in  the 
brighest  periods  of  literature  and  philosophy. 

See  Sainte  Croix,  Des  Anciens  gouvernements  federatifs,  et  legislation  de  Crete.     Par.  1776. 

2.  Three  different  classes  of  dependents  existed  in  the  island ;  the  public 
bondmen,  called  by  the  Cretans  ftrola)    the  slaves  of  individual  citizens, 


520  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

u(painr~Tai ;  and  the  tributaries,  ttt^xooi.  Perhaps  there  was  no  Grecian  state 
in  which  the  dependent  classes  were  so  little  oppressed  as  in  Crete.  In  gen- 
eral, every  employment  and  profession,  with  the  exception  of  the  gymnasia 
and  the  military  service,  was  permitted  to  them.  —  Midler,  as  cited  §  1]8, 11.  5. 
The  name  ardyeia  is  supposed  to  have  been  given  to  the  public  meals,  be- 
cause, as  at  Sparta,  men  alone  were  admitted  to  the  tables.  A  woman,  how- 
ever had  the  care  of  tbe  public  tables  at  Crete.  The  Cretans  were  distin- 
guished by  their  great  hospitality  ;  with  every  two  tables  for  citizens  there 
was  one  for  foreigners.  —  Midler,  II.  225. 

§  132.  In  Thebes,  the  principal  city  of  Bceotia,  a  monarchical 
government  existed  until  the  death  of  Xanthus,  and  afterwards  a  re- 
publican. Yet  this  state  did  not  rise  to  any  great  celebrity,  at  least 
not  for  a  long  time  ;  the  cause  was  perhaps  the  whole  national  char- 
acter of  the  Thebans.  Besides  a  proper  senate,  there  were  in  Thebes 
Baeotarchs,  Bo,orui)Xai,  and  Polemarchs,  noUuuo/oi ;  the  former  had 
the  care  of  the  civil  affairs,  and  the  latter  of  the  military.  —  Bceotia 
was  divided  into  four  grand  councils,  or  senates,  whose  decrees 
guided  all  the  other  magistrates.  Merchants  and  mechanics  were 
adopted  as  citizens,  but  never  raised  to  any  magistracy.  The  expo- 
sure of  infants  was  not  permitted,  but  if  their  parents  were  unable  to 
maintain  them,  it  was  done  by  the  state.  Pausanias  has  recorded  in 
his  description  of  Bceotia  many  remarkable  features  of  the  later  con- 
dition of  the  Theban  state. 

Cf.  Mitford,  ch.  v.  sect.  1.  —  Raoul- Rochctte,  Administration  de  l'Etat  Federatif  des  Bogotiens, 
in  the  Mem.  de  V Iiistitut,  Classe  d'Hitf.  ct  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  vm.  p.  214. 

§  133.  Of  the  internal  constitution  of  Corinth  but  little  is  known. 
It  was  at  first  governed  by  kings,  of  whom  the  Sisvphida?  and  Bac- 
chiadae  were  the  most  distinguished.  Afterwards,  when,  an  aristo- 
cratical  form  was  introduced,  one  chief  magistrate  was  chosen  yearly 
called  LTnvrarig.  He  was  supported  by  a  senate,  rtQuvola.  The  as- 
sembly of  the  people  never  had  equal  authority;  their  power  was 
often  very  small.  The  city  was  once  called  Ephyra,  and  enjoyed  a 
favorable  situation  upon  the  isthmus,  which  rendered  it  and  its  two 
harbors  so  famous  on  account  of  their  navigation  and  commerce.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  B.  C.  146,  but  was  afterwards  rebuilt 
by  Caesar,  and  became  again  very  flourishing.  —  Syracuse  and  Cor- 
cyra  were  colonies  of  Corinth.  The  last  city  is  specially  remarka- 
ble, from  the  fact,  that  a  dispute  between  itself  and  Corinth  was  the 
occasion  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Syracuse  was  for  a  long  time 
governed  by  600  of  the  oldest  men,  called  ytowuoot;  but  afterwards 
became  enterely  democratical  until  it  was  subjected  to  the  Romans. 

—  Cf.  Mueller,  as  before  cited,  ii.  p.  156.  . 

§  134.  Argos,  like  the  other  Grecian  states,  had  in  early  times  its 
kings.  In  later  times,  it  was  governed  by  the  people  divided  into 
four  tribes.  It  had  its  senate,  and  another  body  of  magistrates  con- 
sisting of  80   members,  and  a  class  of  public  officers  called  fyrwot, 

—  Cf.  Mueller,  u.  144.  147. 

In  the  history  of  Mtolia  we  may  mention  as  chiefly  remarkable 
the  league  or  confederacy  between  the  cities  of  that  district.  This 
confederacy  was  called  the  Pancetolium.  It  had  at  Thermus  an  annual 
assembly  or  meeting,  in  which  the  magistrates  were  elected,  and  also 
a  president  of  the  confederacy,  who  was  called  or^ur^o?,  and  was  at 


/  w 

MILITARY    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  521 

the  same  time  chief  military  commander.  This  officer  was  subject 
to  the  assembly.  The  council  of  the  Apocleti  (ux6y.hiroi)  was  a  dif- 
ferent body,  who  decided  questions  that  arose  in  pressing  emer- 
gencies. 

The  cities  of  Acliaia  also  united  themselves  in  a  league,  and  held 
their  common  assemblies,  twice  a  year  at  ^Egium.  In  these  origin- 
ally presided  one  rqainiaTiv?,  with  two  ^Toa-ri^oi ;  and  at  a  later  pe- 
riod, one  STQarfobg,  besides  whom  there  were  ten  J^uovqybi  to  attend 
to  the  public  affairs  of  the  confederacy. 

(3)  Military  Affairs. 

§  135.  That  warlike  spirit  which,  as  has  been  observed  (§  42), 
was  a  main  trait  in  the  national  character  of  the  early  Greeks,  was 
also  conspicuous  in  their  descendants  of  a  later  period.  This  is  true 
of  the  Athenians,  and  more  emphatically  so  of  the  Spartans,  who 
were  inured  to  hardship  by  their  education,  bound  by  their  laws  and 
their  honor  to  conquer  or  die,  and  inspired  by  their  whole  national 
system  with  a  love  of  war.  These  republics  were  accordingly  the 
refuge  and  protection  of  the  smaller  states  in  their  difficulties.  The 
Thebans  likewise,  for  a  certain  period,  maintained  the  reputation  of 
distinguished  valor.  Athens  and  Sparta,  however,  were  always  the 
rivals  in  this  respect ;  and  although  in  the  war  with  Xerxes  they 
agreed,  that  Athens  should  command  the  Grecian  fleet,  and  Sparta 
the  land  forces,  yet  they  soon  again  fell  into  dissension,  and  the  Spar- 
tans stripped  the  Athenians,  for  a  time,  of  that  naval  superiority,  for 
which  the  situation  of  Athens  afforded  the  greatest  advantages. 

§  13G.  The  armies  of  the  Greeks  consisted  chiefly  of  free  citizens, 
who  were  early  trained  to  arms,  and,  after  reaching  a  certain  age,  at 
Athens  the  twentieth  year,  were  subject  to  actual  service  in  war. 
From  this  duty,  they  were  released  only  by  the  approaching  weak- 
ness of  age.  At  Athens  the  citizens  were  exempted  from  military 
service  at  the  age  of  40,  except  in  cases  of  extreme  danger.  Some 
were  also  wholly  exempted  on  account  of  their  office  or  employment. 
Of  those  who  wrere  taken  into  service,  a  written  list  or  roll  was  made 
out,  from  which  circumstance  the  levying  was  termed  xarayQeupi,,  or 
xaru/.oyo:.  The  warriors  maintained  themselves,  and  every  free  citi- 
zen considered  it  a  disgrace  to  serve  for  pay  ;  for  which  the  spoils  of 
victory  were,  in  some  degree,  a  substitute.  Pericles,  however,  intro- 
duced the  payment  of  a  stipend,  which  was  raised,  when  necessary, 
by  means  of  a  tax  on  the  commonwealth. 

At  first  foot-soldiers  received  two  oboli  a  day  ;  afterwards  four ;  whence 
TtTQvipulov  piog  signified  a  soldier's  life,  and  rtTQoi^oXittiv,  to  serve  in  war. 
The  pay  of  a  soldier  in  the  cavalry,  termed  y.uTuoraaig,  was  a  drachm  a  day  ; 
a  seaman  received  the  same,  with  an  allowance  for  a  servant. 

On  the  methods  of  raising  money  at  Athens  for  extraordinary  expenses,  see  §  103,  104. 

On  the  military  regulations,  cf.  Gamier,  Sur  les  loix  miiftaires  des  Grecs,  in  the  Mem.  Acad. 
Jiiscr.  vol.  xLv.p.  239.  —  Cf.  §  42. 

§  137.  It  has  already  been  remarked  (§  48),  that  the  Grecian  sol- 
diers were  of  three  classes;    footsoldiers  or  infantry,  to  jcsttxbv;  the 
cavalry,  rb  i(p>  Xmtm  ',  and  such  as  were  borne  in  chariots,  to  l<p>  o/rr 
fiuriur.      The    infantry   comprised  three  kinds ;    the  inUnut  heavy 
44* 


PLATE     XVII 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS    IN   THE    LATER   AGES.  523 

armed,  who  carried  a  complete  and  full  armor,  and  were  distinguish- 
ed particularly  by  a  large  shield  (»a?.ov)  ;  the  mlraaritt,  targeteers, 
who  bore  light  arms,  particularly  a  small  shield  (ntXrt})  ;  and  the 
\ptlol,  light  armed,  who  had  no  shield  and  used  only  missile  weapons. 

—  The  war  chariots  were  not  much  used  after  the  introduction  of 
cavalry. 

The  chariots,  termed  dQerravtiifooot,  were  sometimes  terribly  destructive, be- 
ing armed  with  scythes,  with  which  whole  ranks  of  soldiers  were  sometimes 
cut  down. 

In  Plate  XIV.  fig.  K,  one  of  these  chariots  is  presented,  drawn  by  two  horses  which  are  pro- 
tected by  a  covering  of  mail. It  may  be  worthy  of  remark  here,  that  such  chariots  were 

used  by  the  ancient  Britons  and  Belgians,  and  are  designated  in  the  Roman  writers  by  the 
terms  coviui  and  MMtia  (Lwtan.  Phars.  i.  426.  —  Tac.  Agric.  xxxvi.  —  Cms.  Bell.  Gall.  iv.  33.  — 
Mda,  iii.  6).  "  The  covinus  was  a  terrible  instrument  of  destruction,  being  armed  with  sharp 
scythes  and  hooks  for  cutting  and  tearing  all  who  were  so  unhappy  as  to  come  within  its 
reach."    R.  Henry,  History  of  Great  Britain,  (first  ed.)  Lond.  1771-93.'  6  vols.  4. 

§  138.  The  cavalry  of  the  Greeks  was  not  numerous,  and  consist- 
ed only  of  citizens  of  the  more  respectable  class,  and  such  as  were 
able  (cf.  §  93)  to  maintain  their  horses.  The  inmr?,  therefore,  at 
Athens  as  well  as  Sparta,  held  a  high  rank.  Those,  who  wished  to 
attain  this  rank, were  first  examined  in  respect  to  their  bodily  strength 
and  other  qualifications,  by  the  senate  and  a  Hipparch  or  Phularch 
(frr.Tuo^c,  yvloQxij?)  appointed  for  the  purpose.  They  were  called 
by  various  names  according  to  the  weapons  of  armor  they  used ;  as, 
e.  g.,  axQoSo?.tar'ut,  who  threw  missiles ;  doQaroyoooi,  who  carried  spears 
or  lances  ;  innorozorai,  zvaroyooot,  xovrocpooot,  -&v{)eo(p6qoi}  etc.  The  fol- 
lowing articles  constituted  their  principal  armor ;  a  helmet,  broad 
plated  girdle,  breastplate,  a  large  shield,  cuishes,  a  javelin  and  sword. 

The  horsemen,  as  well  as  the  infantry,  were  distinguished  into  the  heavy- 
armed,  xuTu(f()uxTot,  and  light-armed,  utj  xarhupqaxroi.  The  former  not  only 
were  defended  by  armor  themselves,  but  also  had  their  horses  protected  by 
plates  of  brass  or  other  metal,  which  were  named,  from  the  parts  of  the  horse 
covered  by  them,  Ttqoftitioitliia,  itfj&rtQrldia,  jraQau^qidtu,  T«oa;r/.ci  <u(W,  rca- 
iHiy.rijiiftiuL,  etc.  The  trappings  of  the  horses  were  termed  yu/.twu;  various 
and  costly  ornaments,  including  collars,  bells,  and  embroidered  cloths  were 
often  used.  —  The  Jiu^/ai  were  a  sort  of  dragoon,  instituted  by  Alexander, 
designed  to  serve  either  or  horseback  or  on  foot.  —  The*  j4f«ptjr7tm  were  such 
as  had  two  horses;  called  also  i.-rnuycxyol,  because  they  led  one  of  their 
horses.  —  After  the  time  of  Alexander,  elephants  were  introduced  from  the 
east ;  but  they  were  after  a  short  period  laid  aside,  as  they  were  found  too  un- 
manageable to  be  relied  upon  with  much  confidence.  When  used,  they  car- 
ried into  battle  large  towers,  containing  from  ten  to  thirty  soldiers,  who  could 
greatly  annoy  the  enemy  with  missiles,  while  they  were  themselves  in  com- 
parative safety. 

Sallier  and  Freret,  Orig.  de   l'equitation  dans  la  Grece,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inzer,  vn.  33,  286. 

—  De  Miizcroy,  La  Cavalerie  Grecque,  in  the  same  Menu  &c.  xli.242.  —  Larcher,  L'ordre 
equestre  chez  les  Grecs,  in  same  Mem.  &c.  xlviii.  83.  ^ 

§  139.  The  chief  articles  of  armor  used  by  the  Greeks  have  been 
already  described  (§44,  45),  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  remark  here, 
that  in  later  times  there  were  many  changes,  as  to  the  forms  of  the 
articles,  and  the  manner  of  using  them. 

The  breast-plate  (dwQmz)  consisted  of  two  parts,  one  a  defence  for  the  back, 
the  other  for  the  breast,  united  at  the  sides  by  a  sort  of  buttons.  When  made 
of  two  continued  pieces  of  metal,  and  on  that  account  inflexible,  it  was  called 
■Swquz  ataSiuc  ;  when  made  of  hide  and  guarded  with  hooks  or  rings,  connect- 
ed as  in  a  chain,  it  was  called  $<oQaz  u'/.vatSiDToz  ;  if  guarded  with  plates  like 
the  scales  of  a  fish,  it  was  called  -dwoai  lirtidwrug.  The  ^uidwqaxior  protected 
only  the  front  part  of  the  body  ;  Alexander  allowed  only  this  to  his  soldiers. 
See  Plate  XVII.  fig.  r,  and  fig.  7.  —  Within  the  *«fya$,  and  next  to  the  skin 


524  GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

the  Greeks  also  wore  often  a  defensive  armor  of  brass  lined  with  wool,  which 
was  termed  filTqtj.     Cf.  Horn.  II.  iv.  137,  187. 

The  shield  (aa.rig)  when  of  wood  was  made  of  the  lightest  kind,  as  willow, 
beach,  poplar,  &c.  When  made  of  hide  (ua.iidtg  fiusiui),  there  were  usually 
several  thicknesses  covered  with  a  plate  or  plates  of  metal.  Its  chief  parts 
were  the  outer  edge  or  circumference,  uvtvz,  itvg,  xi'x/.og,  nsynpintia',  the 
boss  or  prominent  part  in  the  middle,  otupuXug,  uiOoiKpu/.iov  ;  the  thong  of 
leather  by  which  it  was  attached  to  the  shoulders,  rtluinov  ;  the  rings  by 
which  it  was  held  in  the  hands,  nuonuxtg,  for  which  the  handle,  o/urov,  con- 
sisting of  two  small  bars  placed  crosswise,  was  afterwards  substituted.  Little 
bells  were  sometimes  hung  upon  the  shields  to  increase  the  terror  occasioned 
by  shaking  them.  Z<l;ytia  was  the  name  of  a  covering,  designed  to  protect 
the  shield  from  injury  when  not  in  actual  use.  Various  epithets  are  applied 
to  shields  ;  as  uuyipourog,  ScvSqoui'jX^,  7to8rlvrixlc,  indicative  of  size  ;  "fvxvxloi, 
tiuvtotb  irtat,  of  shape.  The  rtunov  was  in  the  shape  of  a  rhombus,  and  first 
used  by  the  Persians  ;  the  Gvoebg  was  oblong  and  bent  inward  ;  the  Aaot\iov 
was  composed  of  hides  with  the  hair  on,  and  was  very  light ;  the  nilxt\  was 
small  and  light,  and,  according  to  some,  shaped  like  a  half  moon.  —  Several 
forms  of  shields  are  seen  in  our  Plate  XVII. 

Besides  the  offensive  weapons  which  have  already  been  named  (see  §  45, 
and  Plate  XIV.),  we  may  mention  the  poniard,  called  jruQazupiSior,  iy/tiQl- 
diov,  and  uu/uiqu  ;  it  answered  the  purpose  of  a  knife.  In  later  ages,  the  ux- 
tvuxtjs,  something  like  a  scimitar,  was  borrowed  from  the  Persians.  The  y.o- 
Ttig  or  falchion  (ensis falcatus)  was  also  used  in  battle;  as  was  likewise  the 
battle-ax,  at- ivy,  and  the  nt?.txvg.  The  Macedonians  had  a  peculiar  kind  of 
long  spear,  called  auQUftttt.  The  club  of  wood  or  iron,  xoni'vrh  was  a  weapon 
of  early  times.  —  We  may  mention  among  the  offensive  weapons  the  nunopu- 
/.oi  /.idoi,  fire-balls  ;  one  kind  (axvtalux)  were  made  of  wood  and  armed  with 
spikes  of  iron,  under  which  were  fixed  hemp,  pitch,  and  other  combustibles; 
these,  being  set  on  fire,  were  hurled  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy. 

§  140.  The  commanders  of  the  armies  were  in  early  times  the 
kings  themselves,  although  at  the  same  time  certain  men,  eminently 
brave,  were  appointed  to  be  pokmarchs  or  generals.  Subsequently 
each  tribe  chose  its  own  commander,  who  was  called  ar^urriybg.  At 
Athens  it  became  customary  to  appoint  ten,  who  had  equal  power, 
and  who  held  the  chief  command  one  day  each  in  regular  rotation, 
when  they  took  the  field  together.  Over  these  was  a  polemarch, 
whose  opinion  was  decisive  in  the  war-council,  when  there  was  an 
equal  division  among  them  ;  at  a  later  period,  however,  this  officer 
(.ro/fWo/oc)  had  no  share  in  military  affairs  (§  101).  —  There  were 
also  ten  taxiarchs,  ru%lanXoiy  subordinate  to  the  oTnarijyol ;  their  duty 
was  to  put  the  army  in  array  for  battle,  mark  out  the  camp,  regulate 
the  order  of  march,  and  in  general  attend  to  the  preservation  of  dis- 
cipline. Subordinate  also  to  the  Strategi  were  the  two  generals  of 
the  horse,  ^nnuo/ot,  who  had  undef  them  ten  (p;;.«o/o<,  one  nominated 
by  each  tribe.  There  were  also  inferior  officers,  as  Ao/ayol,  yji[a$- 
zot,  ixarlivTanyoi,  d*xu9aQx<>h  jcftiTiuSunxoi,  the  names  being  derived  from 
the  number  of  men  commanded  by  them. 

§  141.  The  whole  army  was  called  organic;  the  front,  uirwTtor  or 
TtQtorog  tvybg ;  the  wings,  xigaru ;  the  rear,  ottyu  or^a/arog  tvyvg.  The 
smallest  division,  consisting  of  five  men,  was  called  a  ntimug ;  a  ?.6/og 
contained  from  ten  to  a  hundred  men,  according  to  different  circum- 
stances;  and  a  ruiig,  a  hundred,  or  a  hundred  and  twenty-eight. 

The  Ta'ztg  was  also  called  ixurorTao/la.  Each  division  of  this  sort  had  five 
attendants,  who  (Jxtuxtoi)  did  not  serve  in  the  ranks;  viz.  the  arguroxi'^xz, 
who  reported  the  officer's  commands  to  the  soldiers;  the  ai;ittiocpunog,  who 
conveyed  the  ensigns,  signals,  or  watchwords;    the  ouljiiyxTi,;,  a  trumpeter  j 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS  IN  THE  LATER  AGES.  525 

the  r/rf'ru'r^c,  who  supplied  the  members  of  the  division  with  necessaries,  and 
the  <>vnay'og,  whose  business  was  to  see  that  none  of  the  numler  were  left 
behind. 

Some  of  the  larger  divisions;  avvrayua,  consisting  of  two  Tu^ig,  or  256 
men;  7iirruy.oniun/iu,  two  a r tray itaru,  or  512  men;  yiliuoyiu,  two  of  the 
last,  or  10.24  men;  AJt^wj/la,  or  TiJ.ug,  twice  the  preceding,  or  2048  men; 
<t>u/.ayy«Qx'nx,  or  ^rQaTrtyiu  sometimes,  twice   the    Ti?.og,  or  40G6  men;    the 

commander  of  the  latter  was  called  rrrour^yoc. The  term  *I>^?.ay=.  signifies 

sometimes  a  body  of  twenty-eight  soldiers;  sometimes  a  body  of  4000,  as  just 
mentioned  ;  and  sometimes  any  number  of  troops  in  general.  Yet  it  is  said, 
that  a  full  or  complete  Phalanx  contained  four  times  the  number  included  in 
the  ijtx/.uyyan/iu,  above  named,  i.  e.  16,384  men. 

§  142.  While  the  term  (p^Myz  is  often  used  in  a  general  sense  for 
any  number  of  soldiers,  it  is  employed  also  to  signify  a  peculiar  order 
of  arrangement  in  a  rectangular  form,  which  gave  the  body  strength 
to  resist  a  great  shock  ;  the  Macedonians  were  especially  celebrated 
for  using  it  to  advantage. — The  h,Su?.ov  was  the  same  with  the  Ro- 
man cuneus,  an  arrangement  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  in  order  to 
force  a  way  more  easily  and  further  into  the  midst  of  an  enemy.  — 
Wheeling,  turning,  or  facing,  was  called  yj.ioig ;  to  the  right,  $nl  cfuou, 
the  spear  being  in  the  right  hand  ;  to  the  left,  fc*»  uarndu,  the  shield 
being  held  in  the  left.  Turning  completely  about  was  termed  ustcc- 
jftri/,. — The  Greeks  possessed  great  skill  and  readiness  in  manoeu- 
vres, and  had  teachers  of  the  art,  wzn^i,  who  instructed  the  youth 
in  the  practice. 

Various  forms  were  given  to  the  yul.ayz,  some  of  which  were  not  rectangu- 
lar; as  the  tniy.uunlg  (puXay$,  which  presented  the  form  of  a  half  moon,  and 
was  also  called  xv^rt]  and  y.uiXt]',  qou^oftSl.q  ipukuyz,  which  was  in  the  figure 
of  a  diamond.  In  the  phalanx,  tvyoi  signified  the  ranks,  taken  according  to 
its  length,  ufy.og;  ot'i/oi  (also  7.o/oi)  the  files  taken  according  to  its  depth, 
pu&oc.  Another  order  of  array  for  battle  was  the  nZlrQior,  brick,  a  rectangu- 
lar presenting  its  length  to  the  enemy.  The  n t'oyog,  tower,  was  the  same  form, 
with  its  width  or  the  end  of  the  rectangle  towards  the  enemy.  The  nXalotvr 
seems  to  have  been  an  exact  square  or  nearly  so.  The  KoikiuNolev  was  a  fig- 
ure like  the  letter  V,  with  the  open  part  toward  the  enemy.  The  ui/  was  in 
the  form  of  an  egg,  according  to  which  the  Thessalians  usually  arranged  their 
cavalry.  The  term  is,  however,  generally  used  to  signify  simply  a  troop  of 
horses  ;  sometimes  a  troop  of  64.  Two  such  troops  constituted  the  inis.aoyla, 
128  men,  and  eight  of  them  the  i/inan/iu,  512  men;  four  of  the  last  named 
formed  the  TiXog  of  the  cavalry,  or  2048  men. 

Of  the  various  terms  applied  to  manoeuvring  or  evolutions  we  add  only  the 
following;  tzi?.iyi/l>g,  a  countermarch,  by  which  every  soldier,  one  marching 
after  another,  changed  the  front  for  the  rear,  or  one  flank  for  another  ;  Sin- 
?.a(7tuauog,  an  enlarging  of  the  body,  either  by  adding  men  or  by  extending  the 

same  number  over  a  great  space. It  maybe  remarked    that  among  the 

Lacedaimonians,  the  whole  army  was  divided  into  juoQuti  which  contained  orig- 
inally only  400  men  each,  but  afterwards  a  larger  number  and  variable.  Each 
fiunu  consisted  of  4  Xv/ot.  The  Trsrn^orrrt'c  was  one  half  of  the  /.t'/oc  ;  and 
one  half  of  the  7nrrrly.oaTi  g  was  termed  iro'uoria,  including  25  men  ;  the  lat- 
ter body  is  said  by  some  to  have  contained  thirty. tioo  or  thirty-six  men. 

§  143.  The  declaration  of  war  usually  began  with  a  demand  made 
by  the  injured  or  offended  party  through  deputies  for  reparation  or 
satisfaction.  Unexpected  hostile  invasion  was  viewed  as  unrighteous 
warfare;  it  was  justified  only  by  great  and  wanton  injuries.  The 
most  respectable  men  were  selected  for  the  ambassadors  and  heralds, 
and  their  persons  were  regarded  as  sacred  and  inviolable. 

1  u.  The  heralds  (xi'^vxsg)  carried  a  staff  wound  with  two  serpents  (xjjou'x- 


526  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

tiov,)  and  were  usually  charged  only  with  messages  of  peace,  while  the  am- 
bassadors or  deputies  (KQtnflstg)  were  accustomed  also  to  threaten  and  to  an- 
nounce war.     The  power  of  ambassadors  was  limited  in  different  degrees  at 

different  times   (§  102). The  leagues  or  agreements  entered  into  were 

either  (1)  aitordi),  a  treaty  of  peace  or  mutual  cessation  from  injuries,  called 
also  avrBilxtfo  e ('(;//»•//- ;  (2)  iniiiu/ia,  a  treaty  of  mutual  defence  ;  or  (3)-  tsvuua- 
X'ta,  an  alliance  both  defensive  and  offensive,  in  which  the  parties  engaged  to 
aid  each  other,  not  only  when  attacked,  but  also  when  they  themselves  com- 
menced the  war.  Such  treaties  were  confirmed  by  the  most  solemn  oaths, 
written  upon  tablets  and  placed  in  public  view.  Sometimes  the  parties  ex- 
changed certain  tokens  or  evidences  (ai'ufioXa)  of  the  compact. 

2  m.  Before  actually  declaring  war,  it  was  customary  to  consult  an  oracle. 
The  war  was  commenced  with  sacrifices  and  vows.  Scrupulous  attention 
was  also  paid  by  the  Greeks  to  omens  and  seasons. 

3.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  was  a  fatal  sign;  the  Athenians  would  not 
march  before  the  seventh  day,  ivrbg  t^dvutjg,  nor  the  Lacedtemonians  until 
full  moon. 

§  144.  In  addition  to  what  has  already  been  said  (§48)  on  the 
construction  of  camps,  it  may  be  here  remarked,  that  the  form  of 
them  was  often  changed  according  to  circumstances.  The  Laceda> 
monians,  however,  always  adhered  to  the  circular  form  in  their  camps, 
as  well  as  their  cities.  The  bravest  troops  were  usually  placed  on 
the  extremities  or  wings,  and  the  weakest  in  the  centre  or  interior. 
A  particular  part  of  the  camp  was  appropriated  for  the  worship  of 
the  gods,  and  for  holding  councils  of  war  and  military  courts.  The 
guards  were  divided  into  the  day-watches,  (pv?.axla  ijitqirut,  and  the 
night-watches,  avXaxm  wxxtqtvai.  The  advanced  posts,  or  outer 
guards,  were  called  nQocpviax'ut.  The  nightly  round  of  visiting  the 
watch  was  called  iipodsia,  and  those  who  performed  it,  nt^Lnoloi,  and 
the  guard-house,  ntqmeXttw. 

§  145.  Before  a  battle  the  soldiers  were  usually  refreshed  by  eating 
and  drinking,  immediately  after  which  the  commanders  ordered  them 
to  action. — When  very  near  the  point  of  engaging,  the  generals 
addressed  the  army  in  animating  speeches,  which  often  produced 
great  effects.  Then  followed  the  sacrifice,  the  vow,  and  the  war- 
song  (naiav  tu^an'^iog),  a  hymn  to  Mars.  —  The  signs,  used  in  the 
field  were  either  otjutta,  regular  ensigns  and  standards,  or  ovpfioXa, 
particular  signals,  commonly  understood  or  specially  agreed  upon  for 
the  occasion. 

1  u.  The  special  signals,  ai'u(io?.vt,  were  either  audible  ((ponixu),  such  aa 
watch-words  (ovv&ijiuru)  ;  or  visible  (oqutu),  such  as  nodding  the  head,  waving 
the  hand,  shaking  the  armor,  and  the  like  {niiQaavv&^uara.)  The  ovinia  or 
standards  were  of  various  kinds  ;  some  being  merely  a  red  or  purple  coat 
upon  the  top  of  a  spear;  others  having  an  image  of  a  bird,  animal,  or  other 
object.  The  raising  of  the  standard  was  a  signal  to  commence  battle,  and  the 
lowering  of  it  to  desist.  Anciently  the  signal  for  battle  was  given  by  lighted 
torches  being  hurled  by  the  persons  appointed  (TcvQcpoyoi).  Afterwards  it  was 
done  by  blasts  of  sound,  for  which  shells  (y.o/Xoi)  were  first  used,  and  then 
brazen  trumpets  (oa).niyyig)  of  several  different  kinds. 

2u.  The  Lacedaemonians  usually  advanced  to  action  by  the  sound  of  the 
flute;  yet  we  must  not  imagine,  that  the  marching  of  the  Greeks  was  as 
regular  and  as  conformable  to  music,  as  the  modern.  Most  of  them  were 
rather  in  the  habit  of  rushing  to  battle  with  impetuosity  and  clamor  (JxXaXay 
fibg,  avtt^). 

§  146.  The  art  of  besieging  arose  first  in  the  later  times  of  Greece, 
because  the  cities  were  not  previously  fortified  with  walls.     Nor 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS    IN   THE    LATER    AGES.  527 

were  the  later  Greeks,  especially  the  Lacedaemonians,  very  much  in 
the  habit  of  laying  regular  sieges.  The  two  principal  points  of  pro- 
ceeding in  the  siege  of  a  city,  were  the  construction  of  the  entrench- 
ment around  it,  and  the  gathering  and  use  of  military  engines  about 
it.  Connected  with  these  were  efforts  to  scale  the  walls  of  the  city 
by  ladders  (ijiifiafyai,  xiluaxtc)  and  to  undermine  their  foundations. — - 
An  entrenchment  around  the  city  was  called  ttsqitujujuqs,,  or  ano- 
rtixicpog,  and  consisted  usually  of  a  double  wall  of  stone  or  turf.  In 
the  space  between  the  walls  were  shelters  for  the  garrison  and  the 
sentinels.  Above  the  walls  were  turrets  or  pinnacles,  and  after  every 
tenth  pinnacle  a  large  tower  was  constructed,  extending  across  from 
one  wall  to  the  other.  The  parapet  of  the  wall  was  termed  duquxiov. 
§  147.  Most  of  the  military  engines  of  the  Greeks  (uuYav«,  kij^o- 
rai)  were  of  a  comparatively  late  invention,  and  seems  to  have  been 
introduced  first  about  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  One  of 
the  principal  was  the  ysA<on;,  the  testudo  or  tortoise ;  so  called  because 
the  soldiers  were  covered  by  it  as  a  tortoise  by  its  shell. 

\u.  The  testudo  was  of  several  kinds.  The  yO.MVi]  arqarimxmv  was  formed  by 
the  soldiers,  pressed  close  together  and  holding  their  shields  over  their  heads 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  compact  covering.  It  was  also  formed  of  boards, 
united  and  covered  with  metals;  this  was  either  of  a  square  form,  as  the 
y&?.d)it}  yuHSTQig,  which  served  to  protect  the  soldiers,  while  they  were  prepar- 
ing the  ground  in  order  to  bring  up  their  military  engines,  or  of  a  triangular 
form,  as  the  /s/.o>»>/  oyv;,  for  the  protection  of  such  as  were  undermining  the 
walls. — Another  instrument  for  similar  purposes  was  called  the  y*<s<<>or,  made 
of  twigs  of  willow  like  the  Roman  vinca,  and  held  by  the  soldiers  over  the 
head. 

2u.  The  yoiua  was  a  mound  composed  of  various  materials  and  raised  very 
high,  often  above  the  besieged  walls. — There  were  also  moveable  towers  tcvq- 
yoi),  made  of  wood  and  usually  placed  upon  the  yo'ua ;  they  were  rolled  on 
wheels  and  had  often  several  stories,  containing  soldiers  and  engines. — The 
battering-ram  (xoibg)  was  a  strong  beam  with  an  iron  head  ffyjteljj  in  front 
resembling  that  of  a  ram,  which  the  soldiers  thrust  against  the  enemy's  walls; 
it  was  often  hung  by  ropes  to  another  beam,  so  that  it  could  be  thrust  with 
greater  force,  and  sometimes  was  placed  on  wheels  and  covered  with  a  ysXwvt}. 
The  xaTarciiTai  were  engines  for  hurling  missiles,  stones,  and  the  like  upon 
the  enemy  ;  those  which  discharged  arro\vs,  being  termed  6gv(it?.eCg,  and  those 
which  cast  stones,  ZidoSoXoi  or  7F«T(>«£<Uftt. 

3.  The  rE).iuo7.ig  was  a  machine,  not  unlike  the  battering-ram,  but  of 
greater  size  and  force,  driven  with  ropes  and  wheels.  It  was  invented  by 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes. — The  Tqvnava  were  long  irons  with  sharp  ends,  and 
were  the  instruments  chiefly  used  in  earlier  periods  for  demolishing  the  walls 
of  a  city. 

§  148.  In  the  defence  of  a  besieged  city  the  following  are  the 
things  most  worthy  of  remark.  Soldiers,  armed  with  various  means 
of  defending  themselves  and  annoying  the  enemy,  were  stationed  on 
the  walls  of  the  city.  The  greater  military  engines  were  planted 
within  the  walls,  and  hurled  arrows,  stones,  and  pieces  of  timber 
upon  the  besiegers.  The  mines  of  the  besiegers  were  opposed  by 
counter-mines,  and  their  entrenchments  and  mounds  were  under- 
mined. Their  various  engines  were  broken,  set  on  nre,  or  embar- 
rassed in  operation  by  different  contrivances  on  the  part  of  the 
besieged. 

§  149.  On  the  taking  of  a  city,  the  captors  did  not  always  treat 
the  citizens  and  the  property  in  the  same  way.     Sometimes  the  build- 


528  GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

ings  were  demolished,  and  all  the  inhabitants  put  to  death,  or  at  least 
those  in  arms,  while  the  rest  (ui^uu/.unoi,  dunvu/.oroi)  were*  reduced  to 
slavery.  But  sometimes  favor  was  shown,  and  nothing  but  the  pay- 
ment of  a  tribute  exacted.  Sometimes  new  settlers  were  planted  in 
the  conquered  city.  Whenever  the  city  was  demolished,  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  curse  the  spot  on  which  it  stood,  and  not  even  cultivate 
the  soil. 

§  150.  The  booty  or  spoils  on  such  a  capture,  or  after  a  battle, 
consisted  partly  in  the  military  stores,  and  partly  in  other  things, 
which  were  the  property  of  the  conquered  party.  These,  when  taken 
from  the  slain,  were  termed  axvXv  ',  if  from  the  living,  lafvga.  The 
whole  (huou)  was  brought  to  the  commander-in-chief,  who  first  took 
a  large  portion  for  himself,  then  assigned  rewards  to  such  as  had  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  the  action,  and  afterwards  distributed  the 
remainder  equally  among  the  soldiers.  First  of  all,  however,  a  por- 
tion was  set  apart  for  the  service  of  the  gods,  which  was  called  $«£«- 
Abta.  The  armor  of  the  conquered  was  also  often  dedicated  to  the 
gods,  and  hung  up  in  their  temples ;  this  was  the  case  sometimes  even 
with  the  weapons  of  the  victors,  when  they  designed  to  terminate 
their  military  career.  Thank-offerings  were  also  presented,  and  tro- 
phies (rnonaia)  erected,  which  were  likewise  dedicated  to  the  gods ; 
statues  also  and  other  monuments  were  raised  to  commemorate  vic- 
tories. 

An  inscription  (ivriyQaiiua)  was  often  attached  to  the  trophy,  or  offering 
presented  to  the  god,  or  other  monument,  containing  the  names  of  the  con- 
querors and  the  conquered,  an  account  of  the  spoils,  and  sometimes  of  the 
occurrences  of  the  war.  The  trunk  of  a  tree,  especially  an  olive,  was  often 
ussd  for  the  purpose  of  a  trophy,  the  emblems  of  victory  being  hung  upon  it. 
See  Plate  XVII.  fig.  4.  —  Alexander  the  Great,  abiding  by  a  law  of  the  Mac- 
edonians, never  raised  a  trophy;  yet  he  erected  other  monuments  of  his  suc- 
cesses ;  among  them  were  altars  to  the  gods,  very  broad  and  lofty. 

§  151.  There  was  a  careful  regard  to  order  and  discipline  in  the 
Greek  armies,  and  various  rewards  and  punishments  were  established* 
Among  the  rewards  were  promotion  to  higher  rank,  conferring  of 
garlands  or  other  distinctions,  and  also  the  funeral  honors  and  the 
encomiums,  which  were  bestowed  on  the  brave  warrior.  At  Athens 
public  provision  was  made  for  the  widows  and  children  of  those  slain 
in  battle,  and  also  for  those  who  were  injured  fey  wounds  (adrraroi). 
The  children  of  such  as  valiantly  died  were  also  honored  sometimes 
with  the  first  seats  (nQosSylai)  at  the  theatres.  —  The  severest  of  the 
punishments,  death,  was  always  inflicted  on  deserters,  avrou6?.ou 
Such  as  refused  to  serve,  aaTounvToi,  such  as  quitted  their  ranks, 
2ti7zoT«xT«i,  and  such  as  threw  away  their  shields,  yiyaon'iStg,  were 
subjected  to  civil  degradation.  At  Athens  they  were  not  permitted 
to  enter  the  temples  or  public  assemblies,  and  were  also  fined  in  the 
court  Helisea.  In  Sparta  they  were  exposed  to  still  deeper  disgrace, 
which  extended  even  to  their  whole  family  ;  it  was  so  great  that  their 
mothers  often  stabbed  them  at  their  first  meeting  afterwards. 

§  152.  The  Greeks  employed  various  means  for  conveying  intelligence. 
They  had  a  class  of  messengers  or  runners,  called  ^ut^oSoutiot,  who  carried 
news  and  official  commands  ;  they  went  lightly  armed. — A  contrivance  much 
celebrated  was  the  Lacedaemonian  oxvxu?.^.    This  was  a  roll  of  white  parch- 


MlLItAR*  AFFAIRS  Itf  TBE  LAfER  AGES*  529 

*&ent  6r  leather  (Stqua,  itiug),  wrapped  round  a  black  stick,  about  four  cubits 
*n  length.  The  general  always  received  a  stick  of  this  sort,  of  the  same  size 
with  another  kept  by  the  magistrates  or  government.  When  any  command 
or  intelligence  was  to  be  conveyed,  a  strip  of  parchment  was  rolled  on  the 
staff,  and  on  this  was  written  what  the  person  wished  to  communicate  ;  the 
strip  was  then  sent  to  the  general,  who  applied  it  to  his  own  stick,  and  thus 
could  read  what,  otherwise,  would  be  wholly  unintelligible. 

§  153.  Before  proceeding  now  to  notice  the  naval  affairs  of  the 
^Greeks,  we  may  allude  to  their  method  of  passing  rivers  with  their 
armies.  It  was  usually  by  means  of  boats  or  small  vessels  joined  to- 
gether so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  bridge,  like  that  which  the  Persians 
under  the  command  of  Xerxes  threw  over  the  Hellespont.  In  order 
to  hold  these  vessels  fast,  large  baskets  or  boxes,  filled  with  stone, 
were  sunk  in  the  stream,  which  thus  answered  the  purpose  of  an- 
chors. Anchors  were  also  sometimes  used.  It  was  only  in  the  great- 
est emergencies  that  they  carried  forward  with  them  these  boats, 
having  taken  them  in  pieces.  Sometimes  such  bridges  were  made  by 
means  of  large  casks  and  leathern  bottles. 

§  154,  The  use  of  ships  in  the  wars  of  the  Greeks  has  been  al- 
ready mentioned  (§  47).  Vessels  of  war  (inlxuTToi,  xwm\qn)  differed 
in  their  structure  from  the  other  kinds,  especially  from  ships  of 
burden  (6?.xu5sg,  <poorjjyoi)  which  were  of  an  oval  form,  with  broader 
bottoms.  They  were  usually  such  as  had  three  benches  of  rowers, 
called  rqu'tQsig  (triremes  §  304.  3),  and  hence  this  term  is  often  used  to 
signify  merely  vessels  of  war.  Before  the  vessel  was  launched,  it  was 
purified  and  consecrated  by  the  priests.  Commonly,  individual  ves- 
sels, sometimes  a  whole  fleet,  were  committed  to  the  protection  of  a 
particular  god.  The  ensign  or  standard  (rraQdatjuov),  by  which  one 
ship  was  distinguished  from  another,  was  placed  in  the  fore  part. 
Each  vessel  had  its  own  name,  which  was  usually  taken  from  its 
ensign  or  flag,  and  was  also  inscribed  on  the  prow. 

§  155.  We  will  introduce  here  some  of  the  names  applied  by  the  Greeks  to 
the  different  parts  of  a  ship  and  the  tackling.  (The  Arabic  numerals  attached 
to  some  of  the  terms  are  intended  to  correspond  to  those  in  fig.  A,  of  our 
Plate  XVIII,  indicating  the  place  of  the  parts  named,  according  to  HolwelVs 
plan  of  a  hexireme.) 

1.  The  principal  parts  of  a  ship  were  three,  the  prow  or  ftfint,  tiqioqcc,  uirw 
nov;  the  middle,  or  body,  ueaoy.oiloq,  ydorqa;  and  the  stern,  novuva  (7), 
&vQa. — The  prow  was  more  or  less  adorned,  not  only  by  the  figures  and  ima- 
ges placed  on  it,  but  by  the  colors  painted  on  it,  from  which  were  derived  such 
epithets  as  utkrorcdQ^oi,  xvaviupoloi,  &c.  The  sides  of  it  were  termed  Tin-qk 
and  TtaQstaL  The  oro'Aog  was  a  long  plank  at  the  head  of  the  prow,  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  which  some  of  the  principal  ornaments  (dxqovia,  axQoaroXia,  8) 
were  fixed.  The  rcrvxi?  (10)  was  a  round  piece  of  wood  also  attached  to  the 
prow,  on  which  the  name  of  the  ship  was  inscribed ;  it  was  sometimes  called 
6(pda?.uog.  The  xtjvloxog  was  the  figure  of  a  goose  upon  the  prow;  near  the 
water,  according  to  the  opinion  of  some,  but  by  others  assigned  to  a  higher 
part.  The  fyfhXov  (13)  was  the  lower  portion  of  the  prow,  which  projected 
forward,  and  in  war  gallies  was  fitted  to  strike  into  the  ships  of  the  enemy. 
Behind  this,  and  just  below  the  oro/.og,  was  the  Ttaodorjuov  or  ensign,. some 

image  carved  or  painted. To  the  middle  belonged  the  following  parts  ;  the 

roonig  (1)  or  orsiqt],  keel  at  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  narrow  and  sharp,  to  cut 
the  waves,  with  the  /aP.svouara,  wedges  or  bilgewaySj  attached  to  it,  for  guard- 
ing the  ship's  bottom';  tfdixig,  limber,  containing  the  bilgewater,  conveyed  out 
by  the  pump,  icrtXia ;  the  xolltj,  hold  (Called  also  r-vxog,  and  ydoTQa),  sur- 
rounded by  ribs  or  planks  rising  from  the  keel,  routCg  or  iyxoi?.ia  ',  the  twortjqeg , 

45 


530  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

or  vnotwuara,  rafters  extending  on  the  sides  (n/LtvqaL,  3)  of  the  ship  from  pfotr 
to  stern  ;  the  roi/oi  and  idw/.ia  (4)  seats  for  the  rowers  situated  on  the  sides 
one  above  another;  the  TQ^uara  or  oy&a/.uoi  (5)  openings  through  which  the 
oars  were  put  out;  the  aoy.vma,  a  skin  or  the  like,  which  lined  the  openings  ', 

sometimes  there   was  one  continued  opening  for  the  oars,  called  to dipt ||. 

The  ster.n  had  ornamental  images,  called  axqovla,  in  common  with  those  on 
the  prow,  but  termed  distinctively,  ucp/.aara  (9).  To  the  stern  was  also  attach- 
ed the  i/riTQo.iit  (11),  the  tutela  or  safeguard  of  the  ship.  Its  bow  was  termed 
ircios'HDv,  and  the  planks  composing  it,  tziqitovsux.  The  middle  of  the  stern 
was  named,  aodvdiov.  The  decks,  i'xQia,  were  covered  parts  at  the  prow  and 
etern  ;   the  tvya  were  the  rowers'  seats  in  the  middle  and  open  parts. 

2.  Some  of  the  principal  instruments  in  navigating  vessels  may  be  men- 
tioned here.  The  Tct;Sd?.iov  (12),  rudder,  fixed  not  directly  in  the  stern,  but 
on  the  side  of  the  ship,  and  near  the  stern.  In  the  later  periods,  two  rud- 
ders were  used,  one  being  placed,  it  is  supposed,  near  the  prow  (hence  rijtg 
aufp'iTiQvuroi)  ;  sometimes  there  were  four,  one  on  each  side  of  prow  and  stern. 
The  parts  of  the  rudder  were  oiaz,  (pctlo,  -TirsQiyiov,  av/ltv,  y.dua%. — The 
Zvvij,  uyxvQa,  anchor;  first  a  stone  bored  in  the  middle,  or  a  basket  filled  with 
stones  ;  afterwards  made  of  iron  with  teeth,  oSvrrss,  fastening  it  to  the  earth  > 
the  largest  of  a  ship's  anchors  was  called  itf>a,  and  hence  (tdiZem  liyy.voav  it  quv 
obtained  its  proverbial  sense,  to  resort  to  the  last  refuge.  The  cables  attached 
to  the  anchors,  were  niiauara,  or  y.din.loi  ;  ropes  for  towing  were  termed 
Qi'uura,  6?.y.oi;  those  for  binding  a  vessel  to  the  shore,  ■nnvuri'jaia.  —  The 
y.iojrui  and  foeruoi,  oars,  having  a  broad  part  covered  with  metal  (n?.drt;)f 
and  hung  upon  pieces  of  wood  called  okakftot,  by  leathern  thongs,  too/toi. — - 
The  [or6c(l6),mast,  fixed  in  a  hole  (uso68ui)),  in  themiddle  of  the  ship  ;  capa- 
ble of  being  taken  down  and  put  in  a  case  (ioroduxij)  ;  having  several  parts,  as 
irrfyra,  roa'/i/loc,  y.ao/^aiov,  -d^oi^dxiov,  iy.Qiov,  iJ.uzdTt].  The  y.touiai,  or 
y.iQava  (18),  were  the  crosspieces  or  yards,  fixed  to  the  mast.  The  loria  (17), 
sails  (called  also  66uvai,  aQutrtt),  including  particular  ones  distinctively  nam- 
ed, as  inidnofiog,  mizen-sail ;  ay.drior,  main-sail  ;  aoritivjv,  top-sail  j  ^/.wr,  sprite 
sail.  —  The  souu,  ■&(ui?.iog,  ballast. — The  (io?.ig,  the  lead  for  sounding. — - 
The  y.oiToi,  poles  for  pushing  the  vessels  from  rocks. — The  dzio^id&Qui, 
bridges,  or  stairs,  to  pass  from  ship  to  shore,  or  from  vessel  to  vessel  (called 
also  i7tt(ld8()at  and  avapd&nai).  —  The  term  onla  was  applied  to  the  rigging" 
generally.  —  The  y.d?.oi  and  ovovla  were  ropes,  including  tnirovoi,  .rudig  (19), 
7iQo7vo5ig,  fiioovQiat,  tiqotovoi  (SO^made  at  first  of  leathern  thongs,  afterwards 
of  flax,  hemp,  and  the  like. 

3  m.  In  vessels  of  war  the  front  point,  and  sometimes  the  whole  of  the 
front  part,  was  covered  with  iron.  In  early  times  these  points  or  beaks  (13) 
Were  long  and  high  ;  afterwards  they  were  made  short  and  low,  in  order  to 
pierce  the  vessels  of  the  enemy  below  the  water.  From  each  side  of  the 
front  were  planks  or  pieces  of  wood,  inwriStg,  jutting"  out,  to  protect  the  ship 
from  the  beaks  ot  the  enemy.  The  war-vessels  usually  had  wooden  decks  or 
coverings  (yuTatpQuyuara  14)  on  which  the  soldiers  stood,  and  also  coverings 
or  guards  of  hides  or  the  like,  which  were  extended  on  both  sides  (7rs(>i(pQuyutx- 
ra),  to  protect  them  from  the  waves  and  from  the  enemy's  missiles.  The  usu- 
al sign  of  a  war- vessel  was  a  helmet,  sculptured  at  the  top  of  the  mast. 

4.  The  beaks  are  seen  in  fig,  A.  13  ;  and  also  in  fig.  b,  which  is  a  prow  taken  from  a  bass-re- 
lief at  Rome,  and  which  shows  the  ensign  behind  them,  and  the  acrostolia  above  it.  In  fig.  a, 
from  an  ancient  coin,  we  have  another  prow,  which  has  a  trophy  erected  upon  it.  In  fig.  c, 
which  is  from  the  sculptures  on  the  column  of  Antonine  (cf.^P.  I.  §  188.  2),  is  a  prow  of  another 
form.  In  rig.  4,  we  see  a  merchant  vessel,  managed  by  oars  or  sails  ;  in  fig.  5,  a  war-vesseJ 
with  oars  alone,  and  in  the  early  form  of  one  bank  only. 

The  names  of  the  various  parts  of  a  ship  may  be  found,  with  explanations  of  every  thing 
relating  to  this  subject,  in  J.  Scheffcri  Diss,  de  Varietate  navium,  contained  in  T.  Gronovii 
Thesaurus,  &c.  Vol.  xi.  as  cited  $  13.— See  also,  by  the  same,  Comment,  de  militia  navali  vete-: 
rum.  Ups.  1654.  4 — Leroy,  La  marine  des  anciens  Grecs,  in  the  Jlrm.  Acad.  Liscr.  Vol.  xxxvm. 
p     542.— Potter's  Arch.  Grace,  bk  ii.  eh.  14.— Robinson's,  bk.  iv.  ch.  14. 

§  156.  Originally  the  employments  of  the  rowers  and  the  combat- 
ants were  not  distinct,  but  the  same  persons  performed  the  functions 
of  both.  In  later  times  there  was  a  division  into  three  classes;  (1) 
the  rowers  or  oarsmen,  ioircti,  xamjAorat,  who  were  also  distinguished 


PLATE     XVIII 


532  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

by  specific  names,  according  to  the  rank  of  their  bench,  and  their 
work  and  pay ;  (2)  the  sailors,  ravrai,  who  attended  to  all  the  other 
proper  duties  of  the  ship;  (3)  the  marines,  im$ict<ti,  who  were  armed 
like  infantry,  only  their  armor  was  more  heavy  and  durable. 

Rowers  in  the  upper  tier  of  benches,  or  the  portion  of  benches  highest  above 
the  water  (&i>arog)  were  called  SnariTat  ;  those  in  the  middle,  $vytrai  (from 
Kvya')  ;  those  in  the  lower  tier  or  portion,  SaXauixai  ;  those  near  the  prow, 

TiQoxomot  ;    near  the  stern,    i.rixmnot. Of  the   sailors,  some    (uoutiiarui) 

had  the  care  of  the  sails  ;  others  (ayoivo^urai)  went  aloft  on  the  ropes  to  look 
out;  others  (jitaovavrai)  were  to  supply  the  seamen  with  whatever  was 
needed. 

There  have  been  various  theories  to  explain  the  manner  in  which  the  banks  of  rowers  in  the 
ancient  gallies  were  arranged,  in  the  different  classes  of  ship9  termed  Toii'/uig,  Ttroijo£/c, 
TttvTi^tig,  &,c^trireme,  qiiadrireme,  quinquireme,  fyc. — The  most  common  idea  formerly  was, 
that  the  benches  were  placed  one  above  another.  But  there  were  gallies  of  seven,  twelve,  fif- 
teen and  sixteen  banks  of  oars  ;  Ptolemy  Philopater  built  one  of  forty  banks.  If  the  benches 
were  placed  directly  above  each  other,  the  oars  in  the  upper  benches  must  have  been  so  long, 
as  to  be  wholly  useless. — Another  solution  is,  that  the  banks  were  arranged  in  one  continuous 
line  along  the  side  of  the  galley  ;  in  a  trireme,  the  first  bank  being  in  her  bows,  the  second  in 
her  middle  or  waist,  the  third  in  her  stern.  But  such  an  arrangement  would  require  a  huge 
length  in  the  vessel  of  forty  banks,  or  even  twelve  ;  besides  which,  it  is  stated  that  the  oars 
of  a  galley  were  not  all  of  the  same  length. — It  has  been  proposed  to  solve  the  difficulty  by  the 
suggestion  that  the  galley  received  its  denomination  from  the  number  of  men  pulling  at  the 
same  oar ;  the  trireme  would  have  three  at  one  oar ;  the  quinquireme,  five  ;  <fcc. — Another  sug- 
gestion is,  that  the  banks  rose  one  over  another  to  the  number  of  five  or  seven,  the  rowers  in 
the  higher  banks  being  chequered  in  quincunx  with  those  in  the  lower,  and  that  if  a  galley 
was  said  to  be  of  any  greater  number  the  rating  was  only  by  the  number  of  men  employed  at 
an  oar  ;  e.  g.  in  the  galley  of  forty  banks  there  would  be  fire  tiers  with  twelve,  men  at  each  oar 
of  the  highest  bank,  ten  at  the  next,  and  so  on  until  the  lowest,  which  would  have  four  men, 
to  make  forty  in  alt.  The  engravings  of  fig.  B,  in  our  Plate  XVIII.  are  two  views,  exhibiting 
such  an  arrangement ;  the  upper  one  is  a  front  view,  and  the  lower  a  sectional  view.— Other 
schemes  have  been  proposed  which  need  not  be  mentioned.  The  latest  is  that  of  Mr  Holwell^ 
of  Edinburgh,  which  is  thought  by  many  to  have  set  the  matter  at  rest.  He  supposes  a  vessel  ir> 
the  original  form  having  oneltank  of  ten  oars  arranged  horizontally  ;  let  these  be  divided  into 
two  banks  of  five  oars  each  and  arranged  obliquely,  and  they  will  require  but  about  half  as 
much  length  ;  this  construction,  according  to  his  conjecture,  is  the  bireme  ;  a  trireme  would 
have  three  of  these  oblique  ascents  or  banks,  each  hank  having  five  oars  ;  and  thus  a  vessel 
might  be  built  with  any  number  of  banks  by  only  increasing  its  length,  while  no  oar  would  be 
raised  higher  above  the  water,  necessarily,  than  in  a  bireme.  In  Plate  XVIII.  fig.  A,  we  have 
a  view  of  a  hexircme,  or  galley  of  six  banks  of  oars,  on  his  scheme  ;  the- Arabic  numbers,  21,22, 
23,  designate  the  portion  of  the  banks  occupied  respectively  by  the  three  classes  of  rowers 

above  mentioned. See  J.  Holwell,  Essay   on  the  War  Galleys  of  the  Ancients,  Lend. 

1826.  8. — D.  Le  Roy,  sur  les  navies  employes  par  les  anciens  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  V  Institut, 
Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts,  vol.  i.  479,  n.  141,  152.— Of  Boyd's  ed.  of  Potter,  p.  526,  as  cited 

§  157.  Among  the  principal  instruments  employed  for  naval  battle 
were  the  following;  duqararai^taxa,  very  long  spears ;  dqixavov,  apiece 
of  iron,  formed  like  a  sickle  and  fixed  to  the  top  of  a  long  pole,  in  or- 
der to  cut  the  sail-ropes  of  the  hostile  ship  ;  Xtio  otS^ou  the  grappling 
iron;  aorraytc,  large  iron  hooks  attached  to  the  mast  of  a  vessel  in  such  a 
manner  that  being  thrown  into  the  enemy's  ships  they  seized  and  raised 
them  up  into  the  air.  An  instrument,  called  from  its  form  the  dolphin 
(i*l  fb),  was  often  used;  it  was  made  of  iron  or  lead,  and  hung  to 
the  mast  or  sail-yards,  and  was  thrown  with  great  violence  into  an 
adverse  ship,  in  order  to  pierce  and  sink  it. — The  means  of  defence 
against  these  instruments  was  to  guard  the  ship  by  a  strong  covering 
of  hides. 

§  158,  Each  fleet  had  officers  of  two  sorts,  such  as  had  care 
of  what  pertained  to  the  ships  alone,  and  such  as  had  care  of  the 
marines  and  all  that  pertained  to  warlike  action.  (1)  The  chief  of- 
ficer, or  admiral, was  called  vavaQxogy  sometimes  arUaoXo;,  or  arqarr^bq  ,- 
often  there  were  several  in  equal  command,  often  there  was  but  a  sin- 
gle one.  The  duration  of  his  authority  was  decided  by  the  people,, 
who  abridged  it  or  prolonged  it  at  pleasure.    Next  to  him  were  the 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  533 

commanders  of  individual  ships,  Tgojgagjroc ;  the  Lacedaemonians, 
however,  had  a  sort  of  vice-admiral  in  their  officer  called  i^ioxoitvg, 
(2)  Of  those,  whose  authority  was  confined  to  the  care  of  the  ships 
and  the  duties  of  the  rowers  or  sailors,  the  principal  were  the  follow- 
ing :  the  aQxi*v?s%vt'irri$,  wno  nad  the  care  of  the  whole  fleet ;  the 
xvpiQvtrti?,  who  had  the  care  of  a  single  ship,  and  who  himself  kept 
the  helm  ;  and  the  tvq won' g,  or  7CQioQurtig1  the  next  in  command,  hav- 
ing the  care  of  every  thing  belonging  to  the  forepart  of  the  ship. 

There  were  also,  in  the  second  class,  the  following  :  TPtqoatUi}?,  the  mu- 
sician, whose  notes  cheered  the  rowers  and  regulated  the  strokes  of  their  oars; 
xe?.evarilg)  who  gave  the  word  of  command  to  them  ;  roi/aQ/og,  who  govern- 
ed the  rowers  on  one  side;  ruvipvlaxeg,  employed  in  guarding  the  ship  from 
rocks  and  other  dangers;  nxuiae,  who  superintended  the  food;  ta^aqsyg,  who 
attended  to  the  fires  ;  ).oyiarilg,  who  kept  the  ship's  accounts. 

§  159.  In  the  beginning  of  a  sea-fight  they  sought  first  to  lighten 
the  ship  of  all  superfluous  and  unnecessary  burdens ;  and  to  render 
sails,  mast  and  every  thing  which  was  exposed  to  the  violence  of 
wind,  as  fast  and  safe  as  possible.  Then  the  most  favorable  posi- 
tion and  order  of  battle  was  selected,  according  to  time,  place,  and 
circumstances.  Sacrifices  were  next  offered  to  the  gods,  and  the 
commanders  passed  round  in  light  boats  from  ship  to  ship,  to  ani- 
mate their  men.  The  signal  for  the  onset  was  now  given;  usually 
done  by  hanging  a  shield,  or  flag,  from  the  mast  of  the  vessel  bear- 
ing the  ruvccQxog ;  while  this  signal  was  hanging,  the  battle  went  on. 
The  mode  of  attack  was  similar  to  that  of  a  siege ;  the  ships  being 
drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  circle  or  semicircle  or  letter  V. 

§  160.  After  a  victory,  they  returned  with  the  booty  and  captured 
vessels.  All  the  cities  which  were  in  alliance  with  the  victorious 
party,  honored  the  successful  general  with  crowns  and  garlands. 
With  these  it  was  also  customary  to  adorn  his  vessel.  Sometimes 
the  wrecks  of  the  enemy's  ships  were  used  for  that  purpose.  These, 
as  well  as  the  better  part  of  the  spoils,  were  afterwards  consecrated 
to  the  gods ;  the  rest  being  divided  among  the  men  engaged  in  the 
battle.  A  monument  was  usually  raised  to  the  victors,  and  was  some- 
times adorned  with  wrecks,  especially  the  ornamental  parts  (axQ6rta1 
a^owT^tu,)  of  the  captured  ships.  —  The  most  common  punishments 
in  the  naval  service  were  whipping  with  cords,  and  submersion,  the 
offender  being  dragged  in  the  water  by  a  rope  even  till  drowned. 
Such  as  refused  to  serve  at  sea,  avavuu-/oi,  were,  at  Athens,  punish- 
ed with  disgrace  (fyrmla)  together  with  their  posterity.  Deserters, 
Umovavxatt  were  scourged,  or  had  their  hands  cut  off. 

(4)     Affairs  of  Private  Life. 

§  161. rIn  glancing  at  the  private  life  of  the  Greeks,  we  shall  follow 
the  same  order  as  in  speaking  of  the  earlier  period  (§51-60),  and  be- 
gin with  the  subject  of  food.  In  later  times,  when  riches  more  abound- 
ed, the  food  was  less  simple  than  before;  the  Lacedaemonians  main- 
tained longest  their  strictness  and  frugality,  no  professed  cook  being 
suffered  among  them.  Among  the  other  nations,  and  especially  the 
inhabitants  of  Sicily,  the  art  of  cooking  was  much  more  cultivated 
45* 


534  GTtECIAJf   ANTIQUITIES. 

and  practiced.  The  Athenians  however  lived  to  a  great  extent  mod- 
erately, owing  perhaps  to  the  comparative  unfruitfulness  of  the  Attic 
territory.  Water  was  the  common  drink,  with  which  they  were  ac- 
customed to  mingle  wine.  The  wine  sometimes  received  an  addi- 
tion of  myrrh  (dhog  uvQQivirijg,)  or  of  barley  meal  (6tro$  ajzy/.yiTwuivog). 

The  term  employed  to  designate  a  drinking  cup,  xoot/Jo,  is  commonly  de- 
rived from  y.soaoao&ai,  to  mingle,  indicating  the  prevalent  custom  of  mixing 
water  with  wine.  Potter  states,  that  no  certain  proportion  was  observed  in 
forming  this  mixture.  A  very  common  division  of  wines  was  into  the 
7io?.vcpoQoi  or  strong  wines,  bearing  a  large  addition  of  water,  and  o?.tyo(puooi, 
weak  wines.  To  drink  unmixed  icine,  axQaTOTiiiiv,  was  described  us  synony- 
mous with  2v6iOTL7titir,  to  drink  like  a  Scythian. — A  common  Homeric  epi- 
thet for  wine,  is-ai&oip',  sometimes  ytqbyeios.  (Cf.  Hem,.  II.  i.  462,  iv.  259.) — 
There  were  various  sorts  of  wine,  made  from  other  substances  besides  the 
grape.  Among  the  Greek  wines  from  the  grape,  the  earliest  of  which  we  have 
any  distinct  account,  is  the  Maronean,  probably  produced  on  the  coast  of 
Thrace,  a  black  sweet  wine  {Horn.  Od.  ix.  249).  The  Prwmnian  was  another 
of  early  celebrity,  supposed  by  some  to  have  its  name  from  a  hill  in  the  island 
of  Icaria,  where  it  was  produced.  In  later  times,  the  Lesbian,  Chian,  and 
Thasian  wines  were  considered  to  possess  uncommon  excellence.  The  wines 
of  Rhodes  and  Crete,  Cnidus  and  Cyprus,  were  also  much  esteemed.  The 
Mendean  wine,  from  Mende,  is  commended  for  a  peculiar  softness.  The 
Greeks  also  used  wines  imported  from  different  places  in  Asia  and  Egypt; 
an  excellent  kind  was  brought  from  Byblos  in  Phoenicia ;  the  Alexandrian, 
from  the  vicinity  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  was  highly  valued. 

See  Henderson' 's  History  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Wines.  Lond.  1824.  4. — This  work  is 
adorned  with  several  beautiful  illustrations  taken  from  antiques  and  relating  to  the  use  of 
wine.    Cf.  $  331  b. 

§  162.  The  Greeks  had  usually  two  meals  a  day,  viz.  a  breakfast, 
uy.oaTioua,  uqioTov,  the  time  of  which  was  not  fixed,  and  a  main  meal, 
oMttioj-,  which  was  regularly  towards  evening.  But  they  also  partook 
of  an  evening  meal,  6W»*ov  or  larciniauu,  and  an  after-dish  or  supper,- 

Robinson  remarks,  that  most  authors  speak  of  but  three  meals  a  day,  and  do 
not  consider  the  deu.iruv  as  a  separate  meal  from  the  Stynof, ;  while  others  think 
that  the  Greeks  had  but  two  meals  a  day,  the  aoiarov  and  Soqrtoq.  It  seems 
certain,  that  uquttov  was  finally  used  to  denote  the  dinner,  and  Ssittvov  the 
supper,  the  latter  being  the  principal  meal. 

"  There  was  little  variety  in  the  private  life  of  the  Athenians.  All  of 
them  rose  at  daybreak,  and  spent  a  short  time  in  the  exercise  of  devotion. 
Soon  after  six  in  the  morning,  the  judges  (dicasts)  took  their  seats  on  the  tri- 
bunal, and  those  employed  in  agriculture,  manufactures,  or  commerce,  en- 
gaged in  their  different  occupations.  At  mid-day,  the  more  wealthy  citizens, 
who  by  that  time  had  commonly  finished  their  serious  business,  refreshed 
themselves  with  a  short  sleep,  and  afterwards  spent  a  few  hours  in  hunting, 
or  in  the  exercise  of  the  palaestra,  or  in  walking  through  the  delightful  groves 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ilyssus  and  Cephisus :  or  more  frequently  in  discussing 
with  each  other  in  the  forum  (agora,)  the  interests  of  the  state,  the  conduct  of 
the  magistrates,  and  the  news  of  the  day.  It  was  also  during  the  afternoon, 
that  the  Athenians  sometimes  played  xvpsia  and  Tveirtia  ;  two  games,  the 
first  of  which  resembled  hazard,  and  the  other  either  backgammon  or 
chess." — "  During  the  day,  the  Athenians  either  took  no  food  or  only  a  slighft 
repast  in  private.  At  sun-set  they  sat  down  to  supper,  and  considering  the 
business  of  the  day  as  over,  devoted  the  evening  to  society  and  amusement) 
and  often  continued  to  a  late  hour  in  the  night." 

§  163.  In  early  times,  entertainments  were  given  only  in  honor  of 
the  gods  on  festival  days ;  afterwards  they  became  very  common. 
They  were  of  two  sorts  :  the  Ulanbi,  given  by  a  single  person,  and 
the  taaroc,  provided  at  the  expense  of  the  party  present.     Entertain- 


PLATE     XIX. 


"LTLFinrLnri 


536  GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

ments  of  the  latter  kind  were  generally  the  most  frugal,  orderly,  and 
conducive  to  friendly  feeling ;  such  as  were  invited  free  of  expense, 
as  poets,  singers  &c,  were  called  aorupoZoi;  the  contribution  of  each 
other  guest  was  termed  avufio/.)n  y.ura^o?.ir  —  The  marriage  feast,  yuuoc, 
is  sometimes  considered  as  a  third  sort. — There  were  also  public 
entertainments  for  a  whole  city,  tribe,  or  fraternity,  called  cvao'ina, 
7zavdai0iai,  Stinva  Srltuooice,  cpQciTQixic,  &LC.  furnished  by  contribution,  by 
the  liberality  of  rich  persons,  or  by  the  state. 

§  164.  Before  partaking  of  an  entertainment,  the  Greeks  always 
washed  and  anointed.  The  hands  were  also  again  washed  (rltjjaodai) 
between  the  successive  courses,  and  at  the  close  of  the  feast  (aTiovixp- 
uoSlu).  In  the  early  times  the  guests  sat  at  the  table  (§52) ;  in  later 
times  they  reclined,  but  not  always.  The  couches,  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  were  more  or  less  splendid,  according  to  each  one's  taste 
and  condition  in  life.  Five  usually,  sometimes  more,  occupied  a  sin- 
gle couch.  The  guests  took  their  places  according  to  their  proper 
rank,  although  often  no  exact  order  was  observed.  The  Greeks  at- 
tached a  certain  idea  of  sanctity  to  the  table  and  the  rights  of  the 
table. 

Three  couches,  xltvtu,  were  usually  placed  round  the  table,  TQantia,  one 
on  each  side,  leaving  the  fourth  side  open  to  the  servants  ;  hence  originated 
the  word  ToixAiriov,  triclinium  ;  they  were  covered  with  tapestry,  ornojuara, 
and  had  pillows,  nqoax9fpalaiai  for  the  guests;  they  were  often  very  costly, 
being  highly  ornamented  with  ivory  and  precious  metals.  Several  persons 
usually  reclining  on  the  same  couch,  the  first  lay  on  the  uppermost  part,  with 
his  legs  extended  behind  the  back  of  the  second,  whose  head  was  near  the 
bosom  of  the  first.  —  The  tables  were  made  of  wood,  highly  polished  [ttoxn. 
evioog)  ;  in  the  later  periods,  exceedingly  costly,  adorned  with  plates  of  silver 
and  gold,  and  curiously  carved  images. 

§  165.  At  a  regular  and  principal  meal  (as  the  Sunvov),  the  first 
course,  kqotiouu,  SsLtivov  tcqooUuov,  consisted  generally  of  pungent  herbs 
with  olives,  eggs,  oysters,  a  mixture  of  honey  and  wine  (tfrvfitlt),  and 
the  like.  Then  came  the  chief  dish,  more  substantial  and  costly, 
y.scpa/.ij  St'tnvov.  Afterwards  the  desert,  StvriQa  xq«at*t<h  consisting  of 
various  sweetmeats,  furnished  with  great  splendor  in  times  of  luxury, 
and  called  iniSnura,  utraSoQTcia,  &c.  —  In  all  entertainments  it  was 
customary  first  to  offer  some  of  the  provisions  to  the  gods,  especially 
to  make  an  oblation  from  the  liquor.  —  On  cheerful  occasions,  the 
guests  were  clothed  in  white,  and  crowned  with  garlands. 

At  entertainments  connected  with  the  festivals  of  the  gods,  the  garlands 
worn  were  formed  of  the  leaf  or  flower  sacred  to  the  particular  god  honored 
on  the  occasion.  At  other  entertainments  they  were  composed  of  various 
sorts,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the  taste  and  circumstances  of 
the  parties.  The  rose,  being  an  emblem  of  silence,  was  often  placed  above 
the  table,  to  signify  that  what  was  there  said  or  done  should  be  kept  private ; 
hence  the  phrase  vnb  qoSov,  sub  rosa. 

§  166.  The  officers  and  attendants  at  an  entertainment  were  as 
follows  ;  the  ZvujvooiaQxog,  cmef  manager,  who  was  either  the  maker 
of  the  feast  (o  iartarmq)t  or  one  appointed  to  that  place,  called  also 
TQajtttoTiotuc,  uQytroiy.f.irog ',  the  Baoiltvgf  whose  business  was  to  see 
that  the  laws  and  rules  of  such  entertainments  were  preserved,  and 
who  was  sometimes  the  same  as  the  first  mentioned;  the  jfoirg&f,  who 
divided  and  distributed  the  food,  of  which  the  best  and  largest  por- 


PRIVATE    LIFE    IN    THE    LATER   AGES.  537 

tions  were  given  to  the  most  honored  guests ;  and  the  *oivox6oi,  who 
distributed  the  drink,  and  were  heralds  (y.,jqvxeg),  youths  (souooi)  oft- 
en of  noble  birth,  or  servants  (Sov?.oi). 

In  the  later  ages,  it  became  an  object  of  luxury  to  have  young  and  beauti- 
ful slaves,  to  perform  the  last  mentioned  office  ;  for  such  ones  extravagant 
prices  were  paid;  and  a  distinction  was  made  between  the  (j^oy^oi,  who 
served  the  water,  and  the  divo/ooi,  who  poured  the  wine,  and  were  younger. 
When  waiting  at  table,  they  were  richly  adorned  in  person  and  dress. 

§  167  t.  The  drinking  vessels  or  cups  (xqot fjqtg,  SiTtara)  were  gen- 
erally large,  often  very  rich  and  costly ;  they  were  frequently  crowned 
with  garlands. 

1 1.  It  was  customary  for  the  master  of  the  feast  to  drink  to  his  guests,  in 
the  order  of  their  rank,  drinking  himself  a  part  of  the  cup  and  sending  the 
remainder  to  the  person  named,  which  was  termed  nqonivsiv;  while  the  act 
of  the  person,  who  received  the  cup  and  drank  the  rest  of  its  contents,  was 
termed  avrmqoTtlvtiv.  It  was  also  customary  to  drink  to  the  honor  of  the 
gods,  and  to  the  memory  of  absent  friends,  calling  them  by  name.  Three 
cups  were  usually  drank  to  the  gods,  each  one  to  a  particular  god,  as  Kqut^q 
*Equov,  Kqcct^q  Jibg  SwrijQog. — Sometimes  the  guests  contended,  who  should 
drink  the  most;  and  prizes  were  awarded  to  the  conquerors.  Some  melan- 
choly excesses  are  recorded  ;    as,  for  instance,  the  case  of  Alexander,  who  in 

this  way  lost  his  life. Singing  (uo?.tci>),  instrumental  music,  and  dancing 

(oQxijOTvg),  were  accompaniments  of  almost  every  feast.  The  songs  were  in 
early  times  chiefly  hymns  to  gods  or  heroes ;  subsequently  songs  and  dances 
of  a  wanton  character  were  introduced.  The  most  remarkable  of  the  various 
songs  used  were  those  termed  ax6?.ta. 

Athcnceus,  L.  x.  c.  9,  10.  Cf.  JElian,  Var.  Hist.  L.  ii.  c.  41.— Respecting  the  Ox.67.ia,  see  P. 
II.  $27. 

2.  After  the  music  and  dancing,  the  guests  often  were  invited  to  participate 
in  various  sports.  In  earlier  times,  the  athletic  games  were  practiced;  but  in 
the  later  ages,  less  violent  exercises  were  more  frequently  chosen,  among 
which  playing  at  the  xurra(iog  seems  to  have  been  a  favorite  amusement.  — 
Frequently  there  were  entertainments  or  repasts,  at  which  conversation  and 
discourses  were  designed  to  form  the  principal  amusement  (ovunoota).  Cf. 
P.  I.  §  69. 

Robinson,  Arch.  Graec.  p.  524.  —  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xxiv.  p.  421.—  Ocdoyn,  Plaisir3  de  la 
table  chez  les  Grecs,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  i.  54. 

§  168.  The  hospitality  practiced  by  the  early  Greeks  (§  57)  re- 
mained customary  also  in  later  times.  The  Cretans  especially  had 
the  reputation  of  being  hospitable ;  the  Athenians  were  termed  (pi- 
Ulivoi ;  but  the  Spartans  were  less  courteous  to  strangers.  Hospi- 
tality was  viewed  as  a  religious  duty,  and  several  gods  were  supposed 
to  take  strangers  under  special  protection,  and  to  avenge  all  injuries 
done  to  them. 

1m.  It  was  customary,  at  the  hospitable  meal,  first  to  present  salt  (&*iog  a?.g) 
before  the  stranger,  as  a  token  perhaps  of  permanent  friendship.  The  alii, 
ance  contracted  by  mutual  hospitality  (nqo^tvia,  to  ofiorQantLov)  was  as  sa- 
cred as  that  of  consanguinity.  The  parties  often  exchanged  tokens  of  it 
(avu^oXa)  in  friendly  gifts  (gtvtoc,  &3n«,  itvixlx),  which  were  carefully  preserved 
and  handed  down  to  posterity.  Officers  were  publicly  appointed,  called  tcq6$- 
tvoi,  whose  duty  it  was  to  receive  all  foreigners,  coming  on  any  public  errand, 
to  provide  entertainment  and  lodging  for  them,  and  conduct  them  to  the  pub- 
lic spectacles  and  festivals. 

2.  Inns,  however,  appear  to  have  existed  in  Greece  in  the  later  ages.  Cf. 
Cic.  De  Divin.  ii.  68. 

Simon,  on  the  hospitality  of  the  ancient3,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  in.  p.  41. 

§  169.  The  dress  of  the  Greeks  did  not  undergo  any  very  impor- 
tant changes ;    at  least  the  names  used  in  the  first  period  were  still 


538  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

applied  to  the  principal  garments  in  later  times.  Their  clothing  was 
more  commonly  made  of  uncolored  white  wool,  sometimes  of  linen 
and  cotton.  Of  the  colors,  which  were  given  to  dress,  purple  was 
the  most  esteemed. 

In.  Coverings  for  the  feet  {vrcoSiliiara,  ntSila)  were  used  very  early,  but 
not  universally  ;  they  were  of  various  forms.  Hats  (niZoi,  nu'ax,  nai&ia) 
were  first  introduced  at  a  later  period,  designed  chiefly  as  a  protection  against 
the  weather. 

2.  The  shoes  were  tied  under  the  soles  of  the  feet  by  thongs,  Utuvrtg  ;  hence 
the  terms  vnotitiv  and  vnoJ.viiv,  for  putting  on  and  taking  off  the  shoes.  The 
following  were  some  of  the  varieties;  aQ(iv?.ui,  large  and  easy  shoes,  which 
came  up  to  the  ankle ;  (tXavrat,  shoes  worn  chiefly  in  the  house  ;  $ia(ia&Qct, 
shoes  common  to  men  and  women  ;  iu{Iutcu,  shoes  used  by  comedians  ;  xudoq- 
voi,  shoes  used  by  tragedians,  buskins;  xao^urlvai,  coarse  s,hoes  worn  by  pea- 
sants ;  y.QSTcidtg,  a  kind  of  slipper;  supposed  by  some  to  be  used  by  soldiers 
particularly;  laxwnkai,  ativyJ.uiStg,  Spartan  shoes  of  a  r£d  color;  ntqaixalf 
shoes  of  a  white  color,  generally  worn  by  courtezans;  7r*o  i^uo  id*  c,  shoes  worn 
by  women  of  rank ;  ouvSuXa,  shoes  anciently  peculiar  to  heroines,  consisting 
originally  of  a  piece  of  wood  bound  to  the  sole  of  the  foot. 

In  our  Plate  XIX.  are  illustrations  of  various  forms  of  ancient  coverings  for  the  feet  and 
legs.  Several,  marked  by  the  letter  a,  are  from  Mexican  monuments  ;  those  marked  b,  and  c, 
are  said  to  be  Phrygian  ;  d,  s,  and  t,  are  from  Egyptian  remains  ;  e,  g,  i,  k,  I,  m,  p,  and  q,  are 
Greek  and  Roman  sandals  ;  k  and  i  having  very  rich  ornaments  for  the  instep  attached  to  them; 
q  having  sharp  iron  nails  underneath  (used  by  warriors,  it  is  supposed,  so  that  an  army 
marching  with  them  must  make  a  confused  noise  ;  cf.  Rosenmuller,  Schol.  in  Vet.  Test.  Isai. 
ix.  5.)  ;  /,  ?i,  o,  are  Dacian  ;  h,j,  v,  are  Persian  ;  r  is  the  Turkish  slipper  made  of  morocco. 

3.  The  military  covering  for  the  head  was  the  helmet  (§  44).  A  broad- 
brimmed  hat,  termed  niraaog,  was  used  by  young  men  (cf.  Plate  XTX.  fig.  3). 
Women  always  wore  upon  their  heads  coverings  or  ornaments  ;  some  of  them 
were  the  following;  aunv^,  a. fillet,  with  which  the  hair  was  tied  ;  xuXv7itqu, 
a  veil ;  xo^deuvov,  a  covering  which  came  down  from  the  head  to  the  should- 
ers ;  y.ixoi'(pa?.oc,  a  net  inclosing  the  hair  ;  luroa,  a  sort  of  cap  or  turban.  The 
term  uLtqcc  is  also  applied  to  a  kind  of  girdle  worn  by  military  men  under  the 
i^toou^.  A  form  of  the  fillet  used  by  women  given  to  luxury  was  termed  o-r«- 
(puvtj  vyriVtj.  The  '6t>i<og  was  a  sort  of  necklace  ;  the  women  frequently  had 
also  ear-rings,  tQuartx,  tints $}  trcjiia.  Among  the  Athenians,  some  of  the  men 
wore  in  their  hair  golden  ornaments  called  rtTnytg. 

4  u.  Next  to  the  body,  both  men  and  women  wore  a  tunic,  an  under  gar- 
ment of  wool,  /iTwr,  which  extended  to  the  knee,  and  when  worn  alone,  was 
trussed  up  by  a  rich  girdle  (ttavij)  ;  in  some  cases  it  was  fastened  from  the 
shoulders  by  costly  buckles  or  clasps  (/rsQurai,  nuQnai).  Over  this  garment 
the  men  wore  a  mantle  or  robe,  which  was  long  (cfuoog,  luunov)  as  worn  by 
the  more  respectable,  while  the  lower  classes  used  a  shorter  kind  (//.aiva). 
There  was  also  another  sort  of  short  mantle,  j^cr/a?,  worn  chiefly  by  soldiers. 
The  women  generally  wore  over  the  tunic  a  robe  (iuutiov),  rather  short,  and 
over  this  a  broad  veil  or  outer  robe,  ninXog,  with  which  they  could  cover  also 
the  head. 

5.  Of  coverings  for  the  body,  called  in  general  ioB^g,  ta&rjua,  and  tif*at  there 
were  many  varieties  and  forms,  besides  those  named  above  ;  as,  flairy,  diydi- 
qcc,  a  shepherd's  garment,  of  skins  ;  iyx6ii(ioiia,  a  cloak  used  by  shepherds  and 
servants;  t Jtonilg,  a  short  garment  for  females,  which  was  thrown  over  the 
shoulders;  ll-touie,  a  slave's  garment,  having  only  one  sleeve  (§  99)  ;  icpeOTQlg, 
a  kind  of  great  coat,  made  of  skins  of  goats ;  lmotqov,  a  girdle  appropriate  for 
women;  ■diniaTntor,  a  thin  garment  for  summer;  xurwruxti,  a  slave's  robe, 
bordered  at  the  bottom  with  sheepskin  ;  Xi}8og}  a  garment  common  to  both 
sexes,  suitable  for  warm  weather  ;  oto).}j}  a  long  robe  reaching  to  the  heels  ; 
oro6(piuv,  a  kind  of  kerchief  worn  by  women  over  the  bosom  (oTtiBodtOfiof)  ; 
TQifiujv,  TQi(ia>viov,  a  cloak  of  coarse  stuff,  worn  by  philosophers  and  poor  per- 
sons ;  -caiv'ta,  a  sort  of  band  used  by  females  and  passing  over  the  breast; 
used  also  to  signify  an  ornament  for  the  head;  (puiru/.tig,  a  cloak  without 
sleeves  for  cold  or  rainy  weather;  y'/.avlg,  a  fine  thin  robe;  yilltov,  an  orna- 
ment worn  by  women  chiefly,  upon  the  arms  and  hands,  a  bracelet.  Robin- 
son's Arch.  Gr.  p.  541-46. 


PRIVATE    LIFE    IN    THE    LATER   AGES.  539 

The  following  is  an  incidental  remark  of  Chateaubriand  respecting  the  materials  of  ancient 
Clothing.  "  My  host  laughed  at  the  faces  that  I  made  at  the  wine  and  honey  of  Attica  ;  but, 
&s  some  compensation  for  the  disappointment,  he  desired  me  to  take  notice  of  the  dress  of  the 
female  who  waited  on  us.  It  was  the  very  drapery  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  especially  in  the 
horizontal  and  undulating  folds  that  were  formed  below  the  bosom,  and  joined  the  perpendic- 
ular folds  which  marked  the  skirt  of  the  tunic.  The  coarse  stuff,  of  which  this  woman's 
dress  was  composed,  heightened  the  resemblance  ;  for,  to  judge  from  sculpture,  the  stuffs  of 
the  ancients  were  much  thicker  than  ours.  It  Would  be  impossible  to  form  the  large  sweeps 
observable  in  antique  draperies  with  the  muslins  and  silks  of  modern  female  attire  ;  the  gauze 
of  Cos,  and  the  other  stuffs  which  the  satirists  denominated  woven  wind,  were  never  imitated 
by  the  chisel."     Travels  in  Greece  &c.  p.  137  (N.  Y.  ed.  1814). 

Our  Plate  XX.  contains  several  engravings  illustrating  ancient  and  Oriental  female  costume. 
In  fig.  a,  which  is  Egyptian,  we  see  a  form  of  the  veil ;  similar  to  it  is  the  veil  in  fig.  g,  which 
is  taken  from  the  French  work  L'Egyptc  <Slc,  and  represents  an  Egyptian  spinning;  another 
form  appears  in  fig.  d,  an  Arabian  hood  ;  in  y,  which  is  Syrian,  is  another  kind,  a  sort  of  muf- 
fler ;  in  w,  which  is  Egyptian,  is  one  which  floats  in  the  wind  like  a  modern  Veil,  but  was  at- 
tached to  a  riband  or  chain  passing  round  the  foreLead  and  joined  by  a  clasp  above  the  eyes. 
In  fig.  m,  is  a  Grecian  lady  with  a  peculiar  head-dress,  somewhat  resembling  the  spiral  curl  of 
the  murex  shell  from  which  Tyrian  purple  was  said  to  be  obtained.  Other  head-ornaments  ap- 
pear in  fig.  h,  a  Grecian  female,  with  the  double  flute,  dressed  for  a  festal  occasion,  and  in  fig, 
i,  another  Grecian  in  a  funeral  dress.  The  net  above  mentioned  is  seen  in  fig.  4,  of  Plate 
XIX. ;  in  fig.  7,  of  the  same  plate,  is  a  form  of  the  turban,  like  the  cresent-shaped  tiara  or  dia- 
dem sometimes  seen  on  representations  of  Juno.  In  these  figures  we  also  see  the  tunic  fastened 
to  the  shoulders  by  clasps  ;  in  fig.  4,  it  is  without  sleeves,  as  in  fig.  h,  Plate  XX.  This  figure 
shows  also  the  robe  called peplos ;  which  is  seen  also  in  fig.  k,  said  to  represent  a  Grecian  lady 
in  full  costume  of  the  olden  style  ;  an  outer  garment  like  the  peplos  of  the  Greeks  is  seen 
likewise  in  fig.  b,  which  represents  a  Cairo  dancer,  and  in  fig.  c,  which  shows  an  oriental  silk 
robe  thrown  over  the  head  and  arms.  In  fig.  e  and/,  we  have  two  female  Bacchantes  ;  their 
costume,  like  that  of  the  musician  fig.  h,  appears  to  be  highly  ornamented  ;  one  holds  the  thyr- 
sus, and  a  crater  of  wine  ;  the  other  appears  to  be  playing  with  a  sort  of  castanets.  In  fig.  ji, 
is  a  representation  of  an  Egyptian  princess  from  the  palace  at  Karnac  ;  it  exhibits  a  slight  un- 
der dress  and  a  close  robe  in  slanting  folds  open  in  front,  the  whole  scarcely  concealing  the 
form  ;  it  may  illustrate  the  Coan  vestments,  or  woven  wind,  of  the  ancients.  A  nearly  transpa- 
rent robe  is  also  seen  in  fig.  o,  Which  is  an  Egyptian  priestess  holding  in  her  right  hand  a  sis- 
trum,  and  in  her  left  some  mythological  image  probably  pertaining  to  the  Worship  of  Isis. 

Respecting  the  material  of  the  vestments  of  Cos,  see  $335.  —  On  the  question  concerning 
the  use  of  silk  among  the  Greeks,  cf.  Anthon's  Lempriere,  under  the  word  Seres.  —  On  the  use 
of  cotton,  E.  Baines,  History  of  Cotton  Manufacture.  Lond.  1836.  8.  (chap,  ii.)  —  A  brief  ac- 
count of  Costumes  is  given  in  North  Amer.  Rev.  for  July,  1838.  p.  148 — Mongez,  Sur  habille- 
mens  des  anciens,  (Gr.  &.  Rom.)  in  the  Mem.  de  I'Institut,  Classe  d'Hist.  ettLit.  Anc.  vwl.  iv.  p, 
222.  —  Cf.  §  197.  3. 

6.  The  Athenian  women  seem  to  have  paid  much  attention  to  the  adorning 
of  their  persons.  "  They  painted  their  eye-brows  black,  and  applied  to  their 
faces  a  layer  of  ceruse  or  white  lead,  with  deep  tints  of  rouge.  They  sprin- 
kled over  their  hair,  which  was  crowned  with  flowers,  a  yellow-collored  pow- 
der." At  the  toilet  they  used  mirrors  (Kuto/itqci)  commonly  made  of  pol- 
ished metals. 

The  Bride,  in  Plate  XIX.  fig.  4,  holds  a  mirror  in  her  right  hand.  —  See  Menard,  Sur  les  mi- 
roirs  des  anciens,  in  the  Mem  de  PAcad.  des  Inscr,  xxm.  140.  —  Cf.  Class.  Journ.  xvi.  152. 

§  170.  The  custom  of  frequent  bathing  and  anointing  continued  to 
the  latest  period,  and  both  were  practiced  for  pleasure  as  well  as  for 
cleanliness  and  vigor  of  body.  Public  baths  became  at  length  very 
common,  even  in  the  cities  which  had  not  previously  admitted  them. 
They  were  furnished  with  several  distinct  rooms  for  undressing,  for 
bathing,  for  anointing,  &,c,  which  were  named  from  their  appropri- 
ate uses. 

1.  The  public  baths  were  furnished  with  various  accommodations  for  con- 
venience and  pleasure.  They  commonly  contained  several  separate  rooms  ; 
(1)  the  anodvTi'^iov,  in  which  those  who  bathed  put  off  their  clothes  J  (2)  the 
t)7z6xavoTov,  the  "  sweating  room,"  or  room  for  taking  vapor  baths  }  the  pct7i- 
TLori'^nov,  for  the  hot  bath  j  (4)  the  Iovtqov,  for  the  cold  bath ;  (o)  the  aUin- 
T>joior,  the  anointing  room, 

This  account  of  the  rooms  is  according  to  Robinson,  Arch.  Grrec.  p.  506.  —  For  a  more  full 
account  of  ancient  baths,  see  P.  I.  $  241.  3. 

2  m.  The  various  ointments  used  had  different  names  according  to  the  modes 
and  materials  of  their  preparation.  To  such  an  extent  did  extravagance  go 
in  this  repect,  that  it  was  sometimes  necessary  to  check  it  by  laws.  At  Spar- 
ta the  selling  of  perfumed  ointments  was  wholly  prohibited,  and  in  Athens 
men  were  not  allowed  to  engage  in  it. 


&40 


GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


3.  "  Every  part  of  the  body  had  its  appropriate  unguent.  To  the  feet  and 
legs  the  Greeks  applied  ^Egyptian  ointment ;  the  oil  extracted  from  the  palm 
was  thought  best  adapted  to  the  cheeks  and  breasts  ;  the  arms  were  refreshed 
With  balsam-mint ;  sweet  marjoram  had  the  honor  of  supplying  an  oil  for  the 
eye-brows  and  hair,  as-wild  thyme  had  for  the  knee  and  kneck.  —  A  nice  dis- 
tinction divided  perfumes  into  two  kinds ;  the  first  were  a  thicker  sort  and 
•applied  more  as  salves  or  wax  (/outuTtf)  ;  the  others  were  liquid  and  poured 
over  the  limbs  (alt  i ft  para).  To  indulge  in  the  liquid  ointment  was  thought 
to  evince  a  feminine  and  voluptuous  disposition  ;  but  the  sober  and  virtuous, 
it  was  allowed,  might  use  the  thicker  sort  without  any  impeachment  of  their 
good  qualities."  —  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xxiii.  263. 

4  u.  Some  of  the  services  connected  with  washing  and  anointing  were  per- 
formed by  women  ;  in  particular  they  washed  and  anointed  the  feet.  It  was 
the  custom  to  kiss  the  feet  of  such  as  were  highly  esteemed. 

In  illustration  of  this  custom  of  kissing  the  feet,  cf.  Aristophanes,  2(fi;xtg,  (p.  460.  ed.  Lug* 
cBat.  1624),  and  in  New  Test.  Luke,  vii.  38  ;  John,  xi.  2. 

§  171.  The  general  construction  of  Greek  houses  has  already  been 
stated  (§  56).  Perfect  as  was  the  art  of  architecture,  particularly  at 
Athens,  it  was  applied  to  public  buildings  rather  than  private  dwell- 
ings, which  were  mostly  of  an  ordinary  character.  This  was  true 
also  at  Thebes,  otherwise  greatly  celebrated  for  her  superb  architeo 
lure.  Much  more  care  was  bestowed  in  ornamenting  the  interior 
apartments,  especially  the  hall  for  eating,  with  rich  furniture  and 
utensils,  and  with  elegant  works  of  art  (P.  I.  §  178).  Besides,  the 
custom  of  encompassing  and  bordering  most  of  the  public  places  or 
openings  with  colonnades,  hindered  a  free  view  of  the  private  houses, 
and  rendered  their  beauty  or  splendor  superfluous.  The  artists  also 
found  it  to  their  honor  and  profit  to  construct  the  public  ediffces  in  a 
style  of  superior  magnificence. 

1.  The  common  term  for  the  whole  house  was  olxog  ;  the  eating  hall  was 
Cfalled  TQiy.llviov  and  soriarooiov  ;  the  sleeping  room,  xoitojv. — Potter  gives 
the  following  account  of  Grecian  houses.  "  The  men  and  women  had  dis- 
tinct apartments.  The  part  in  which  the  men  lodged  was  towards  the  gate, 
and  called  uvSquv  or  avdQioving  ;  that  assigned  to  the  women,  was  termed  yv- 
raixouv,  ywcuxioviTtc,  and  was  the  most  remote  part  of  the  house,  and  behind 
the  av?.in  before  which  were  other  apartments  denominated  nQodouog  and  >roo- 
txi'/.tov.  The  women's  chambers  were  called  riytoi  $a/.auot,  as  being  placed 
at  the  top  of  the  house  (cf.  §  56),  for  the  lodgings  of  the  women  were  usually 
in  the  highest  rooms  (ma,  vmqZa).  Penelope  lodged  in  such  a  place,  to 
which  she  ascended  by  a  xllpa£  (Odyss.  i.  330,)." — The  terms  avapaQubg,  ava~ 
paQulg,  ava^u6oa,  and  ava^a&Qov,  are  all  used  to  designate  a  staircase,  a  flight  of 

steps,  or  stairs. Although  in  general  the  private  dwellings  were  of  an  orr 

dinary  character,  yet  in  the  time  of  Demosthenes  there  were  some,  which 
were  very  costly  and  splendid.  The  houses  of  Sparta  are  said  to  have  been 
more  lofty  and  built  with  greater  solidity  than  those  at  Athens. 

In  our  Plate  XIX.  fig.  1,  is  a  plan  of  a  Grecian  house  as  given  by  Stuart  (Dictionary  of  A»- 
chitecture).  His  account  is  as  follows.  "  The  Greek  house  had  no  atrium,  but  instead  of  it 
the  peristyle  was  approached  by  a  passage  called  thyroreum.  On  the  side  of  the  peristyle  op- 
posite the  entrance  was  a  kind  of  vestibule  called  pastas  ;  the  apartments  on  the  right  and  left 
of  which  were  termed  severally  thalamos  and  amphi-thalamos,  and  beyond  them  were  the  oed 
or  halls.  In  the  first  peristyle  were  the  triclinia  in  daily  use,  and  the  apartments  of  the  do- 
mestics; this  division  of  the  house  was  called  gyiueconitis.  In  the  south  portico  of  the  greater 
peristyle,  whicli  was  styled  andronitis,  were  the  pinacothecm  and  Cyiicene  acus ;  in  the  eastern-, 
the  bibliotheca  :  in  the  western,  the  excdra  .-  and  in  the  northern,  the  great  acus,  or  banqueting- 
footn.  The  hospitalui  consisted  of  triclinia  and  sleeping  rooms  for  strangers  and  were  on  the 
right  and  left  of  the  great  oecus.  There  were  courts  or  passages  to  these  apartments  called 
mesaulce.  In  the  plan  [Plate  XIX.]  a  is  the  thyroreum;  b,  peristyle  of  the  gynaconitis ;  c,  the 
pastas  ;  d,  the  great  mcus ;  c,  stables  ;  /,/,  courts  ;  g,g,  g,  porter's  cclUe ;  h,  h,  common  triclinia; 
i,  the  thalamos  ;  j,  the  amphi-thalamos ;  k,  k,  aci  or  halls  ;  I,  I,  the  mesaultej  m,  m,  the  hospitalia  ; 
n,  the  vestibule  ;  o,  the  great  peristyle ;  p,  the  bibliotheca  ;  q,  q,  the  pinacothecce ;  r,  the  Cyzicene 
opus  ;  s,  the  czedra." 

2.  A  door  (#t:oa,  uvh])  was  fastened  by  means  of  lock  and  key  (xltlg) ;  the 


PLATE     XX. 


542  GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

key  described  by  Homer  seems  to  have  been  merely  a  bolt  which  was  m^ved 
by  a  thong  (ifiag)  attached  to  it  (Od.  i.  442).  In  later  times  keys  similar  to 
the  modern  were  in  use.  —  Various  articles  of  furniture  are  named.  In  the 
sleeping  room  was  the  bed,  y.olrtj  or  7.iyoq. ;  this  was  often  in  the  form  of  the 
sofa,  about  six  feet  long  and  three  broad  ;  called  also  *AiW.  The  chair  (-Soov 
05),  ewer  (.too^oo;)  and  basin  for  washing  (/.otrr/oior),  mirror  (xuronrooj ) 
and  its  case  or  stand  (/.oyttor),  clothes-chest  (xtorq),  <fcc.  are  mentioned. 
In  Plate  XXV.  fig.  b,  is  a  sort  of  key  formed  by  a  bolt  and  string;    it  was  found  at  PompelL 

Fig.  2,  of  Plate  XIX.  is  a  Grecian  key,  selected  from  a  number  given  in  Jtfoiitfaucon Fig.  5, 

of  this  Plate,  shows  a  Grecian  sofa-Serf,  with  a  man  in  one  corner  and  his  wife  reclining"  be- 
hind him.  Fig.  10,  of  same  Plate,  is  another  form  of  the  Greek  sofa.  Fig.  d,  of  Plate  XXV, 
is  a  form  taken  from  an  Egyptian  monument.  —  Chairs  (Egyptian)  are  seen  in  fig.  8,  and  fig.  9, 
of  Plate  XIX.  ;  others  (Grecian)  in  fig.  7,  and  fig.  4.  — The  latter  fig.  shows  also  a  mirror,  held 
by  the  female  before  her  face. 

§  172.  The  arts  of  industry,  especially  navigation  and  commerce, 
were  highly  prosperous  in  the  flourishing  period  of  Grecian  history. 

1  u.  The  business  of  navigation  was  originally  in  the  hands  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians solely ;  but  afterwards  was  shared  by  the  occupants  of  Asia  Minor  and 
several  of  the  Greek  islands.  The  lucrative  commerce  of  Egypt  was  then 
chiefly  monopolized  by  the  Greeks.  Athena  was  forced  to  engage  in  this  pur- 
suit by  the  unproductiveness  of  her  soil ;  and  although  Lycurgus  prohibited 
commerce  at  Sparta,  yet  afterwards  even  there  it  gradually  and  constantly 
increased.  By  the  union  with  Egypt  at  a  later  period,  Grecian  commerce 
rose  to  still  higher  success.  Besides  the  states  just  named,  Corinth  and  the 
islands  iEgina  and  Rhodes  were  the  principal  places  of  commerce  ;  and  their 
industry  and  enterprize  contributed  very  much  to  the  wealth  and  power  of 
the  Grecian  states. 

2.  Attica  was  favorably  situated  for  commerce,  being  washed  on  three  sides 
by  the  sea.  Her  merchants  are  said,  besides  receiving  the  corn,  wines,  and 
metals,  which  came  from  various  places  in  the  Mediterranean,  to  have  im- 
ported also  timber,  salted  fish,  and  slaves  from  Thrace  and  Macedonia;  wool- 
len and  other  stuffs  from  Asia  Minor  and  Syria;  and  honey,  wax,  tar,  and 
hides  from  the  cities  on  the  Black  sea.  They  likewise  exported,  not  only  dif- 
ferent commodities  brought  from  foreign  countries  for  the  purpose,  but  the 
products  of  Attica,  which  were  chiefly  olives  and  oil,  and  various  articles  of 
manufacture,  particularly  arms  and  domestic  utensils. 

Barihelemifs  Anacharsis,  ch.  lvi.  —  D.  H.  Hegewisch's  geograph.  und  histor.  Nachrichten  dfe 
Colonien  der  Griechen  betreffend.  Altona,  1808.  8.  —  RoUin's  History  of  the  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences of  the  Ancients.  —  For  an  account  of  the  routes  by  which  the  productions  of  the  east 
were  conveyed  through  Babylon  to  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean,  see  Heeren,  on  the 
Commerce  of  Ancient  Babylon,  as  translated  by  F.  Mt  Hubbard,  in  the  Bibl.  Repos.  vol.  vn.  p* 
364  ss. 

3.  It  is  evident  from  the  poems  of  Hesiod  (cf.  P.  II.  §  51),  that  agriculture 
was  at  an  early  period  a  subject  of  practical  interest  among  the  Greeks.  Yet 
the  art  does  not  appear  to  have  been  carried  to  very  great  perfection  in  any 

of  the  states.    (Cf.  §  58.) The  plough  (<xqotqov)  of  the  Greeks  is  said  to 

have  been  of  two  kinds  (Si'o  tiStf) ;  the  one  kind,  composite  (ittjXTor)  ;  the 
other,  simple  (avroyorov).  (Cf.  Hes.  Works  and  Days,  v.  432,  436.)  The 
principal  parts  of  the  composite  were  the  following;  the  lorofiosvg  or  qvuo$, 
beam  ;  the  former  term  is  also  put  for  the  yoke,  or  the  string  or  thong  connect- 
ing the  yoke  with  the  beam  ;  the  v'vvig  or  vrvi-,  plougkshare,  whose  extreme 
point  was  called  vvuytj;  it  was  attached  to  a  piece  of  wood  called  D.vua,  and 
connected  with  a  piece  termed  yv^q ;  the  iyJXArli  handle. 

A  specimen  of  the  simple  may  be  seen  in  fig.  6,  of  our  Plate  XXV.;  which  represents  a  Sj*- 
rian  plough,  with  a  small  metallic  blade  or  share,  furnishing  an  illustration  of  the  metaphor  of 
the  prophet  (Micah,  iv.  3) ;  other  forms  are  seen  in  fig.  iif. ;  one  of  the  engravings  shows  a 
single  bullock  drawing  the  plough,  which  is  held  in  tme  hand  of  the  laborer,  while  with  the 
other  he  guides  the  animal  by  a  rein.  —  See  Mongez,  Sur  les  instrumens  d'agriculture  des  an- 
ciens,  in  the  Man.  de  Vlnstilvi,  Classe  A'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  II.  p.  616;  vol.  III.  (published 
1818),  p.  1.  with  engravings.  — Cf.  Rougier,  as  cited  $  13.  5. 

§  173.  Here  it  may  be  proper  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the  mon- 
eys, weights,  and  measures  of  the  Greeks.  In  early  times,  traffic 
was  effected  only  by  exchange  of  goods,  or  barter,  the  inconvenience 
of  which  must  soon  be  felt.     Rude  metals  were  next  employed,  ia 


PRIVATE  LIFE  IN  THE  LATER  AGES.  543 

order  to  render  an  equivalent  for  what  was  purchased,  and  were 
weighed  for  the  purpose.  Afterwards  their  weight  and  value  were 
indicated  by  signs,  marked  or  impressed  upon  them.  At  length,  reg- 
ular coins  were  stamped,  but  the  exact  time  of  their  first  appearance 
cannot  be  decided  (cf.  P.  I.  §.  94,  95).  It  is  known,  however,  that 
in  the  time  of  Solon,  B.  C.  about  600,  they  were  in  common  use  in 
Greece.  The  metals  used  in  making  money-coins  were  gold,  silver, 
brass,  copper,  and  iron.  The  oldest  coins  were  impressed  only  on 
one  side.  The  impressions  were  various,  both  as  to  the  objects  rep- 
resented and  as  to  the  art  and  skill  therein  exhibited.  The  Attic 
coins  were  stamped  with  an  image  of  Minerva,  and  of  the  owl,  her 
sacred  bird. 

1  u.  The  general  terras  used  to  designate  metals  as  a  circulating  medium 
were  these  :  vUnaua,  any  legitimate  coin;  rq^/tu^  money  in  the  loose  sense  j 
and  xtQua,  small  coin  or  change.  Besides  these  there  were  numberless  spe- 
cific names,  derived  from  the  weight  of  the  coins,  the  place  where  they  were 
struck,  or  the  image  upon  their  face.  There  were  also  terms,  which  expres- 
sed large  sums  or  amounts,  but  were  not  names  of  actual  coins  ;  as  e.  g.  the 
iiva  or  uvta,  and  the  rtdavrov.  The  former  (uva)  designated  at  Athens  the 
sura  of  100  drachms  ;  at  iEgina,  the  sum  of  160  ;  the  term  was  however  also 
used  to  signify  merely  the  golden  aran]q.  The  latter  (r<x?.avrov)  was  usually 
the  sum  of  6000  drachms,  but  had  different  values  in  different  places;  a  tal- 
ent of  gold  in  Attica  was  equivalent  to  ten  talents  of  silver. 

3.  Among  the  coins,  named  from  the  image  upon  them,  were  the  (iovg,  bear- 
ing the  figure  of  an  ox ;  the  zuq*/  having  a  representation  of  Pallas,  the  maid; 
yl.uvi,  with  an  owl  for  its  device,  another  name  for  the  tetradrachma. 

In  Plate  II.  are  several  specimens  of  Greek  coins,  taken  from  Montfaucon's  Antiquity  Ex- 
plained, and  from  Calmefs  Dictionary.  Fig.  1  is  a  coin  of  Thebes ;  fig.  2  of  Argos  ;  3,  of  iEgina; 
4,  and  also  a,  d,  and  e,  are  Macedonian  coins ;  5,  and  also  q,  c,f,  and  v  are  Athenian  ;  6  is  a 
coin  of  Thespire  ;  7  is  an  ^Etolian.  Fig.  5  is  an  Attic  tetradrachm,  with  Minerva's  head  on  the 
obverse,  and  on  the  reverse  an  owl  standing  on  a  prostrate  vase  encompassed  with  an  olive 
crown  ;  fig.  v  is  the  reverse  of  a  didrachm,  showing  an  augur's  wand  and  a  sacrificial  vase  ; 
fig.  /  is  the  drachm,  bearing  a  sort  of  tripod.  Fig.  c  has  the  head  of  a  Vulcan,  and  on  the  re- 
verse are  two  lighted  torches  ;  on  b,  Apollo  appears  in  company  with  the  owl. — Cf.  P.  I.  §  93. — 
Bbckh,  iiber  Munzen,  Masse,  und  Gewichte  des  Alterthums.    Lpz.  1838  8. 

2u.  Of  the  actual  and  circulating  coins  the  ?.tnxdv  was  the  smallest.  Sev- 
en of  this  name  were  equal  to  the  yuly.ovg,  and  eight  of  the  latter  to  the 
o^oJ.oq.  This  last  varied,  however,  in  value,  according  to  the  place  where  it 
was  coined.  Six  o^o/.oi  were  equivalent  to  the  Sqa/ui},  which  had  its  name 
from  the  weight,  but  was  of  different  values  in  different  places.  The  names 
of  the  coins  i^uwflM.iov ,  dit»(lu?.iov  or  dwftolov,  rqio(io?.ov,  &c.  and  i^ilSqayuov, 
diSqa/uor,  &c.  are  easily  understood.  Four  dquyual  were  equal  to  the  ora- 
T>'tQ  in  silver,  a  coin,  which  was  also  called  TsTQadqayuov,  and  seems  to  have 
been  the  one  most  generally  in  use  among  the  Greeks.  The  arar^q  in  gold 
was  equal  in  value  to  20  dqa/uccl,  in  weight  to  2,  and  was  sometimes  called 
dldqayuog,  but  was  most  generally  termed  yqvaovg.  It  received  likewise 
other  names  from  the  places  where,  or  the  kings  under  whom,  it  was  struck  ; 
as  e.  g.  Stater  Daricus,  Stater  Crasi,  &c. 

§  174.  Various  changes  successively  took  place  in  the  denomi- 
nations of  Greek  coins.  There  were  changes  also  in  the  worth  of 
these  coins,  both  as  to  their  actual  contents  and  their  relative  value. 
Sometimes  it  was  necessary  to  coin  tin  and  iron  for  money.  The 
Spartans  were  required  by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  to  use  tin  and  iron, 
and  did  not  depart  from  the  custom  until  a  late  period.  The  com- 
mon ratio  of  value  between  gold  and  silver  was  as  one  to  ten,  but 
it  was  sometimes  above ;  as  one  to  twelve  and  a  half.  There 
are  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  comparing  Grecian  money  with 
modern,  and  thus  obtaining  a  settled  idea  of  the  value  of  the  for- 
mer.    The  Sqayju)  equalled  about  9d  sterling. 


544  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Many  specimens  of  the  silver  arar^o  or  rsTQudga/uov  are  still  preserved  ire 
collections.  Letronne,  having  accurately  examined  500  of  them,  and  arranged 
them  according  to  the  centuries  in  which  they  were  struck,  deduced  the 
mean  weight  of  the  old  Attic  tya/in},  coined  B.  C.  2  centuries  and 
more;  and  the  value,  as  thus  derived,  is  stated  at  17  cents,  5-93  mills  of  our 
currency.     The  later  ^a/iii]  is  stated  at  16  cents,  5-22  mills. 

Conger's  Essay  on  the  Measures,  Weights  and  Moneys  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  An- 
thonys ed.  of  Lempriere. — O.  Grosse,  Metrol.  Tafeln  iiber  die  alt.  Masse  &c.  Roms  und  Griech- 
enlands  (Von  A.  G.  Kdstner)  Brauns.  1792.  8.  —  F.  Ch.  Matthid,  Uebersicht  des  rom.  und 
griech.  Mass — Gewichts— -und  Munz— wesens.  Frankf.  1809.  4.— J.  F.  Warm,  De  ponderuni, 
etc.  rationibus  apud  Romauos  et  Grcecos.  Lips.  1821.  8. 

§  175.  In  conection  with  the  account  of  Grecian  money,  it  is  proper  to  speak 
of  their  systems  of  notation,  or  of  denoting  numbers.  The  more  ancient 
method  was  quite  simple.  Six  letters  were  used  for  the  purpose,  viz.  for  one, 
1,  perhaps  from  3Ia  for  Mia  ;  for  five,  IT,  from  77«jt£  ;  for  ten,  J,  from  Jixa  ; 
for  a  hundred,  77,  from  Hixarov  ;  for  a  thousand,  X,  from  Xi'J.ia  ;  and  for  ten 
thousand,  M,  from  Mvoia.  All  numbers  were  expressed  by  combinations  of 
these  letters  ;  each  combination  signifying  the  sum  of  the  numbers  designat- 
ed by  the  letters  separately ;  e.  g.  777  1 1  represented  eight;  A TI  I,  sixteen; 
J  J,  twentij  &e.  Sometimes  they  were  combined  so  as  to  express  the  product, 
instead  of  the  sum,  of  the  separate  letters;  in  such  case,  one  of  the  letters  was 
made  large,  and  the  other  was  written  within  it  of  a  smaller  size  ;  for  example, 
p|  (representing  a  77  with  aiin  its  bosom)  signified  10  X  5,  i.  e.  50  :  so 
a  77  with  an  77  placed  within  it  signified  100  X  5,  or  500  ;  and  a  J 
having  M  within  it,  signified  10,000  X  10,  or  100,000  :  this  form  of  com- 
bination was  chiefly  confined  to  numbers  involving  5  as  a  factor  ;  such  num- 
bers were  expressed  by  using  a  large  77  and  writing  the  letter  for  the  other 
factor  in  its  bosom.  This  was  the  old  Attic  system,  and  is  found  on  inscrip- 
tions ;  it  is  seen  in  the  Chronicon  Parium  (cf.  P.  I.  §  91.  4.) 

But  this  method  was  superseded  by  another ;  in  which  all  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  were  employed,  and  also  three  signs  in  addition,  viz.  Bav,Ko7tna,  and 
Saf.iiiL,  mentioned  in  P.  I.  §  46.  By  this  system,  the  first  eight  letters,  from 
Alpha  to  Theta,  expressed  the  units  respectively  from  1  to  9,  Bav  being  in- 
serted after  Epsilon,  to  signify  6  ;  the  second  eight,  from  Iota  to  Pi,  express- 
the  tens  ;  the  last  (77)  signifying  80,  and  Kunnu  being  used  for  90  ;  the  next 
eight,  from  Rho  to  Qmega,  expressed  the  hundreds  ;  52  standing  for  800,  and 
2af.ml  being  used  for  900.  The  letters,  when  thus  used  to  designate  num- 
bers, were  usually  marked  with  a  stroke  above  ;  thus,  t',  10;  ■/.' ,  20;  y.p'  22. 
In  order  to  express  thousands,  the  eight  first  letters  with  Bad  were  again 
used,  but  with  a  stroke  beneath  ;  thus  ,6,  4,000;  ,c,  6000  ;  ;xtrt£,  20,432.— Cf. 
Robinson's  Buttman,  §2. — Bouillet,  Diet.  Class,  (tableaux  &c.  N.  34.) 

§  176.  The  use  of  w eights  was  of  early  origin  among  the  Greeks, 
as  elsewhere.  Grecian  weights  had  the  same  names  with  their  coins 
of  money,  a  circumstance  which  seems  clearly  to  point  back  to  the 
custom  of  weighing  uncoined  gold  and  silver  for  purposes  of  ex- 
change. The  proportions  of  the  weights  were  different  in  different 
applications  of  them  ;  as,  e.  g.  those  of  common  merchandize  did  not 
in  all  respects  correspond  with  those  of  the  apothecary.  The  ofioUq  is 
said  to  have  been  the  smallest  weight  used,  except  by  apothecaries  or 
physicians,  who  used  a  weight,  termed  xsqutiot,  about  one  fourth  of 
the  upo?.ugr  and  another,  oituqiov,  only  one  fourth  of  that. 

§  177.  In  speaking  of  the  Greek  measures,  we  may  notice  them  as 
divided  into  measures  of  length,  extent,  or  capacity. v 

1  u.  The  names  of  the  measures  of  length  were  taken,  as  was  the  case  in 
most  of  the  ancient  nations,  from  members  of  the  human  body  ;  e.  g.  daxrv- 
l.oq,  a  finger's  breadth;  oniGautj,  a  span,  hand's  width,  the  distance  from  the- 
extremity  of  the  thumb  to  that  of  the  little  finger  ;  novg,  a  foot.  The  Her- 
culean or  Olympic  foot  was  longer.  The  jefj^vg,  a  cubit,  was  the  distance 
from  the  elbow  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger.  'Oyyvtu  a  fathom,  was. 
the  distance  across  the  breast,  between  the  extremities  of  the  hands,  the  arms 
being  extended  (o§«yw)  in  a  horizontal  line.. 


PRIVATE    LIFE    IN    THE    LATER    AGES.  545 

2.  Of  measures  including  length  and  breadth,  or  measures  of  extent,  the 
principal  were  the  novg,ihe  aoovoa,  and  the  nJ.i&Qov.  The  novg  was  a  square 
with  each  side  one  foot ;  the  uoovqgc,  a  square  with  each  side  50  noStg  ;  and 
the  nXi&oov,  a  square  with  a  side  of  108  nudtg  j  so  that  2,500  nodtg  made  an 
aoovQa,  and  4  uoovqoci  dLTtlidoov. — The  term  othxqtLov  seems  to  have  been  used 
to  designate  a  measuring  line. 

3m.  Measures  of  capacity  had  mostly  the  same  names,  whether  applied  to 
liquids  or  to  things  dry.  The  largest  liquid  measure  was  uErqijr^g,  equal  to 
about  8  gallons,  and  called  also  sometimes  xudog,  xsquimov,  and  au<poqsvg. 
The  smallest  measure  was  the  y.oy/.iuoiov,  containing  less  than  a  hundreth 
part  of  a  pint,  and  so  called  from  x6y?.og  or  xo/?.iov,  a  snail-shell.  The  ^ian\q 
contained  about  a  pint,  and  was  equal  to  twice  the  measure  termed  y.orv?.rt. 
Between  the  y.oxv'/.t]  (half  pint)  and  the  y.o y1.ia.oiov ,  six  intervening  measures 
are  named.  The  measure  next  larger  than  the  ^tortjg  (pint)  was  the^ovs,  con- 
taining upwards  of  two  quarts. 

4.  The  xoru/.rj  is  said  to  have  been  applied  by  ancient  physicians  to  the 
eame  use  as  modern  graduated  glasses  of  apothecaries,  being  made  of  horn, 
and  divided  on  the  outside  by  lines,  so  that  certain  parts  of  the  measure  cor- 
responded to  certain  denominations  of  weight.  The  largest  measure  applied 
to  things  dry  was  the  uidiurog,  which  contained  somewhat  more  thanabushel 
and  a  fourth,  and  received  different  names  in  different  regions.  The  yoivi^ 
was  a  little  less  than  a  quart ;  48  of  which  were  contained  in  the  uidt^tvog. 
Most  of  the  other  measures  were  of  the  same  names  as  the  liquid  measures. 

§  178.  The  social  pleasures  and  amusements  of  the  Greeks  were 
very  numerous,  and  in  the  better  portion  of  their  history,  various, 
refined,  and  tasteful.  Music  and  dancing  were  among  the  most  prom- 
inent, and  were  almost  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  public  and  pri- 
vate festivals,  entertainments,  and  social  meetings.  In  this  custom 
there  was  a  regard  not  merely  to  immediate  gratification,  but  also  to 
the  promotion  of  the  general  culture.  Song  and  musical  accompa- 
niment were  almost  inseparable;  at  least  instrumental  music  was 
scarcely  ever  practiced  without  vocal.  There  were  several  kinds  of 
exercise,  which  it  was  common  to  connect  with  the  entertainments 
of  the  banquet,  and  various  social  games  or  plays  (cf.  §  167). 

There  was  an  amusement  in  which  dancing  and  playing  with  a  ball  were 
in  some  way  (a)  connected  together.  A  favorite  dance  is  still  preserved  (h) 
in  Greece,  called  Romaica. 

(a)  Burette,  Spheristique  des  Anciens,  in  the  Hist,  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  i.  p.  153.  —  (b) 

Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xxm.  350. See  Burette,  De  la  danse  des  Anciens,  in  the  Hist,  de  VAcad, 

des  Inscr.  i.  93.  — J.  Meursius,  De  Saltationibus  veter.  contained  in  vol.  vm.  of  Gronovius  as 
cited  §13.  —  Jul.  Cms.  Bvlengeri  de  ludis  privatis  ac  domesticis  veterum  liber  unicus.  Ludg. 
1627.  8.  This  is  given  also  in  the  Class.  Journ.  vol.  v.  —  On  various  Doric  dances,  cf.  Muller, 
Hist,  and  Antiq.  of  Doric  Race,  bk.  i.  ch.  vi. 

§  179.  We  have  spoken  before  of  the  great  importance  and  comprehensive 
meaning  of  music  (uovoix^)  in  the  system  of  education  among  the  Greeks 
(cf.  P.  1.  §  63).  Here  we  introduce  some  remarks  on  musical  sounds  and  in~ 
strumcnts.  "  In  music  the  Greeks  distinguished  sounds,  intervals,  concords, 
genera,  modes,  rhythmus,  mutations,  and  melopoeia.  The  notes  or  sounds  of 
the  voice  were  seven,  each  of  which  was  attributed  to  some  particular  planet: 
1.  vTiart],  to  the  moon  ;  2.  jraovncrvj],  to  Jupiter  ;  3.  ZLyaroc,  to  Mercury  ;  4. 
fttorj,  to  the  sun;  5.  naqauiorh  to  Mars  ;  6.  rn  irrh  to  Venus;  and  ?.  >/;T>/,  io 
Saturn.  Some,  however,  take  them  in  a  contrary  order,  and  ascribe  vrcurt]  to 
Saturn,  and  n.rti  to  the  Moon.  The  tone  or  mode,  which  the  musicians  used 
in  raising  or  depressing  the  sound  was'called  vouog  ;  and  they  were  called  v6~ 
fioi,  as  being  laws  or  models  by  which  they  sang  or  played.  There  were  four 
principal  vouoi  or  modes ;  the  Phrygian,  the  Lydian,  the  Doric,  and  the  Ionic. 
To  these  some  add  a  fifth,  which  they  call  the  iEolic,  but  which  is  not  men- 
tioned by  ancient  authors.  The  Phrygian  mode  was  religious;  the  Lydian, 
plaintive  ;  the  Doric,  martial ;  the  Ionic,  gay  and  cheerful ;  and  the  iEolic, 
simple.  The  mode  used  in  exciting  soldiers  to  battle  was  called  "O  tiog.  — — - 
Afterwards,  the  termro/tot  began  to  be  applied  to  the  hymns  which  were  sung 
La  those  modes." 

46*  <**<&'£ 


OTIVEB 


546  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES* 

Robinson,  Arch.  Grac.  bk.  v.  ch.  xxiii.  — See  Burette  and  Chabanon,  on  ancient  music,  38 
cited  P.  I.  $63. 

§  180.  "  The  music  of  the  Greeks  was  either  vocal  or  instrumental.  The 
music  of  those  who  only  played  on  instruments  was  called  uovoty.},  \i<,V,t ;  that 
of  those  who  also  sang  to  the  instrument,  uovaiy.i;  utra  ut?.ojdiac.  The  musi- 
cal instruments  were  divided  into  iunvevortt,  wind  instruments,  and  trrara  or 
TsvQodsra,  stringed  instruments.  The  lyre,  the  flute,  and  the  pipe,  were  the 
three  principal  instruments  ;  hut  there  were  several  others.  —  Of"  the  instru- 
ments to  which  chords  or  strings  were  applied,  the  most  famous  was  the  lyre, 
which  was  called  in  Greek  xi&uqu  and  (pdouiyz,  though  some  affect  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  harp  and  the  lyre.  At  first,  the  strings  were  made  of  linen 
thread,  and  afterwards  of  the  intestines  of  sheep.  Anciently,  the  chords  or 
strings  were  three  in  number,  whence  such  lyre  was  called  r^i/oo6og  ;  and 
the  lyre  with  three  strings  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  invented  in  Asia,  a 
city  of  Lydia,  whence  it  was  sometimes  denominated  aolug.  Afterwards,  it 
was  rendered  more  perfect  by  having  seven  strings,  and  hence  was  called  tn- 
Taxoydog,  sTtruipQoyyog,  and  snruy?.ojooog.  They  struck  the  strings  sometimes 
with  a  bow,  and  sometimes  only  with  the  fingers ;  and  to  play  on  this  instru- 
ment was  called  in  Greek  xi&aQilur,  xnoi'etv  n?.)'txTQo),  or  Jiwzhv,  8ax.Tv7.ioic 
zqovsiv,  and  fyaXkiiv.  To  learn  to  play  well  on  the  lyre,  an  apprenticeship  of 
three  years  was  necessary.  This  instrument  was  invented  in  Arcadia,  which 
abounded  with  tortoises,  of  the  shell  of  which  the  lyre  was  made. — The  flute, 
avXbg ,  was  a  celebrated  instrument.  It  was  used  in  the  sacrifices  of  the  gods, 
at  festivals,  games,  entertainments,  and  funerals.  Minerva  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented the  straight,  and  Pan  the  oblique  flute  (jilayiavlog).  Flutes  were 
made  of  the  bones  of  stags  or  fawns,  and  hence  called  rifatioi  av/:ol ,  and  the 
invention  of  making  them  of  these  materials  is  ascribed  to  the  Thebans. 
They  were  also  made  of  the  bones  of  asses,  and  of  elephants  ;  and  likewise' 
of  reed,  box,  and  lotus.  The  Boeotians  excelled  all  the  other  Greeks  in  play- 
ing on  this  instrument.  —  The  pipe  was  called  ai^tyz,  and  differed  in  sound 
from  the  flute.  The  tone  of  the  pipe  was  sharp  and  shrill,  and  hence  its 
sounds  were  called  ?.sTira?.iav.  On  the  contrary,  the  sound  of  the  flute  was 
grave,  full,  and  mellow;  and  hence  the  flute  was  denominated  paorpovftog.'" 

Besides  the  instruments  already  named,  we  may  mention  the  following, 
arranged  under  the  heads  of  stringed  instruments,  wind  instruments,  and  in- 
struments of  percussion. 

1.  Stringed  instruments  :  va(tta,  a  sort  of  lute  or  lyre,  said  to  have  twelve 
strings  (tiwdsxa  ip&vyyovg)  ;  7crlxr'ig,  another  variety  of  the  lyre,  used  by  the 
Lydians ;  payaSig,  a  lute  with  twenty  strings ;  aoxaQov,  said  to  be  of  a  square 
form  and  similar  to  the  ipiBvqa ;  *m'oa,  an  Asiatic  lute  often  said  to  be  of  a 
melancholy  tone,  but  perhaps  without  foundation ;  it  has  been  supposed  that 
the  strings  were  drawn  over  a  sounding  board,  and  in  playing  were  struck 
with  a  plectrum  (nl^xToov),  like  a  modern  violin;  oa^pvxrj,  sambuca  (cf.  Per- 
sius,  Sat.  v.  25),  sackbut  (cf.  Dan.  iii.  5),  a  harp  of  a  triangular  form,  with 
four  strings  of  acute  sound,  used  in  chanting  iambics ;  to iyiarov,  a  triangle 
with  several  strings  of  unequal  length  ;  ij.:a?.ri'lQiov,  said  to  be  like  the  uayuSic, 
and  also  used  for  any  variety  of  the  lyre  ;  ipilvQa,  a  Libyan  instrument  of  a 
square  form. 

In  Plate  XXI.  are  given  various  forms  of  stringed  instruments.  Fig,  1.  is  a  triangular  form  of 
the  harp  or  lyre,  by  some  considered  as  the  sambuca,  by  others  as  the  trigonon.  Fig.  C  presents 
a  similar  form  ;  this  is  taken  from  a  representation  of  a  religious  festival  found  at  Herculane- 
um  (cf.  Load.  Quart.  Rev.  xvm.  87) ;  it  shows  dancing  and  playing  together.  Fig.  10  is  by 
some  called  the  sambuca  ;  having  four  strings  apparently  over  a  sounding  board.  Fig.  w  is  an 
old  form  of  the  lyre  with  three  strings.  Fig.  11  is  another,  given  in  Calmet  as  "  Timotheus'a 
harp  with  nine  strings."  Fig.  4  is  the  ascaron  as  given  by  Montfaucon.  Fig.  2  is  a  form  of  the 
lyre  found  on  Egyptian  monuments  ;  fig.  e  shows  the  mode  of  playing  upon  it.  (For  the  Thes- 
pian lyre,  see  Plate  II.  fig.  6.)  — In  fig.  6  we  have  the  kinura  or  violin,  from  Montfaucon.  In 
fig.  7  is  a  similar  instrument  from  Nicbuhr,  in  a  side  view  ;  a  front  view  of  it  is  given  in  fig. 
8  ;  having.//?-e  strings  of  metal  wire.  Fig.  3  and  fig.  5,  also  from  Niebuhr,  are  given  in  Calmet, 
as  other  forms  of  the  kinura  or  kinnor.  Fig.  9  is  taken  from  a  sculpture  at  Thebes  in  Egypt, 
and  seems  to  be  the  same  instrument  with  three  strings  ;  it  has  been  supposed  to  represent  the  ' 
Hebrew  shalishim  played  on  by  females  in  David's  time  (1  Sam.  xviii.  6).  In  fig. /is  seen  a 
Persian  violin  and  fiddler. 

2.  Wind  instruments :  ~i?.vuog,  a  kind  of  flute  of  Phrygian  invention,  usual- 
ly made  of  box-wood;  yiyyqa  or  ytyYQi-U)  a  Phoenician  pipe  (§  72.2),  short,  of 


PRIVATE    LIFE    IN   THE    LATER    AGflS.  547 

ft  plaintive  note  ;  p6ravXo$f  a  flute  used  especially  at  nuptial  festivals  ;  uay.av- 
log,  a  sort  of  bagpipe.  It  may  be  remarked,  that  there  was  a  great  variety  of 
these  instruments  belonging  to  the  class  of  pipes  or  flutes.  The  (fi'oiy'z,  which 
is  called  also  the  pipe  of  Pan,  is  of  great  antiquity  ;  some  suppose  it  to  be  the 
instrument  mentioned  by  Moses  (Gen.  iv.  21,  cf.  Comprehensive  Commentary) 
by  the  name  of  ugabh.  It  is  still  found  in  the  east,  in  Turkey  and  Syria; 
with  the  number  of  its  reeds  varying,  it  is  said,  from  jive  to  ticenty-fivc.  A 
double  flute  is  often  mentioned,  called  also  the  right  and  left  (cf.  §  238)  ;  the 
right  one,  or  that  held  in  the  right  hand,  is  represented  as  shorter  and  having 
a  higher  tone  than  the  left ;  and  both  as  blown  by  the  performer  at  the  same 
time.  —  There  were  several  varieties  likewise  of  the  aal.myz,  or  trumpet ;  as, 
ytoac,  a  Phrygian  trumpet,  or  flute  crooked  like  a  horn  ;  xtQaxtvtn  a  trumpet 
of  similar  form,  probably  less  crooked. — There  seems  also  to  have  been,  in 
the  later  times  at  least,  a  variety  of  musical  instruments  of  the  kind  termed 
vdQccv/.ic,  or  water-organ. 

In  Plate  XXI.  we  have  also  represented  a  number  of  wind  instruments.  Fig.  s  is  the  pipe 
With  seven  reeds.  Fig.  y  is  the  single  flute  as  given  by  Pfeiffer,  from  JViebuhr.  In  fig.  a  we 
see  a  musician  blowing  the  double  flute  ;  it  is  taken  from  a  representation  found  at  Pompeii 
(cf.  Pompeii,  p.  260,  as  cited  P.  I.  $226.  1).  Fig.  ii.  presents  also,  as  has  been  supposed,  the 
double  flute  ;  it  is  from  a  representation  found  at  Herculaneum ;  the  two  parts  seem  to  be  of 
equal  length.  (The  same  appears  to  be  the  case  in  the  views  given  Plate  XX.  fig.  h  and  i.)  — 
Fig.  n  is  the  keras  or  horn,  a  form  of  the  trumpet.  Fig.  t  is  another  form,  straight ;  by  some 
supposed  to  represent  the  silver  trumpets  used  for  assembling  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness 
(cf.  Numbers,  x.  2).  Fig.  B.  shows  a  form  of  the  Roman  cornu.  Fig.  t  presents  a  performer 
upon  a  sort  of  flute  ;  it  is  from  an  Egyptian  monument.  Fig.  A.  is  taken  from  an  ancient  altar 
on  which  is  sculptured  the  funeral  pomp  of  Hector ;  the  figure  here  given  leads  the  procession; 
it  is  a  woman  blowing  a  long  flute  With  its  extreme  end  fashioned  like  that  of  the  trumpet ;  a 
funeral  pipe,  used  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  threnc  or  funeral  song  (cf.  Matt.  xi.  17).  See 
Galand,  as  cited  §  282.  2.  —  A  description  of  the  hydraulis  is  given  in  A  treatise  of  the  mathe- 
matician Heron  (cf.  Thevenot,  Vet.  Math.  Op.,  cited  P.  II.  §40St.  1)  ;  a  drawing  designed  after 
this  description  is  found  in  ForkeVs  Geschichte  der  Musik  (cited  P.  I.  §  63).  Cf.  Nov.  L'oamu 
Soc.  Reg.  Gotting.  vol.  n.  — J.  Hawkins,  History  of  Music.   Lond.  1776.  5  vols.  4. 

3.  Instruments  of  percussion:  some  instruments  of  this  class  were  also 
Used  ;  Trir.ruvov,  a  sort  of  kettle-drum,  flat  on  one  side  and  convex  on  the 
other,  formed  of  wood  with  leather  drawn  over  it ;  much  used  at  the  festivals 
of  Cybele  and  of  Bacchus;  y.i'upala,  cymbals  which  were  of  metal  (/uJ.xa) ; 
usually  large  and  broad ;  sometimes  smaller  so  that  two  were  held  in  each 
hand  of  the  player,  and  such  as  are  used  by  oriental  dancing-women.  The 
y.ojdiov  was  merely  a  little  bell.  The  y.nora/.ov  is  described  by  some,  as  a  sort 
of  bell  made  of  brass  ;  by  others,  as  "  made  of  a  reed  split  in  two  and  so  fit* 
ted  as  to  emit  a  sound  from  the  touch."  The  osiotqov,  sistrum,  was  properly 
an  Egyptian  instrument,  used  in  the  worship  of  Isis  ;  it  consisted  of  an  oval 
frame,  with  several  bars  of  metal,  which  passed  through  it  transversely,  and 
being  loose  gave  sounds  when  the  instrument  was  shaken  in  the  hand.  A 
peculiar  instrument  was  formed  by  placing  metallic  rings  so  as  to  move  freely 
upon  a  metallic  rod,  which  was  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  sometimes 
of  a  triangle. 

Several  instruments  of  percussion  are  exhibited  in  Plate  XXI.  Fig.  iii.  is  the  tympanum  or 
drum  ;  in  fig.  h  are  the  large  cymbals,  and  in  fig.  i,  the  smaller,  called  castanets.  Fig.  o,  differ- 
ent forms  of  the  simple  bell.  Fig.  iv.  shows  the  triangle  with  rings  :  by  it  is  a  stick  with  a  knob 
at  the  end,  used  perhaps  in  striking  the  rings.  Fig.  d  presents  the  Persian  drum,  with  the 
hands  of  the  drummer.  Fig.  c  is  a  Turkish  female  playing  on  a  dulcimer  (cf.  Dan.  iii.  10). — 
The  sistrum  is  seen  in  fig.  o,  of  Plate  XX. 

On  the  musical  instruments  of  the  ancients,  cf.  Montfaucon,  as  cited  P.  III.  <S  12.  2.  (d),  vol. 
in.  p.  342,  and  Supplem.  vol.  in.  p.  185. — Calmet,  Dictionary  &c.  vol.  in.  p.  337.  ed.  Chariest, 
1818.  —  Pfeiffer,  on  the  Music  of  the  Hebrews,  translated  by  0.  A.  Taylor,  in  the  Bibl.  Reposit, 
tf  Quart.  Obscrv.  vol.  vi.  p.  357.  (With  a  plate.)  —  Sulzcr,  Allg.  Theorie,  Article  Instrumental 
Musik. 

§  181.  The  restraint  imposed  upon  the  female  sex  among  the 
Greeks  has  already  been  mentioned  (§  59).  This  state  of  subjection 
and  degradation  continued  even  in  the  most  flourishing  times.  Un- 
married females  were  very  narrowly  watched.  Their  apartment  in 
the  house  (nao&tron)  was  commonly  kept  closed  and  fastened.  The  mar- 
ried women  were  at  liberty  only  to  go  as  far  as  the  door  of  the  court 
or  yard.     Mothers  were  allowed  a  little  more  freedom.     In  general, 


548  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

women  were   allowed  to  appear  in  public  but  seldom,  and  then  not 
without  wearing  a  veil  (xuXvtitqov). 

1  u.  In  Sparta,  however,  only  married  women  were  required  to  wear  veils  ; 
the  unmarried  might  appear  without  them.  The  sex  enjoyed  generally  far 
more  liberty  at  Sparta  than  at  Athens.  Lycurgus  hoped  by  removing  re- 
straints to  promote  an  innocent  familiarity  of  intercourse.  But  this  free- 
dom, however  virtuous  it  might  be  at  first,  at  length  degenerated  into  licen- 
tiousness. 

On  the  state  of  female  society  in  Greece,  see  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xxn.  163.  —  Bibl.  Repos. 
vol.  ii.  p.  478.  — Social  Condition  of  the  ancient  O-reeks.  Oxf.  1832.  —  A.  Walker,  Woman  physio- 
logically considered  as  to  Mind,  Morals,  &.c.    Lond.  1839.  8. 

2.  The  employments  of  the  women  continued  generally  the  same  as  in  the 
earlier  ages  (cf.  §  59).  They  practiced  weaving,  with  the  loom  and  shuttle. 
They  also  employed  the  needle  (ayjnraa,  £«(ruc)  in  making  garments,  and  va- 
rious furniture  for  household  use.  Embroidery  (toyov  tfrqvyuov  or  4>qvy loy mtf 
opus  Plirygium)  was  an  art  much  cultivated.  Curtains  {ntqov^uara)  and  oth- 
er articles,  richly  embroidered  (ftolvxiOTa),  were  wrought  for  private  dwell- 
ings and  for  the  temples  (cf.  §  28). 

A  splendid  work  on  Ancient  Tapestry  has  recently  been  commenced  at  Paris,  (1837,)  and  Is 
to  be  completed  in  4  vols.  fol.  with  cuts  and  engravings. 

§  182.  The  marriage  state  was  much  respected  among  the  Greeks, 
and  was  promoted  and  guarded  by  the  laws.  In  Sparta  particularly, 
certain  penalties  were  inflicted  upon  such  as  remained  unmarried 
after  a  certain  age.  At  Athens  also,  all  who  wished  to  be  command- 
ers or  orators,  or  to  hold  any  public  office,  were  required  to  have  a 
family  and  own  a  real  estate.  Polygamy  on  the  other  hand  was  not 
permitted,  although  exceptions  were  made  in  some  special  cases. 
The  age  at  which  marriage  should  be  allowed  was  also  prescribed,  a 
younger  age  being  granted  to  females  than  to  males;  the  latter  at 
Athens,  were  forbidden  to  marry  until  they  were  thirty-five.  At  Spar- 
ta the  usual  age  for  men  to  marry  was  thirty,  and  for  women  twenty. 
Marriage  between  parties  of  near  consanguinity  was  not  allowed,  or 
at  least  was  generally  viewed  as  improper  and  scandalous.  The 
Athenians,  however,  were  allowed  to  marry  sisters  by  the  same  fath- 
er (6  u  on  urn  love),  although  not  those  by  the  same  mother  (6uourtrQiovg). 
In  most  of  the  states,  a  citizen  could  marry  only  the  daughter  of  a 
citizen  ;  yet  there  was  sometimes  an  exception. 

1.  Adultery  was  punished,  and  in  some  cases  with  severity.  Although  po- 
lygamy was  not  generally  allowed,  concubinage  was  permitted  without  re- 
straint. Concubines  {nallay.ihq)  were  usually  captives  or  purchased  slaves. 
Prostitution  was  exceedingly  common,  and  favored  even  by  the  whole  system 
of  religious  worship.  In  Athens  the  most  distinguished  statesmen  and  phi- 
losophers openly  associated  with  females  of  dissolute  morals  {hra'iqui).  The 
city  of  Corinth  was  still  more  famous  for  licentiousness. 

Respecting  the  prevalence  of  sensuality  among  the  Greeks,  cf.  Bibl.  Repos.  vol.  ii.  p.  441. 

2 1.  When  a  virgin  was  sought  in  marriage,  it  was  necessary  first  to  con- 
sult the  parents,  and  if  they  were  not  living,  the  brother  or  guardian  (^t«'t^o- 
77.0c).  The  betrothing  was  usually  made  in  a  formal  manner  by  the  father. 
The  parties  pledged  to  each  other  mutual  fidelity,  by  kissing  or  by  joining 
right  hands.  The  bridegroom  also  bestowed  on  the  bride  a  present  as  a  pledge 
of  his  honor,  called  aqqa,  u<iqa8a>r,  ^rijaToor.  The  giving  of  a  dowry  (rrootl, 
pfQvlj)  with  the  bride  was  a  custom  in  Greece  generally.  At  Athens  it  was 
a  legal  and  indispensable  requisite,  although  the  dowry  was  but  small.  In 
Sparta,  however,  Lycurgus  nearly  abolished  the  custom.  In  the  settlement 
of  the  dowry,  and  the  stipulations  connected  with  it,  witnesses  were  called 
in,  and  the  husband  delivered  an  acknowledgement  or  receipt  (jToo<xwa).  when 
he  took  the  stipulated  gifts.     At  Athens  it  was  customary  before  the  actual 


PLATE     XXI 


550  GRECIAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

marriage,  to  present  the  bride  before  Diana  with  offerings  and  prayers;  this 
ceremony  was  called  uoy.raia,  and  was  designed  to  appease  the  goddess,  who 
was  supposed  to  be  averse  to  marriage.  There  were  other  divinities,  male 
and  female,  who  were  imagined  to  preside  over  marriage,  and  were  therefore 
called  yautiXioi  -9-eol,  to  whom  it  was  necessary  to  offer  sacrifices  on  entering 
into  the  marriage  contract. 

3u.  At  the  nuptials  the  betrothed  pair,  as  well  as  the  place  of  the  festivity, 
were  adorned  with  garlands  and  flowers.  Towards  evening  the  bride  was 
conducted  to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom  (olxov  uytoStti)  either  on  foot  or  in 
a  carriage  (cenua).  The  bridesman,  who  attended  her  on  this  occasion,  was 
called  rcuQo/og  or  TtaqurviKpog.  A  procession  went  before  her,  bearing  lighted 
torches,  and  accompanied  with  music  and  dancing.  When  the  newly  married 
couple  entered  the  house,  it  was  customary  to  place  or  pour  upon  their  heads 
iigs  and  other  varieties  of  fruit.  The  parties  then  sat  down  to  a  banquet, 
which  was,  as  well  as  the  nuptial  ceremonies  together,  termed  yuuog,  and  was 
attended  with  music  and  dancing.  The  songs  were  called  vuivaioi,  or  vuivtg. 
After  the  dancing,  the  pair  were  conducted  with  torches  to  the  bridal  chamber* 
(daluuog),  which,  as  well  as  the  nuptial  bed  QAyog,  Xixroov),  was  usually 
highly  decorated  {naoroc)  for  the  occasion.  The  young  men  and  maids  re- 
mained without,  dancing  and  singing  the  tTtiQalauiov  xotutjrixbv,  while  a 
friend  of  the  bridegroom  stood  by  as  keeper  of  the  door  (dvQwqog).  This 
company  returned  to  the  door  in  the  morning,  and  sung  what  was  called  tha 
im&a7.uuiov  lyeorixov.  The  nuptial  solemnities  occupied  several  days;  one  of 
the  days  was  called  iTtavXia',    another,  aTcuvXict. 

See  a  lively  description  of  an  Athenian  marriage  in  Barthelemi/s  Anacharsis,  ch.  lxxvii.  — 
On  the  marriage  customs  in  Sparta,  cf.  Muller,  bk.  iv.  ch.  iv. 

4.  Children  were  discriminated  as  yv)'toiot,  lawfully  begotten  ;  v66ot,  born 
of  harlots  or  concubines  ;  -dsroi,  adopted.  It  was  an  ancient  custom  for  le- 
gitimate sons  to  divide  their  father's  estate  by  lot,  all  having  equal  share, 
without  respect  to  priority  of  birth ;  allowing  a  small  pittance  to  such  as  were 
unlawfully  begotten.  If  there  were  no  legitimate  sons,  the  estate  of  the  fa- 
ther fell  to  the  daughters ;  but  their  nearest  relatives  might  claim  them  in 
marriage.  Persons  who  had  no  lawful  issue  were  allowed  to  adopt  whom 
they  pleased ;  but  at  Athens  foreigners  although  adopted  by  citizens  could 
not  take  an  inheritance,  unless  they  had  received  the  freedom  of  the  city. — 
Free  citizens  were  permitted  to  dispose  of  their  property  by  will  (dta6i'iy.tj), 
after  the  time  of  Solon  ;  but  there  were  certain  conditions  to  be  regarded. 
Wills  were  signed  and  sealed  before  witnesses,  and  put  into  the  hands  of 
trustees  {irnui'/.r^cai)  who  were  to  execute  them. 

Potter,  Arch.  Graec.  bk.  iv.  ch.  xv.  —  Blanchard,  On  Laws  respecting  adoption  &c.  in  the 
Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xn.  68.  —  Orations  of  Tsceus  (cf.  P.  II.  §  104.) 

§  183.  Something  should  be  said  of  the  Greek  customs  in  later 
times  in  reference  to  funerals  and  burials.  Funeral  obsequies  were 
considered  as  a  sacred  duty  to  the  departed,  and  were  therefore 
termed  dixatu,  rout.ua,  001a.  They  were  denied  only  to  notorious  crim- 
inals, traitors,  and  suicides,  especially  such  as  destroyed  themselves 
to  escape  punishment,  spendthrifts,  and  the  like,  whose  remains,  if 
they  happened  to  obtain  burial,  were  even  disinterred. 

§  184 1.  Some  of  the  customs  connected  with  the  burial  of  the  dead  have 
already  (§  30,  31)  been  mentioned.  In  later  times  it  was  common  to  wrap  the 
corpse  in  a  costly  robe,  the  color  of  which  was  generally  white  ;  and  deck  it 
with  green  boughs  and  garlands  of  flowers.  The  body  was  then  laid  out  to 
view  (7iQoTi6eo6ai)  in  the  entrance  of  the  house,  on  the  ground,  or  on  a  bier 
(<pii)tTQov),  where  it  remained  at  least  one  day,  with  the  feet  towards  the  gate. 
It  was  while  here  constantly  watched.  A  vase  of  lustral  water  (Jx^uviov) 
stood  by,  to  purify  such  as  touched  the  corpse.  Shortly  before  it  was  removed 
for  burial,  a  piece  of  money,  usually  an  d(lo?.6g,  was  placed  in  the  mouth,  as 
the  fare  (davuxtj,  tioq&uiov)  due  to  Charon  for  ferrying  the  departed  over  the 
Styx.  A  cake  made  of  flour  and  honey  (ut?.irrovra)  was  also  put  in  the 
mouth,  to  appease  the  dog  Cerberus,  supposed  to  guard  the  entrance  into 
Hades  {"  A§>\g). 


PRIVATE    LIFE    IN    THE    LATTER  AGES.  551 

Respecting  Hades,  cf.  P.  III.  $32. It  does  not  appear  that  the  Greeks  practiced  the 

Egyptian  custom  of  embalming  the  dead.  —  Dc  Caylus,  on  the  embalming  of  the  Egyptians,  in 
the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxm.  119. 

§  l8ot.  The  funeral  itself  was  termed  fcxoptdj/,  or  ixcpoou,  the  carrying  forth 
of  the  corpse,  which  at  Athens  was  performed  before  sunrise,  but  elsewhere 
in  the  day  time.  In  Greece,  generally,  young  persons  were  buried  at  break  of 
day  or  early  morning  twilight.  The  corpse  was  placed  on  a  bier,  or  if  the 
deceased  had  been  a  warrior,  on  a  large  shield,  and  the  bearers  carried  it  on 
their  shoulders  (aqdtjv  (ptosiv),  followed  by  the  friends  and  relatives  of  both 
sexes.  The  procession  was  commonly  on  horseback,  or  in  carriages  ;  it  was  a 
token  of  higher  respect  when  all  went  on  foot.  —  Sorrow  for  the  deceased 
was  manifested  by  solitary  retirement,  fasting,  and  silence,  by  wearing  black 
ftnd  sordid  garments,  by  covering  the  head  with  ashes,  and  plucking  off  the 
hair,  by  cries  of  lamentation,  and  by  funeral  dirges.  The  latter  were  per- 
formed by  musicians  employed  for  the  purpose  (-d-Qfjvwv  t£aQ xot)  ;  one  was 
eung  as  the  corpse  was  borne  forward,  another  at  the  funeral  pile,  and  a 
third  at  the  grave  ;  they  were  called  6?.oipvQitoi',  also  luituoi,  rul.euoi. 

Funeral  chants  are  still  common  in  Greece,  termed  myriologues. —  See  Mrs.  Hemans,  GreeK 
Funeral  Chant,  in  her  Poems.  Bost.  1827.  vol.  it.  p.  160. 

§  186.  The  custom  of  burning  the  corpse  became  universal  among 
the  later  Greeks  ;  the  ceremonies  attending  it  have  been  chiefly  men- 
tioned before  (§  31). 

1 1.  The  ashes  and  bones  were  gathered  (o(no?.6yiov)  in  an  urn,  and  buried 
Commonly  without  the  city,  amid  many  blessings  and  prayers  for  their  repose. 
The  urns  used  for  this  purpose  {y.a'/.nai,  xaqvaxsg,  ooro&tjxai,  ooqoi,  &c.)  were* 
-made  of  different  materials,  Wood,  stone,  or  precious  metal,  according  to  the 
rank  and  circumstances  of  the  deceased.  These  Urns  were  sometimes  en- 
closed in  a  sort  of  chest,  which  was  formed  of  stone  or  other  materials  ;  and 
to  this  chest,  as  well  as  to  the  urn,  the  term  oaciy.oyayoq  seems  to  have  been 
dpplied. 

The  body  of  Alexander  was  conveyed  from  Babylon  to  Alexandria  in  a  splendid  carriage, 
and  his  funeral  there  conducted  with  great  pomp  by  Ptolemy.  The  Sarcophagus,  in  which  the 
golden  coffin  or  urn  containing  his  remains  was  enclosed,  is  said  to  be  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
eeum,  having  been  discovered  at  Alexandria  by  the  French  in  the  expedition  of  Bonaparte  and 
by  them  surrendered  to  the  English.  —  E.  D.  Clarke,  The  tomb  of  Alexander.  Camb.  1805.  8/ 
€f.  also  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  in.  p.  164.  ed.  N.  Y.  1815.—  Quatr.  de  Quincy,  Sur  le  char  fune- 
raire  qui  transporte  de  Babylone  en  Egypte  le  corps  d'Alexandre,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  its 
Inscr.  Classe  A'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  iv.  p.  315,  With  a  plate.  Cf.  C.  de  Caylus,  in  the  Mem* 
ide  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  xxxi.  86. 

On  the  urns  and  vases  found  in  sepulchres,  cf.  P.  I.  §  173.  —  On  an  alabaster  Sarcophagus 
discovered  at  Thebes,  in  the  tombs  of  the  Kings,  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xvm.  369;  xix.  192,  404, 

2t.  The  solemnities  of  the  funeral  were  concluded  with  an  oration  or  eulo- 
gy, with  games,  repasts,  and  sacrifices  and  libations  ;  which,  in  many  cases, 
were  repeated  on  successive  anniversaries.  —  In  the  case  of  such  as  had  died 
in  war,  the  oration  at  their  funerals  and  at  subsequent  anniversaries  of  their 
decease,  was  viewed  as  so  important,  that  the  speaker  for  the  occasion  was 
appointed  by  the  public  magistrates.  Thus  Pericles  was  appointed,  when  the 
Athenians  solemnized  a  public  funeral  for  those  first  killed  in  the  Peloponne- 
eian  war  (Thucyd.  ii.  34) ;  and  Demosthenes,  when  the  same  honor  was  ren- 
dered to  those  who  fell  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Chreronea  (cf.  MitfortTs  Greece, 
ch.  xlvii.  sect.  6). 

For  a  very  interesting  view  of  the  games  and  exercises  performed  in  honor  of  the  dead,  the 
student  is  referred  to  the  23d  book  of  the  Iliad,  where  Homer  gives  an  account  of  the  funeral  of 
Patroclus. 

Solemn  games  with  rich  prizes  were  instituted  by  Alexander  in  honor  of  his  friend  Hepha)9- 
tion  at  Ecbatana  ;  the  whole  ceremonies  of  the  funeral  were  conducted  with  great  magnifi- 
cence, according  to  Arrian  (lib.  vii).  Diodorus  Siculus  speaks  also  particularly  of  Hephiestion's 
funeral  pile.  —  Cf.  Comte  de  Caylus,  Le  bucher  d'  Hephastion,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxxi, 
76.—  Quatr.  de  Quincy,  on  the  same,  in  the  Mem.  de  VInstitut,  Classe  d'HisL  et  Lit.  Anc.  iv.p, 
395,  with  a  plate. 

§  187.  The  sepulchral  monuments  of  distinguished  men  were  built 
often  with  great  expense  and  splendor.  Monuments  were  also  fre- 
quently erected  to  them  in  other  spots,  where  there  ashes  were  not 
deposited. 


552  GRECIAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

1.  In  early  times,  the  Creeks  \Vere  accustomed  to  place  their  dead  ill  repOS* 
itories,  made  for  the  purpose,  in  their  own  houses.  Temples  also  were  some* 
times  made  repositories  for  the  dead ;  especially  for  such  as  had  rendered  emj 
inent  public  services.  But  in  later  ages  it  became  the  gpneral  custom  to  bury 
the  dead  without  the  cities  and  chiefly  by  the  highways.  Graves  at  first  were 
mere  openings  dug  in  the  earth,  vjioyam.  Soon  there  was  a  custom  of  paV* 
ing  and  arching  them  with  stone.  The  place  of  interment  was  originally 
marked  simply  by  a  barrow  or  mound  of  earth  (x<7n<a)  ',  which  sometimes  had 
a  circular  basis  of  masonry  (*pr;7ric) .  On  this  arude  stone  (ortfia)  was  placed 
afterwards;  then,  a  stone  more  carefully  prepared,  a  cippUs  or  truncated  col- 
umn (art]!.*])  ;    at  length,  larger  and  more  imposing  monuments  were  btlilt. 

2.  The  terms  iivfua  and  uf^etov  Were  applied  to  designate  the  whole  struct 
lure,  including  the  receptacle  for  the  remains  and  the  monumental  erections* 
Two  parts  are  discriminated  ;  (1)  the  grave  strictly,  called  ^Xtj,  o-Tr^.ouor, 
rru^og,  Taipo$,  i]Qiov,  which  last  means  specially  the  portion  under  ground; 
(2)  the  space  around  it,  usually  fehced  with  poles  or  a  sort  of  balustrade, 
called  Soiyxoc,,  oxiTir],  7itQioiy.o3oul],  %qxo$,  cri;*6$  ;  within  this  space  the  mon- 
umental pillars  (orijlai)  and  ornaments  were  erected.  —  On  the  pillars,  or  oth- 
er structures  forming  the  tomb,  were  placed  inscriptions  (i7iiyQa<pai) ;  and 
often  images  of  the  deceased  {ayaluara),  and  also  other  ornaments,  with  de- 
vices denoting  their  character  and  pursuits  or  particular  achievements.  Thus 
on  the  monument  of  Diogenes  was  inscribed  the  figure  of  a  dog;  on  that  of 
Isocrates,  a  syren  reclining  upon  a  ram ;  on  that  of  Archimedes,  a  sphere  and 
Cylinder.  Tombs  adorned  with  sculptured  bas-reliefs  have  been  discovered 
at  Athens  and  other  places. 

See  De  Boze,  Descript.  d>un  Tombeau  &c-.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Tnscr.  l  v.  648.  — Arete 
dologia  (as  cited  P.  I.  $243i  3),  vol.  xm.  p>  280,  on  a  Greek  sepulchral  Monument;  with  a 
plate. 

3.  Cenotaphs  (xarortxcpia,  xiV}\oia)  Were  monuments  erected  for  the  dead, 
which  were  not  the  repositories  for  their  remains.  They  Were  raised  both  fof 
persons  who  had  never  obtained  a  proper  funeral,  and  also  for  such  as  had  re- 
ceived funeral  honors  in  another  place.  It  was  a  notion  of  the  ancients,  that 
the  ghosts  of  unburied  persons  could  not  be  admitted  into  the  regions  of  the 
blessed,  without  first  wandering  a  hundred  years  in  misery  ;  and  if  one  per- 
ished at  sea  or  where  his  body  could  not  be  found,  the  only  way  to  procure 
repose  for  him  was  to  build  an  empty  tomb,  and  by  certain  rites  and  invoca- 
tions call  his  spirit  to  the  habitation  prepared  for  it. 

A  common  place  of  sepulture  for  many  individuals  was  called  noXvuvtyior* 

—  The  term  xoiurrrt'tQiov,  cemetery,  appears  to  have  been  introduced  by  Chris- 
tians, in  accordance  with  their  faith,  that  the  grave  is  but  a  temporary  sleep* 
ing -place. 

4.  The  custom  of  raising  splendid  monuments  in  honor  of  the  dead  at  length 
led  to  such  extravagance,  that  it  became  necessary  to  impose  penal  restraints. 
The  splendor  of  the  monument  erected  to  Mausolus  (cf.  P.  III.  §  72)  occa- 
sioned the  word  Mausoleum  to  be  applied  as  a  common  name  to  such  struc- 
tures. 

In  our  Plate  XV.  are  some  specimens  of  monumental  structures.  Fig.  L  represents  a  tomD 
of  white  marble,  at  Mourghab  in  Persia,  corresponding  to  the  ancient  Pasargada  ;  it  has  com- 
monly been  supposed  to  be  the  Tomb  of  Cyrus,  which  was  erected  by  himself  and  visited  by 
Alexander  (cf.  Arrian,  vi.  29) ;  some,  however,  declare  it  to  be  a  more  modern  structure.  — 
Morier,  cited  P.  I.  §  243.  3.  •- —  Fig.  2.  represents  a  structure  called  Absalom's  Pillar.  In  the 
time  of  Josephus  there  was  a  marble  structure  by  this  name,  said  to  have  been  reared  by  Ab- 
salom (cf.  2  Sam.  xviii.  18).  The  one  here  given  is,  however,  no  doubt  comparatively  recent. 
"  The  lower  portion  is  quadrangular,  standing  detached  from  the  living  rock,  from  which  it 
was  hewn.  Upon  the  four  facades  are  cut  Iortic  pillars,  above  which  is  a  frieze  with  Doric 
metopes  and  triglyphs.    Over  this  basis  rises  a  square  piece  of  masonry,  smaller;  and  the 

xvhole  is  crowned  by  a  tall  conical  tower,  finishing  in  a  point." Fig.  3.  givers  a  view  of 

the  Tomb  of  Cestius  at  Rome  ;   cf.  P.  I.  $226.  1 :   it  is  taken  from  Pronti,  cited  P.  I.  $243.  2. 

—  Fig.  4.  presents  the  gates  of  a  tomb  ;  over  them  is  a  Greek  inscription,  Glycon  and  Hemera 
to  the  infernal  gods ;  Mercury,  with  his  wand,  is  represented  as  in  the  act  of  closing  or  opening 
them,  it  being  a  part  of  his  office  to  introduce  departed  spirits  into  Hades.  This  figure  is  given 
in  Calmet,  to  illustrate  the  expression  "  gates  of  hades  "  in  MatU  xvi.  18.  —  Calmct,  Dictionary 
<&<%  vol.  hi.  p.  279.  Chariest,  1813. 


ROMAN   ANTIQUITIES. 


Introduction, 

§  188.  It  belongs  to  the  topics  of  history  and  geography  rather 
than  antiquities,  to  describe  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  Romans, 
and  the  extent  of  their  empire.  Yet  a  glance  at  these  subjects,  and 
a  few  remarks  upon  them,  will  aid  in  getting  a  better  view  of  the  Ro- 
man antiquities,  and  enable  one  to  understand  and  appreciate  more 
correctly  the  people  and  their  more  important  peculiarities.  Some 
preliminary  notices  of  Rome  and  its  empire  will  be  given  first,  and 
then  something  respecting  the  Romans  themselves. 

§  189.  According  to  the  common  accounts  of  history,  the  city  of 
Rome  was  founded  752  B.  C.  by  Romulus  and  Remus,  grand  child- 
ren of  the  Alban  king  Numitor.  It  was  situated  not  far  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Tiber,  in  Latium,  a  province  in  middle  Italy.  In  the 
beginning  it  was  of  small  extent,  confined  to  Mount  Palatine,  on 
which  it  was  built.  The  number  of  inhabitants  did  not  amount  to 
4,000.  This  more  ancient  part  of  the  city  was  afterwards  called  op- 
pidum,  while  the  better  part,  later  built,  was  called  w*bs,  which  be- 
came at  length  a  general  name  for  Rome.  It  was  first  peopled  by 
some  families  from  Alba  Longa,  and  afterwards  by  various  acces- 
sions (cf.  P.  I.  §  109,  110) ;  partly  of  the  vagabond  and  worthless 
from  the  neighboring  people  of  Italy. 

1  u.  The  Capitoline  Hill  was  occupied  next  after  the  Palatine,  and  at  last 
five  other  mountains  or  hills  were  included  in  the  city,  and  thence  was  de- 
rived the  epithet  septicollis.  The  first  walls  around  the  city  were  low  and 
weak  ;  Tarquinius  Priscus  and  Servius  Tullius  improved  them. 

2u.  Among  the  principal  events  which  greatly  changed  the  appearance  of 
the  city  were  the  capture  and  burning  of  it  by  the  Gauls,  385  B.C.,  and  the 
erection  of  numerous  buildings  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  after  the  con- 
flagration under  Nero.  In  the  two  last  mentioned  periods,  Rome  was  very 
rapidly  enlarged  and  adorned,  and  continued  to  be  further  improved  under 
succeeding  emperors  down  to  the  time  of  Honorius.  In  his  reign  occurred 
the  capture  and  sack  of  Rome  by  the  Goths  under  Alaric,  A.  D.  410.  The 
city  was  in  a  great  measure  rebuilt  by  Theodoric.  But  by  that  disaster _,  and 
the  still  greater  devastations  of  the  Gothic  king  Totila,  A.  D.  547,  it  lost 
much  of  its  ancient  splendor.  It  continued  to  wane  during  the  ages  following. 

3  m.  After  all  the  exertions  of  the  later  popes  to  restore  its  former  beauty, 
there  is  a  vast  difference  between  modern  and  ancient  Rome.  Of  the  latter 
we  find  only  certain  traces  and  monuments,  and  these  are  in  part  mere  ruins 
and  fragments. 

P.  Macquier,  Romische  Jahrtmcher,  oder  chronol.  Abriss  der  Gesch.  Roms  ;  aus  dem  Franz. 
■nit  Anmerk.  von  C.  D.  Beck,  Leipz.  1783.  8.  —For  a  more  particular  notice  of  Rome  and  its 
topography,  see  P.  V.  §  51  ss. 

§  190.  In  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Rome,  at  the  close  of  the 
republic  and  beginning  of  the  imperial  monarchy,  the  population  was 

47 


654  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

Very  great.     The  number  of  citizens  may  be  estimated  at  300  thou- 
sand, and  the  whole  number  of  residents  at  2  millions  and  upwards, 

"  Concerning  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  ancient  Rome,  we  can  only  form 
conjectures.  Lipsius  computes  them,  in  its  most  flourishing  state,  at  four  mil- 
lions." (Adam.)  Tacitus  (Annals,  L.  xi.  c.  25)  states,  that  by  a  census  in 
the  reign  of  Claudius  the  number  of  Roman  citizens  amounted  to  nearly  7 
millions  ;  it  is  supposed  that  this  number  must  have  included  the  citizens  in 
other  places  besides  the  city  of  Rome  itself. —  Gibbon  has  the  following  re- 
marks on  the  population  of  the  Roman  empire  :  "  The  number  of  subjects 
who  acknowledged  the  laws  of  Rome,  of  citizens,  of  provincials,  and  of  slaves, 
cannot  now  be  fixed  with  such  a  degree  of  accuracy  as  the  importance  of  the 
object  would  deserve.  We  are  informed  that  when  the  emperor  Claudius  ex- 
ercised the  office  of  Censor,  he  took  an  account  of  six  millions  nine  hundred 
and  forty-five  thousand  Roman  citizens,  who  with  the  proportion  of  women 
and  children  must  have  amounted  to  about  twenty  millions  of  souls.  The 
multitude  of  subjects,  of  an  inferior  rank,  was  uncertain  and  fluctuating.  But 
after  weighing  with  attention  every  circumstance  which  could  influence  the 
balance,  it  seems  probable  that  there  existed,  in  the  time  of  Claudius,  about 
twice  as  many  provincials  as  there  were  citizens,  of  either  sex  and  of  every 
age ;  and  that  the  slaves  were  at  least  equal  in  number  to  the  free  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Roman  world.  The  total  amount  of  this  imperfect  calculation 
would  rise  to  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions  of  persons  ;  a  degree 
of  population  which  possibly  exceeds  that  of  modern  Europe,  and  forms  the 
most  numerous  society  that  has  ever  been  united  under  the  same  system  of 
government." 

De  la  Malic,  Sur  la  population  libre  &c.  de  la  Republ,  Rom.  in  the  Mem.  de  Vlnstilnt,  Classe 
de  Hist,  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  x.  461. —  Wallace,  on  the  Numbers  of  Mankind,  —  Hume,  Essay  on  the 
Populousness  of  anc.  Nations.  —  Amcr.  Quart.  Register,  vol.  ix.  140. 

§  191.  Originally  the  authority  of  Romulus  extended  scarcely  six 
thousand  paces  beyond  the  city.  But  he  and  the  succeeding  kings 
considerably  enlarged  the  dominion  of  Rome.  During  the  time  of 
the  republic  her  empire  was  rapidly  and  widely  spread,  and  at  length, 
by  numerous  and  important  conquests,  a  great  part  of  the  known 
world  was  subjected  to  her  sway. 

1  u.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  the  limits  of  the  Roman  empire  wTere  the 
Euphrates  on  the  east,  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  the  African  deserts,  and  Mt. 
Atlas  on  the  south,  the  ocean  on  the  west,  and  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine  on 
the  north.  Under  some  of  the  succeeding  emperors,  even  these  limits  were 
transcended. 

The  following  countries  were  subject  to  Rome:  in  Asia;  Colchis,  Iberia, 
Albania,  Pontus,  Armenia,  Syria,  Arabia,  Palsestina,  the  Bosphorus,  Cappa- 
docia,  Galatia,  Bithynia,  Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  Lydia,  in  short  the  whole  of 
Asia  Minor:  in  Africa;  Egypt,  Cyrenaica,  Marmarica,  Gsetulia,  Africa  Pro- 
pria, Numidia,  and  Mauretania  :  and  in  Europe  ;  Italia,  Hispania,  Gallia,  the 
Alps,  Rhaetia,  Noricum,  Illyricum,  Macedonia,  Epirus,  Grsecia,  Thracia,  Mce- 
sia,  Dacia,  and  Pannonia.  In  addition  to  these  were  a  number  of  islands, 
from  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  the  Black  sea,  to  which  Britain  may  be  added. 

2u.  Augustus  made  a  division  of  the  whole  empire  into  twelve  parts.  —  The 
emperor  Hadrian  afterwards  gave  a  new  form  to  this  division,  and  separated 
Italy,  Spain,  Gaul,  Aquitaniaand  Britannia,  Illyricum,  Thracia  and  Africa  into 
provinces. —  One  of  the  last  changes  of  this  kind  was  made  by  Constantine 
the  Great,  who  divided  the  empire  into  four  Praefecturates,  containing  various 
dioceses  and  distinct  provinces,  for  the  government  of  which  he  appointed  a 
number  of  new  magistrates  (§  309.  2). 

The  most  complete  description  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  of  its  various  changes,  is  found  in 
Onuphrii  Panvinii  Romanum  Imperium,  in  the  Thesaurus  Antiq.  Rom.  of  Grccvius,  vol.  l.  — Cf* 
Gibbon,  Decl.  and  Fall  &c.  Ch.  1. 

§  192.  In  a  few  centuries  the  Romans  acquired  a  greatness  and 
power,  which  is  altogether  singular  and  the  most  remarkable  in  all 
history. 


INTRODUCTION.  555 

lu.  What  in  the  highest  degree  contributed  to  this  was  their  warlike  char- 
acter, for  which  they  were  from  their  first  origin  distinguished.  Bodily 
strength  and  superior  prowess  constituted  the  grand  object  of  their  wishes  and 
efforts,  and  war  and  agriculture  were  their  only  pursuits.  A  great  part  of  the 
people  were  directly  occupied  in  their  constant  wars;  the  proportion  of  sol- 
diers compared  with  the  rest  of  the  citizens  is  estimated  to  have  been  as  1  to 
8.  All  the  early  Romans  felt  an  equal  interest  in  defending  their  country, 
because  the  conquered  territory  was  divided  equally  among  them.  In  addi- 
tion to  all  this,  much  must  be  ascribed  to  their  policy  in  the  manner  of  main- 
taining their  conquests,  in  the  treatment  of  allies,  and  in  arranging  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  provinces,  and  to  the  respect  towards  them  awakened  in  other 
nations. 

2u.  To  treat  of  these  topics  belongs  to  history  ;  yet  a  brief  view  of  the 
principal  revolutions  in  Roman  affairs  seems  to  be  necessary  for  our  object. 

§  193u.  Romulus,  the  founder  and  builder  of  Rome,  was  the  first  king. 
According  to  the  common  accounts  (not  altogether  certain,  however,)  six 
other  kings  succeeded  him  ;  Kuma  Pompilius,  Tullus  Hostilius,  Ancus  Martins, 
Tarquinius  Priscus,  Servius  Tullius,  and  Tarquinius  Superbus  ;  men  of  active 
enterprize,  who  contributed  to  the  growth  and  stability  of  the  nation.  The 
most  remarkable  circumstances  or  events,  during  the  regal  form  of  govern- 
ment, were  the  division  of  the  people  into  Tribes,  Curias,  Classes,  and  Cen- 
turies ;  the  separation  of  Patricians  and  Plebeians  ;  the  establishment  of  the 
senate,  and  of  the  religious  worship  ;  the  settlement  of  the  mode  of  comput- 
ing time,  of  the  military  discipline,  of  the  valuation  and  taxation  ;  and  the  in- 
troduction of  coined  money.  In  general  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  government  under  this  first  form  were  not  strictly  monarchical, 
but  rather  of  a  mixed  character,  and  really  laid  the  foundation  of  the  subse- 
quent advantageous  system  of  the  republic.  During  this  whole  period,  the 
Romans  were  involved  in  wars  ;  but  this  uninterrupted  continuity  of  war  con- 
tributed to  their  success,  for  they  never  would  makepeace  until  they  had  con- 
quered. The  regal  government  continued  244  years,  and  was  abolished  B.  C. 
509,  because  the  last  king,  Tarquinius  Superbus,  had  provoked  the  nobility  by 
arrogant  haughtiness  ;  and  the  people  by  heavy  impositions. 

The  immediate  occasion  of  Tarquin's  expulsion,  and  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  vile  abuse  committed  upon  Lucretia,  wife  of  Collatinus,  by  Sextps  Tarquin- 
ius, the  king's  son Cf.  Goldsmiths  Rome  by  Pinnock  ;  p.  85.  ed-  Phila.  183S. 

§  194  m.  Rome  was  now  a  free  state,  at  first  aristocratical,  and  then  for  a 
period  governed  more  by  the  Plebeians,  whose  importance  and  power,  sustain- 
ed by  their  tribunes,  constantly  increased.  During  this  time  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans,  as  well  as  the  vigor  of  their  constitution  was  augmented;  their 
legislation  was  judicious;  and  their  morals  comparatively  rigid.  For  a  con-r 
siderable  period  they  maintained  an  elevated  national  character,  in  which  sim- 
plicity and  propriety  of  manners,  a  high  spirit  of  enterprize,  a  strong  sense  of 
justice,  daring  boldness  and  self  denial  and  the  warmest  patriotism,  were 
prominent  traits.  —  The  most  brilliant  era  in  the  Roman  republic  was  the  first 
half  of  the  sixth  century  from  the  building  of  the  city,  and  especially  during 
the  sixteen  years  of  the  second  Punic  war,  at  the  close  of  which  Rome  was 
in  possession  of  her  greatest  strength.  But  immediately  after  this,  corruption 
of  morals  advanced  with  rapid  steps.  Among  the  various  causes  of  this,  we 
may  mention  the  victories  in  Greece  and  Asia,  the  long  residence  of  the  le- 
gions and  officers  amidst  the  luxuries  of  the  east,  and  at  last  the  overthrow  of 
Corinth  and  Carthage  ;  each  of  these  things  contributed  to  the  unhappy  re- 
sult. Through  debauchery,  luxury  and  effeminacy,  the  Romans  now  suffered 
a  universal  degeneracy  of  manners  and  morals,  although  they  gained  from 
their  intercourse  with  the  Greeks  and  the  eastern  nations  an  increase  of 
knowledge  and  much  polish  and  refinement  in  matters  of  taste. 

A  valuable  work  on  this  subject  is  the  following  ;  Chr.  Meiners,  Geschichte  des  Verfalls  der 
Sitten  und  der  Staatsverfassung  der  Rbmer.  Leipz.  1782.  8.— Also  by  same,  Geschichte  des 
i  Verfalls  der  Sitlen,  Wissenschaften  und  Sprache  der  Rbmer  in  den  ersten  Jahrhunderten  nach 
Ch.  geburt.  Wien  und  Leipzig.  1791.  8.  —  More  minute,  but  especially  instructive,  is  Ad.  Fer- 
guson's Rise  and  Prog,  of  Rom.  Republic,  cited  P.  II.  $296.  5.  (f.)  —  On  the  state  of  morals  in 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome,   Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,  vol.  iv.  p.    6V9. 

§  195  m.  Selfishness,  avarice  and  lust  of  power  were  immediate  consequen- 
peg  of  this  degeneracy ;  and  became  in  turn  causes  of  the  most  melancholy 


556  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

disorders  in  the  state,  and  of  those  civil  wars,  the  leaders  in  which  contended 
for  the  supreme  authority.  Octavius  at  last  gained  the  point,  and  under  the 
name  of  Augustus  was  the  first  possessor  of  the  now  established  Imperial 
throne.  His  reign  throughout  was  a  flourishing  period  of  Roman  history. 
Some  of  his  successors  were  worthy  rulers.  But  much  more  effectual  and 
more  fatal  was  the  influence  of  those  emperors,  who  disgraced  the  throne  by 
the  lowest  voluptuousness  and  vilest  despotism ;  under  these,  the  already 
prevailing  corruption  was  fully  completed.  Now  arose  in  rapid  succession  the 
most  violent  and  fatal  internal  commotions  ;  the  right  of  the  strongest  tri- 
umphed over  every  thing,  and  although  particular  emperors  endeavored  to 
prop  up  the  sinking  dominion,  it  constantly  drew  nearer  and  nearer  to  final 
ruin. 

Goldsmith's  Rome,  and  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Cf.  P.  II.  §  296.  5. 
(  f ).  —  Bridge's  Roman  Empire  under  Constantine  the  Great. 

§  196.  It  may  be  seen  from  this  brief  delineation  of  the  Romans, 
that  their  history  must  be  crowded  with  interesting  and  instructive 
incidents ;  and  that  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  their  constitution 
and  customs  must  be  highly  useful.  The  utility  of  studying  the  Ro- 
man antiquities  needs  therefore  no  further  recommendation. 

\u.  But  besides  the  indispensable  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  antiqui- 
ties in  order  to  understand  properly  the  history  of  the  Romans,  there  are  other 
advantages,  which  render  it  worthy  the  attention  of  every  lover  of  literature, 
and  of  every  one,  in  fact,  who  is  not  wholly  indifferent  to  intellectual  refine- 
mentand  taste.  It  is  essential  as  a  help  in  reading  the  distinguished  Roman  au- 
thors, whose  writings  are  preserved,  and  in  obtaining  a  correct  idea  of  the  va- 
rious works  of  Roman  art. 

2  m.  The  best  sources,  whence  a  knowledge  of  Roman  antiquities  may  be 
drawn,  are  doubtless  the  Roman  writers  themselves,  particularly  the  histor- 
ians. There  are  also  several  Greek  writers  valuable  in  this  respect,  as  they 
lived  among  the  Romans,  and  being  strangers,  many  things  must  strike  them 
as  more  important  and  remarkable  than  they  might  seem  to  the  native  citi- 
zens. Among  the  latter  class  of  writers  are  Polybius,  Dionysius,  Strabo, 
Plutarch,  Appian  and  Dion  Cassius,  and  even  some  later  writers,  as  Procopius, 
Zonaras,  Lydus,  &c.  Some  aid  may  be  derived  also  from  the  writings  of  the 
Christian  Fathers. 

3  m.  In  modern  times  Roman  antiquities  have  been  formed  into  a  sort  of 
science.  The  materials  drawn  from  the  sources  just  named,  and  various 
others,  have  been  digested  into  regular  systems  on  the  one  hand,  while,  on 
the  other,  particular  branches  of  the  subject  have  been  examined  in  more  full 
detail.  Yet  this  has  perhaps  never  been  done  with  sufficient  knowledge  of 
fact,  or  adequate  or  critical  skill  and  discrimination  ;  the  essential  has  not  been 
sufficiently  distinguished  from  the  less  important,  nor  the  general  and  univer- 
sal from  the  particular  and  local;  nor  has  there  been  suitable  care  to  note  the 
periods,  in  which  the  customs  and  principles  were  introduced,  made  preva- 
lent, or  changed.  These  are  defects,  which  we  must  notice  rather  than  avoid 
in  the  brief  treatise,  upon  which  we  now  enter,  and  which  cannot  be  fully  re- 
moved without  more  labor  than  has  hitherto  been  devoted  to  the  subject. 

§  197.  We  mention  here  some  of  the  principal  writers  on  Roman  antiquities. 
1.  The  largest  Collections  of  separate  treat-    §  240,  vol.  3d.  exhibits  the  writer  son   Roman 


ises  are  the  two  following  ;  Jo.  Georg.  Grcevi- 
us,  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Romanarum  ;  c. 
fig.  Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1694-99.  12  vols.  fol.  (For 
an  account  of  the  contents  of  this,  see  Ap- 
pendix to  Kennett  cited  below).  —  .7.  M.  Pole- 
nus,  Supplement  to  Grawius  and  Gronovius. 
Ven.  1737.  5  vols.  fol.  —  Alb.  Hcnr.  de  Sallen- 
gre,  Novus  Thesaurus  antiq.  Rom.  Hag.  Com. 
1716—19.  3  vols.  fol. Very  useful  on  ac- 
count of  its  copiousness  and  its  good  references 
is  Sam.  Pitisci  Lexicon  Antiq.  Roman.  Hag. 
Com.  1737.  3.  vol.  fol.  —  As  a  system  formally 
arranged  may  be  mentioned,  Jo.  Rosini  Antiq. 
Roman.  Corpus  absolutissimum,  c.  n.  Tho. 
JJempstcri.  Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1710.  4.  (Ed.  J.  F. 
Reitiius.)  Amst,  1743.4, Mcusel  as  cited 


Antiquities  &c. 

2.  The  best  manuals.  —  Bas.  Kennett,  Roma) 
Antiquae  Notitia,  or  the  Antiquities  of  Rome, 
in  two  parts.  Lond.  1731.  8.  There  have 
been  many  later  editions  ;  first  American, 
Phil.  1822.  8.  —  G.  H.  Nienport,  Rituum,  qui 
olim  apud  Romanos  obtinuernnt,  succincta  ex- 
plicate. 14th  ed.  Bed.  1784.  8.  —  C.  G.  Swartz, 
Observationes  ad  Nicuportii  Compendium  an- 
tiquitatum Romanarum  (ed.  .#.  M.  jYagclJ. 
Altd.  1757.  8. —  C.  J.  H.  Haymann,  Anmer- 
kungen  iiber  Nicuport's  Handbuch  der  rom- 
ischen  Alterthumer.  Dresd.  1786.  8. —  Chri.-i, 
Cellarius,  Compendium  Antiq.  Rom.  cum.  ad- 
not.  J.  E.  Im.  Malckii.  2d  ed.  Hal.  1774.  8.  —  G 
C,  Maternus  von  Cilano,  Ausfuhrlicho  Abhand- 


INTRODUCTION. 


557 


lung  der  rbmischen  Alterthumer,  herausgege- 
ben  von  G.  C.  Adler,  Altona,  1775,  7b.  4  vols. 
4.  —  C.  G.  Heijnii  Antiquitas  romana,  inprimis 
juris  romani.  Gbtt.  1779.  8.  —  P.  F.  A.  JSTttsk, 
Beschreibung  des  h'auslichen,  wissenschaftli- 
chen,  sittlichen,  gottesdienstlichen,  politi- 
schen  und  kriegerischen  Zustandes  der  Rbmer, 
nach  den  verschiedenen  Zeitaltern  der  Na- 
tion, by  J.  H.  M.  Ernestl,  Erfurt,  1812.  2  vols. 
8.  —  Same  work  abridged  (by  Ernesti).  Erf. 
1812.  8.  —  K.  Pk.  Muritz,  AN&OY2A, 
oder  Rom's  Alterthumer.  1st  part  (of  the  sac- 
red rites  of  the  Romans'),  Berl.  1791,  1797.  8. 
2d  part  (of  the  civil  and  private  affairs),  ed. 

by  F.  Ramback,  Berl.  1796. Alexander  Adam, 

Roman  Antiquities  &c.  Edinb.  1791,8.  Often 
reprinted.  An  improved  ed.  by  James  Boyd. 
Edinb.  1834. 12mo.  Another  ed.  by  J.  R.  Major, 
Oxf.  1837.  8.  —  Transl.  into  German  with  im- 
provements by  ./.  L.  Meyer  (3d  ed).  Erlang. 
1818.  2  vols.  8.  — J.  K.  linger,  Sitten  und 
Gebrauche  der  Rbmer.  Wien.  1805,  6.  2  vols. 
8.  with  plates.  —  G.  G.  Kopke,  Antiquitates 
Romance,  in  xii.  tab.  descr.  Berl  1808.  —  L. 
Schaojf,  Antiquitaten  und  Arch'aologie  der 
Griechen  und  Rbmer.  (In  his  Encyclop.  d.  class. 
Altcrthumskunde).  Magdeb.  1820.  8  —  F.  Crevt- 
zer,  Abriss  der  rbmischen  Antiquitaten  zura 
Gebrauche  bei  Vorlesungen.     Leipz.  1824.  8. 

Less  extensive  but  useful  and  instructive  is 
the  following,  J.  H.  L.  Meierotlo,  Ueber  Sitten 
und  Lebensart  der  Rbmer,  in  verschiedenen 
Zeiten  der  Republic.  Berlin  1814.  8.  (Ed.  Ph. 
Bvttmann).  —  Worthy  of  mention  also  is, 
IVilcock's  Roman  Conversations,  or  Descrip- 
tions of  the  Antiquities  of  Rome.  Lond.  1797. 

2  vols.  8. The  following  are  abridgments; 

Abriss  der  griech.  und  rbmisch.  Alterthumer, 
von  Chr.  Fried.  Haacke.  Stendal,  1821.  —  Ro- 
man Antiquities,  and  Ancient  Mythology,  for 
Classical  Schools  :  by  Clis.  K.  DiUaway, Bos- 
ton, 1831. 2d  ed.  1835.—  Tkos.  S.  Can;  Manual 
of  Rom.  Antiquities.  Lond.  1836,  12. 

3.  We  may  also  refer  here  to  Montfaucon's 
Antiquite  Expliquee,  as  illustrating  by  its 
plates  and  descriptions  Rowan  as  well  as  Greek 
Antiquities  (cf.  §  13).  —  The  following  work 
contains   many  excellent  delineations  ;   Rac- 


colta  Tavole  rappresent.  i  costumi  religiosi, 
civili  e  militari  degli  antichi  Egiziani,  Etru- 
schi,  Grecie  Romani,  tratti  dagli  antichi  mon- 
umenti,  —  disegrate,  ed  incise  in  rame,  da 
Lorenzo    Rocckeggiani.  2  vols.   4.  containing 

100   plates  each. As  pertaining  especially 

to  the  subject  of  costume,  we  add,  Bardon, 
Costume  des  Anciens  Peuples.  Par.  1786.  2 
vols.  4.  —  A.  Lens,  Le  Costume,  ou  Essai  sur 
les  habillements  et  les  usages  de  plus,  peupl. 
de  l'Antiquite,  prouve  par  les  monuments. 
Liege,  1776.  4.  —  Tkos.  Hope,  The  costume  of 
the  Ancients,  Lond.  1812.  2  vols.  8.  with  nu- 
merous engravings  in  outline. —  Particularly, 
Maillot  <$•  Martin,  Recherches  sur  les  costumes, 
Jes  moeurs  &c.  des  anciens  peuples  &c.  —  orne 
de  296  planches,  au  trait.  Par.  1804-6.  3  vols. 
4.  "  The  1st  volume  contains,  in  great  detail, 
the  costume,  manners  &c.  of  the  Romans, 
from  Romulus  to  the  last  emperors  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  engravings  are  taken  from  med- 
als and  monuments  of  each  epoch." 

5.  It  is  proper  also  to  refer  here  to  works  il- 
lustrating the  remains  of  Roman  Antiquity. — 
See  P.  1.  $  130,  138,  187,  188,  191,  226,  243.  — 
W.  Stukeley,  Itinerarium  Curiosum,  &c.  Lond. 
1760.  2  vols,  in  one  fol.  with  200  copper  plates  ; 
containing  notices  of  Roman  monuments  in 
England.  —  The  Publications  of  the  Institute 
di  Correspondenza  Archeologica,  a  society  for 
archaeological  correspondence,  founded  in 
Rome  by  several  distinguished  scholars  and 
antiquaries.  The  Bulletino  dclV  Instituto,  com- 
menced 1829,  contains  brief  notices  of  new 
discoveries  and  new  works  with  other  articles 
of  special  interest.  By  the  title  of  Monumenti 
Inediti,  the  annual  volume  of  plates  is  desig- 
nated. The  Annaii  deW  Instituto,  the  chief  pub- 
lication, gives  essays,  reviews,  and  extended 
descriptions.  Gerhard,  Kestner,  Raoul-Roch- 
ette,  Bock,  Panofka,  Hirt,  Muller,  Millingen, 
<&c.  have  been  contributors. 

6.  On  various  points,  Lardner,  Pauly,  Weber, 
Fosbroke,  &c.  as  cited  §  13.  5. — LockkarVs 
Valerius, JSi/tocr's  Pompeii, and  Ware^s  Letters 
from  Palmyra,  are  fictions  professing  to  ex- 
hibit the  state  of  manners  in  the  first  centur- 
ies after  Christ, 


§  198.  We  shall  treat  the  Roman  Antiquities,  as  we  did  the  Greek3 
under  four  distinct  branches;  thus  exhibiting  separately  the  affairs  of 
religion,  civil  government,  war,  and  private  life. 


(1)  Religious  Affairs. 

§  199.  As  the  word  religion  is  of  Roman  origin,  it  may  be  well 
to  notice  the  ideas  attached  to  this  term  in  the  Latin  language.  Orig- 
inally, religio  seems  to  have  signified  every  sort  of  serious  and  earn- 
est exertion,  to  which  one  was  impelled  by  external  or  internal  mo- 
tives. Afterwards,  it  was  used  chiefly  to  express  the  included  idea  of 
duty  towards  the  Deity  and  towards  fellow  creatures;  and  the  theory 
of  this,  as  well  as  the  practice,  then  took  the  name  of  religion.  In  the 
plural  number,  the  word  usually  designates  the  regulations  and  prac- 
tices pertaining  to  the  worship  and  propitiation  of  the  Deity.  And, 
in  as  much  as  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  duty  towards  men  and 
the  Divine  Being  will  lead  to  a  certain  permanent  moral  sensibility 
and  conscientiousness  of  deportment,  the  word  religio  was  also  nat*. 
urally  employed  as  comprehending  in  its  meaning  this  correctness 
of  morals. 


558  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

§  200.  In  inquiring  into  the  origin  of  the  religion  of  the  Romans, 
we  must  revert  to  the  origin  of  the  nation,  already  noticed  (§  188). 
There  doubtless  existed  in  Latium,  long  before  the  founding  of 
Rome,  various  religious  customs,  and  the  worship  of  various  divini- 
ties; and  it  is  not  easy  to  trace  out  their  gradual  rise  and  establish- 
ment. By  the  subsequent  colonies  from  Greece,  Elis,  and  Arcadia, 
this  native  religion  received  many  additions  and  modifications  ;  hence 
the  great  similarity  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  systems  of  my- 
thology and  worship  (cf.  P.  III.  §  8).  In  some  particulars  the  Ro- 
man traditions  differ  from  those  of  the  Greeks,  where  the  divinities 
and  their  chief  attributes  are  the  same.  The  Romans  also  adopted 
several  religious  usages  not  practiced  by  the  Greeks,  as  e.  g.  in  rela- 
tion to  auguries  and  auspices,  which  were  borrowed  from  the  Etru- 
rians. To  the  latter  source  we  may  chiefly  ascribe  the  great  preva- 
lence of  superstition  in  the  earliest  part  of  the  Roman  history. 

§  201.  The  religion  of  the  Romans  was,  like  that  of  the  Greeks, 
intimately  connected  with  their  politics.  It  was  often  employed  as 
a  means  of  promoting  secret  designs  of  state,  which  the  projectors 
knew  how  to  render  agreeable  and  desirable,  by  the  help  of  supersti- 
tion. Thus  the  inclinations  of  the  mass  of  the  people  were  deter- 
mined by  pretended  oracles  and  signs.  Many  military  enterprizes 
derived  their  most  effective  stimulus  from  this  source;  and  not  sel- 
dom it  furnished  the  strongest  motives  to  patriotic  exertion,  since 
love  of  country  was  held  to  be  a  religious  duty.  The  pomp  of  the 
religious  solemnities  and  festivals  served  to  foster  and  to  deepen  sen- 
timents of  awe  and  fear  towards  the  gods,  and  thus  contributed  to 
the  same  end.  The  purpose  and  influence  of  the  gods  were  consid- 
ered as  effecting  much  in  all  events  and  transactions,  and  this  belief 
was  greatly  confirmed  by  the  artifice  of  the  poets,  who  sought  to  im- 
part dignity  to  the  incidents  of  their  stories,  by  describing  the  inter- 
vention and  agency  of  the  gods  therein. 

§  202.  On  the  first  establishment  of  the  city,  Romulus  made  it  a 
prominent  object  to  render  the  national  religion  a  means  of  union 
between  the  various  and  discordant  materials  of  which  the  first  in- 
habitants were  composed.  Still  more  carefully  was  this  object  pur- 
sued by  his  successor  Numa,  who  is  viewed  as  the  chief  author  of 
many  of  the  religious  usages  of  the  Romans,  which  were  in  part,  as 
has  been  suggested,  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  and  Etrurians.  His 
pretended  interviews  with  a  supernatural  being,  the  nymph  Egeria, 
secured  greater  respect  and  success  in  his  efforts.  The  fundamental 
principles  of  Numa's  system,  being  retained,  were  afterwards  carried 
out  more  fully  and  variously.  —  As  knowledge  and  sound  philosophy 
advanced  among  the  Romans,  the  religious  notions  of  the  more  in- 
telligent portion  were  gradually  rectified  and  elevated  ;  but  this  was 
confined  to  a  few,  while  the  great  mass  adhered  to  the  common  faith, 
even  in  the  period  when  the  system  became  inconsistent  and  cum- 
brous by  the  deification  of  the  emperors. 

On  Numa,  cf.  P.  II.  <$  447.  —  For  a  particular  account  of  the  cods  worshiped  by  the  Romans, 
we  refer  to  the  part  (III.)  of  this  work  which  treats  of  the  subject  of  Mythology.  The  Roman 
division  or  classification  of  their  gods  is  noticed  in  (P.  III.)  §  9. 

§  203.  The  great  number  of  the  Roman  deities  occasioned  a  large 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       TEMPLES.    ALTARS.  559 

number  of  temples,  of  which,  as  some  assert,  there  were  in  Rome 
above  four  hundred  (420).  The  name  of  temples,  templa,  however, 
properly  belonged  only  to  such  religious  buildings  as  were  solemnly 
consecrated  by  the  augurs  ;  by  this  circumstance,  and  also  by  a  less 
simple  style  of  architecture,  they  were  distinguished  from  the  cedes 
sacra,  allhoHgh  the  names  are  often  used  interchangeably.  Their 
form  was  almost  entirely  in  Grecian  taste,  oblong  rectangular  oftener 
than  round.  It  was  customary  to  dedicate  them  with  various  cere- 
monies, on  laying  the  foundation  and  on  the  completion  of  the  build- 
ing, and  also  after  a  remodeling  or  repairing  of  it.  —  The  principal 
parts  of  a  temple  were  commonly  the  sanctuary  (cclla  sanctior,  ady- 
tum), the  interior,  appropriated  for  the  ceremonies  of  sacrifice,  and 
the  exterior  or  court,  serving  for  various  purposes.  The  temples 
however  were  often  used,  not  only  for  religious  solemnities,  but  also 
for  meetings  of  the  senate,  select  councils,  and  the  like.  They  usu- 
ally stood  in  an  open  place,  and  were  surrounded  with  pillars,  or  at 
least  ornamented  with  them  on  the  front. 

On  the  structure  of  ancient  temples,  cf.  P.  I.  §234,  and  references  there  given.  —  Simon*, 
Temples  de  l'ancienne  Rome,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Iiucr.  i.  199.  —  See  P.  V.  §  58-60.  —  We  may 
obtain  an  idea  of  the  ceremonies  at  the  dedication  or  consecration  of  a  temple  from  Tacitus, 
Hist.  iv.  53.  —  Cf.  also  Hookc's  Rom.  Hist.  vol.  x.  p.  262,  as  cited  P.  II.  $  299.  7. 

§  204.  The  Romans  adorned  the  interior  of  their  temples,  as  did 
the  Greeks,  with  statues  of  the  gods,  with  other  works  of  sculpture 
and  painting,  and  with  consecrated  offerings  of  various  kinds,  called 
donaria.  Every  thing  connected  with  a  temple  was  held  as  sacred  to 
the  god  or  gods  to  whom  it  was  devoted.  —  A  general  name  for  such 
places  as  were  sacred  to  the  gods,  even  if  no  buildings  were  there 
erected,  was  fanum.  The  word  delubrum,  on  the  other  hand,  had  a 
more  limited  meaning,  signifying  properly  only  that  portion  of  the 
temple  where  stood  the  images  of  the  gods,  one  or  more  ;  but  it  is 
often  used  in  a  more  general  sense.  Small  temples,  or  chapels,  also 
places  for  worship  without  roofs  and  only  guarded  by  a  wall,  were 
termed  sacella.  Among  the  groves  (luci)  consecrated  to  the  gods, 
of  which  there  were  thirty-two  in  the  city,  those  of  Vesta,  Egeria, 
Furina,  and  Juno  Lucina  were  the  most  noted. 

§  205.  Altars  were  sometimes  erected  apart  from  any  temple,  and 
were  then  inscribed  merely  with  the  name  of  the  god  to  whom  they 
were  dedicated;  usually,  however,  they  were  placed  in  temples.  A 
distinction  was  made  between  altaria  and  arm ;  the  former  were 
raised  higher,  and  were  used  for  offering  the  sacrificial  victim  ;  the 
latter  were  lower,  and  were  used  in  offering  the  prayer  and  libation. 
The  former  were  more  usually  consecrated  to  the  celestial  gods,  the 
latter,  to  the  infernal.  They  stood  one  behind  the  other,  and  were 
so  placed  that  the  images  of  the  gods  appeared  behind  them. 

lu.  There  was  also  a  third  kind  of  altar,  anclabris  or  enclalris,  a  sort  of  ta- 
ble, on  which  the  sacrificial  utensils  were  placed  and  the  entrails  of  victims 
were  laid  by  the  Haruspices.  The  mensa  sacra  was  something  still  different, 
a  table  on  which  incense  was  sometimes  presented,  and  offerings  not  designed 
to  be  burned,  as  various  articles  of  fruit  and  food.  —  Altars  were  sometimes 
made  of  metals,  even  of  gold  or  some  metal  gilded,  but  more  frequently  of 
marble  and  other  stones,  commonly  of  a  white  color.  Sometimes  they  were 
hastily  formed  of  ashes,  earth  or  turf,  or  the  horns  of  victims.  The  form  of 
altars  was  various,  quadrangular  oftener  than  round.  Not  unfrequently  they 
were  adorned  with  sculpture  and  image-work. 


560  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Different  forms  of  altars  are  seen  in  our  Plate  XXII.  fig.  B,  C,  m.  Fig.  t  is  the  enclabris. 
Fig.  H  is  a  representation  of  Solomon's  altar  of  burnt  offering  (cf.  2  Chron.  iv.  1)  5  given  by  Pri- 
deaux,  as  drawn  according  to  accounts  of  the  Rabbins  ;  copied  and  described  in  Calmct,  Diet. 
&c.  vol.  in.  p.  144,  357,  ed.  Chariest.  1813.  —  Fig.  E  is  an  altar  erected  as  a  sepulchral  monu- 
ment, in  honor  of  a  Roman  emperor  ;  it  is  highly  ornamented  with  sculptures,  and  bears  an 
inscription  ;  the  letters  d  m  stand  for  Diu  Jhniibus.  The  elevations  at  the  corners  in  this  and 
in  fig.  H,  show  what  is  designated  by  the  phrase  ':  horns  of  the  n/tor."  —  For  various  altars  as 

sepulchral  erections,  see  Montfauesm,  (as  cited  P.  III.  §  12.)  vol.  v.  and.  Sappl.  vol.  v Roman 

altars  have  repeatedly  been  found  in  England.    JLrchaolovia,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  843.  3.  vol.  in.  p. 
118,  324. 

2.  It  was  common  also  to  adorn  altars  with  fillets  or  ribbons,  and  garlands 
of  herbs  and  flowers.  Altars  and  temples  afforded  a  place  of  refuge  among 
the  Romans  as  well  as  Greeks  (cf.  §  66),  chiefly  for  slaves  from  the  cruelty  of 
masters,  for  insolvent  debtors  and  criminals,  where  it  was  impious  to  touch 
them,  although  contrivances  might  be  employed  (as  e.  g.  kindling  a  fire  around 
them)  to  force  them  away,  or  they  might  be  confined  there  until  they  perished. 

§  206.  A  great  variety  of  instruments  and  vessels,  vasa  sacrai 
were  employed  in  the  sacrifices  offered  to  the  gods. 

1  u.  The  most  important  were  the  following  :  the  axe  (bipennis,  securis, 
d,  d),  or  club  ( 'malleus,  c),  with  which  the  victim  was  first  struck  ;  knives  for 
stabbing  (cultri,  e,  e),  and  others,  long,  two-edged,  for  dividing  the  flesh  and 
entrails  (seccspitm)  ;  the  censer  (thuribulum,  1),  and  the  box  containing  the 
substance  burnt  for  incense  (accrra  or  arcula  thuraria,  5)  5  a  vessel  used  in 
dropping  the  wine  upon  the  sacrifices  (guttus);  a  flat  vessel  in  which  the 
priests  and  others  offering  sacrifices  tasted  the  wine  (simjiuhnn,  b) ;  broad 
dishes  or  bowls  (patera,  i,  2),  for  wine  and  the  blood  of  the  victims  ;  an  ob- 
long vase  with  one  or  two  handles  (c.apedo,  capeduncula,  capis,  o,  o)  ,  vessels 
to  hold  the  entrails  (ullce  extares)  ;  plates  on  which  the  entrails  and  flesh  were 
brought  to  the  altar  (lances,  disci,  n) ;  baskets,  particularly  to  contain  the 
fruit  offered  (canistra)  ;  small  tables  with  three  legs  (tripodes) ;  an  instru- 
ment, having  a  tuft  of  hair,  or  the  like,  for  sprinkling  the  sacred  water  (asper~ 
gilluvi,  f);  pans  for  the  sacrificial  fire  (prarfericulaJ ;  metallic  candlesticks 
(candelabra,  h)  to  which  the  lamps  were  attached. 

2.  The  numerals  and  letters  included  in  the  parentheses  with  the  Latin  terms  in  the 
above  specification,  refer  to  the  figures  thus  marked  in  our  Plate  XXII.  The  figures  marked 
by  the  letters  are  drawn  from  JMontfaucon,  vol.  11.  p.  150.  Those  marked  by  the  numerals  are 
from  Pompeii,  p.  130,  as  cited  P.  I.  §226. The  Plate  exhibits  other  articles  of  sacrificial  ap- 
paratus ;  fie.  g  shows  the  sacred  fillet  (vittaj,  which  was  sometimes  hung  from  the  neck  ;  fig. 
4  is  a  ladle  (ligvla)  ;  fig.  3,  a  pitcher  (urceus,  culullus)  used  for  the  libations  ;  these  figures, 
are  taken  from  sculptured  representations  on  an  altar  standing  in  the  court  of  a  temple  found 
at  Pompeii  ;  fig.  B  exhibits  a  scene  from  the  same  altar  ;  a  magistrate  in  his  robe  is  offering 
sacrifice  ;  he  holds  in  his  hand  a  patera ;  the  victim  is  led  forward  by  the  popa  or  evltarhu.  who 
is  naked  to  his  waist  with  a  wreath  on  his  head  ;  behind  the  magistrate  is  a  boy  holding  a 
vase  or  pitcher,  and  an  older  servant  bearing  a  platter  (discus)  ;  by  his  side  is  a  musician 
blowing  the  flute,  followed  by  lictors  with  their  fasces  ;  in  the  back  ground  appear  the  pillars 
of  the  temple  decorated  with  garlands.  —  Fig.  m  also  represents  a  sacrifice  ;  given  by  Mont- 
faucon  from  an  ancient  coin  ;  the  augur's  wand  (lituus)  is  seen  in  the  hand  of  the  principal 
person.  —  Fig.  a,  is  the  sacred  trumpet  (tuba)  sounded  at  hecatombs  and  other  sacrifices. — 
The  group  of  articles  included  in  fig.  D  is  drawn  from  Egyptian  monuments,  and  may  serve  to 
illustrate  also  Hebrew  and  likewise  Greek  and  Roman  sacred  utensils.  The  observer  will  no- 
tice among  them  the  shovel,  the  fork  of  several  tines,  knives,  a  vessel  like  the  modern  teapot, 
a  fire-pan,  jars,  bowls,  dishes,  &c.  cf.  Exod.  xxv.  29. 

§  207.  The  priests  were  very  numerous,  and  were  formed  into 
certain  common  orders,  or  colleges.  These  were  mostly  established 
by  the  first  kings ;  Romulus  established  the  Luperci,  Curiones,  Ha- 
ruspices  ;  Numa,  the  Flamines,  Vestalcs,  Salii,  Augures,  and  Fecia- 
les.  During  the  republic  the  Rex  sacrorum  and  the  Epuloncs  were 
introduced;  and  under  the  emperors  some  others.  —  The  Roman 
priests  may  be  ranged  in  two  general  classes;  those  common  to  all 
the  gods  (omnium  dcorum  sacerdotes)  ;  and  those  appropriated  to  a 
particular  deity  (uni  mi  mini  addicti).  Of  the  former  were  the  Pon- 
tifices,  Augures,  Quindecemviri  sacris  faciundis,  Haruspices,  Fratres 
Arvales,  Curiones,  Epulones,  Feciales,  Sodales  Titienses,  and  Rex 
Sacrorum.  Of  the  'latter  class  were  the  Flamines,  Salii,  Luperci, 
Potitii,  Pinarii,  Galli,  and  Vestales. 


PLATE     XXII 


562  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

§  208.  The  first  rank  was  held  by  the  Pontifices,  instituted  by 
Numa,  originally  only  one,  subsequently  four,  then  eight,  and  finally 
more  even  to  fifteen.  The  chief  of  these  was  styled  Pontifex  Maxi- 
mus,  who  held  the  highest  priestly  office,  dignity,  and  power.  He 
was  appointed  at  first  by  the  kings,  subsequently  by  the  college  (Col- 
legium) or  whole  body  of  Pontifices,  but  after  104  B.  C.  by  the  peo- 
ple. Sylla  restored  the  right  to  the  college,  but  it  was  again  taken 
from  them.  All  the  other  priests  and  the  vestals  were  subject  to  the 
Pontifex  Maximus. 

1  u.  He  had  the  oversight  of  all  religious  affairs,  the  regulation  of  the  fes- 
tivals and  the  solemnities  connected  therewith,  and  the  keeping  of  the  rec- 
ords of  public  transactions  (annales).  He  was  also  judge  in  many  questions 
of  right.  —  His  dress  was  a  toga  prcetexta,  and  his  head-ornament  a  sort  of  cap 

made  of  the  skin  of  a  victim  and  called  galerus. Augustus  assumed  this 

office  himself  as  emperor,  which  was  done  likewise  by  his  successors  down 
to  Gratian,  who  abolished  it. 

2.  Those  who  held  the  office  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  are  said  to  have  resided 
in  a  public  house  called  Regia  (cf.  §  213).  —  The  hierarchy  of  the  church  of 
Rome  is  thought  to  have  been  established  on  the  model  of  the  Pontifex  Max- 
imus and  the  college  of  Pontifices. 

L  Bimard,  Le  Pontificat  des  Emper.  Romains,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xn.  355  ;  xv.  38.  Cf. 
ix.  115. — On  the  Roman  pontiffs  &c.  cf.  Moyle's  Works,  vol.  i.  —Beaufort,  Republique  Ro- 
maine. 

§  209.  The  Augurs,  in  ancient  times  called  auspices,  derived  their 
name  from  consulting  the  flight  of  birds,  augurium,  avigerium.  They 
were  introduced  from  Etruria  by  Romulus,  and  established  as  a  reg- 
ular order  by  Numa.  Their  number  was  originally  three,  then  four, 
afterwards  nine,  and  finally  increased  by  Sylla  to  fifteen.  At  first 
they  were  taken  only  from  the  Patricians,  but  after  B.  C.  300,  in  part 
from  the  Plebeians.  Their  chief  was  called  Magister  Collegii,  and 
Augur  Maximus.  Their  badges  of  office  were  a  robe  striped  with 
purple  (trabea),  a  crooked  staff  (lituus),  and  a  conical  cap  (some- 
times called  apex).  Their  principal  business  was  to  observe  the 
flight  and  cry  of  birds  (auspicium),  from  which  they  predicted  fu- 
ture events.  They  also  explained  other  omens  and  signs,  derived 
from  the  weather,  the  lightning,  and  the  observation  of  certain  ani- 
mals, particularly  of  young  fowls  and  the  like. 

1  u.  In  the  camp  auspices  were  taken  ex  acuminibus,  i.  e.  prognostics  were 
drawn  from  the  glittering  of  the  points  of  the  spears  by  night,  or  from  the  ad- 
hesion of  the  lower  points  of  the  standard  poles  in  the  ground,  where  they 
were  planted.  The  places  where  auspices  were  to  be  taken  or  holy  edifices 
were  to  be  erected,  were  consecrated  by  the  Augurs.  The  order  of  Augurs 
continued  until  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Great.  The  public  Augurs  of  the 
Roman  people  should  be  distinguished  from  the  private  Augurs  of  the  em- 
perors. 

2.  The  omens,  signa,  portenta,  prodigia,  from  which  the  Augurs  conjec- 
tured or  pretended  to  foretell  the  future,  have  been  classed  in  five  divisions. 
(1)  From  birds;  chiefly  the  flight  of  some  (alites),  such  as  eagles,  vultures, 
and  buzzards  ;  but  also  the  chattering  and  singing  of  others  (oscines)  such  as 
the  owl  (bubo),  crow  (corvus,  comix),  or  cock  (gallus).  (2)  From  appearances 
in  the  heavens;  as  thunder,  lightning,  meteors,  and  the  like.  —  For  taking 
omens  of  either  of  these  two  kinds  the  augur  stood  on  some  elevated  point 
(arx,  templum)  with  his  head  covered  with  the  Icena,  a  gown  peculiar  to  the 
office  ;  after  sacrificing  and  offering  prayer,  he  turned  his  face  to  the  east,  and 
divided  the  heavens  in  four  quarters  (called  templa)  with  his  lituus,  and  wait- 
ed for  the  omen.     A  single  omen  was  not  considered  significant ;    it  must  he. 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       CLASSES    OF    PRIESTS.  563 

confirmed  by  another  of  the  same  sort.  In  whatever  position  the  augur  stood, 
©mens  on  the  left  were  by  the  Romans  reckoned  lucky,  contrary  to  the  notions 
of  the  Greeks  (§  75)  ;  the  explanation  given  of  this  disagreement  is,  that  both 
Greeks  and  Romans  considered  omens  in  the  east  as  lucky  ;  but  the  Greek 
augur  faced  the  north,  and  the  lucky  omens  would  be  on  his  right,  while  the 
Roman  augur  usually  faced  the  south,  and  therefore  had  the  lucky  omens  on 
his  left.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  omens  on  the  left  were  sometimes  called 
unlucky  among  the  Romans,  and  the  term  sinister  came  to  signify  unpropi- 
tious,  and  dexter  to  mean  propitious.  (3)  From  chickens  (pulli)  kept  in  a  coop 
for  the  purpose.  The  omen  was  taken  early  in  the  morning  from  their  ac- 
tions when  the  augur  threw  crumbs  of  corn  before  them ;  if  they  turned 
away  from  it,  or  ate  reluctantly,  it  was  an  unlucky  omen  ;  if  they  devoured 
greedily,  very  lucky.  Taking  this  augury  was  called  Tripudium,  perhaps 
from  the  bounding  of  the  corn  when  thrown  to  the  fowls.  (4)  From  quadru- 
peds, chiefly  by  observing  whether  they  appeared  in  a  strange  place,  or  how 
they  crossed  the  way,  whether  to  the  right  or  the  left,  and  the  like.  (5)  From 
various  circumstances  and  events,  which  may  be  included  under  the  term  ac~ 
cidents  ;  among  these  were  sneezing,  falling,  hearing  sounds,  seeing  images, 
spilling  salt  upon  the  table,  or  wine  upon  one's  clothes,  and  the  like.  Omens 
of  this  class  were  usually  unlucky,  and  were  called  Dira. 

Kennctt,  as  cited  §  197.  2,  ch.  iv.  —  Cf.  Morin,  Les  Augurs,  and   Simon,  Les  Presages,  in  the 
Mem.  de  VAcad.  dcs  Iiiscr.  i.  54  and  129. 

§  210.  The  Har us pices  were  the  priests  who  inspected  the  entrails 
of  animals  offered  in  sacrifices,  in  order  to  ascertain  future  occur- 
rences ;  they  were  called  extispices.  They  appeared  under  Romu- 
lus and  were  established  by  him  ;  it  is  doubtful  of  what  number  their 
college  consisted.  For  some  time  Etrurians  only,  and  not  Romans, 
discharged  the  duties  of  the  office.  It  was  borrowed  from  the  Etru- 
rians directly,  but  seems  to  have  been  primarily  of  Asiatic  origin  ; 
the  discovery  of  the  art  (Haruspicina)  was  ascribed  by  fable  to  Ta- 
pes, a  son  of  Jupiter.  The  number  of  the  Haruspices  gradually  was 
increased  up  even  to  sixty.  Their  overseer  was  styled  Magister  Pub- 
licus  or  Summus  Haruspex.  From  the  different  modes  and  objects  of 
their  divination,  they  were  divided  into  three  classes,  extispices,  ful~ 
guratores,  and  prodigiatores.  For,  besides  observing  the  entrails  of 
victims  and  the  various  circumstances  of  the  sacrifice,  as  the  flame, 
smoke  &c,  they  also  were  consulted  in  relation  to  lightning  and 
places  or  buildings  stricken  by  it,  and  they  likewise  explained  prod- 
igies and  dreams. 

1  u.  In  examining  the  entrails,  they  observed  chiefly  their  color,  their  mo- 
tion, and  the  condition  of  the  heart,  and  when  they  could  determine  nothing 
from  the  appearances,  they  called  them  exta  muta.  On  the  other  hand,  the  term 
litare  was  used  to  signify  an  auspicious  sacrifice. 

2.  The  college  of  Haruspices  had  their  particular  registers  and  records,  as 
also  the  other  religious  orders  had  ;  these  seem  to  have  been  accounts  of  their 
observations,  memorials  of  thunder  and  lightning,  and  ominous  occurrences. 
• —  Most  of  the  ominous  circumstances  connected  with  sacrifices  are  alluded 
to  by  Virgil  (Georg.  iii.  486). 

§  211.  The  Epulones  were  priests,  who  attended  on  the  feasts 
(epulco)  of  the  gods.  There  were  three  first  appointed,  B.  C.  197; 
by  Sylla  the  number  was  increased  to  seven,  called  Septemviri  Epu- 
lones,  and  by  Caesar  at  last  to  ten.  They  had  the  care  of  what  were 
called  the  Lectisternia,  when  couches  were  spread  for  the  gods  as  if 
about  to  feast,  and  their  images  were  taken  down,  and  placed  on  the 
couches  around  the  altars  or  tables  loaded  with  dishes :  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  was  the  annual   feast  in  honor  of  Jupiter  in  the 


564  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Capitol.  They  were  required  to  be  present  also  at  the  sacred  games 
to  preserve  good  order.  Very  young  persons,  even  those  under  six- 
teen, were  often  taken  for  this  office ;  yet  it  was  so  respectable,  that 
even  Lentulus,  Caesar,  and  Tiberius  performed  its  duties.  Like  the 
Pontifices,  they  wore  a  toga  prcetexta.  The  viri  epulares  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  epulones;  the  former  were  not  the  priests, 
but  the  guests  at  the  repasts  spoken  of. 

§  212.  The  Fcciales  were  a  class  of  priests  or  officers  existing 
long  before  the  building  of  Rome,  among  the  Rutulians  and  other 
Italian  states.  The  order  was  introduced  at  Rome  by  Numa.  It  con- 
tinued to  the  beginning  of  the  imperial  authority,  and  consisted  of 
twenty,  sometimes  of  fewer,  members.  They  may  be  considered  as 
a  body  of  priests,  whose  business  chiefly  related  to  treaties  and  agree- 
ments pertaining  to  peace  and  war.  The  highest  in  rank  was  called 
Pater  patratus.  It  devolved  upon  him,  or  the  Feciales  under  him, 
to  give  the  enemy  the  warning,  which  preceded  a  declaration  of  war, 
and  to  make  the  declaration  by  uttering  a  solemn  form  (clarigatio), 
and  hurling  a  spear  (hasta  sanguinea),  into  the  enemy's  limits. 
These  priests  were  also  the  customary  agents  in  effecting  an  armis- 
tice or  cessation  of  hostilities.  Their  presence  and  aid  was  still  more 
indispensable  in  forming  treaties  and  at  the  sacrifices  therewith  con- 
nected. They  were  charged  also  with  the  enforcing  of  treaties,  and 
the  demanding  of  amends  for  their  violation,  and  also  with  guarding 
the  security  of  foreign  ambassadors  at  Rome. 

§  213.  The  Rex  sacrorum,  or  Rex  sacrificulus,  held  an  office, 
which  was  instituted  first  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  and  proba- 
bly derived  its  name  from  the  circumstance,  that  originally  the  public 
sacrifices  were  offered  by  the  kings  themselves  or  under  their  imme- 
diate oversight.  Perhaps,  as  Livy  suggests,  the  office  and  name  both 
arose  from  a  desire,  that  the  royal  dignity  might  not  be  wholly  forgot- 
ten. This  priest  had  a  high  rank,  and  at  sacrificial  feasts  occupied 
the  first  place,  although  his  duties  were  not  numerous,  and  consisted 
chiefly  in  superintending  the  public  and  more  important  sacrifices. 
He  was  also  required  at  the  beginning  of  every  month  to  offer  sacri- 
fice jointly  with  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  to  convoke  the  people  (popu- 
lum  calare),  and  make  known  the  distance  of  the  Nones  from  the 
Calends  of  the  month  then  commencing.  At  the  Comitia  he  offered 
the  great  public  sacrifice,  after  which,  however,  he  must  withdraw 
from  the  forum,  and  conceal  himself.  His  wife  was  called  Regina 
sacrorum ;  she  was  also  a  priestess,  and  offered  sacrifices  to  Juno. 
His  residence,  freely  granted  to  him,  was  also  often  termed  Rcgia. 
The  office  continued  until  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Great. 

§  214.  The  name  of  Flamines  was  given  in  general  to  all  such 
priests,  as  were  devoted  to  the  service  of  a  particular  deity.  The 
most  eminent  of  them  was  the  Flamen  Dialis,  or  chief  priest  of 
Jupiter.  At  the  first  institution  of  the  order,  there  were  but  two  be- 
sides this,  viz.  the  Flamen  Martialis  and  the  Flamen  Quirinalis. 
Afterwards  the  number  rose  to  fifteen  and  still  higher.  They  were 
divided  into  mqjorcs,  who  must  be  Patricians,  and  minores,  who  were 
taken  also  from  the  Plebeians.     Their  dress  was  a  long  white  robe 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       CLASSES    OF    PRIESTS.  565 

with  a  purple  border  (Icena),  and  a  cap  of  conical  form  (apex)  adorn- 
ed with  a  twig  of  olive.  The  Flamen  Dialis  had  a  liclor,  and  also  a 
sella  curulis  and  the  toga  pratexta;  his  wife  was  called  Flamiiiica, 
and  aided  him  in  some  parts  of  the  worship  on  the  festivals  of  Jupi- 
ter. This  priest  likewise  held  a  seat  in  the  senate,  and  enjoyed  sev- 
eral other  privileges,  which  were  peculiar  to  the  Flamines.  Many 
^duties  and  services  were  required  of  the  Flamines,  especially  of  the 
Flamen  Dialis.  They  were  distinguished  by  names  derived  from  the 
god  to  whose  service  they  were  devoted,  as  Flamen  Neptunalis,  Flor- 
uits, Pulmonalis  ;  so  of  those  belonging  to  a  deified  Caesar,  as  Fla- 
men August ali s>  Flavialis,  &c. 

§215.  The  Salii  were  priests  of  Mars  Gradivus,  and  according 
to  the  common  opinion  had  their  name  from  dancing  (satire),  be- 
cause on  certain  festival  days  they  passed  about  the  city  dancing,  and 
singing  songs  in  honor  of  Mars.  They  were  first  instituted  by  Nu- 
ma;  the  immediate  occasion  of  their  institution,  according  to  the 
tradition,  was  the  famous  shield,  Ancile,  said  to  have  been  sent  from 
heaven;  this  shield,  and  the  eleven  others  made  exactly  like  it  in 
order  to  hinder  its  being  stolen,  which  were  all  guarded  by  the  Vest- 
als, were  carried  by  the  twelve  Salii  Palatini,  when  they  made  their 
circuit  around  the  city. 

1m.  Their  chief  and  leader  in  the  procession  was  styled  Prcesul,  whose  leap- 
ing was  expressed  by  the  verb  amtruare,  and  the  leaping  of  the  others  after 
him  by  redamlruare.  They  had  their  appropriate  residence  (curia  Saliorum) 
npon  the  Palatine  Hill.  Besides  the  music  which  accompanied  their  dancing, 
they  struck  their  shields  together,  and  in  that  way  noted  the  measure  of  their 
songs,  which  celebrated  the  praises  of  the  god  of  war  (ct\  P.  I.  §  114.  4.)  and 
of  Veturius  Mamurivs,  the  artist  who  made  the  eleven  shields. 

2  m.  The  order  was  highly  respected,  and  was  rendered  the  more  so  by  the 
accession  of  Scipio  Africanus  as  a  member,  and  some  of  the  Emperors,  espec- 
ially M.  Aurelius  Antoninus.  Their  term  of  service  was  not  for  life,  but  only 
for  a  certain  period. — The  Salii  Collini  or  Quirinalcs  were  distinct  from  this 
body,  and  established  by  Tullius  Hostilius. 

See  T.  Gutberlctki  de  Saliis  Martis  sacerdotibus  apud  Romatios  liber  singularis.Franequerae, 
3704.  8.—  Seidcl,  De  Saltat.  sacr.  vet.  Rom.  Beil.  1826.  —  A.  JlpePs  Metrik,  Th.  2.  p.  647. 

§  216.  The  Luperci,  priests  of  Pan,  were  of  Arcadian  origin,  and 
established  by  Romulus.  Their  name  was  derived  from  that  designa- 
tion, which  Pan  received  from  his  guarding  the  flocks  against  the  wolf, 
Lupercus  (ab  arcendo  lupos).  His  temple  was  from  the  same  circum- 
stance called  Lupcrcal,  and  his  most  celebrated  festival  at  Rome,  Lw- 
percalia.  This  festival  began  about  the  middle  of  February, and  was  re- 
garded as  a  season  of  expiation  for  the  whole  city.  The  Luperci,  on  this 
occasion,  ran  up  and  down  the  streets,  naked  excepting  a  girdle  of 
goat's  skin  about  the  waist ;  they  carried  in  their  hands  thongs  of  the 
same  material,  with  which  they  struck  those  whom  they  met ;  the 
word  to  express  the  action  was  catomidiare.  „  A  peculiar  efficacy  was 
ascribed  to  these  blows,  particularly  in  rendering  married  women  pro- 
lific.— There  were  three  distinct  companies  (Sodalitates)  of  these 
priests;  the  Fabiani,  Quintiliani,  and  Julii.  The  last  were  of  later 
origin  and  took  their  name  from  Julius  Cassar ;  the  others  were 
named  after  individuals,  who  had  been  their  chief  or  head  priests. 

§217.  The  Galli  were  priests  of  Cybele  the  great  mother  of  the 
gods,  so  called  from  the  river  Gallus  in  Phrygia,  whose  waters  were 
48 


&6G  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

regarded  as  possessing  singular  virtues,  rendering  frantic  those  who 
drank  it.)  The  circumstance  of  their  being  castrated  is  referred  to 
the  fable  respecting  Atys.,  At  the  festival  of  their  goddess,  celebratji 
in  March,  and  called  Hilaria  (cf.  P.  III.  §  21),  these  priests  imitated 
the  phrenzy  of  Atys  by  strange  gestures,  violent  motions,  and  self- 
scourging  and  cutting.     Their  chief  priest  was  termed  Archigallus. 

The  order  was  not  highly  respected.  — i The  Potitii  and  Pinarii, 

priests  of  Hercules,  were  not  held  in  important  estimation,  although 
their  pretended  origin  was  traced  to  the  age  of  the  hero  himself. 
The  tradition  was,  that  Hercules,  during  his  residence  in  Italy  with 
Evander,  instructed  in  the  rites  of  his  worship  the  tribes  or  families 
bearing  this  name,  which  was  afterwards  retained  by  the  priests. 

§  218.  The  Vestals,  Virgines  Vest  ales,  were  an  order  of  Priest- 
esses, of  very  early  origin,  devoted  to  the  goddess  Vesta.  The  con- 
stant preservation  of  the  holyjire,  and  the  guarding  of  the  Palladium 
(P.  III.  §  43,  67),  were  the  principal  duties  of  the  Vestals.  They 
were  first  instituted  by  Numa,  four  in  number ;  two  were  added  by 
Tarquinius  Priscus  or  Servius  Tullius,  and  the  number  ever  after  re- 
mained six.  Their  leader,  the  eldest,  was  called  Vestalis  or  Virgo 
Maxima.  They  were  selected  (capere)  between  the  age  of  six  and 
ten,  particular  regard  being  had  to  their  descent  and  their  bodily 
vigor  and  perfection.  They  were  obliged  to  continue  in  the  office 
thirty  years,  unmarried.  The  first  ten  years  were  employed  in  learn- 
ing the  rites,  the  second  ten  in  performing  them,  and  the  rest  in  in- 
structing others.  Negligence  in  any  of  their  duties  was  severely 
punished.  If  any  one  violated  her  vow  of  chastity,  she  was  buried 
alive  in  a  place  called  Campus  sccleratus,  near  the  Porta  Collina. 
Besides  the  two  principal  duties  of  these  priestesses,  they  were  ac- 
customed to  offer  certain  sacrifices,  whose  precise  object  is  unknown. 
They  also  had  the  care  of  some  preparations  and  services  connected 
with  other  sacrifices.  They  enjoyed  great  respect,  and  many  privile- 
ges ;  e.  g.  entire  freedom  from  parental  control  ;  authority  to  deliv- 
er from  punishment  a  criminal,  who  accidentally  met  them;  certain 
revenues  of  lands  devoted  to  them  ;  the  attendance  of  a  lictor,  when- 
ever they  went  out;  a  public  maintenance,  and  release  from  the  ob- 
ligation to  take  an  oath.  Their  office  was  abolished  under  Theodo- 
sius,  on  account  of  its  expense. 

§  219  a.  A  few  words  must  be  added  respecting  the  other  classes  of 
priests  before  named  (§  207).  The  Quindecemviri  sacris  faciundis 
had  the  care  of  the  Sibylline  books  (cf.  §  226).  The  Fratres  Arvales 
served  especially  at  the  festival,  called  Ambarvalia  (P.  III.  §  63),  when 
the  fields  were  dedicated  and  blessed,  these  priests  passing  over  them 
in  procession  (cf.  P.  I.  §  114),  with  a  crowd  of  attendants.  The  Curi- 
ones  were  thirty  priests,  who  performed  the  sacred  rites  common  to 
the  several  Curise  (§  251).  The  Sodales  Titii  or  Tatii  had  their  name 
from  the  Sabine  king  Titus  Tatius  :  each  tribe  had  seven  of  them- 
There  were  also  Sodales  Augustales,  or  priests  in  honor  of  Augustus. 

1m.  The  priests  had  their  assistants  and  servants  (ministri).  Among  these 
were  the  waiting  boys  and  maids,  camilli  and  camilice  ;  the  assistants  of  the 
priests  who  offered  sacrifices,  Jiaminii  and  Jfamince;  the  keepers  of  the  tem- 
ples, aditui  or  ceditumni;  those  who  brought  the  victims  to  the  altars  and  slew 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       PRAYERS.    SACRIFICES.  567 

them,  popa,  victimarii  and  cuJtrarii.  The  tibicines,  tubicines,  fidicines,  &c. 
who  accompanied  the  sacrificial  rites  with  music,  formed  likewise  another  fra- 
ternity. 

2.  The  mystagogi  were  those  who  initiated  others  into  mysteries  ;  the  name 
is  also  given  to  those  who  showed  to  visiters  the   curiosities  of  the   temples. 

By  some  late  writers  the  priests  were  divided  into  three  classes  ;  untis- 

tites,  chief  priests  ;  sacerdotes,  ordinary  priests  ;  and  ministri,  meanest  priests. 

§  219  b.  Respecting  the  emoluments*  of  the  Roman  priests  little  is  known. 
When  Romulus  first  divided  the  Roman  territory,  he  set  apart  what  was  suffi- 
cient for  the  performance  of  sacred  rites,  and  for  the  support  of  temples. 
Numa  is  said  to  have  provided  a  fund  for  defraying  the  expenses  of  religion, 
and  to  have  appointed  a  stipend  for  the  vestals  ;  but  there  is  no  evidence,  that 
the  priests  received  any  regular  stipend  or  salary.  Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that,  in  some  way  or  other,  sufficient  provision  was  made  for  their  support. 
Burigny,  Les  honneurs  accordes  aux  pretres  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Iiiscr.  xxxi.  108. 

§  220.  Of  the  vast  multitude  of  religious  customs  among  the  Ro- 
mans, we  will  notice  first  some  of  those  pertaining  to  their  prayers 
to  the  gods.  They  prayed  with  the  head  covered  or  veiled  (capite 
velato).  They  bowed  themselves  down  to  the  ground,  in  this  pos- 
ture moved  around  completely  from  right  to  left,  placed  their  right 
hand  on  the  mouth  (adoratio),  and  directed  their  face  towards  the 
east,  where  the  altars  and  images  of  the  gods  were  placed.  In  a  high- 
er degree  of  devotion  they  cast  themselves  upon  their  knees,  or  pros- 
trated the  whole  body  upon  the  ground.  They  were  accustomed  to 
lay  hold  of  the  altar  and  to  make  offerings  of  meal  and  wife  with 
their  prayers.  The  prayer  was  not  always  offered  with  an  audible 
voice.  Public  prayers  (precationes)  were  made  by  a  priest  or  a  mag- 
istrate. The  most  solemn  prayer  of  this  kind  was  that  before  the 
Comitia,  by  the  Roman  consul.  Thanksgivings  (supplicationes) 
were  also  public  and  general,  for  the  purpose  of  entreating,  appeasing 
and  praising  the  gods  ;  in  which  view  the  people  made  a  solemn  pro- 
cession to  the  temples.  Public  occasions  of  this  sort  were  called 
supplicationes  ad  pulvinaria  deorum  ;  these  pulvinaria  were  cushion- 
like elevations  or  stools,  on  which  were  placed  the  statues  of  the  gods. 
They  were  also  termed  supplicia,  and  were  appointed  in  honor  of 
particular  deities,  or  of  all  the  gods  united.  The  prayers  offered  on 
these  occasions  were  called  obsecrationes,  which  term  usually  has  ref- 
erence to  the  averting  of  danger. 

Burin-iiy,  Lea  prieres  des  Paiennes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlii.  p.  27.  — Morin,  Baise- 
mains  &c.  (adoratio),  in  the  same  Mem.  vol.  ill.  p.  69. 

§  221.  The  sacrifices  of  the  Romans  (sacrificia)  were  very  various. 
They  were  offered  either  at  stated  times  (stata,  sole?inia),  or  on  par- 
ticular occasions  (ex  accidente  nata).  Animal  sacrifices  were  term- 
ed hostioi  or  victimce  ;  the  original  difference  between  these  words, 
viz.  that  the  former  designated  a  sacrifice  offered  on  going  out  against 
a  foe,  and  the  latter  a  sacrifice  on  returning  victorious,  is  as  little  re- 
garded by  the  writers,  as  another  distinction,  which  makes  the  form- 
er a  smaller  and  the  latter  a  greater  sacrifice. 

lw.  The  animals  must  be  without  blemish,  and  were  therefore  previously 
selected.  They  were  brought  to  the  altar,  ornamented,  like  the  person  offer- 
ing them,  with  garlands  of  flowers  ;  the  horns  of  bullocks  and  rams  were 
decked  with  gilt,  and  white  fillets  were  hung  over  their  necks.  The  willing 
approach  of  the  victim  was  considered  as  a  favorable  omen  ;  reluctance  and 
resistance  on  the  other  hand  as  unfavorable  ;  the  act  of  bringing  the  victim 
forward  was  called  admovere.     The  priests  then  commanded  all  the  profane  to 


568  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES, 

depart,  and  another  priest  ordered  silence  (Unguis  f arete).  Then  followed  the 
prayer  to  the  gods,  and  after  it  the  offering  of  the  victim.  The  knife  and  the 
altar  were  consecrated  for  the  purpose,  by  sprinkling  them  with  a  mixture  of 
salt  and  the  meal  of  new  barley  or  spelt  roasted  (mola  salsa).  The  head  of  the- 
victim  was  sprinkled  with  the  same,  and  this  is  what  is  properly  expressed  by 
the  word  immolare,  although  it  is  often  synonymous  with  mactare. 

2u.  The  cul tar ius,  whose  business  was  to  kill  the  victim,  having  asked, 
Mgone  P,  and  the  consul,  prretor  or  priest  having  answered,  Hocage,  thers 
struck  the  animal  in  the  forehead  with  his  axe  or  mallet ;  another  next  cutor 
stabbed  him  in  the  throat,  and  a  third  caught  the  blood  in  a  sacrificial  vase. 
The  entrails  were  then  examined  by  the  haruspex,  and  if  they  were  found  fa- 
vorable, were,  after  being  cleansed,  laid  on  the  altar  and  burned.  Sometimes 
the  whole  animal  was  burned  (holocaustum)  ;  bat  usually  only  apart,  the  rest 
being  assigned  to  the  sacrificial  feast,  or  to  the  priests.  Upon  the  burning 
flesh  incense  was  scattered,  and  wine  was  poured  out ;  the  latter  constituted 
the  libation,  and  was  accompanied  with  a  formal  address  to  the  deity,  accwe 
libens.  In  early  times  milk  was  used  in  the  libation  instead  of  wine.  After 
all  came  the  feast,  of  which  the  priests  and  those  who  presented  the  sacrifice 
partook  in  common,  and  which  was  usually  accompanied  with  music  and  danc- 
ing, and  often  followed  with  games. 

§  2*22.  It  was  very  common  among  the  Romans  to  make  vows 
(vota),  which  generally  consisted  in  promises  to  render  certain  actual 
acknowledgements  or  returns,  provided  the  gods  should  grant  the  re- 
quests of  those  making  the  vows.  A  person  doing  thus  was  said 
votafacere,  concipere,  suscipere,  nuncupare,  and  was  called  voti  reus  ; 
to  fulfTPthe  promise  was  vota  solvere,  reddere;  he  who  gained  his 
wish  was  said  to  be  voti  damnatus,  voti  compos.  Sometimes  the 
thing  desired  wap  itself  termed  votum.  Often  public  vows  were  made 
for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  people  ;  these  were  considered  as  the 
most  binding.  The  vow  was  usually  written  upon  a  wax-tablet,  which 
was  preserved  in  the  temple  of  the  god  to  whom  it  was  made. 

1m.  Those  who  had  survived  shipwreck,  especially,  were  accustomed  to 
hang  up  in  the  temple  of  some  god  (Neptune  often)  pictures  representing  the 
circumstances  of  their  danger  and  deliverance  {tabula,  votivai).  Similar  pic-, 
tures  were  sometimes  carried  about  by  them  in  order  to  obtain  charitable  re-, 
lief. 

2  u.  Among  the  vows  of  a  private  nature  were  those,  which  a  person  made 
to  Juno  Lucina  or  Genius,  on  a  birth-day  (vota  natalitia)  ;  those  made  when 
boys,  on  passing  from  childhood,  cut  off  their  hair  and  dedicated  it  to  Apollo 
(vota,  capillitia)  ;  the  vows  of  the  sick  in  case  of  recovery  ;  the  vows  of  those 
in  shipwreck  for  escape  j  of  those  on  journeys  by  land.  It  also  became  a  cus-. 
torn  for  subjects  to  make  vows  for  the  welfare  of  their  emperors,  which  were 
renewed  after  the  fifth,  tenth,  or  twentieth  year  of  their  reign,  and  therefore 
called  quinquennia,  decennalia,  or  vicennalia. 

H.  Dodwell,  de  diebus  veterum  natalitiis,  in  his  Pralect.  Acad.  Ox.  1692,  8.  p.  153. 

§  223.  The  dedication  of  the  temples,  sanctuaries  and  altars  (dcd^ 
icatio  templi,  §  203),  was  one  of  the  religious  solemnities  of  the  Ro- 
mans. This  was  originally  performed  by  the  kings,  afterwards  by  the 
consuls,  and  often  also  by  two  magistrates  appointed  for  the  purpose 
and  called  duumviri  dedicandis  tempKs.  The  senate  must  first  de- 
cree the  service  ;  the  Pontifex  maximus  must  be  present  at  the  sol- 
emnity and  pronounce  the  form  of  dedication,  which  was  accompa- 
nied with  acclamations  from  the  people.  Sacrifices,  games,  and  feasts 
then  followed. 

1m.  Similar  to  this  was  the  ceremony  of  consecration  (consecratio) ;  only, 
the  latter  expression  was  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  particular  objects,  e.  g, 
statues,  sacred  utensils,  fields,  animals,  &c,      Resccration,  on  the  other  han,d, 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       LUSTRATIONS.    OATHS.    ORACLES.  569 

was  a  private  transaction,  in  which  the  people  or  individuals  were  freed  from 
their  vows  ;  this  was  also  called  religionc  solvere. 

2m.  Execration  was  imprecating  evil  on  an  enemy. —  Evocation  of  the  gods 
was  a  solemn  rite  by  which  (cf.rto  carmine)  they  called  upon  the  gods  of  a  be- 
sieged city  (evocare)  to  take  the  side  of  the  Romans}  it  was  attended  with 
sacrifices  and  consultation  of  the  entrails. 

§  224.  Expiation  was  a  solemnity  designed  to  appease  offended 
gods,  and  the  sacrifice  or  propitiatory  offering  was  called  piaculum. 
Much  more  frequent  and  various  were  the  lustrations  or  purifica- 
tions (lustrationes),  both  public  and  private. 

1?*.  Public  lustrations  were  occasionally  connected  with  certain  festivals ; 
the  private  were  annually  repeated  in  the  month  of  February. — It  was  cus- 
tomary before  the  march  of  an  army  or  the  sailing  of  a  fleet  to  appoint  a  lus- 
tration, not  for  reviewing  the  forces,  but  to  purify  them  by  sacrifices, 

2.  After  the  taking  of  the  census,  which  was  done  at  the  end  of  every  five 
years,  a  purifying  sacrifice  was  made,  consisting  of  a  sow,  a  sheep,  and  a 
bull,  which  were  carried  round  the  whole  assembly  and  then  slain.  The 
sacrifice  was  called  suovetaurilia,  and  he  who  performed  it  was  said  conderc 
lustrum.  The  name  lustrum  is  said  to  have  been  applied  to  it,  because  at  that 
time  all  the  taxes  were  paid  by  the  farmers  general  to  the  censors  (from  luere 
to  pay,);  the  term  is  also  used  to  signify  a  space  of  five  years,  because  the 
ceremony  was  performed  always  at  the  end  of  that  period,  The  verb  lustrare 
expressed  the  act  of  purifying,  and  as  in  doing  this  the  victims  were  carried 
round,  the  word  naturally  obtained  another  meaning,  viz.  to  go  aroundx  tQ 
survey.     The  lustrum  was  always  made  in  the  Campus  Martins, 

§  225.  The  oaths  (jusjurandum,  juramentum)  of  the  Romans, 
which  were  regarded  as  holy  and  inviolable,  may  be  divided  into 
public  and  private.  The  first  were  taken  by  the  magistrates  before 
the  Tribunal  (§  243.  1.)  often  also  by  the  whole  senate,  the  generals, 
the  whole  army,  all  the  citizens  at  the  census,  and  every  single  sol-> 
dier.  To  the  latter  class  belonged  judicial  oaths,  and  such  as  per-, 
tained  to  marriage.  They  were  usually  taken  before  the  altars  of  the 
gods,  who  were  thus  invoked  as  witnesses ;  not  unfrequently  sacrifices 
were  at  the  same  time  offered. 

lu.  Persons  taking  an  oath  in  a  prescribed  form  were  said  conccptis  verbis 
jurare. 

2u.  What  was  called  devotio  consisted  in  a  voluntary  surrender  of  one'a 
self  (devovere)  to  capital  danger  or  to  violent  death,  in  order  to  rescue  his 
country  or  the  life  of  a  person  particularly  dear.  Sometimes  the  term  was 
applied,  when  a  conqueror  assigned  (devovebat)  a  captured  city  or  army  tQ 
destruction,  or  when  an  individual  was  punished. 

§  226.  The  Romans  had  no  oracles  themselves ;  but  in  cases  of 
importance,  they  resorted  to  those  of  Greece,  particularly  to  the 
Delphic.  Roman  superstition,  however,  found  nearer  sources  of  in-> 
formation  respecting  the  will  and  declarations  of  the  gods.  Besides 
i  he  use  of  their  augurium  and  extispiscium,  they  had  recourse  to  the 
Sibylline  Books,  or  the  pretended  prophecies  of  the  Sibyl  of  Cuma3. 

lu.  These  Books  were  received  from  the  Sibyl  by  Tarquinius  Superbus 
fsee  P.  II,  §  16).  They  were  kept  with  great  care  in  a  ston,e  vault  under 
ground  in  the  Capitol,  in  the  custody  of  the  Quindecemviri  sacris  faciundis 
(§  219).  Jn  important  emergencies,  in  general  disasters,  when  omens  were  in- 
auspicious, or  circumstances  were  perplexing,  they  consulted  the  Sibylline 
predictions  and  endeavored  thence  to  ascertain,  how  the  offended  deities  could 
be  appeased. 

2i*.  The  burning  of  the  Capitol,  B.  C.  84,  occasioned  the  destruction   of 

43** 


570  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

these  books  ;  there  were  attempts  to  restore  some  parts  of  them  from  fragments 
and  quotations.  The  pieces  now  extant  under  this  name,  however,  are  in  all 
probability  not  genuine,  but  of  later  origin. 

§  227.  The  use  of  lots  (sortes),  in  order  to  ascertain  the  result  of 
an  affair  or  undertaking,  was  very  common  with  the  Romans.  They 
were  small  tablets  or  blocks  (tali)  of  wood  or  metal,  on  which  cer- 
tain words  or  marks  were  inscribed,  which  were  kept  in  an  apart- 
ment in  the  temple  of  Fortune.  The  most  famous  were  those  in 
the  temple  of  this  goddess  at  Prseneste,  which  in  early  times  were 
very  frequently  employed. 

1m.  Those  at  Antium  were  also  renowned;  those  at  Care  and  Falerium 
disappeared,  as  it  was  pretended,  miraculously.  Sometimes  lots  of  this  sort 
were  provided  and  kept  for  domestic  use.  Those,  who  foretold  the  future  by 
means  of  lots,  were  called  Surtilegi. — Cf.  Cic.  de  Divinat.  ii.  41. — Liv.  xxi. 
62.  xx'u.  1. 

2.  Besides  the  use  of  lots  and  the  practice  of  augury  (§  209),  other  arti- 
fices were  employed  among  the  Romans  by  those,  who  pretended  to  foretel 
the  future.  Some  professed  to  do  it  by  consulting  the  stars,  and  were  called 
Jlstrologi  Mathematici,  or  Genethliaci,  and  sometimes  Chaldeei  or  Babylonii,  as 
the  art  was  first  practiced  in  Chaldaea.  Others  professed  to  interpret  dreams, 
Conjectores ;  others  to  have  an  internal  afflatus  or  inspiration,  Harioli,  Va- 
ticinatores.  Insane  persons  were  supposed  to  foreknow  the  future ;  in 
which  class  were  the  Ceriti,  those  rendered  insane  by  Ceres ;  the  Lymphati, 
rendered  so  by  the  water-nymphs  ;  Lunatici,  by  the  moon  ;  Funatici,  by  the 
spirit  of  the  Fauni,  or  of  Faunus,  the  first  builder  of  a  fane  (fanum).  In 
short  many  of  the  Grecian  arts  of  divination  (§  75)  were  practiced  among 
the  Romans. 

3.  Magical  arts,  although  prohibited,  seem  to  have  been  employed  among 
the  Romans;  perhaps,  however,  chiefly  by  Greeks  and  other  foreigners. 
Some  passages  in  Horace  clearly  indicate  that  magical  pretensions  were  open- 
ly avowed  at  Rome.  Pliny  speaks  of  magic  as  a  most  fraudulent  art,  that 
has  had  sway  in  all  the  world. — The  Romans  generally  admitted  the  notion 
that  certain  persons  had  the  power  of  fascinating  others  (fascinatio).  by  dart- 
ing an  evil  look  upon  them  ;  which  the  Greeks  termed  Banxur'iu  (cf.  §  75.  6). 
To  avert  such  malignant  influences,  an  amulet  of  some  kind  was  sometimes 
worn  on  the  neck,  called  fascinum  (cf.  P.  III.  §  88). 

See  Archaologia  (as  cited  P.  I.  §  243.  3.)  vol.  xix.  p.  70,  on  an  antique  Bas-relief  supposed 
to  represent  the  fascination  by  the  evil  eye.— Class.  Joumi.  vol.  xxx.vi.  p.  1S5,  on  the  magic 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.— Le  Blond,  sur  Magie,  in  the  Mem.  de  PlnsMut,  C'lasse  de  Lit.  et 
Beaux  Arts.  l.  81. — Bonamy  and  Blanchard,  La  Magie  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Liscr.Yii.  23.  XII. 
49.    Cf.  Har.  Epod.  5.  and  17.— Plin.  Hist,  Nat.  xxx.  L 

§  228.  The  division  of  the  year  was  made  at  Rome  a  care  of  the 
priests,  and  therefore  falls  under  the  head  of  religious  affairs.  With- 
out noticing  the  various  changes  in  this,  we  may  remark  that  Romu- 
lus, Numa,  and  Julius  Csesar,  were  the  authors  of  the  principal  meth- 
ods of  dividing  and  computing  the  year.  The  month  was  divided  into 
three  parts  by  the  Calends,.  Nones  and  Ides,  and  in  computing  the 
days  of  the  month,  the  Romans  reckoned  backwards  from  these 
three  fixed  points  (P.  V.  §  191). 

\u.  The  day  was  reckoned  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  This  space  was  divided 
into  twelve  hours  (horcej  which  of  course  were  of  different  length  at  the  dif- 
ferent seasons  of  the  year ;  hence  the  phrase  hora  hiberna.  equivalent  to  liora 
brevissima.  The  night  was  likewise  divided  into  twelve  hours  (P.  V.  §  187), 
and  also  into  four  watches  (vigilia).  The  use  of  sun-dials  (solaria),  and 
of  water-glasses  (clepsydra),  seems  to  have  been  introduced  at  a  comparatively 
late  period. 

2.  The  dial  is  said  to  have  been  invented  at  Lacedsemon  in  the  time  of 
Cyrus  the  Great.  The  first  one  at  Rome  was  set  up  B.  C.  about  260.— The 
clepsydra  (xleipvdQa)  w  as  invented  at  Alexandria,  and  carried  thence  to  Ath- 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       DIVISION    OF    TIME.    FESTIVALS.  571 

ens  and  afterwards,  B.  C.  about  160,  introduced  at  Rome.  "  It  was  formed 
by  a  vessel  of  water,  having  a  minute  perforation  in  the  bottom,  through 
which  the  water  issued  (stealing  out,  uZixpig  i'Svo)  drop  by  drop,  and  fell  into 
another  vessel,  in  which  a  light  body  floated,  having  attached  to  it  an  index 
or  graduated  scale.  As  the  water  increased  in  the  receiving  vessel,  the  float- 
ing body  rose,  and  by  its  regularly  increising  height  furnished  an  approxima- 
tion to  a  correct  indication  of  time."  ( Bigelow's  Technology,  p.  365j — It 
was  so  constructed,  that  the  orifice  for  letting  out  the  water  could  be  accom- 
modated to  the  varying  length  of  the  Roman  hours.  A  servant  was  employed, 
whose  business  it  was  from  time  to  time  to  examine  the  water-clock,  and  re- 
port the  hour  to  his  master. 

§  229.  The  Romans  had  a  multitude  of  festival  days,  set  apart  for 
the  service  of  the  gods,  and  celebrated  with  sacrifices,  banquets, 
and  games.  These  were  called  dies  fcsti.  The  days  called  dies 
fasti  were  those  on  which  no  assembly  of  the  people  or  senate  was 
held,  but  the  praetor  administered  justice.  Days,  on  which  he  could 
not  do  this,  were  termed  nefasti.  Days,  of  which  only  a  part  of 
each  could  be  appropriated  to  business,  were  called  inter cisi;  those 
wholly  resigned  to  business,  profesti.  Such  as  were  considered  in- 
auspicious were  called  dies  religiosi ;  among  these  they  reckoned  es- 
pecially the  first  days  after  the  Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides ;  which  they 
named  postridiani.  The  festival  days  were  termed  also  ferice,  dies 
feriati,  from  the  cessation  of  common  business. 

lu.  The  Roman  festivals  were  public  or  private.  The  public  were  either 
of  regular  occurrence  (ferice.  stativai),  or  annually  fixed  by  the  magistrates  or 
priests  (jus  pontijicium).  Private  and  domestic  festivals,  e.  g.  for  birth-days 
and  marriages,  depended  of  course  on  the  pleasure  of  the  parties  interested. 

2.  Feriee  Nundinal  were  regular  days,  on  which  the  people  from  the  coun- 
try assembled   to  expose  their  various  commodities  for    sale,  market  days  ; 

called  Nundinal,  becau  e  they  occupied  every  ninth  day  (Ov.  Fast.  i.  54). 

It  was  the  business  of  the  Pontifices  to  prepare  annually  a  register  called  Kal- 
endarium,  or  Fasti  Kalendures,  in  which  the  days  were  marked  in  each  month 
and  distinguished  according  as  they  belonged  to  the  different  classes  above 
named  ;  and  the  various  festivals  were  mentioned  as  they  were  to  take  place 
through  the  year. 

Couture,  Les  Fastes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Ivscr.  i.  60. — De  laNauze,  Calendrier  Romain,  in  the 
same,  Mem.  &c.  vol.26,  p.  219.  —  cf.  Port  Royal  Lat.  Gramm.  —  Ainsworth,  Lat.  Diet. 

§  230  £.  Of  the  numerous  Roman  festivals,  we  will  mention  some 
of  thepricipal  in  order  of  the  months. 

January,  1st  day.  The  festival  of  Janus,  on 
the  first  day  of  the  year,  on  which,  in  later 
times,  the  Consuls  entered  upon  their  office. 
The  presents  customary  on  this  day  were  called 
strentB ;  they  were  sent  from  clients  to  their 
patrons,  from  citizens  to  the  magistrates,  and 

from  friends  to    one   another. 9th.      The 

Ag-onalia,  also  in  honor  of  Janus. 11th  and 

15th.  The  Carmentalia,  to  the  goddess  Car- 
menta,  an    Arcadian    prophetess,    mother  of 

Evander. 25th.    The  Sementinte,  or  festival 

of  seed,  accompanied  with  the  Ambarvalia, 
which  differed  from  the  festival  of  the  same 
name  in  May  ;  on  which  they  passsd  over  the 
fields  with  the  animals  to  be  slain  in  sacrifice. 

30th.     The  festival   of  Peace  (Pax),  first 

established  by  Augustus. 31st.  The  festi- 
val in  honor  of  the  Penates,  or  household  gods. 

February.  1st.  The  Lucaria,  in  memory  of 
the  asylum  formed  by  Romulus,  or  of  the 
refuge  (lucus)  of  the  Romans  after  the  sack  of; 


Pan  ($  216). 17th.     Quirinalia,  to  Romulus 

deified  by  th3  name  Quirinus. 13th.    Fera- 

lia,  to  the  Manes,  accompanied  with  a  solemn 
expiation  or  purification  of  the  city,  called 
februatio,  whence  the  name  of  the  month  it- 
self. It  continued  from  the  18th  to  the  end  of 
the  month,  during  which  time  presents  were 
carried  to  the  graves  of  deceased  friends  and 
relatives,  and  the  living  held  feasts  of  love  and 
reconciliation. 21st.  Terminalia,  to  Term- 
inus, the  god  of  boundaries. 

.March.  On  the  first  day,  with  which  in 
early  times  the  year  began,  a  festival  to  Mars, 
on  which  the  procession  or  war-dance  of  the 
Salii  was  made  (§215)  ;  called  also  the  festival 

of  the   shields;    it  lasted   three  days. 6th 

Vestalia,  different  from  that  held  in  June. 

17th.  Liberalia,  to  Bacchus,  but   different  from 

the    Bacchanalia. 19th.       Quinquatria,    to 

Minerva,  named  from  its  duration  of  five  days  ,• 
tile  last  day  called  TubUustrium,  because  the 
their  city  bv  Brennus  —  This  day  was  also  ded-ltrumpets  used  in  sacred  rites  were  then  purifi- 

icated  to  Juno  Sospita. 13th.     Faunalia,   in  ed. 23d.     Hilana,  to  Cybele,  whose  sacred 

honor  of  Faunus  and  the  Sylvan  gods,  repeated  image  wars   during  it   sprinkled   and  purified  j 
5th  December. 15th.  Lupercalia,  to  Lycsean'  called  also  Lavatio  Matris  Dcttm. 


572 


ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 


men. 15th.  To  Castor  and  Pollux. 23d. 

JVeptunalia. 25th.  Furinaiia,  to  the  goddess 

Furina. 

August.  On  the  1st  da}'  a  festival  to  the 
goddess  of  Hope  ;   and  gladiatorial  sports  and 

games  in  honor  of  Mars. 13th.    To  Diana. 

17th.  Pvrtmnanalia,  to  Portumnus,  the  god 

of  harbors. 18th.   Consualia,  to  Consus,  the 

god  of  counsel  or  rather  to  Equestrian  Nep- 
tune.    The  seizure  of  the  Sabine  women  was 

commemorated  the  same  day. 21st.    Vina- 

lia  (the  second),  or  festival  of  the  vintage  to 

Jupiter   and    Venus. 23d.     Futcanalia,   to 

Vulcan  as  the  god  of  fire,  for  security  against 

conflagrations. 25th.    Opeconsiva,  to  Rhea, 

or  Ops,  or  fruit-bearing  Earth. 

September.    On  the  1st  day,  to  Jupiter  Mai- 

mactes. 4th.  Ludi  Magni,  or  llomani,  in  the 

Circus,  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva;    they 

lasted  from  the  4th  day  to  the  12th. 13th. 

The  ceremony  of  fixing  a  nail  (clavus  fg-endus) 
in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  by  a  dictator  appoint- 
ed for  the  purpose,  to  avert  contagious  pesti- 
lence.  25th.  To  Venus  Genctrix. 30th. 

Mtditrinalia,  for  tasting  new  wine  before  the 
vintage  ;  that  this  festival  was  sacred  to  a  god- 
dess of  health,  named  Meditrina,  is  as  doubtful 
as  the  existence  of  the  goddess  herself. 

October.  12th.  Jtmgvttatui,  properly  games 
in  honor  of  Augustus,  instituted  after  the  close 
of  his  campaigns,  particularly  the  Armenian, 

B.C.  19  or  20. 13th.    Foniinalia,  in  which 

the  public  fountains  were  crowned  with  gar- 
lands.  15th.    To  Mars,  chiefly  a  horse-race 

on  the  Campus  Martius,  at  the  end  of  which  a 

horse  was  offered  in  sacrifice. 19th.    The 

Armilustrium,  or  review-muster,  celebrated  on- 
ly by  soldiers,  and  in  full  armor. 

November.  13th.  A  feast  dedicated  to  Ju- 
piter, Epulum  Jovis. 15th.    Ludi  Plebeii,  in 

the  theatre,  or  the  circus  ;  they  were  also  fre- 
quently held  at  other  times  not  defined. 

December.  5th.  Faunalia,  kept  by  the  peo- 
ple of  the  country,  as  the  same  in  February 

was  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  city. 17th. 

Saturnalia,  one  of  the  most  famous  festivals  of 
Rome,  originally  limited  to  a  single  day,  after- 
wards extended  over  three,  four,  and  more.  It 
was  a  festival  of  leisure  and  general  joy,  in 
30th.  To  Hercules  and  the  M uses.!  memory  of  the  golden  period  in  Italy  under  the 
On   the   first    day   the  occupants  of  government  of  Saturn.     During  it  slaves  were 


April.  On  the  1st  day,  Veneralii,  the  festi- 
val of  Venus,  to  whom  the  whole  month  was 
dedicated.     (Cf.  SchoU,  Hist.   Litt.   Rom.   vol. 

in.    p.    24). 5th.      Megalcsia,    to    Cybele, 

whose  priests,  the  Galli  (§'217),  on  tnis  made 

their  procession. 12th.     Cerealia,  to  Ceres, 

attended  with  games. 15th.     Furdicidia,  to 

the  goddess  Tellus,  for  the  purpose  of  averting 
a  dearth  or  scarcity,  on  occasion  of  which  Nu- 
ma  instituted  the  festival ;  each  Curia  furnish- 
ed a  pregnant  cow  (fvrda)  to  be  sacrificed  to 
Tellus. 21st.  Paldia,  a  rural,  country  festi- 
val, to  Pales,  goddess  of  cattle. 22d.    Vin- 

alia,  repeated  in  August,  to  consecrate  to  Ju- 
piter the  growth  of  the  vine  in  Italy. 23d. 

RubirraUa~to  the  god  Robicus,  that  he  might 
protect  the  grain  from  blighting  (a  rubigins). 
28th.  Floralia,  to  Flora,  orChloris,  attend- 
ed with  games  (cf.  §  236).— 30th.  The  festival  of 
the  Palatine  Vesta,  instituted  by  Augustus. 

May.  On  the  first  day  the"  Festival  to  the 
Lares  Pratstites,  and  the  ceremonies  by  night  to 
Bona  Dea,  performed  by  the  vestals  and  wo- 
men alone. 2d.    Compitalia,  to  the  Lares  in 

the   public   ways. 9th.      Lsmuria,    to  the 

Lemures,  or  wandering  spirits  of  deceased  an- 
cestors and  relatives  on  the  father's  side  (P.  III. 

$$  110,  111). 15th.     Fcstum  Mercatorum,  to 

Mercury,  for  merchants  (P.  III. $56). 23d. 

Vulcanalia,  to  Vulcan,  called  also  Tubilustria 
from  the  purifying  of  the  sacred  trumpets. 

June.  On  the  first  day  were  several  festi- 
vals, to  Dea  Carna,  Juno  JUoneta,  Mars  Ex- 
tra.nurancus,  and  Tempestas. 3d.  The  fes- 
tival to   Bellona. 4th.     To   Hercules. 

9th.  Vestalia,  to  Vesta,  in  memory  of  the  gift 
of  bread  to  men.  Food  was  sent  to  the  VestaK- 
to  be  offered  to  the  gods;  and  the  asses, 
which  turned  the  mills,  were  decked  with  gar- 
lands and  led  in  procession. 10th.  Matralia, 

to  Matuta,  celebrated  by  Roman  matrons  ;  also 
a  festival,  on  the  same  day,  to  Fortuna  Virilis, 

by  women  ;  and  to  Concordia. 13th.   Quiitqua 

tria  (parva),  designed  for  the  improvement  and 
pleasure  of  those,  who  had  the  care  of  the  mu- 
sic in  the  worship  of  the  gods. 16th.  Puri- 
fying  of   the  temple   of   Vesta. 19th.  To 

Summauus,  i.  e.   probably  to  Pluto. 24th. 

To  Fortuna  Fortis,  for  people  of  the  lower 
classes. 

July. 

hired  houses  changed  their  residence. 5th 

Ludi  Api)llinarc.<,   with  sacrifices. 6th.  To 

Female  Fortune,  in  memory  of  Coriolanus  with- 
drawing his  army  from  the   city  (Liv.  ii.  40) 


placed  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  their  mas- 
ters.   19th.     Opalia,  to  the  goddess  of  Ops. 

The  Compitalia,  to  the  Lares  of  the  cross- 
ways,  were  often  held  shortly  after  the  Satur- 
th.    To  Juno  Caprotina,  for  young  wo-jnalia,  as  well  as  in  other  months. 

§  231.  The  public  games  (ludi)  among  the  Romans,  as  well  as 
among  the  Greeks  from  whom  the  former  borrowed  them  in  part, 
were  viewed  as  festival  occasions  in  honor  of  the  gods.  These 
games  were  usually  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  sometimes  at  the  ex- 
pense of  individuals,  particularly  the  emperors.  They  were  different 
in  their  character,  as  well  as  in  the  time  and  place  of  their  celebra- 
tion. Many  were  held  annually,  or  after  a  period  of  several  years, 
at  a  time  fixed  or  variable  ;  many  also  arose  from  particular  occa- 
sions;  hence  the  variety  in  distinctive  appellations;  e.  g.,  ludi  stati, 
imperativi,  instaurativi,  votivi,  quinquennalcs,  decennales,  seculares, 
lustrales,  &,c.  Names  were  given  also  in  reference  to  their  charac- 
ter, and  the  place  where  they  were  celebrated  ;  e.  g.,  ludi  circenses, 
capitolini,  scenici,  piscaturii,  triumphales,  funebres.  Only  the  most 
famous  of  these  games  can  here  be  noticed. 

§  232.    The  first  to  be  mentioned  are  the  Ludi  Circenses,  or  by 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.       FESTIVALS.    GAMES.  57$ 

way  of  eminence  Ludi  Magni.  They  received  their  name  from  the 
Circus  Mazimus,  which  was  not  merely  a  large  free  place,  but,  taken 
in  its  whole,  formed  a  superb  edifice  ;  it  was  a  kind  of  theatre,  com- 
menced by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  enlarged  and  adorned  by  Julius 
CaBsar  as  dictator. 

1m.  Its  breadth  was  more  than  a  stadium  and  its  length  was  three  and  a 
half  stadia  (2187  feet).  All  around  it  were  seats  (fori)  for  spectators,  so  as 
to  accommodate  at  least  150.000  persons.  In  the  middle,  extending  length- 
wise, was  a  wall,  called  spina  circi,  4  feet  high,  12  broad,  and  1  stadium  in 
length.  At  each  end  of  the  wall  were  three  pyramids  on  a  single  base,  which 
were  the  goals  (metce),  around  which  the  horses  and  chariots  turned.  The 
wall  had  many  other  oraments.  The  whole  edifice  also  was  highly  ornament- 
ed ;  it  was  altogether  the  largest  of  the  kind,  although  there  were  in  Rome 
eight  other  places  for  races  and  games,  called  Circi.  At  one  end  were  12 
openings  or  parts  separated  by  walls,  called  carceres,  where  the  horses  and 
chariots  stood  waiting  for  the  signal  to  start.  [Not  far  from  the  carceres,  a 
whitened  rope  (alba  linea)  was  drawn  across  the  circus;  one  half  of  it  mark- 
ing the  commencement,  and  the  other  half  the  end,  of  the  race.]  Those  who 
governed  the  chariots,  were  divided  into  certain  classes  (factiones  or  gregesj, 
distinguished  by  dresses  of  different  colors.  The  whole  circus  was  dedicated 
to  the  god  of  the  sun. 

2.  Of  the  other  structures  of  this  class  the  following  were  the  principal:  the  Circus  Flamin- 
ius  ;  the  Circus  Mexandrinus ;  the  Circus  Sallusticus ;  the  Circus  Florialis,  or  Vaticanus,  fin- 
ished by  Nero  in  a  splendid  style,  and  signalized  as  the  scene  where  numbers  of  the  early 
Christians  suffered  martyrdom  under  that  emperor  ;  the  obelisk  in  the  centre  of  the  peristyle 
of  St.  Peter  was  taken  from  the  spina  of  this  circus  ;    the  Circus  CaracalLe  ;   the  Circus  Domi- 

tim. Oracius,  as  cited  §  197.  1,  vol.  ix.  ;   and  Polemis  as  there  cited,  vol.  v.  —  Q.  L.  Bian- 

coni,  Discrizione  dei  Circhi  particolarmente  di  quello  di  Caracalla  &c.  Con  note  C.  Fea.  Ronx. 
1780.  fol.  —  Burgess,  The  Circus  on  the  Appian  Way. 

§  233  m.  The  Ludi  Circenses  were  commonly  held  but  once  a  year;  some- 
times they  were  appointed  on  extraordinary  occasions  ;  in  both  cases  they 
were  maintained  at  public  cost.  The  solemn  procession  which  preceded  them, 
pompa  circensis,  moved  from  the  Capitol.  The  images  of  the  gods  were  borne 
in  splendid  carriages  or  frames  (in  thensis  et  ferculis),  or  on  men's  shoulders 
(in  humeris),  followed  by  a  great  train,  on  horseback  or  on  foot,  with  the  com- 
batants, musicians,  &c.  Sacred  rites  were  then  performed,  and  the  games 
opened. 

The  games  or  shows  (spectacula)  in  the  Circus  were  of  four  kinds  ;  chariot- 
races,  with  two  or  four  horses  ;  contests  of  agility  and  strength,  such  as 
wrestling  (lucta),  boxing  (pugilatus),  throwing  the  discus  (disci  jactusj,  leap- 
ing (saltus),  and  running  (cursusj  ;  representations  of  sieges  and  of  battles  on 
foot  and  on  horseback,  including  the  Ludus  Trojoz  (Virg.  JEn.  v,  545)  ;  fight- 
ing of  wild  beasts  (venatio).  —  To  describe  these  particularly  would  exceed 
our  limits.  Many  of  the  exercises,  however,  corresponded  to  those  of  the 
Greeks  (cf.  §  78,  83),  The  victors  were  rewarded  with  crowns  and  some- 
times with  rich  gifts  in  addition.  The  victor  in  the  chariot-race  received  a 
palm-branch,  which  he  bore  in  his  hand. 

Fig.  B,  of  Plate  XIII.,  is  a  victorious  Roman  charioteer,  with  the  palm  in  his  right  hand,  and 
the  reigns  is  his  left ;  he  is  closely  girded  about  the  chest  and  body.  — — -  Brottit-r,  Le  jeux  du 
Cirque,  in  the  Mem.  de  VJ$cad.  des  Iiiscr.  vol,  xlv.  p.  4K7.  —  Mongez,  Sur  les  animaux  prome- 
nes  ou  tues  dans  les  Cirques,  in  the  Mem.  de  Plnstitut,  Clause  d'Hist.  ct  hit.  Anc.  vol.  x.  p,  360, 

At  the  time  of  the  Ludi  Magni,  other  spectacles  were  also  exhibited,  not  in 
the  Circus  ;  particularly  the  jYaumachia,  or  representations  of  naval  battles. 
These  originally  were  made  in  the  sea,  but  afterwards  in  artificial  basins  or 
excavations  made  for  the  purpose  and  filled  with  water,  which  were  also  called 
JVaumachia.  The  vessels  were  usually  manned  by  prisoners,  malefactors, 
glaves,  or  conquered  foes,  and  many  lost  their  lives  or  were  severely  wounded. 
This  spectacle  was  sometimes  exhibited  in  the  Circus  Maximus,  water  being 
introduced  into  it  for  the  purpose. 

§  234.  The  Ludi  Sceculares,  or  centurial  games,  were  solemnize^ 
with  much  ceremony.  They  were  not  celebrated  exactly  after  the 
lapse  of  a  century,  but  sometimes  a  little  earlier,  or  a  little  later; 


574  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

usually  in  the  month  of  April.  For  this  occasion  long  preparations 
were  always  made,  the  Sibylline  books  were  consulted,  and  a  sort  of 
general  purification  or  expiation  of  the  whole  city  was  previously 
made.  Sacrifices  were  offered  to  all  the  gods,  those  of  the  infernal 
world  as  well  as  those  of  Olympus,  and  while  the  men  attended  ban- 
quets of  the  gods  in  their  temples,  the  women  assembled  for  prayer 
in  the  temple  of  Juno.  Thank-offerings  were  also  presented  to  the 
Genii. 

1m.  After  the  sacrifices,  a  procession  advanced  from  the  Capitol  to  a  large 
theatre  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  where  the  games  were  exhibited,  in  honor 
of  Apollo  and  Diana.  On  the  second  day  the  Roman  matrons  were  collected 
to  offer  sacrifice  in  the  Capitol.  On  the  third,  among  other  solemnities,  a 
song  of  praise  to  Apollo  and  Diana  was  sung  in  the  temple  of  Palatine  Apol- 
lo, by  a  select  band  of  young  men  and  virgins,  of  Patrician  rank.  The  car- 
men smculare  of  Horace  was  prepared  to  be  thus  sung,  at  the  command  of 
Augustus,  in  whose  reign  the  games  were  celebrated. 

2  m.  To  the  religious  solemnities,  which  were  held  for  the  purpose  of  secur- 
ing the  safety  of  the  whole  state,  were  afterwards  added  various  amusements, 
which  rendered  this  a  festival  of  universal  hilarity.  Among  the  diversions 
were  pantomimes,  histrionic  plays,  and  the  feats  of  jugglers  (prcestigiatores), 
persons  who  seemed  to  fly  in  the  air  (petauristaj,  rope-dancers  CfunambulV, 
and  the  like. 

On  the  chronology  of  the  secular  games,  Class.  Journ.  xvn.  351. 

§  235.  The  gladiatorial  shows,  Ludi  Gladiatorii,  were  greatly 
admired  in  Rome.  They  were  usually  called  Munera,  as  they  would 
impart  pleasure  to  the  spectators,  or  bestow  respect  on  those  out  of 
regard  to  whom  they  were  held  ;  in  the  latter  view  they  were  ap- 
pointed, e.  g.  at  the  funerals,  or  in  commemoration,  of  the  deceased. 

1  u.  These  shows  were  of  Etrurian  origin,  and  probably  grew  out  of  the 
ancient  custom  of  sacrificing  prisoners  at  funeral  solemnities  in  honor  of  the 
departed.  At  Rome  they  were  at  first  exhibited  chiefly  at  funerals  ;  after- 
wards they  were  given  by  the  iEdiles,  Praetors,  Quaestors,  and  Consuls  in  the 
amphitheatres,  especially  on  the  festivals  of  the  Saturnalia  and  Quinquatria. 

The  gladiators  were  supported  at  public  expense.  Their  residence  or  place 
of  instruction  was  called  ludus,  a  name  often  given  to  any  arena  or  building, 
where  such  exercises  were  learned  or  practiced  ;  their  overseer  was  termed 
procurator,  and  their  instructor,  lanista.  In  the  public  spectacles,  the  combat 
was  often  carried  to  blood  and  even  to  death,  unless  the  conquered  gladiator 
begged  his  life  of  the  crowd  of  spectators.  The  number  of  combatants  was 
originally  indeterminate,  and  until  fixed  by  Caesar.  The  gladiators  bore  va- 
rious names  according  to  their  armor  and  their  mode  of  fighting. 

2.  The  gladiators  termed  secutores  were  armed  with  helmet,  shield,  and 
sword.  They  were  usually  matched  with  the  retiarii,  who  were  dressed  in  a 
short  tunic  with  nothing  on  the  head,  bearing  in  the  left  hand  a  three-pointed 
lance  (tridens),  and  in  the  right  a  net  (retc)  in  order  to  throw  it  over  the  head 
of  their  adversary.  The  mirmillones  were  armed  like  Gauls,  and  took  the 
name  from  the  image  of  a  fish  on  their  helmet,  and  were  usually  matched  with 
those  termed  thracts.  The  essedarii  fought  from  chariots,  and  the  andabatx 
on  horseback.  —  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  term  gladiatores  included  those 
who  fought  with  beasts  as  well  as  those  who  fought  with  men  ;  although  the 
former  were  termed  distinctively  bestiarii. 

3.  At  first  gladiators  were  wholly  composed  of  criminals  and  slaves  ;  but 
afterwards  free  citizens  of  noble  birth,  and  even  women,  fought  on  the  arena. 
—  An  advertisement  or  public  notice  was  put  up  by  the  person  who  intended 
to  exhibit  a  gladiatorial  show  (editor),  with  an  account  of  the  combatants  and 
sometimes  a  delineation  or  picture  annexed.  On  the  day  of  exhibition  the 
gladiators  were  led  along  the  arena  in  procession,  and  then  matched  for  the 
contest.  When  a  gladiator  lowered  his  arms,  it  was  a  sign  of  being  van- 
quished; his  fate  depended  on  the  spectators;  if  they  wished  him  to  be  saved, 


RELIGIOUS    AFFAIRS.        GLADIATORIAL    SHOWS.  575 

• 
they  pressed  down  their  thumbs  ;  if  to  be  slain,  they  turned  up  their  thumbs 
(pollicem  premebant  or  vertebantj.  —  Vast  numbers  of  men  and  of  brute  ani- 
mals were  destroyed.  In  the  spectacles  after  the  triumph  of  Trajan  over  the 
Dacians.  it  is  said  that  10,000  gladiators  fought,  and  11,000  animals  were 
killed.  These  shows  were  prohibited  by  Constantine,  but  not  fully  suppressed 
until  the  time  of  Honorius. 

In  Plate  XXIII.  are  several  figures  illustrating  this  subject,  which  are  taken  from  sculptures 
on  a  tomb  found  at  Pompeii.  Fig.  1  represents  an  equestrian  combat  ;  the  andabata  are  clothed 
in  the  short  cloak  (inducula),  and  armed  with  the  lance,  round  buckler  (parma),  helmet  with 

a  vizor  covering  the  face,  and  a  sort  of  mail  on  the  right  arm Two  gladiators  on  foot  appear 

in  figures  3  and  4.  Each  has  the  helmet  and  the  subligaculum,  a  short  apron  fixed  above  the 
hipsby  a  girdle.  Fig.  3  has  armor  on  the  right  arm,  and  holds  the  scutum,  or  long  shield  ;  on 
his  right  leg  is  a  kind  of  buskin,  and  on  his  left  the  ocrea  or  greave  ;  the  rest  of  the  body  is 
naked;  he  has  lowered  his  shield  as  being  vanquished,  and  raised  his  hand  to  implore  mercy 
of  the  spectators.  Fig.  4  is  behind  him,  waiting  for  the  signal  from  thein,  whether  to  spare 
his  antagonist  or  strike  the  death  blow  ;  he  carries  a  smaller  shield,  has  armor  upon  his  thighs 
and  the  high  greaves  upon  his  legs.  —  Fig.  6  presents  a  group  of  four  gladiators  ;  two  are  fol- 
lowers (secutoresj,  and  two  vet-men  (rciiariij.  One  of  the  secutorcs  is  wounded  in  the  leg, 
thigh,  and  arm,  and,  having  id   vain  implored  mercy  of  the  spectators,  he  bends  his  knee  ap- 

fiarently  to  receive  from  the  sword  of  his  comrade  a  more  speedy  death  than  would  be  likely 
rom  the  trident  of  his  antagonist  retiarius,  who  pushes  him  and  seems  thus  to  insult  his  con- 
quered rival.  The  other  retiarius  is  waiting  to  fight  in  his  turn  with  the  secutor  who  is  hasten- 
ing to  end  the  sufferings  of  his  wounded  companion.  The  letters  against  two  of  the  figures 
are  the  sculptured  names  of  the  persons  represented,  with  the  number  of  victories  gained  by 
tiiem  on  the  arena.  —  The  small  figure  with  a  lance  in  each  hand  is  from  a  group  on  the  sam» 
tomb  representing  a  young  bestiarius  preparing  himself  to  contend  in  the  arena. —  Fig.  5  is 
also  from  a  sculpture  on  this  tomb,  representing  a  bull  frantic  with  rage,  with  a  lance  driven 
through  his  breast,  and  rushing  towards  the  man  by  whom  he  is  wounded.  —  See  Mazois,  as 
cited  P.  I.  $343.  2.—  Pompeii,  p.  291,  as  cited  P.  I. "§226.  1.  —  For  minute  details  respecting 
gladiators,  cf.  J.  Lipsius,  Saturnalia,  in  his  Works.  Ant.  1637.  6  vols.  fol. 

§  236.  The  Ludi  Floralcs  were  united  with  the  festival  of  the 
goddess  Flora,  held  on  the  28th  of  April  (§  230).  They  were  insti- 
tuted at  Rome,  B.  C.  24  ;  afterwards  they  were  discontinued  for  a 
period,  but  were  renewed  again  in  consequence  of  a  sterility  of  fruit, 
which  was  viewed  as  the  punishment  for  their  omission.  They  last- 
ed from  the  day  above  mentioned  to  the  evening  of  the  3d  of  May  ; 
no  sacrifices  were  offered  ;  those  who  engaged  in  the  celebration 
wore  garlands  of  flowers,  and  indulged  in  frequent  banquetings,  and 
often  descended  to  extreme  licentiousness.  Parties  for  hunting  and 
dancing  were  also  formed  ;  and  the  cediles  curules,  who  had  the  care 
of  the  plays,  distributed  vast  quantities  of  peas  and  beans  among  the 
populace  in  the  Circus. 

§  237  £.  There  were  other  games  or  sports  (ludi),  which  we  may 
just  mention  here. 

The  Ludi  Megalenses,  in  honor  of  Cybele,  mother  of  the  gods,  celebrated 
with  shows,  and  by  mutual  presents  and  entertainments  (mutitare)  between 
persons  of  the  higher  ranks.  —  The  Ludi  Cereales  in  the  Circus,  in  the  mem- 
ory of  the  rape  of  Proserpine,  and  the  consequent  sorrow  of  her  mother  Ce- 
res. —  The  Martialcs,  dedicated  to  Mars  Ultor,  or  the  avenger.  —  The  Apolli- 
nares,  in  honor  of  Apollo,  and  generally  scenical. — The  Capitolini,  to  Jupiter, 
in  memory  of  his  preserving  the  Capitol  from  the  Gauls.  —  The  Plebeii,  in 
commemoration  of  the  expulsion  of  the  kings  and  the  recovery  of  freedom. 
—  The  Consualcs,  in  honor  of  Neptune,  and  in  memory  of  the  seizure  of  the 
Sabine  women.  —  Among  the  games  occasioned  by  vows  and  called  ludi  vo- 
tivi,  the  principal  were  such  as  were  promised  and  appointed  by  generals  in 
war}  among  which  may  be  ranked  those  already  mentioned  (§  231),  the  quin- 
quennales,  dccennales,  &c.  given  by  the  emperors  every  five,  ten,  and  twenty 
years.  —  To  the  class  called  extr aor dinar ii,  belonged  such  as  were  held  at  fu- 
nerals, the  Funebres,  and  those  appointed  by  Nero  for  youth  on  completing 
their  minority  in  age,  the  Juvenales. 

§  238.  For  exhibiting  many  of  these  games,  especially  the  dra- 
matic (scenici)  and  gladiatorial,  theatres  and  amphitheatres  were 
used,  —  In  the  first  ages,  theatres  were  constructed  merely  of  wood, 


$76  ROMAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

• 

and  were  taken  down  after  being  used.  Afterwards  they  were  built 
of  stone,  and  sometimes  of  great  size  and  splendor.  Their  con- 
struction was  similar  to  that  of  Greek  theatres  ;  one  side  or  end  had 
the  form  of  a  prolonged  semicircle,  for  the  spectators,  and  the  other 
was  rectangular  for  the  stage  and  actors.  The  most  famous  theatre 
was  that  built  B.  C.  59  by  the  sedile  M.  Scaurus,  at  his  own  expense, 
partly  of  marble,  and  so  capacious  that  80,000  spectators  could  sit 
in  it.  The  theatres  of  Pompey  and  Marcellus  were  also  very  large 
and  celebrated  ;  the  latter  in  part  still  remains. 

1.  The  Roman  theatre,  like  the  Greek  (cf.  P.  I.  §  235),  consisted  of  three 
parts,  the  scena,  orchestra,  and  cavea;  but  the  two  latter  are  sometimes  includ- 
ed under  one  (the  cavea),  because  in  the  Roman  the  chorus  and  musicians 
were  placed  on  the  stage  (or  scena)  ;  and  the  rows  of  seats  in  the  orchestra 
were  occupied  by  the  senators,  foreign  ambassadors,  and  specially  distin- 
guished personages.  The  next  fourteen  rows  of  the  cavea  were  assigned  to 
the  equites,  and  the  rest  of  the  people.  Women  occupied  the  portico  sur- 
rounding the  whole,  by  an  arrangement  of  Augustus.  — The  stage,  or  portion 
allotted  to  the  performers,  had  several  parts  distinguished  by  name  ;  one  part 
was  that  to  which  the  term  scena  (which  is  put  sometimes  for  the  stage  as  a 
whole)  more  appropriately  belongs,  the  scene  or  scenery',  the  part  sometimes 
concealed  by  a  curtain  (aulccum),  which  was  fastened  not  at  the  top  but  at 
the  bottom,  and,  when  it  was  necessary  to  hide  the  scene,  was  drawn  up  by  a 
machine  for  the  purpose  (called  exostra)  ;  columns,  statues,  pictures,  and  va- 
rious ornaments  of  the  most  magnificent  character  were  exhibited,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  plays.  The  postscenium  was  a  place  behind  the  scene, 
where  the  actors  changed  their  dresses,  and  the  proscenium  was  the  space  in 
front  of  the  scene.  The  place  usually  occupied  by  the  actors  when  speaking 
was  termed  pulpitum  (J.oyiior,  §  89). 

A  plan  of  the  Roman  theatre  is  given  in  our  Plate  VI.  fig.  2.  The  upper  half  of  the  circle 
BHBH  is  the  orchestra ;  the  circle  is  presented  complete  with  the  four  equilateral  triangles  in- 
scribed, in  order  to  show  the  manner  of  determining  the  places  f  r  the  scena,  the  postsce- 
nium,  and  the  cunei;  these  triangles  are  inscribed  so  that  their  vertices  fall  severally  on  the 
ends  of  the  diameters  BB,  HH  ;  then  their  other  angles  give  the  points  and  limits  required  ; 
the  diameter  (HH)  of  the  orchestra  was  usually  one  third  (or  more)  of  the  whole  diameter  of 
the  theatre.    The  length  given  to  the  scene  or  stage  was  twice  the  diameter  of  the  orchestra. 

2.  The  principal  forms  of  dramatic  entertainment  among  the  Romans  have 
already  been  mentioned.  See  P.  II.  §  308-320. — Masks  in  great  variety  were 
used  on  the  Roman  stage  as  well  as  on  the  Grecian  (cf.  §  89).  —  Among  the 
musical  instruments  employed  were  the  flute,  and  the  lyre  or  harp,  and  in 
later  times  the  hydraulic  organ,  sometimes  called  cortina.  The  common  ac- 
companiments of  comedy  were  the  flutes  termed  tibice  dextra  or  by  dice,  and 
tibia  sinistral  or  Serrano  or  J'yriai ;  the  terms  pares  and  impares  are  also  ap- 
plied to  them.  There  has  Ween  some  disagreement  as  to  what  these  terms 
mean.  It  is  most  commonly  supposed,  that  the  musician  used  two  flutes  at 
once  or  a  double  flute  ;  that  the  sinistra  had  but  few  holes  and  sounded  a  sort 
of  bass,  while  the  dextra  had  more  holes  with  sharper  tones,  and  when  these 
two  were  united  they  were  termed  impares,  and  took  the  other  names  because 
one  was  stopped  by  the  left  hand  and  the  other  by  the  right ;  when  two  dex- 
tra: or  two  sinistra:  were  united  and  played  upon  by  the  musician,  they  were 
called  pares. 

A  painting  found  at  Pompeii  represents  a  flute-player  blowing  upon  the  double  flute.  See 
our  Plate  XXI.  fig.  a,  and  cf.  §  180.  2.  —  Bbttigcr,  Die  Erfindung  der  f  lote,  in  vol.  it.  of  Wie- 
land's  Attisches  Museum. 

On  theatres,  plavs,  masks  <fcc.  cf.  Bernardi,  Les  jeux  sceniques  chez  les  Remains,  in  the 
Mem.  dePInstitut,  Classe  d'Ifat.  et  Lit.  ,4nc.  vol.  vim.  p.  250.  —  Dunlop,  as  cited  P.  II.  $  299.  8. 
—  Bbltig-er,  Prolus.  de  Personis  scenicis,  vulgo  Larvis.  Vinarioe,  1794.  4.  —  Francitco'dc  Fico- 
roni,  on  theatrical  Masques  of  the  Romans.  Rom.  1736.  4.  with  Plates.  —  Boindin,  Sur  les 
Masques  &c,  in  the  Mem  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  iv.  p.  132. 

§  239.  The  first  amphitheatre  was  built  B.  C.  45  by  Julius  Caesar, 
but  merely  of  wood.  The  emperor  Titus  erected  the  first  of  stone, 
the  ruins  of  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Colosseum  or  Coliseum 
(from  a  colossal  statue  of  Nero,  which  stood  near  it),  constitute  still 


PLAtE     XXIII; 


49 


578  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

one  of  the  most  remarkable  curiosities  of  Rome.  The  form  of  am- 
phitheatres was  oval  or  elliptical.  They  were  generally  used  for  gla- 
diatorial shows  and  the  fighting  of  wild  beasts.  Both  theatres  and 
amphitheatres  were  commonly  dedicated  to  certain  gods. 

The  amphitheatre  exhibited  the  appearance  of  two  theatres  joined  ;  thus 
Curio  actually  formed  one,  perhaps  the  first ;  wishing  to  outdo  others  in  ex- 
hibitions of  this  sort,  he  constructed  two  large  theatres  of  wood  looking  op- 
posite ways,  in  which  dramatic  plays  were  performed  in  the  morning  ;  then 
by  machinery  for  the  purpose  he  suddenly  wheeled  them  round  so  as  to  look 
at  each  other,  thus  constituting  an  amphitheatre,  and  presented  a  show  of 
gladiators  in  the  afternoon.  The  term  arena  is  sometimes  put  for  the  amphi- 
theatre, but  means  properly  the  place  in  the  centre  where  the  gladiators 
fought,  and  was  so  called  from  its  being  covered  with  sand.  The  arena  was 
surrounded  with  a  wall,  guarded  with  round  wooden  rollers  turning  in  sock- 
ets, to  prevent  the  animals  from  climbing  up.  Sometimes  the  arena  was  com- 
pletely surrounded  with  a  ditch  filled  with  water  (euripusj.  Next  around  the 
arena  was  the  podium,  raised  12  or  15  feet  above  it,  projecting  over  the  wall 
and  protected  by  a  sort  of  parapet.  The  fourteen  seats  next  to  the  podium 
were  occupied  by  the  equites,  and  the  rest  (called  popuiaria)  by  the  people. 
There  were,  as  in  the  theatre,  passages  running  in  the  direction  of  the  seats 
(called  by  the  same  name,  pracinctiones),  and  others  running  transversely 
(scal&J,  by  which  there  were  formed  several  compartments  in  the  shape  of 
wedges  (cunei),  The  women,  after  they  were  allowed  to  attend  the  amphi- 
theatre, were  seated  in  a  gallery  or  portico  exterior  to  the  whole  of  these,  and 
servants  and  attendants  in  the  highest  gallery.  The  general  direction  of  the 
amphitheatre  was  committed  to  an  officer  styled  Villicus  amphitheatri,  and 
persons,  called  designator 'es,  were  employed  to  superintend  the  seating  of  the 
spectators.— —By  a  device  of  luxury,  perfumed  liquids  were  conveyed  in 
secret  tubes  around  these  structures,  and  scattered  over  the  audience,  some- 
times from  the  statues  which  adorned  the  interior.  —  The  Romans  had  also  a 
remarkable  contrivance  for  covering  the  vast  area  embraced  in  such  a  build- 
ing ;  an  awning  was  suspended,  by  means  of  ropes  stretched  across  the  build- 
ing and  attached  to  masts  or  spars,  which  rose  above  the  summit  of  the  walls. 
Near  the  top  of  the  outer  wall  of  the  Coliseum  there  are  above  200  projecting 
blocks  of  stone,  with  holes  cut  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  spars,  which  ran  up 
through  holes  cut  in  the  cornice. 

Comte  de  Car/his,  Theatre  of  Curio,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxm.  369.  —  Cf.  Pompeii,  as  cit- 
ed P.  I.  $226.  1.  —  On  various  existing  ruins  of  amphitheatres,  Stuart's  Diet,  of  Architecture. 
Lond.  1832.  3  vols.  8. 

In  our  Plate  XXIII.  fig.  7,  is  a  plan  of  the  amphitheatre  of  Pompeii.  Its  extreme  length, 
from  outside  to  outside  of  the  exterior  arcade,  is  430  feet ;  its  greatest  breadtli  is  335  feet.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  the  rough  masonry  called  opxts  incertum,  with  quoins  of  squared  stone,  and 
some  trifling  restorations  of  rubble.  This  rude  mass  was  probably  once  covered  with  a  facing 
of  hewn  stone.  —  At  each  end  of  the  ellipse  are  entrances  into  the  arena  for  the  combatants  ; 
through  these  also  the  dead  bodies  were  dragged  out  into  the  spoliarium.  On  the  podium  were 
found  several  inscriptions  containing  the  names  of  duumvirs  who  had  presided  ;  there  were 
also  fresco-paintings,  which  soon  disappeared  on  being  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  There  are 
twenty-four  rows  of  seats ;  and  the  building,  as  has  been  estimated,  would  accommodate 
above  10,000  persons  sitting,  besides  such  as  might  stand. 

(2)    Civil  Affairs. 

§  240.  In  order  to  understand  properly  the  civil  constitution  of 
Rome,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  distinctly  the  different  periods  of 
its  history ;  particularly  to  notice  the  three  different  forms  of  govern- 
ment which  were  successively  established,  the  regal,  consular,  and 
imperial.  The  first  continued  244  years  to  B.  C.  510  ;  the  second 
479  years,  to  B.  C.  31  ;  and  the  third  506  years  to  the  overthrow  of 
the  western  empire,  A.  D.  476,  and  afterwards  in  the  eastern. — Under 
the  Kings  the  government  was  of  a  mixed  character,  and  we  should, 
estimate  the  powers  of  the  kings   by  a  reference  to  the  early  kings 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       KINGS.       CONSULS.  579 

and  princes  among  the  Greeks,  the  chiefs  of  particular  tribes  (§  34), 
rather  than  according  to  more  modem  ideas  of  an  unlimited  author- 
ity. The  essential  prerogatives  of  the  Roman  kings  were  the  con- 
trol of  the  religious  worship,  the  superintendence  of  the  legislation 
and  of  judicial  decisions,  and  the  assembling  of  the  senate  and  the 
people ;  yet  even  in  the  exercise  of  these  prerogatives,  they  were  in 
most  cases  much  restrained  by  the  part  which  the  senate  and  the  peo- 
ple had  in  the  public  concerns. 

1m.  The  ensigns  of  regal  dignity  were  borrowed  from  the  Etrurians,  and 
consisted  of  a  golden  crown,  a  chair  (sella)  of  ivory,  or  highly  ornamented 
with  ivory,  a  sceptre  of  the  same  material,  with  an  eagle  on  its  extremity,  a 
white  robe  (toga)  with  purple  embroidery  or  borderings  &c,  a  body  of  twelve 
attendants  (lictores),  who  went  before  the  king,  carrying  each  a  bundle  of  rods 
(fasces  )  with  an  axe  (securis)  in  the  middle. 

In  our  Plate  XXIV,  fig.  1.  is  a  cut  representing  the  securis  bound  up  in  the  fasces. — Fig.  3, 
is  a  group  of  royal  sceptres,  drawn  from  Egyptian  monuments  ;  showing  various  forms  and  or- 
naments at  the  extremity.  Cf.  Plate  XI.  fig.  1,  and  fig.  3. 

2  u.  The  time,  during  which  the  regal  form  is  said  to  have  continued,  is  too 
long  for  the  probable  reigns  of  only  seven  kings,  which  is  the  number  specified 
in  the  traditions  respecting  this  period.  But  it  must  be  remarked  that  the 
whole  of  the  early  Roman  history  is  at  least  uncertain,  and  is  by  some  consid- 
ered as  purely  fabulous.     Cf.  P.  II.  §  510. 

§  241.  On  the  abolition  of  monarchy  the  constitution  became 
aristocratical.  Two  magistrates  were  annually  chosen,  with  the  au- 
thority and  influence  which  the  kings  had  possessed,  and  called  Con- 
suls (consules).  No  particular  age  was  originally  requisite  for  this 
office,  but  a  law  (lex  annalis)  was  enacted  180  B.  C,  that  it  should 
be  held  by  no  person  under  forty-three.  Those,  who  sought  the 
office,  were  called  candidati,  from  their  peculiarly  white  shining  robe 
(toga  Candida).  The  election  took  place,  in  the  assembly  of  the 
the  people,  voting  by  Centuries,  usually  towards  the  end  of  July  or 
the  beginning  of  August.  From  that  time  until  January  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  the  person  chosen  was  called  consul  designatus ,  and  then 
he  entered  upon  his  office  under  many  solemnities.  The  two  consuls 
had  equal  power.  At  first,  both  were  chosen  from  the  patricians  ; 
afterwards,  however,  one  was  often  taken,  and  sometimes  both,  from 
the  plebeians. 

1m.  Their  badges  of  office  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  kings,  excepting 
the  golden  crown,  and  the  robe  with  purple  ornaments  ;  the  latter  was  allow- 
ed them  on  certain  public  solemnities,  as  e.  g.  a  triumph. 

2u.  The  duties  of  the  consuls  consisted  in  taking  the  auspices,  assembling 
the  senate,  declaring  the  votes,  among  which  they  first  gave  their  own,  in  pro- 
posing business  to  the  senate  and  the  people,  fixing  the  comitia,  appointing 
the  judges,  and  preparing  declarations  of  war.  They  were  also  usually  com- 
manders of  the  army,  and  were  required  to  attend  to  all  its  wants,  and  inform 
the  senate  of  all  important  occurrences.  After  completing  the  year  of  their 
office  they  were  usually  proconsuls  or  governors  of  provinces.  The  power  of 
the  consuls  was  gradually  diminished,  partly  by  the  institution  of  the  office  of 
dictator  and  tribunes,  and  partly  by  the  law  which  authorized  appeals  from  the 
decisions  of  the  consuls  to  the  people.  Under  the  emperors  nothing  more  than 
the  mere  name  remained;  they  were  merely  the  agents  to  execute  the  imperi- 
al will,  to  whom  a  few  privileges  were  secured.  In  the  later  ages  also,  their 
number  was  increased,  and  the  term  of  continuance  very  short.  The  office 
was  preserved  until  A.  D.  541  (after  the  overthrow  of  the  western  empire,  cf. 
"|  240  and  P.  V.  §  215),  when  it  was  conferred  upon  the  reigning  emperor 
9X  life. 


580  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

§  242.  The  issue  of  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  B.  C.  AB,  between  Pompey  and 
Caesar,  prepared  the  way  for  introducing  the  imperial  government  ;  which  was 
established  in  the  hands  of  Augustus  by  the  issue  of  the  battle  of  Actium, 
B.  C.  31.  The  government  now  became  in  fact,  a  military  monarchy;  al- 
though the  first  emperors  adhered,  in  form,  to  the  old  usages  and  eustoms  in 
a  great  degree.  But  under  Tiberius,  the  immediate  successor  of  Augustus, 
the  real  nature  of  the  change  began  plainly  to  appear,  and  under  succeeding 
emperors  became  more  and  more  obvious.  As  the  emperors  concentrated  in 
their  own  persons  many  of  the  offices  of  the  state,  and  various  new  offices 
were  created  for  adherents  and  partizans,  the  whole  system  of  government 
was  at  length  turned  into  a  grand  scheme  for  individual  aggrandizement  and 
luxury. 

De  la  Bletteric,  on  the  Roman  Government  under  the  Emperors,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr. 
vol,  xix.  357,  and  xxi.  299,  power  of  Emperors  ;  vol.  xxiv.  261,  power  of  Consuls  ;  vol.  xv. 
392,  of  Tribunes  ;  xxvn.  436,  of  Senate. 

§  243.  PrcBtor  was  in  early  times  the  name  for  any  magistrate, 
signifying  merely  an  overseer,  superintendent,  or  leader  (from prceire). 
But,  in  the  year  B.  C.  365,  the  name  was  appropriated  to  an  officer 
appointed  to  attend  to  the  administration  of  justice.  The  Praetor  was 
at  first  chosen  from  patricians,  when  the  consulship  was  communi- 
cated to  the  plebeians.  Two  Praetors  were  chosen  after  the  year  B.  C. 
243,  one  to  attend  to  the  business  of  the  citizens  (Presto?-  urbanus), 
the  other  the  business  of  strangers  (Prcntor  peregrinus).  Afterward 
there  were  four  Praetors,  and  six,  then  ten,  fourteen,  sixteen,  and 
even  eighteen,  until  Augustus,  it  seems,  limited  the  number  to  twelve. 

1  u.  The  dignity  of  the  city-Prastor  was  next  to  that  of  Consul,  and  his 
principal  business  was  holding  courts  of  justice  in  the  Tribunal  (in  or  pro  tri- 
hunali),  a  building  appropriated  to  the  purpose  in  the  Forum  (§  261).  The 
Prastor  on  entering  upon  his  office,  always  published  a  statement  of  the  rules 
and  principles,  by  which  he  should  be  guided  in  his  trials  and  decisions  ;  this 
was  called  his  edict  (cdictum  Praitoris).  The  usual  form  in  giving  his  decisions 
was  do,dico,  addico. — In  the  absence  of  the  Consul,  the  city-Praetor  took  his 
place  ;  he  could  also  call  meetings  of  the  senate  and  hold  Comitia;  he  had  the 
care  also  of  some  of  the  great  public  games. — The  insignia  of  the  Praetor  were 
the  toga  pratezta,  a  sword  and  spear  (gladius  ct  hasta),  and  an  attendance  of 
six  lictors.  In  the  provinces  the  Propraetors  had  similar  rank  and  authority, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Proconsuls  took  the  place  of  Consuls. 

2.  Besides  the  general  edict  above  mentioned,the  Praetor  published  particu- 
lar edicts  from  time  to  time.  Such  as  he  copied  from  those  of  his  predeces- 
sors were  termed  tralatitia  ;  those  framed  by  himself,  nova.  An  edict  publish- 
ed at  Rome,  edictum  urbanum  ;  in  a  province,  provinciale  ;  sometimes  named 
from  the  province,  as  edictum  Siciliense.  Other  magistrates  (Jionorati)  publish- 
ed edicts  also.  The  law  derived  from  all  the  various  edicts  was  termed  jus 
honorarium  ;  this  term  or  phrase,  in  later  times,  was  applied  to  a  collection  of 
Praetor's  edicts  regularly  arranged  by  order  of  the  emperor  Hadrian  ;  the  same 
was  also  called  edictum perpetuum. 

Bouchard,  Sur  les  Edits  des  magistrats  Romains,  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol .  xxxix.  279.  edicts  of 
Consuls  ;  vol.  xli.  p.  1,  of  Praetors  ;  xlii.  149.  of  iEdiles  ;  xlv.  439.  of  Prefects. 

§  244.  jEdiles  were  the  magistrates,  whose  principal  duty  was  the 
care  of  the  buildings  (cedes).  They  were  of  two  classes,  plebeii  and 
curules,  two  of  each.  The  former  were  created  first,  B,  C.  493 ;  the 
latter,  B.  C.  266.  At  a  later  period,  Julius  Caesar  added  two  others, 
called  Cerecdes,  whohad  the  oversight  of  the  stores  of  grain  and  provis- 
ion. In  the  Roman  provinces,  also,  there  were  ./Ediles,  whose  office  was 
usually  but  for  a  year. — The  office  seems  to  have  continued  until  the 
time  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

1m.  The  JEdiles  Plebeii  had  originally  the  care  of  the  public  and  private 
buildings  \  and  were  required  to  make  arrangements  for  the  public  games,  ae^ 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       ^DILES.    TRIBUNES.    QU.ESTORS.  581 

to  the  preservation  of  the  public  roads,  regulate  the  markets,  prove  the  just- 
ness of  weights  and  measures,  and  in  short  attend  to  the  police  of  the  city. 

2  u.  The  JEdiles  Curules  were  distinguished  from  them  by  the  toga  prcetczta, 
and  the  sella  curulis.  They  were  at  first  taken  solely  from  the  patricians, 
but  afterwards  also  from  the  people.  Their  chief  care  was  of  the  great  public 
games.  They  had  also  the  oversight  of  the  temples,  except  that  of  Ceres, 
which  always  belonged  to  the  plebeian  TEdiles,  with  whom  the  Curules  proba- 
bly shared,  without  distinction,  the  business  of  the  police. 

§'  245.  Of  the  Tribunes  there  were  different  kinds.  The  Tribunes 
of  the  people  (tribuni  plebis)  were  the  most  remarkable.  The  office 
originated  from  the  general  disaffection  and  secession  of  the  plebe- 
ians, B.  C.  493.  The  number  was  first  two,  then  five,  finally  ten. 
One  of  them  always  presided  at  the  Comitia  for  electing  tribunes. 
Their  proper  object  was  the  protection  of  the  people  against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  Senate  and  Consuls.  In  order  to  obtain  this 
office,  patricians  allowed  themselves  to  be  adopted  into  plebeian  fam- 
ilies. In  the  earliest  times,  the  tribunes  could  not  enter  the  Senate,  but 
had  their  seats  before  the  door  of  the  Senate-room,  where  they  heard 
all  the  deliberations,  and  could  hinder  the  passage  of  any  decree  by 
the  single  word  veto.  By  the  Atinian  law,  B.  C.  131,  it  was  decreed 
that  the  Tribunes  should  be  of  the  rank  of  Senators.  Their  power 
and  influence  constantly  increased,  although  it  was  confined  to  the 
city  and  the  circuit  of  a  mile  around  it,  beyond  which  they  could  not 
be  absent  over  night. 

lu.  The  Tribunes  had  no  lictors,  nor  any  insignia  of  office,  except  a  kind  of 
beadles  called  viatores,  who  went  before  them.  Their  persons  were  regarded 
as  inviolable:  Sylla  abridged  their  power  ;  he  took  from  ^hem  the  right, 
which  they  had  exercised,  of  assembling  the  people  by  tribes,  and  thereby 
passing  enactments  ( plcbiscita)  binding  upon  the  whole  nation,  and  left  them 
only  the  power  of  their  negative  or  intercession  (inter cedere).  Their  authori- 
ty, however,  was  afterwards  elevated  again,  but  under  Julius  Caesar  it  was 
small ;  it  became  still  more  insignificant  under  the  emperors  (cf.  §  242),  who 
appropriated  to  themselves  the  tribunitial  power,  so  that  the  tribunes  annually 
elected  had  but  merely  the  name  and  shadow  of  it.  The  office  was  abolished 
in  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

2.  The  office  of  the  Military  Tribunes  was  highly  important,  but  is  not  ranked  among  the 
permanent  offices.  Cf.  §  248. 

§  246.  The  Qucestors  were  among  the  earliest  magistrates  of  Rome, 
first  appointed  by  the  kings,  then  by  the  consuls,  afterwards  by  the 
people.  They  were  charged  with  receiving  and  managing  the  reve- 
nues, and  with  the  scrutiny  of  certain  kinds  of  blood-shed.  Those 
for  the  city  were  called  Quastores  urbani  ;  those  for  the  provinces, 
Qucestores  provinciates  ;  and  those  for  the  examination  of  capital 
offences,  Qucestores  rerum  capitalium,  or  parricidii.  Originally  there 
were  but  two,  afterwards  four,  and  then  eight ;  Sylla  raised  the  num- 
ber to  twenty,  and  Julius  Caesar  to  forty. 

]?/.  The  Quaestors  had  also  the  oversight  of  the  archives,  the  care  of  foreign 
ambassadors,  the  charge  of  monuments,  presents  and  other  tokens  of  respect 
publicly  authorized,  and  the  preservation  of  the  treasures  acquired  in  war, 
They  were  at  first  taken  only  from  the  Patricians,  but  afterwards  partly  from 
the  Plebeians. 

Under  the  emperors  there  was  a  kind  of  quaestors,  calle.d  quastores  candid 
dad,  who  were,  properly  speaking,  nothing  more  than  imperial  messengers  or 
secretaries,  and  were  afterwards  called  juris  interpretes,  precum  arbitri,  &c, 
from  their  employment.  Still  later  there  was  another  kind,  of  considerable 
importance,  styled  Qucestores  palc.tii,  or  Magistri  ojficiorum. 
49* 


582  ROMAN    ANTIQtltlES. 

2.  The  age  requisite  for  the  Quaestor  was  30,  or  at  least  25,  until  reduced  by 
Augustus  to  22.  The  office  was  one  of  the  first  steps  to  preferment  in  the 
commonwealth,  although  sometimes  held  by  those  who  had  been  Consuls. 

DodwcU,  de  QuEestune  obeunds  tempore  legitimo,  in  his  Prwlect.  Acad.  p.  362,  as  cited  P.  IL 
§  542,  7. 

§  247.  The  office  of  the  Censors  (Censores)  was  established  at  an 
early  period,  B.  C.  442.  There  were  two  at  a  time,  holding  their 
office  originally  for  five  years,  but  afterwards  only  a  year  and  a  half. 
Their  duties  were  various  ;  the  following  were  some  of  the  principal  ; 
to  take  the  census  of  the  people,  an  accurate  account  of  the  age,  pro- 
perty and  descent  of  each  head  of  a  family,  to  divide  the  people  into 
their  tribes  and  rectify  existing  errors  in  the  distribution,  to  decide  the 
taxes  of  each  person,  to  enrol  those  who  were  obligated  to  military 
service,  to  make  account  of  the  revenues  in  the  provinces,  to  inspect 
the  morals  of  the  citizens,  to  superintend  the  leasing  of  public  lands, 
to  attend  to  contracts  respecting  public  works,  such  as  streets,  brid- 
ges, aqueducts  and  the  like. 

lu.  The  censors  were  authorized  to  inflict  marks  of  disgrace  (nota  censor in, 
ignominia),  from  any  evidence  and  for  any  cause,  which  appeared  to  them 
suitable.  The  luxury  of  the  Romans,  which  in  later  times  became  so  exces- 
sive, was  considerably  restrained  by  the  censors.  In  order  to  escape  the  cen- 
sorial rebukes  or  punishments,  the  office  seems  to  have  been  left  vacant  for 
some  time. 

2.  The  censorial  power  was,  however,  vested  in  Julius  Caesar,  first  with 
the  title  of  Prcefcctus  morum.  afterward,  for  life,  with  the  title  of  Censor.  Au- 
gustus also  assumed  the  power,  although  he  declined  the  title.  The  same 
was  done  by  several  of  his  successors  down  to  the  time  of  Decius,  A.  D.  250, 
when  the  corruption  of  morals  was  too  great  to  allow  any  magistracy  or  power 
of  the  kind. 

De  Valois,  On  the  Roman  Censors,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Liscr.  vol.  i.  p.  63. 

§  248.  The  Roman  magistrates  were  variously  divided.  A  common  divis- 
ion was  into  ordinary  and  extraordinary  (Magistrates  Ordinaril  and  Ex- 
traordinarii).  The  chief  of  the  former  have  been  noticed;  Consuls,  Praetors, 
^Ediles,  Tribunes  of  the  people,  Quaestors,  and  Censors.  —  The  chief  of  the 
extraordinary  magistrates  (whose  office  was  not  permanent,  but  occasional, 
being  necessary  only  in  particular  circumstances)  were  the  following  ;  Dicta- 
tor, Decemvirs,  Military  Tribunes,  Preefect  of  the  City,  and  Interrex. 

ltt.  The  first  Dictator  was  created  on  occasion  of  the  same  sedition  or  in- 
surrection which  occasioned  the  appointment  of  tribunes  of  the  people  (§245);' 
and  similar  disturbances,  difficult  wars,  and  other  important  emergencies  oc- 
casioned the  appointment  of  the  subsequent  Dictators.  Sometimes  they  were 
appointed  for  less  important  reasons,  e.  g.  for  regulating  the  public  games  and 
sports  in  the  sickness  of  the  Praetor,  not  by  the  people,  bnt  by  one  of  the 
Consuls.  The  Dictator  was  indeed  always  appointed  by  the  Consul,  by  order 
of  the  people  or  senate,  and  must  be  a  man  of  consular  rank.  The  power  of 
the  Dictator  was  very  great,  in  some  respects  supreme.  War  and  peace,  and 
the  decision  of  the  most  important  affairs,  depended  on  him.  Citizens,  who 
were  condemned  to  death  by  him,  could  appeal  to  the  people  (cf.  Liv.  viii.  33). 
The  power  and  office  of  the  Dictator  was  limited  to  six  months.  He  could 
not  appropriate  without  consent  of  the  senate  or  people  any  of  the  public 
money.  As  commander  of  the  army,  he  was  confined  to  the  limits  of  Italy. 
No  one  ever  abused  the  power  of  this  office  so  much  as  Cornelius  Sulla. 
Caesar  by  this  office  opened  his  way  to  absolute  power,  and  after  his  death  the 
dictatorship  was  abolished.  It  was,  however,  offered  to  Augustus,  who  re- 
fused the  odious  name  or  title,  although  he  exercised  all  the  power. 

2.  Plutarch  and  Polybius  state  that  the  Dictator  was  attended  hy  24  lictors  ;  but  in  the  epito- 
me of  the  89th  book  of  Livy,  Sylla  is  said  to  have  unwarrantably  assumed  this  number  (Ken- 
nctt,  p.  123).  The  Dictator  "appointed  (usually  from  among  those  "of  consular  or  pnetorian  dig- 
nity) an  officer,  styled  Matgister  equitum,  whose  business  was  to  command  the  cavalry,  and- ex- 
ecute the  orders  of  the  Dictator  3   but  this  officer  was  sometimes  appointed  by  the  senate,  of 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       EXTRAORDINARY  MAGISTRATES.  583 

the  people  ;  he  was  allowed  the  use  of  a  horse,  but  the  Dictator  could  not  ride  without  the 
order  of  the  people.  —  Sometimes  a  Consul,  or  other  existing  magistrate,  was  invested  with 
the  power  of  Dictator,  by  decree  of  the  Senate  (ne  quid  detrimcnti  capiat  re.*publica). 

3  m.  The  discontent  of  the  people  under  the  use,  which  the  Consuls  made 
of  their  power,  led  to  the  creation  of  a  new  office  in  the  year  B.  C.  451,  that 
of  the  Decemviri,  with  consular  authority  (decemviri  consulari  potestate,  s. 
legibus  ferendis).  They  were  appointed  for  the  special  purpose  of  forming 
a  code  of  laws.  This  gave  rise  to  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables  (§  265).  As 
they  soon  began  to  abuse  their  great  power,  the  office  was  abolished,  B.  C. 
449,  and  that  of  Consul  restored. 

4  u.  From  the  same  cause  (the  popular  discontent)  originated  the  office  of 
Military  Tribunes  (tribuni  militum  consulari  potestate) ,  who,  in  the  year  B.  C. 
445,  were  appointed  in  the  place  of  Consuls  ;  but  were  dismissed  after  three 
months.  Originally  they  were  six  in  number,  three  patricians  and  three  ple- 
beians ;  afterwards  the  number  varied,  sometimes  three,  sometimes  four,  six, 
or  eight;  sometimes  military  tribunes  and  sometimes  consuls  were  elected, 
as  the  plebeian  or  the  patrician  interests  prevailed,  until  the  year  B.  C.  366, 
when  the  plebeians  were  quieted  by  the  choice  of  a  consul  from  among  them- 
selves. 

5  m.  The  Prsefect  of  the  city  (Prafectus  urbi)  was  the  officer  to  whom  the 
Consuls  in  their  absence,  especially  in  war,  entrusted  the  charge  of  the  po- 
lice. Under  the  emperors  this  became  a  regular  and  permanent  office  of 
great  influence. 

6.  The  Interrex  was  an  officer  created  to  hold  elections  when  there  was  no 
consul  or  magistrate,  to  whom  it  properly  belonged.  The  name  was  drawn 
from  the  title  of  the  temporary  magistrate  appointed  by  the  senate,  when  there 
was  a  vacancy  in  the  throne  under  the  regal  government. 

§  249.  Less  important  occasional  magistrates  were  the  following  ;  the  Pra- 
fectus annonce,  charged  with  the  procuring  and  distributing  of  grain,  in  cases 
of  scarcity  ;  the  Quinqucviri  mensarii,  whose  chief  business  was  to  reduce 
public  expenses  Cminuendis  publicis  sumtibus) ;  the  Quinqueviri  muris  turri- 
busque  rrficiendis,  to  see  to  repairs  in  the  walls  and  fortifications  ;  the  Trium- 
viri ecdibus  sacris  refciendis,  to  repair  the  sacred  buildings  ;  Triumviri  mone- 
tales,  having  charge  of  the  mint ;  Triumviri  nocturni,  to  superintend  the 
nightly  watch  ;  Duumviri  naval.es  fclassis  ornanda  rejiciendaiqiie  causa),  for 
equipping  and  repairing  the  fleet,  &c.  —  Some  of  these,  however,  were  not 
magistrates  in  the  proper  sense,  but  they  were  chosen  from  among  the  most 
respectable  men. 

The  servants  or  attendants  of  magistrates  were  called  in  general  apparito- 
res ;  under  which  were  included  scribae,  notarii,  actuarii,  accensi,  prsecones^ 
lictores,  viatores,  <fcc.  —  The  Carnifex  was  the  executioner  or  hangman. 

§  250.  Besides  the  magistrates  which  have  been  named,  perma- 
nent or  occasional,  there  were  various  others  whose  authority  per- 
tained to  the  provinces  of  Rome,  provincial  magistrates.  These 
were  in  part  such  as  have  been  named.  Among  them  were  the  pro- 
consuls, propraetors,  proqusestors,  the  legates,  conquisitors,  &lc. 

Proconsuls  were  either  (1)  such  as  being  consuls  had  their  office  prolonged 
beyond  the  time  fixed  by  law  ;  or  (2)  such  as  were  raised  from  a  private  sta- 
tion to  govern  some  province  or  to  command  in  war  ;  or  (3)  such  as  having 
been  consuls  went,  immediately  on  the  legal  expiration  of  their  consulship, 
into  provinces  assigned  to  their  charge  under  the  commonwealth  ;  or  (4)  such 
as  were  appointed  governors  of  the  provinces  under  the  empire  ;  as  all  these 
were  called  proconsuls.  But  the  name  and  dignity  properly  belonged  to  the 
third  of  these  classes.  —  The  senate  decided  from  year  to  year  what  provinces 
should  be  consular  ;  and  then  the  consuls,  while  only  designati  (§242),  agreed 
by  lot  which  of  them  each  should  take  on  the  expiration  of  his  consulship. 
A  vote  of  the  people  afterwards  conferred  on  them  the  military  command  in 
their  provinces.  Their  departure  to  their  provinces  and  return  to  the  city  was 
often  attended  with  great  pomp.  They  enjoyed  very  absolute  authority  both 
civil  and  military  ,  but  it  was  limited  to  a  year,  and  they  were  liable  to  a  rigid 
trial  on  their  return ;    the  offences  most  commonly  charged  were  (1)  crimen 


584  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

peculatus,  ill  use  of  the  public  money.  (2)  majestatis,  treachery  or  assumption 
of  powers  belonging  to  the  senate  or  people,  and  (3)  repetundarum,  extortion 
or  oppression  towards  the  inhabitants. 

The  Propraetors  were  such  as,  after  their  praetorship,  received  provinces,  in 
which  for  a  year  they  had  supreme  command,  usually  both  civil  and  military. 
Their  creation,  administration,  and  responsibility  were  similar  to  those  of  the 
Proconsuls  ;  only  they  had  but  six  lictors  instead  of  twelve,  and  the  praeto- 
rian provinces   were   usually  smaller  than  the  consular  (cf.  §  260.  3.(4^). 

The  Legati  were  the  chief  assistants  of  the  Proconsuls  and  Propraetors.  The 
number  depended  on  the  rank  of  the  chief  officer,  and  the  circumstances  of 
the  provinces.  They  at  length  obtained  important  authority  as  military  com- 
manders.   One  Quaestor  or  more   attended  each  Proconsul  or  Propraetor. 

His  business  was  to  superintend  the  public  accounts,  and  the  supplies  of  the 
army.  Proquaestors  were  such  as  the  chief  officer  appointed  temporarily,  on 
the  absence  or  death  of  the  provincial  Quaestor  (§  246).  The  duties  of  the 
Quaestor  were   assigned  under  the  emperors  to  the  officer  styled  Procurator 

Caisaris. The  conquisitorcs  were   inferior  officers  not  properly  civil,  who 

were  employed  to  raise  soldiers,  and  by  force  if  necessary. 

§  251.  We  may  notice  here  the  division  or  classification  of  the 
people,  which  had  throughout  an  important  influence  on  the  govern- 
ment.—  At  the  beginning,  Romulus  divided  the  city  itself  and  the 
whole  people  into  three  tribes,  and  each  of  these  into  ten  Curia, 
The  tribes  were  the  Rhamnensis,  consisting  of  native  Romans,  the 
Tatiensis,  of  Sabines,  and  the  tribus  Lucerum,  of  all  other  foreign- 
ers. —  Servius  Tullius  altered  this  division  and  made  thirty  tribes,  4 
of  the  city  (tribus  urbance),  and  26  for  the  territories  {tribus  rus- 
tical). The  latter  at  length  gained  the  precedency  of  the  former, 
and  were  considered  as  more  honorable.  Five  tribes  were  added  at 
a  later  period  ;  and  also  others,  which  were  not  permanent. 

The  four  city  tribes  were  Suburana  or  Succusana,  Esquilina,  Collina,  Palatina  ;  the  rustic 
tribes,  Rom  ilia,  Lemonia,  Pupina,  Galena,  Pollia,  Voltinia,  Claudia,  .(Emilia,  Cornelia,  Fabia, 
Horatia,  Menenia,  Papiria,  Sergia,  Veturia,  Crnstumina  ;  these  belonged  to  the  proper  Roman 
territory ;  in  addition  there  were  the  Etrurian  tribes,  Vejentina,  Stellatina,  Tromentina,  Saba- 
tina,  Arniensis,  Pomptina,  Publilia  or  Papilia,  Moecia,  Scaptia,  Ufentina,  Falerina  ;   and  the 

Sabine  tribes,  Aniensis,  Terentina,  Velina,  Gluirina;   making  thirty-one. Boivin,  On  the 

Rom.  Tribes,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  i.  72. 

§  252.  Servius  Tullius  also  divided  the  Roman  citizens,  for  the 
sake  of  an  equitable  distribution  of  the  public  burdens,  into  six 
classes  according  to  property.  These  classes  were  subdivided  into 
centuries  amounting  in  all  to  193.  In  order  to  preserve  this  distri- 
bution, an  ordinance  was  established  requiring  the  census  and  valu- 
ation to  be  taken  every  five  years  (§  247). 

"  The  first  class  consisted  of  those  whose  estates  in  lands  and  effects  were 
worth  at  least  100,000  asses,  or  pounds  of  brass  ;  or  10,000  drachma  according 
to  the  Greek  way  of  computing;  which  sum  is  commonly  reckoned  equal  to 
£322  18s.  4d.  sterling  ;  but  if  we  suppose  each  pound  of  brass  to  contain  24 
asses,  as  was  the  case  afterwards,  it  will  amount  to  £7750.  This  first  class 
was  subdivided  into  eighty  centuries  or  companies  of  foot,  forty  of  young  men 
(juniorum),  from  seventeen  to  forty-six  years  of  age,  who  were  obliged  to 
take  the  field  Cut  foris  bella  gerercnt),  and  forty  of  old  men  (seniorum),  who 
should  guard  the  city  (ad  urbis  custodiam  ut  praisto  esscnt).  To  these  were 
added  eighteen  centuries  of  Equitcs,  who  fought  on  horseback  ;  in  all  ninety- 
eight  centuries. —  The  secdnd  class  consisted  of  twenty  centuries,  ten  of  young 
men,  and  ten  of  old,  whose  estates  were  worth  at  least  75,000  asses.  To 
these  were  added  two  centuries  of  artificers  (fabrum),  carpenters,  smiths,  &c. 
to  manage  the  engines  of  war.  —  The  third  class  likewise  contained  twenty 
centuries  ;  their  estate  was  50.000  asses. —  The  fourth  class  likewise  contained 
twenty  centuries;  their  estate  was  25,000  asses.  To  these  Dionysius  adds 
two  centuries  of  trumpeters  (vii.  59).  —  The  fifth  class  was  divided  into  thirty 


CIVIL  AFFAIRS.       PATRICIANS.    PLEBEIANS.  585 

centuries  ;  their  estate  was  11,000  asses,  but  according  to  Dionysius,  12,500. 
—  The  sixth  class  comprehended  all  those  who  either  had  no  estates,  or  were 
not  worth  so  much  as  those  of  the  fifth  class.  The  number  of  them  was  sc* 
great  as  to  exceed  that  of  any  of  the  other  classes ;  yet  they  were  reckoned 
as  but  one  century.  —  Thus  the  number  of  centuries  in  all  the  classes  was, 
according  to  Dionysius,  193. 

Each  class  had  arms  peculiar  to  itself,  and  a  certain  place  in  the  army  ac- 
cording to  the  valuation  of  their  fortunes.  —  Those  of  the  first  class  were 
called  Classici;  all  the  rest  were  said  to  be  Infra.  Classem.  A.  Gell,  vii.  13. 
Hence  classici  auctores,  for  the  most  approved  authors.     lb.  xix.  8. 

By  this  arrangement  the  chief  power  was  vested  in  the  richest  citizens  who 
composed  the  first  class,  which,  although  least  in  number,  consisted  of  more 
centuries  than  all  the  rest  put  together  ;  but  they  likewise  bore  the  charges 
of  peace  and  war  (munia  pads  et  belli)  in  proportion.  For  as  the  votes  of  the 
Comitia,  so  likewise  the  quota  of  soldiers  and  taxes,  depended  on  the  number 
of  centuries.  Accordingly  the  first  class,  which  consisted  of  ninety-eightr 
or,  according  to  Livy,  of  one  hundred  centuries,  furnished  more  men  and 
money  to  the  public  service  than  all  the  rest  of  the  state  besides.  But  they 
had  likewise  the  chief  influence  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people  by  centuries. 
For  the  Equites  and  the  centuries  of  this  class  were  called  first  to  give  their 
votes,  and  if  they  were  unanimous,  the  matter  was  determined  ;  but  if  not, 
then  the  centuries  of  the  next  class  were  called,  and  so  on,  till  a  majority  of 
centuries  had  voted  the  same  thing.  And  it  hardly  ever  happened  that  they 
came  to  the  lowest  (Liv.  i.  43.    Dionys.  vii.  59)."    (Adam.) 

§  253.  Another  division  of  the  Romans,  existing  from  the  earliest 
times,  was  into  Patricians  and  Plebeians,  according  to  family  de- 
scent. The  Patricians  were  the  descendants  of  the  Senators  ap- 
pointed by  Romulus,  the  Fathers,  Patres,  of  whom  he  selected  three, 
from  each  tribe,  and  three  from  each  curia,  making  ninety-nine  ;  to 
these  he  added  a  man  of  distinguished  merit,  so  that  the  Senate  orig- 
inally consisted  of  100  members.  Afterwards  the  Sabini  were  ad- 
mitted into  it,  and  the  number  was  doubled.  Tarquinius  Priscus 
increased  this  number  by  a  third  hundred  from  the  Plebeians,  who 
were  termed  Patres  minomm  gentium,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
original  Senators,  and  their  descendants  were  called  Patricii  mino- 
rum  gentium. 

§  254.  The  word  populus  had  among  the  Romans  a  more  general 
meaning  than^/e&s;  the  former  signified  the  whole  body  of  the  Ro- 
man people  ;  the  latter,  a  particular  portion  distinct  from  the  sena- 
tors and  the  knights,  and  called  also,  ordo  plcbcius.  In  early  times,, 
this  order  consisted  of  such  as  were  proprietors  of  land,  but  in  the 
times  of  the  republic  it  was  composed  mainly  of  the  lowest  class, 
which  we  denominate  the  populace.  The  patricians  and  plebeians 
were  from  the  beginning  greatly  at  variance.  The  former  were  such- 
as  sprang  from  the  noblest  families,  particularly  the  oldest  senators 
under  the  kings,  and  at  first  held  all  the  public  offices  exclusively. 
The  plebeians  gained  a  share  in  them  B.  C.  493,  as  has  been  already 
mentioned  (§  245).  After  this  the  patricians  often  allowed  them- 
selves to  be  adopted  into  plebeian  families,  in  order  the  more  easily 
to  secure  offices,  which  were  common  to  both  ranks,  or  confined  to 
plebeians,  as  was  the  office  of  tribunes.  The  power  of  the  peoplo 
rose  to  a  great  height  during  the  time  of  the  republic,  and  often  was 
perverted  to  the  greatest  abuses. 

1m.  Intermarriage  between  the  two  classes  took  place  first  B.  C.  445.  Pre- 
viously to  intermarriages  the  only  mutual  relation  was  that  of  patron  and  cli~ 


586  ROMAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

ent ;  in  which  the  plebeian  made  free  choice  of  some  patrician  as  his  guardian 
and  patron,  and  this  patrician  in  turn  was  obligated  by  certain  duties  to  the 
plebeian  as  his  client.  At  last  this  relation  existed  chiefly  between  masters 
and  freedmen. 

2.  It  was  esteemed  highly  honorable  for  a  Patrician  to  have  many  clients, 
both  hereditary  and  acquired  by  his  own  merit.  The  duties  of  the  relation 
were  considered  as  of  solemn  obligation.  Virgil  (JEn.  vi.  605)  joins  the  crime 
of  injuring  a  client  with  that  of  abusing  a  parent ;  the  client  on  the  other 
hand  was  expected  to  serve  his  patron,  even  with  life  in  an  extremity.  Amidst 
all  the  dissensions  which  marks  the  Roman  history,  there  seems  to  have  been 
a  mutual  and  faithful  observance  of  these  duties.  In  later  times  cities  and 
nations  chose  as  patrons  distinguished  families  or  individuals  at  Rome. 

§  255.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  Patrician  rank, 
and  what  was  called  Roman  nobility  [nobilitas  Romano).  The  lat- 
ler  was  a  dignity  resulting  from  merit,  either  personal  or  derived 
from  ancestors,  and  acquired  especially  by  holding  a  curuh  office. 
Patrician  descent  was  not  necessary  for  this,  although  when  united 
with  merit  it  heightened  the  nobility.  Such  as  acquired  this  nobili- 
ty themselves,  were  styled  novi  homines. 

1m.  One  of  the  principal  distinctions  of  those  possessing  this  nobility  (nob- 
iles)  was  the  jus  imaginum,  which  allowed  them  to  form  images  or  busts  in 
painted  wax  of  their  ancestors,  placing  them  in  cases  in  their  halls  (atria), 
and  carrying  them  in  funeral  processions  (§  340.  3),  and  at  other  solemnities. 
The  right  was  sometimes  conferred  as  a  reward,  by  an  assembly  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  received  with  public  thanks.  The  Roman  history  is  filled  with  con- 
tests between  the  old  and  the  new  nobility. 

2.  A  curule  office  was  one  which  entitled  the  person  holding  it  to  use  the 
sella  curulis  or  chair  of  state.  Such  was  the  office  of  dictator,  consul,  praetor, 
censor,  and  curule  a3dile. 

The  chair  was  composed  of  ivory,  or  least  highly  adorned  with  it,  commonly  being  a  sort  of 
*'  stool  without  a  back,  with  four  crooked  feet,  fixed  to  the  extremities  of  cross  pieces,  joined 
fry  a.£oramon  axis,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  the  letter  X,  and  covered  with  leather  ;  so  that 
it  might  be  folded  together,"  and  thus  easily  carried  by  the  magistrate  in  his  chariot ;  hence 
the  epithet  curulLi.  (Aid.  Gcll.  iii.  18.)  In  our  Plate  XXIV.  fig.  9  is  a  representation  of  one 
answering  the  above  description.  But  the  sella  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  of  a  less  port- 
able form  and  size,  as  seen  in  fig.  2  of  this  plate.     These  two  figures  are  from   monuments 

found,  the  one  at  Pompeii,  the  other  at  Herculaneum. The  chair  above  described  must  be 

.distinguished  from  the  sella  portatoria,  or  cathedra  ;  this  was  a  sedan  in  which  a  person  sat  and 
was  carried  by  slaves,  in  the  manner  still  common  in  the  east.  They  were  used  by  private 
persons  as  well  as  rulers  and  officers.  They  were  very  frequent  in  the  time  of  Caesar.  (Suet, 
C«;s.  43.  Claud.  28.)  —  Fig.  10,  in  Plate  XXIV.  is  from  an  Egyptian  monument,  and  serves 
well  to  illustrate  the  subject.  There  are  four  bearers;  a  fifth  attendant  bears  a  staff  in  his 
right  hand,  perhaps  the  badge  of  his  office  as  conductor  of  the  palanquin,  A  sort  of  parasol 
richly  embroidered  is  stretched  behind  the  occupant  of  the  chair,  on  a  frame  for  the  purpose. 
The  sedan  itself  is  of  elegant  carved  work,  adorned  with  lotuses  and  other  devices.  The 
magistrates  in  the  colonies  and  municipal  towns  sat  on  public  occasions  in  a  large  chair  called 
liisellium;  two  of  these  have  been  found  at  Pompeii,  made  of  bronze,  inlaid  with  silver,  of  ex- 
traordinary workmanship.     Pompeii,  p.  265,  as  cited  P.  I.  $226. 

§  256.  The  Equiles  formed  a  distinct  body  of  high  rank  in  Rome 
(ordo  equester).  They  were  originally  composed  of  100  young  men 
taken  from  each  of  the  three  tribes,  thus  making  three  centuries 
(300).  Their  number  was  greatly  increased  by  the  kings,  so  that 
there  were  18  centuries  (1800)  under  Servius  Tullius.  They  became 
at  length  a  distinct  order,  not  including  all  who  served  on  horseback, 
but  only  such  as  were  chosen  into  the  rank.  In  the  year  124  B.  C, 
the  order  received  some  important  prerogatives,  being  chosen  to  act 
as  judges,  and  to  farm  the  revenues.  The  property  requisite  to  qual^ 
jfy  one  for  election  as  a  knight,  at  this  period,  was  400  thousand  ses- 
terces [census  equester) ;  the  age  about  eighteen  ;  nobility  of  descent 
was  not  sufficient  to  secure  it.  The  Censors  were  entrusted  with 
ibe  scrutiny,  and  they  presented  to  those  found  worthy,  a  horse  at 


PLATE     XXIV< 


&$8  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

the  public  expense;  hence  the  phrase,  cquo  publico  merere.  The  or- 
der was  under  the  constant  supervision  of  the  Censors. 

1.  Plebeians  as  well  as  Patricians  were  eligible  to  this  order.  The  term  il- 
lustres  was  applied  to  those  descended  from  ancient  families. 

2u.  The  knights  were  distinguished  by  a  golden  ring  (annulus  aureus)  or 
rings,  and  by  the  tunica  angusticlavia,  a  white  tunic  with  its  purple  stripe,  or 
border,  narrower  than  that  of  the  senators.  At  the  spectacles,  their  seat  was 
next  to  the  senators,  who  were  frequently  chosen  from  the  equestrians.  They 
made  annually,  on  the  15th  of  July,  a  splendid  procession  (transvectio)  through 
the  city  to  the  Capitol. 

§  257.  The  Senate,  as  has  been  already  stated  (§  253),  originally 
consisted  of  100  members,  afterwards  of  200,  and  finally,  before  the 
regal  office  was  abolished,  of  300.  Sulla  added  300  Equites,  raising 
the  whole  number  to  600.  Towards  the  end  of  the  republic,the  number 
was  as  great  as  1000.  Augustus  reduced  it  to  600.  Under  his  suc- 
cessors the  number  was  not  uniformly  the  same. — The  Senators  when 
assembled  in  council,  were  called  Patres  Conscripti.  Their  elec- 
tion was  at  first  made  by  the  kings,  next  by  the  consul^,  afterwards 
by  the  censors,  and  in  one  instance,  after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  by  a 
Dictator.  Under  the  emperors,  a  Triumvirate  was  sometimes  formed 
to  attend  to  the  election.  In  the  choice  of  senators  regard  was  had 
to  character,  property,  and  age  which  must  not  be  less  than  twenty- 
five. 

1  u.  The  Senators  were  distinguished  in  their  dress  particularly  by  two 
things ;  the  tunica  laticlavia,  a  tunic  or  waiscoat  with  a  broad  stripe  of  purple 
(lotus  clavus)  attached  to  it,  and  high  black  buskins  (calcei  or  ocrea  nigri  co* 
lorisJ,  which  had  the  letter  C  marked  on  them.  At  public  spectacles  the  Sen- 
ators also  sat  in  the  foremost  part  of  the  Orchestra. 

2u.  The  Senate  was  assembled  by  the  Kings,  Consuls,  Dictators,  Praetors, 
or  Tribunes  of  the  people,  by  public  summons  (edictum),  or  by  means  of  a 
herald.  In  the  former  case  the  object  of  assembling  was  specified.  There 
were,  besides,  certain  days  fixed  for  regular  meetings  of  the  senate,  the  Ca- 
lends, Nones,  and  Ides  of  every -month.  On  festivals  and  in  time  of  the  Co- 
mitia  where  the  whole  people  were  assembled,  the  senate  could  not  meet. 
Augustus  restricted  the  regular  meetings  to  the  Calends  and  Ides.  The  place 
of  assembling  was  not  exclusively  fixed,  but  it  must  be  set  apart  and  conse- 
crated for  the  purpose  by  the  Augurs.  The  temples,  and  the  Capitol  amongst 
them,  were  usually  selected,  excepting  always  the  Temple  of  Vesta.  —  The 
number  of  members  necessary  (numerus  legitimus)  to  pass  a  decree  (Senatus 
consultum)  was  100;  and  from  the  year  B.  C.  67,  200.  The  meetings  were 
opened  early  in  the  morning  and  continued  until  near  or  after  midday  ;  before 
and  after  the  light  of  the  sun  no  lawful  decree  could  be  enacted.  Sacrifices 
Were  always  offered  and  the  auspices  taken  by  the  magistrate,  who  was  to 
hold  the  senate,  before  entering  the  place  of  meeting.  The  magistrate,  then, 
Consul,  Prsetor,  or  whoever  assembled  the  senate,  proposed  the  business,  and 
the  members  gave  their  opinions  usually  in  an  established  order.  In  impor- 
tant or  interesting  cases,  questions  were  decided  by  the  Senators  separating 
into  two  parts  (itio  in  partes).  The  emperors  had  the  right  of  proposing  ques- 
tions to  the-  senate,  not  properly,  but  at  first  only  by  special  permission.  — 
A  distinction  was  made  between  a  decree  of  the  Senate,  Senatus  consultum, 
and  a  judgment  or  opinion,  Senatus  auctoritas ;  the  latter  term  was  applied, 
when  the  sentence  was  less  decisive,  or  was  not  passed  without  some  person's 
intercession  or  veto,  or  was  attended  with  some  informality  ;  decrees  were 
ratified  by  being  engrossed  or  written  out,  and  lodged  in  the  treasury  (in 
JErarium  condebantur)  in  the  place  of  public  records  (tabularium),  in  the 
temple  of  Saturn. 

3.  "  Although  the  supreme  power  at  Rome  belonged  to  the  people,  yet  they 
seldom  enacted  any  thing  without  the  authority  of  the  Senate.  In  all  weighty 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       SENATE.     ASSEMBLIES    OF    THE    PEOPLE.  589" 

affairs,  the  method  usually  observed  was,  that  the  Senate  should  first  deliber- 
ate and  decree,  and  then  the  people  order.  But  there  were  many  things  of 
great  importance  which  the  Senate  always  determined  itself,  unless  when 
they  were  brought  before  the  people  by  the  intercessions  of  the  Tribunes. 
This  right  the  Senate  seems  to  have  had,  not  from  any  express  law,  but  by 
the  custom  of  their  ancestors.  — 1.  The  Senate  assumed  to  themselves  guar- 
dianship of  the  public  religion  ;  so  that  no  new  god  could  be  introduced,  nor 
altar  erected,  nor  the  Sibylline  books  consulted,  without  their  order. —  2.  The 
Senate  had  the  direction  of  the  treasury,  and  distributed  the  public  money  at 
pleasure.  They  appointed  stipends  to  their  generals  and  officers,  and  provis- 
ions and  clothing  for  their  armies.  —  3.  They  settled  the  provinces,  which 
were  annually  assigned  to  the  Consuls  and  Proetors ;  and,  when  it  seemed  fit, 
they  prolonged  their  command. — 4.  They  nominated  out  of  their  own  body 
all  ambassadors  sent  from  Rome,  and  gave  to  foreign  ambassadors  what  an- 
swers they  thought  proper. —  5.  They  decreed  all  public  thanksgivings  for 
victories  obtained  ;  and  conferred  the  honor  of  an  ovation  or  triumph,  with 
the  title  of  Imperator,  on  victorious  generals.  —  6.  They  could  decree  the 
title  of  King  to  any  prince  whom  they  pleased,  and  declare  any  one  an  ene- 
my by  a  vote. —  7.  They  inquired  into  public  crimes  or  treasons,  either  in* 
Rome  or  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  heard  and  determined  all  the  disputes 
among  the  allied  and  dependent  cities.  —  8.  They  exercised  a  power,  not  only 
of  interpreting  the  laws,  but  of  absolving  men  from  the  obligation  of  them, 
and  even  of  abrogating  them.  —  9.  They  could  postpone  the  assemblies  of  the 
people,  and  prescribe  a  change  of  habit  to  the  city,  in  cases  of  any  imminent 
danger  or  calamity.  But  the  power  of  the  Senate  was  chiefly  conspicuous  in 
civil  dissensions  or  dangerous  tumults  within  the  city,  in  which  thru  solemn 
decree,  Ultimum  or  Extrenium,  used  to  be  passed  (§  248.  2),  That  the  consuls 
should  take  care  that  the  republic  should  receive  no  harm.,,     (Adam.) 

C.  Middleton,  Treatise  on  Rom.  Senate.  Lond.  1747.  8.  Also  in  his  Misccll.  Works.  Lond. 
1755.  5  vols.  8. —  Cliapman,  Essay  on  the  Rom.  Senate.  —  Spclmaii,  Dissertation  &x.  in  his 
Trans,  of  Dionys.  Hal.  cited  P.  II." § 247.  4.  —  Blettcrietas  cited  §  242. 

§  258.  Assemblies  of  t\\g  whole  Roman  people  were  termed  Com- 
itia.  The  word  comitium  originally  signified  the  place  of  assembling, 
which  was  an  open  space  in  the  Roman  forum,  in  front  of  the  court- 
house of  Hostilius  ;  it  was  afterwards  applied  to  the  assembly  itself, 
consisting  of  three  ranks  or  orders  of  the  Roman  people,  and  held 
at  that  place,  or  the  Campus  Martius,  or  the  Capitol.  Assemblies  of 
one  or  two  orders  were  called  Concilia ;  and  less  formal  ones,  where 
merely  notices  or  addresses  were  given  to  the  people,  and  nothing  was 
decided,  were  termed  Condones.  The  Comitia  were  appointed  only 
by  the  higher  magistrates,  a  Consul,  Dictator,  or,  in  the  Consul's  ab- 
sence, a  Praetor.  The  most  important  subjects  were  considered  in 
these  assemblies,  some  of  which  have  been  already  mentioned  inci- 
dentally. 

§  259.  The  days  of  the  year,  on  which  such  assemblies  could  be 
held,  184  in  number,  were  called  diescomitiales.  Romulus  establish- 
ed the  Comitia  Curiata,  in  which  the  votes  were  given  by  Curice 
(§  251);  Servius  Tullius  the  Comitia  Cetituriata,  in  which  the  peo- 
ple voted  by  centuries,  and  which  were  the  most  important ;  and  the 
Tribunes,  B.  C.  491,  instituted  the  Comitia  Tributa,  in  which  the 
the  votes  were  given  by  tribes.  The  decrees  passed  at  the  last  men- 
tioned were  termed  Plebiscita,  and  at  first  were  binding  only  on  the 
plebeians. — The  election  of  officers,  which  became  the  principal  busi- 
ness of  the  Comitia,  was  chiefly  made  at  the  Comitia  Centuriata. 
These  were  held  in  the  Campus  Martius,  where  more  than  50,000 
persons  might  assemble. 
50 


590  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES, 

1m.  The  consul  or  presiding  magistrate  at  the  Comitia  of  Centuries  occs*^ 
pied  an  elevated  wooden  erection,  called  Tribunal.  There  were  193  small  slips 
or  narrow  passages  (pontes,  ponticuli)  raised  for  thp  193  centuries  to  ascend 
upon  as  they  went  to  vote.  Both  these  and  the  tribunal  were  surrounded  by 
&  balustrade,  forming  what  was  called  the  Septa  or  Ovile.  Outside  of  this  the 
people  stood  until  they  were  called  in  (intro  vocatce)  to  vote  century  by  centu- 
ry through  the  six  successive  classes.  The  order,  in  which  the  centuries  votedr 
was  determined  by  lot  (sortitio) ,  the  names  being  thrown  into  a  box  (sitella) 
and  drawn  out  by  the  presiding  magistrate.  The  votes  were  by  means  of  bal- 
lots (tabella),  which  were  given  to  each  citizen  by  persons  (diribitores)  stand- 
ing at  the  entrances  of  the  passages  just  named,  and  were  cast  by  the  citizens 
into  a  box  or  chest  (cista)  at  the  end  of  the  passage.  The  manner  of  voting, 
was  the  same  in  the  case  of  elections,  of  enacting  laws,  and  of  passing  de- 
crees or  judicial  sentences.  Only  persons  between  17  and  60  years  of  age 
were  allowed  to  vote. 

2.  "  By  the  chests  were  placed  some  of  the  public  servants,  who,  taking, 
out  the  tablets  of  every  century,  for  every  tablet  made  a  prick  or  point  (punc- 
ium)  in  another  tablet,  which,  they  kept  by  them.  Thus  the  business  being, 
^decided  by  most  points  gave  occasion  to  the  phrase,  Onme  tulit  punctum,  and 
the  like."'  (K-ennett.)  —  It  is  obvious,  that  in  the  Comitia  Centuriatathe  mode 
of  voting  must  give  the  higher  classes  an  entire  preponderance  over  the  others- 
(cf.  §  252). 

§260.  The  rights  of  Roman  citizenship  included  several  impor- 
tant privileges,  especially  during  the  freedom  of  the  state.  The  life- 
and  property  of  a  citizen  were  in  the  power  of  no  one  but  of  the 
whole  people  appealed  to  thereon ;  no  magistrate  could  punish  him 
by  stripes ;.  he  had  a  full  right  over  his  property,  his  children  and  his 
dependents  ;:  he  had*  a  voice  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people  and  in 
Che  election  of  magistrates ;  his  last  will  and  testament  had  full  author- 
ity after  his  death.  The  right  of  voting  was  the  most  valued  ;  full 
citizenship  including  this  could  be  bestowed  only  by  the  people;  cit- 
izenship embracing  the  other  rights  could  be  conferred  by  the  senate* 
also.  All  freedmen  and  their  children  were  excluded' from- this  right,, 
which  is  what  was  properly  meant  by  the  Jus  Quiritium. 

\u.  Whoever  once  acquired  Roman  citizenship,  could  not  be  deprived  of  it, 
even  by  banishment:  it  was  lost  only  by  voluntary  resignation  or  by  taking  a 
foreign  allegiance.  The  Jus  Quiritium  privatum,  conferred  on  the  colonies' 
and  municipal  towns,  comprehended  in.  it  fewer  or  less  important  privileges  ; 
in  the  case  of  th-e  Latin  colonies^  it  was  called  Jus  Latii  or Latinitatis  ;  of  the' 
Italian,  Jus  Italicum.  Still  more  limited  were  the  privileges  included  in  the' 
Jura  provinciarum  and  Jura  prafecturarum\ 

2.  The  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen  have  been  divided  into  private  and  public  ;' 
both  are' included  under  the  common  designation  Jus  Quiritium,  and  some- 
times under  that  of  Jus  civitatis ;  and  sometimes  these  phrases  seem  to  be 
limited  respectively  to  the  rights  termed  private  or-  public.  —  To  the  private, 
belonged  the  following;  1.  Jus  libertatis,  which  secured  to  each  the  controh 
of  his  person;  2.  Jus  gentis  et  familiar,  which  secured' the  peculiar  privileges 
of  his  descent;  3.  Jus  pair  ium,  the  entire  control  over  liis  children  ;  4.  Jus" 
dominii  legitimi,  the  possession  of  legal  property;  5:  Jus  tdstamenti  and  hatred - 
itatis,  the  right  to  inherit  or-  bequeath  property  by  will ;  6.  Jus  tutelar,  the  right 
to  appoint  by  will  guardians  for  his  wife  and  children.  To  the  public,  be- 
longed the  following;  1.  Jus  census,  the  right  of  being  enrolled  by  the  cen- 
sor ;  2.  Jus  militia;,  none  but  citizens  being  enlisted  at  first,  a  restriction  which 
was  afterwards  abolished ;  3.  Jus  tributorum,  which  secured  to  the  citizen 
taxation  proportioned  to  his  wealth  ;  4.  Jus  svffragii,  the  right  of  voting,  so 
highly  valued  ;  5.  Jus  honorum,  eligibility  to  public  offices,  a  right  originally 
confined  to  patricians,  but  finally  extended  to  plebeians  also;  6.  Jus  sucrorumf 
which  included  certain  rights  in  relation  to  religious  worship.  —  Those  who 
did  not  possess  the  rights  of  citizens  (cives)  were  generally  termed  foreigner^ 
rpercgrini)  wherever  they  resided. 


'CIVIL    AFFAIRS.      RIGHTS.       JUDICIAL    PROCEEDINGS.  591 

"3.  This  is  a  proper  place  for  a  brief  view  of  the  rights  and  privileges,  which 
"were  allowed  by  the  Romans  to  the  cities  or  nations  conquered  by  them.  The 
forms  of  government  established  in  such  cases  maybe  divided  into  four. — 
(1)  The  Colonic  or  colonies  were  cities  or  tracts  of  country,  which  persons 
from  Rome  were  sent  to  inhabit.  These  persons,  although  mingling  with  the 
conquered  natives  and  occupants,  gained  the  whole  power  in  the  administra- 
tion of  affairs.  In  the  later  periods  of  the  republic  and  under  the  emperors, 
many  colonies  were  planted  with  soldiers,  who  had  served  out  their  legal  time 
(twenty  years,  in  the  foot,  or  ten  in  the  horse,  cf.  §  277),  and  who  after  thus 
laboring  for  their  country  Were  permitted  to  receive  possessions  in  a  colony, 
and  spendtheir  age  in  ease  and  plenty. — The  colonies  were  scattered  over  the 

empire,  and  governed  bylaws   prescribed   to  them  by  the   Romans. (2). 

The  Municipia  were  cities,  which  enjoyed  the  right  of  governing  themselves 
by  their  own  laws  ;  retaining,  if  they  chose  it,  such  as  were  in  use  before  their 
subjection  to  the  Romans.  They  were  in  some  respects  like  the  corporate 
cities  of  our  country,  and  their  inhabitants  had  the  name  and  some  of  the 
rights  of  Roman  citizens.  'Orignally  confined  to  Italy,  they  were  subsequent- 
ly formed  even  in  the  provinces.  The  coloniae  and  municipia  had  similar 
magistrates;  the  Duumviri  were  the  chief  officers;  the  senators  were  called 
Dccnriones. (3).  The  Prccfcctura:  were  certain  towns  in  Italy,  whose  priv- 
ileges were  curtailed  for  offences  against  the  Roman  government.  They  were 
not  suffered  to  frame  their  own  laws  as  did  the  municipia,  nor  to  choose  their 
own  magistrates,  as  did  both  the  municipia  and  the  coloniae.  They  were  gov- 
erned by  a  prefect  sent  annually  from  Rome. All  the  other  cities  of  Italy, 

which  were  not  either  colonics,  municipia  or  prcefecturcc,  were  called  civitates 
j"cederata>,  enjoying  their  old  rights  and  customs,  and  joined  to  the  Romans  only 

by  confederacy  or  alliance. (4.)  The  Prozincixe  were  foreign  countries  of 

larger  extent,  which,  when  conquered,  were  remodeled  as  to  their  govern- 
ments, at -the  pleasure  of  the  Romans.  They  were  compelled  to  pay  such 
taxes  as  were  demanded,  and  subjected  to  the  authority  of  governors  annually 
sent  out  from  Rome.  The  provinces  were  termed  Praetorian  or  Proconsular 
according  as  Praetors  or  Proconsuls  were  governors  ;  provinces  belonging  to  the 
emperor  were  governed  by  propraetors;  those  belonging  to  the  senate,  by 
proconsuls  (cf.  §  250J.  These  governors  were  often  tyrannical  and  always 
oppressive  ;  and  the  provincial  system  became  one  of  the  most  odious  fea- 
ures   in  the  Roman  administration. 

For  illustrations  of  this  provincial  tyranny,  cf.  Cicero's  Orations  against  Wrres. —  Middleton''.i 
Life  of  Cicero,  vol.  i.  p.  94,  as  cited  P.  II.  $  404.  l.  —  Burignij,  on  Gov.  of  Horn.  Provinces  in 
tike  Mem.  Acad.  I  user,  xxvn.64. 

§  361.  The  judicial  proceedings  of  the  Romans  included  trials  of 
public  and  private  cases,  criminal  and  civil.  The  former  involved 
■the  general  peace  and  security  ;  the  latter,  the  claims  and  rights  of 
individuals.  The  public  or  criminal  trials  (judicia  publico)  were 
either  ordinary  or  extraordinary. — The  latter  were  such  as  belonged 
not  to  any  regular  jurisdiction,  or  fixed  time  or  place,  but  had  a  spe- 
cial day  of  trial  assigned,  or  a  special  assembly  of  the  people  ap- 
pointed for  them.  Sometimes  the  people  selected  certain  persons,  as 
a  sort  of  commissioners  in  cases  of  this  kind  ;  such  were  the  Duum- 
viri pcrduellionis  or  Quasitores.  • — The  ordinary  public  trials  were 
also  called  qucestiones  pcrpctuce,  and  were  first  established  in  the  year 
B.  C.  149,  for  the  most  common  state  offences.  In  these  the  Praetor 
presided  (§  243),  by  whom  assistant  judges  (judices  asscssores)  were 
chosen  annually,  originally  from  the  senate,  then  from  the  knights, 
and  at  last  from  all  conditions.  The  judges  were  divided  into  sever- 
al decurice,  from  which  the  requisite  number  of  them  were  taken  by 
lot  for  each  trial.  Under  the  emperors  the  judges  were  appointed  by 
themselves. 

lu.  In  all  public  trials  a  certain  order  of  proceeding  and  a  series  of  establish- 


592  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

ed  usages  were  observed.  The  plaintiff  {actor,  accusator)  commonly  spoke 
against  the  defendant  (reus)  ;  the  witnesses  were  then  heard  ;  the  opinion  of 
the  judges  was  given  orally  or  in  writing,  and  judgment  was  pronounced. 
The  person  acquitted  could,  when  he  had  ground  for  it,  bring  his  accuser  to 
trial  for  slander  (calumnia)  ;  the  person  condemned,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
punished  according  to  the  law. 

2.  Public  trials  of  a  capital  kind  were  held  before  the  Comitia  Centuri- 
eta;  such  as  involved  only  the  question  of  some  minor  punishment,  before 
the  Comitia  Tributa.  In  these  cases  some  magistrate  must  be  the  accuser. 
Having  called  an  assembly,  he  announced  that  on  a  certain  day  he  should  ac- 
cuse the  person  of  a  certain  crime  ;  doing  this  was  expressed  by  the  phrase 
dicere  diem  ;  the  person  named  must  procure  bondsmen  (vades,  prazdes)  or  be 
kept  in  custody  to  the  day  named  ;  on  that  day  the  magistrate  made  his  accu- 
sation, which  was  repeated  three  times,  each  after  one  day  intervening ;  then 
a  bill  (rogatio),  including  the  charge  and  the  punishment  proposed,  was  post- 
ed up  for  three  market-days  ;  on  the  third  market-day,  the  accuser  again  re- 
peated the  charge,  and  the  criminal  or  his  advocate  (adrocatus,  pa tr onus)  made 
a  defence  ;  after  which  the  Comitia  was  summoned, for  acertain  day,  to  decide 
the  trial  then  by  suffrages. 

On  the  judicial  affairs  of  the  Romans,  the  fullest  authority  is  C.  Sigonius  de  judiciis  (in  his 
Opp.  vol.  in.  —  Also  in  2d  vol.  of  Gravity  cited  $  197).  —  Cf.  Beaufort,  Republique  Romaine. 
Sd  vol.—  Dunlop,  Rom.  Lit.  vol.  n.  p.  141,  as  cited  P.  II.  §  299.8. 

§262.  In  private  affairs,  the  accusation  was  commonly  called  pe- 
titio ;  the  plaintiff ^efr'for,  and  the  defendant,  is  uncle  petitur.  The 
plaintiff  could  compel  the  other  party  to  appear  at  court,  not  usually 
however  without  calling  in  some  one  as  witness  to  the  step  (antesta- 
tio).  If  the  defendant  chose  not  to  go,  he  must  give  security  or  bail 
(satisdare).  The  plaintiff  himself  stated  the  matter  or  object  of  his 
complaint  (causa)  ;  if  the  defendant  denied  the  thing  charged,  it  led 
to  a  formal  trial  (actio).  —  There  were  two  principal  kinds  of  ac- 
tions; viz.  actiones  in  personam,  which  related  to  the  fulfilment  of  ob- 
ligations ;  and  actiones  in  ran,  which  related  to  the  recovery  of  pro- 
perty in  possession  of  another.  The  proceeding,  in  a  case  of  the 
latter  kind,  was  termed  vinclicatio.  All  private  trials  belonged  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Prcetor. 

\u.  The  Prsetor  named  the  judges,  who,  when  the  dispute  was  about  the 
restitution  of  property,  were  called  rccupcraiores.  Often  for  this  purpose  a  hun- 
dred or  a  hundred  and  five  were  appointed  from  the  different  tribes,  called 
centumriralc  judicium.  The  judges  or  jury,  as  well  as  the  litigating  parties, 
were  put  under  oath.  Then  the  action  was  carried  forward  orally,  and  after 
examination,  judgment  was  pronounced,  and  provision  made  for  its  execution. 
It  may  be  important  to  distinguish  judges  properly  so  called  from  arbitra- 
tors (arbitri  causarum),  who  made  awards  in  cases  which  were  not  to  be  de- 
cided on  the  exact  principles  of  law  but  to  be  adjusted  by  accommodation, 
or  by  their  best  discretion ;  such  cases  were  termed  causa  fidei  bona;  et  arbi- 
traria. 

2u.  The  usual  places  for  trials  were,  in  public  cases,  the  Forum  or  the  Cam- 
pus Martins,  and  in  private,  other  free  places,  or  more  frequently  the  Basilica: 
("Cf.  P.  V.  '§  61). 

§  263.  Among  the  principal  penal  offences,  which  demanded  pub- 
lic trials,  were  the  following  ;  Crimen  majestatis,  or  an  offence  against 
the  dignity  and  security  of  the  state  and  its  magistrates  ;  perdueUionis, 
Jiio-h  treason  against  the  freedom  of  the  people  ;  pcculatus,  embezzling 
in  any  way  the  public  property,  sacrilege,  counterfeiting  money,  or 
falsifying  records  ;  ambitus,  bribery  or  corruption  of  the  people  to 
procure  votes  in  an  election  ;  rcpctiindrtrum,  extortion,  when  a  Praetor, 
Q,uaestor,  or  other  provincial  magistrate,  made  unjust  exactions,  for 
which  compensation  was  demanded  ;  vis  publico;,  public  violence,  in> 


CIVIL    AFFAIRS.       OFFENCES    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  593 

eluding  conspiracies,  personal  assaults,  and  various  similar  offences. 
—  There  were  various  more  private  offences  of  which  cognizance 
was  taken  in  public  trials  ;  e.  g.  crimen  inter  sicarios,  assassination  ; 
crimen  vcneficii,  poison  ;  parricidii,  parricide  ;  falsi,  forgery  ;  adul- 
terii  &  plagii,  adultery  and  man-stealing. 

§  264.  The  punishments  inflicted  on  those  found  guilty  were  vari- 
ous. The  following  were  the  principal ;  damnum,  mulcta,  fines, 
which  at  first  never  exceeded  thirty  oxen  and  two  sheep,  or  the  value 
of  them,  but  afterwards  were  increased;,  vincula,  imprisonment  with 
bonds,  which  were  cords  or  chains  upon  the  hands  and  feet ;  verbe- 
ra,  blows  inflicted  on  the  free-born  with  the  rods  of  the  Lictors 
(virgis),  upon  slaves  with  whips  (flagcllis)  ;  talio,  satisfaction  in 
kind,  i.  e.  the  punishment  similar  to  the  injury,  e.  g.  an  eye  for  an 
eye  :  infamia  or  ignominia,  disgrace  or  infamy,  which  generally  ren- 
dered the  person  incapable  of  enjoying  public  offices;  exilium,  ban- 
ishment, which  was  either  voluntary  or  inflicted,  and  was  attended 
with  a  deprivation  of  all  honors.  When  the  person  was  banished  to 
no  particular  place,  he  was  said  to  be  intcrdictus ;  when  banished  to 
a  certain  place,  relcgaUis.  The  form  termed  deportatio  was  the  most 
severe,  as  the  persons  were  then  sent  into  perpetual  exile  in  distant 
and  desolate  places  or  islands.  Two  other  punishments  should  be 
noticed  ;  servitus,  slavery,  into  which  offenders  of  a  certain  class  were 
sold ;  and  mors,  death,  inflicted  for  heinous  crimes. 

1.  Under  the  term  vinexda  were  included  several  varieties  ;  as  catena, 
chains  ;  boiai,  cords  or  thongs  ;  manicce,  manicles  for  the  hands  ;  pedicce,  fet- 
ters for  the  feet ;  ncrvus,  iron  shackles  for  the  neck  ;  columbar,  a  sort  of  stocks, 
a  wooden  frame  with  holes  in  which  the  feet  were  fastened  and  sometimes  the 

hands. The   confinement  of  criminals  was  either  in  prison,  or  in  private 

custody  under  a  soldier  or  officers  (cf.  Acts,  xxviii.  16).  The  ancient  state- 
prison  of  Rome,  by  the  name  of  the  Mamertine  Prison,  is  still  pointed  out  to 
travelers. 

In  our  Plate  XXIV.  fig.  A  is  a  cut  showing  a  kind  of  stocks  now  used  in  the  East,  in  which 
the  criminal  prostrate  on  his  back  is  confined  by  his  feet  and  hands ;  it  may  serve  to  illustrate 
the  Roman  stocks  above  named.  —  Fig.  B,  of  the  same  Plate,  is  a  cut  representing  one  of  the 
stories  of  the  Mamertine  Prison.  This  structure  is  under  a  small  edifice  called  the  Church  of 
St.  Joseph  ;  it  consists  of  two  stories  ;  the  lower  one  is  called  Tullianum,  after  Servius  Tullius, 
who  is  said  to  have  built  it ;  this  is  formed  of  heavy  blocks  of  stone,  arched  over  without  ce- 
ment, and  defying  the  assaults  of  time  ;  here  Jmrurtha  was  stoned  to  death,  and  according  to 
tradition  Paul  and  Peter  were  imprisoned  ;  the  dungeon  presents  a  most  appallimr  appearance. 
Cf.  Eu.it.acr,  Tour  &c.  cited  P.  I.  §  190.  1.  —Fisk,  Travels,  &c.  p.  300,  as  cited  P.  I.  $  185.  6. 

2.  The  flagellum  was  made  of  leathern  thongs  or  twisted  cords  fastened  to 
the  end  of  a  stick,  and  sometimes  loaded  with  pieces  of  iron  or  lead.  The 
scutica  was  a  simple  thong  or  strap,  and  the  jcrula  a  mere  rod  or  stick.  Cf. 
Hot.   i.  iii.  119. 

3.  The  modes  of  inflicting  death  were  various.  Slaves  were  usually  cruci- 
fied Ccruci  affigcrc)  ;  others  it  was  customary  at  first  to  hang  (arbor i  suspen- 
derej,  afterwards  to  behead  (securi  percuterej,  or  to  strangle  in  prison  (stran- 
gulare),  or  to  throw  from  the  Tarpeian  rock  (de  saxo  Tarpeio  dejicere),  or  cast 
into  the  sea  or  a  river  (projicere  in  profluentcmj .  The  latter  mode  was  used 
in  the  case  of  parricide,  or  the  murder  of  any  near  relative.  The  criminal 
was  first  whipped,  then  sewed  up  in  a  leather  sack  (culeus,  cf.  Dionys.  Hal. 
iv.  62),  sometimes  along  with  a  serpent,  or  an  ape,  or  a  dog  and  a  cock,  and 
then  thrown  into  the  water.  —  The  bodies  of  executed  criminals  were  not 
burned  or  buried,  unless,  as  was  sometimes  permitted,  their  friends  purchased 
the  privilege  of  doing  it;  but  were  usually  exposed  before  the  prison,  on  cer- 
tain stairs  (scahe)  called  gemonia  or  gewonii  gradus ;  down  which  they  were 
dragged  with  a  hook  and  cast  into  the  Tiber.  The  innocent  victims  of  popu- 
lar violence  or  civil  war  were  sometimes  thrust  down  these  steps  of  infamy 

50* 


594  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

(Tac.  Hist.  iii.  74).  Three  other  modes  of  capital  punishment  were  also  prac- 
ticed, especially  under  the  emperors  ;  ad  ludos,  in  which  the  criminals  were 
obliged  to  fight  with  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre  (bestiariij,  or  with  each 
other  as  gladiators  ;  ad  melalla,  in  which  the  offenders  were  condemned  to 
work  in  mines  ;  ad  bestias,  in  which  they  were  thrown  to  wild  beasts  to  be 
devoured.  These  forms  were  often  inflicted  on  those,  who  embraced  and 
would  not  renounce  Christianity.  There  was  also  another  form,  still  more 
horrid,  which  was  to  wrap  the  offender  in  a  garment  covered  with  pitch  and 
set  it  on  fire  ;  thus  Nero  murdered  the  Christians,  on  whom  he  charged  his 
own  crime  of  burning  Rome. 

§  265.  The  system  of  laws  was  in  general  very  loose  and  indefi- 
nite in  the  early  times  of  Rome.  The  kings,  and  likewise  the  first 
consuls,  decided  all  cases  according  to  their  own  judgment,  or  ac- 
cording to  usage  in  similar  instances.  The  abuses  growing  out  of 
this  state  of  things  occasioned,  according  to  the  common  accounts, 
the  sending  of  three  commissioners,  B.  C.  455,  to  Athens  and  Spar- 
ta in  order  to  collect  the  laws  of  Solon  and  Lycurorus.  They  returned 
B.  C.  453;  and  in  the  year  following,  ten  patricians  (§  248.  3)  were 
appointed  to  devise  and  propose  a  body  of  laws. 

1  u.  The  laws  proposed  by  the  Decemviri  were  embodied  at  first  in  ten, 
then  in  twelve  tables,  and  by  the  people  in  the  Comitia  Centuriata  were  adopt- 
ed and  established  as  the  ground  and  rule  of  all  judicial  decisions  (cf.  P.  II. 
§  561).  —  To  these  were  afterwards  added  many  particular  laws,  which  were 
usually  named  from  their  authors,  the  consuls,  dictators,  or  tribunes  who  pro- 
posed them  ;  e.  g.  Lex  Atinia,  Lex  Furia,  &c. ;  also  from  their  contents;  e.  g. 
Leges  agrarian,  frumentariai,  &c. 

2  u.  It  was  necessary,  that  every  law  proposed  for  enactment  should  be 
previously  posted  up  in  public  for  17  days  (per  trinundinum),  and  then  be 
submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  people  in  the  Coinitia  Centuriata,  that  they 
might  adopt  it  (legem  jubere,  accipcre),  or  reject  it  (legem  antiquare).  When 
a  previous  law  was  abolished,  they  were  said  to  abrogate  it  (legem  abrogare). 
Laws  thus  adopted  were  engraved  on  brass,  and  lodged  in  the  archives.  — 
Under  the  emperors,  however,  their  own  ordinances  had  the  force  of  laws, 
called  Constitution.es  principales,  and  including  not  only  their  formal  edicts 
(edictaj,  but  answers  to  petitions  (rescripta),  judicial  decisions  (decrctaj,  and 
commands  to  officers  (mandata). 

3.  The  several  early  collectiojis  of  Roman  laws  and  usages  have  been  be- 
fore mentioned  (cf.  P.  II.  §  561).  Besides  these  collections  and  the  constitu- 
tiones  and  leges  above  named,  Roman  law  included  also  the  plebiscita  (§  259), 
the  senatus  consulta  (§  257),  and  the  jus  honorarium  (§243).  It  is  obvious, 
therefore,  that  in  the  lapse  of  years  the  system  of  laws  must  have  become 
exceedingly  cumbrous  and  perplexing.  The  emperor  Justinian  first  reduced 
the  Roman  law  to  something  like  order.  Cf.  P.  II.  §  569. 

§  266  u.  One  thing  especially  noticeable  in  the  legislation  and  regular  poli- 
cy of  the  Romans  was  their  care  to  provide  sufficient  supplies  of  grain.  A 
general  scarcity,  as  in  the  year  B.  C.  440  and  at  other  times,  occasioned  the 
appointment  of  a  special  officer  to  attend  to  the  subject,  called  Prarfectus  an- 
nona,  although  the  iEdiles  had  previously  been  charged  with  this  care,  and 
it  continued  afterwards  to  be  a  duty  of  their  office  (§  244).  Augustus  or- 
dained, that  two  men  should  be  annually  elected  to  perform  this  duty,  duum- 
viri dividundo  frumento.  The  annual  contributions  in  grain,  which  were  ex- 
acted of  the  provinces,  served  likewise  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  a  scarci- 
ty of  bread,  and  the  provincial  officers,  especially  the  Quaistors  (§  246),  were 
required  to  attend  carefully  to  the  business.  —  In  this  respect,  Egypt  was  the 
most  productive  province,  and  it  was  on  account  of  its  grain,  that  the  annual 
voyage  was  made  by  the  Alexandrine  fleet,  with  which  the  African  fleet  was 
afterwards  joined.  The  distribution  of  grain  among  the  people,  at  a  low  rate, 
was  practiced  in  Rome  from  the  earliest  times. 

§  267.  The  sources  of  income  to  the  Roman  treasury  (cerarium), 


CrVIL    AFFAIRS.       REVENUE.    COMMERCE    AND    ARTS.  595 

and  afterwards  to  the  imperial  exchequer  (jiscus),  were  the  tributa, 
taxes  imposed  on  the  citizens  according  to  their  property,  or  on  the 
provinces  as  an  annual  tribute,  and  the  vectigalia,  which  included 
all  the  other  forms  of  taxes.  There  were  three  principal  kinds  or 
branches  of  the  vectigalia  ;  the  portorium,  duties  on  exports  and  im- 
ports, the  person  taking  lease  of  which  was  called  manceps  portuum ; 
decumes,  tithes  or  tenth-parts  of  the  produce;  and  the  scriptura,  or 
pasture  tax,  paid  for  feeding  cattle  on  the  public  lands.  There  were 
also  taxes  on  mines  (especially  the  silver  mines  of  Spain),  and  on 
salt,  which  yielded  considerable  revenue.  Less  important  were  the 
taxes  on  roads,  on  the  value  of  freed  slaves  (vicesima,  a  twentieth), 
on  aqueducts,  on  artisans,  and  the  like. 

1  u.  The  vectigalia  were  let  by  auction  (locabantur  sub  hastaj.  Those  who 
hired  or  farmed  them  were  called  publicum,  the  rent  or  hire  paid  being  called 
publicum  ;  they  were  usually  Roman  knights,  who  of  course  possessed  prop- 
erty, and  on  taking  the  lease  advanced  a  large  sum,  or  gave  landed  securities 
(■praides).  Leases  of  the  revenues  of  whole  kingdoms  and  provinces  were 
often  taken  by  several  knights  associated,  who  had  in  Rome  a  superintendent 
of  the  concern  (magister  societatis  publicanoruui),  with  a  subordinate  one  in 
each  province  or  region  (pro magister  J ,  and  a  multitude  of  subalterns  to  collect 
the  revenue,  keep  the  accounts,  &c. 

The  publican*  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  were  of  the  class  of  subaltern  col- 
lectors above  described,  who  were  guilty  of  great  extortion  in  all  the  provinces.  —  Bouchard, 
Sur  les  Publicuins  &c.  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Jnscrip.  xxxvn.  241. 

2.  After  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  the  revenue  from  the  provinces  became 
so  great,  that  the  taxes  previously  assessed  on  Roman  citizens  were  abolished. 
They  were  renewed  again  %  by  Augustus,  and  continued  by  his  successors. 
Caracalla  beston  ed  the  name  and  privilege  of  Roman  citizens  on  all  free  in- 
habitants of  the  empire,  in  order  to  increase  the  income  from  these  taxes  : 
this  was  done  without  lessening  the  taxes  levied  on  them  as  provincial 
subjects. 

D.  H.  Hcg-ewisch,  Ilistor.  Versuch  ubsrdie  RSmischen  Finanzen.  Altona,  1804.  8. —  R.  Bos.se, 
Grundzuge  des  Finanzwesens  im  Rom.  Staate.  Braunschweig,  1803.  4.  2  bde.  8. —  Cf.  Gibbon, 
Rom.  Emp.  ch.  vi.  xvii.  —  On  income  from  mines  of  Spain,  Rollin,  Anc.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  32,  ed. 
N.  Yk.  1835. 

§  268.  Although  commerce  could  not  flourish  much  at  Rome  in 
early  times,  when  the  spirit  of  war  and  conquest  engrossed  every 
thing,  yet  there  existed  a  body  of  merchants,  who  were  Roman  citi- 
zens. The  Roman  commerce  was  also  extended,  on  the  expulsion 
of  the  kings,  by  a  treaty  with  the  Carthaginians.  Yet  commercial 
pursuits  were  regarded  as  unbecoming  for  the  higher  classes,  who 
nevertheless  covertly  and  through  agents  not  unfrequently  engaged 
in  them  and  indulged  in  speculations.  They  did  this  especially  in 
connection  with  the  slave-trade,  which  was  very  lucrative. 

\u.  The  merchants  at  Rome  were  styled  uicrcatores  ;  those  abroad  in  the 
provinces,  negotiatores.  There  were  also  brokers  and  bankers  (argentarii  and 
mensarii),  and  contractors  of  various  kinds,  besides  the  publicum  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  section,  whose  contracts  may  be  viewed  as  a  sort  of  com- 
mercial transactions.  Yet  Rome  never  acquired  a  high  rank  among  the  states 
of  antiquity  in  point  of  commerce. 

Dc  Pastorct,  Sur  le  commerce  et  le  luxe  des  Romaines  &c.  Mem.  de  Plnstitut,  Classe  d'HiM. 
et  Lit.  Anc.  Vol.  iii.  p.  285,  Vol.  v.  p.  76.  and  vii.  p.  125. — On  commerce  &c.  among  the  Ro- 
mans, Gibbon,  Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  ii. — The  Hist,  of  Rom.  Emp.  (given  in  Lardncr's Cab.  Cy- 
clopaedia) bk.  iii.  ch.  9. 

2u.  Other  trades  were  still  less  reputable  than  commerce.  The  mechanics 
and  artisans  were  slaves,  or  foreigners,  although  they  sometimes  acquired 
Roman  citizenship.  Under  Numa  there  were  formed  certain  corporations  of 
them,  or  colleges  (collegia),  which  afterwards  became  more  respectable  and 


596  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

numerous.  Of  this  kind  were  the  collegia  fabrorum,  tignariorum,  dendro- 
phororum,  sagariorum,  tabular iorum  &c.  The  overseer  of  such  a  body  was 
called  prafectus;  they  had  also  their  decuriones  and  magistri,  whose  office 
was  usually  for  five  years.  They  performed  work  for  the  state,  or  for  indi- 
vidual citizens,  who  were  not  able  to  hold  slaves. 

G.  Pancirullus,  De  corporibus  Artificum,  in  2d  vol.  of  Grcevius,  cited  §  197. 

3.  Several  arts  were  nevertheless  much  cultivated.— It  has  been  a  question  of  some  interest 
how  far  the  ancients  understood  the  making  of  gloss.  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.  v.  19.  xxxvi.  26.) 
states  that  the  art  originated  in  accident,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Belus  ;  and  that  glass  ves- 
sels were  first  made  in  Sidon.  It  was  known  however  in  Egypt,  for  pieces  of  bine  glass 
have  been  found  in  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  arid  some  of  the  mummies  are  decorated  with  glass. 
(Cf.  Belzoni,  cited  P.  I.  $231.  1.)  Lachrymatories  and  paters  of  glass  have  been  discovered 
in  the  catacombs  of  the  Greek  island  Milo  (cf.  Jones,  vol.  i.  p.  60.  as  cited  §341.  7).  The  allu- 
sions and  comparisons  of  Virgil  and  Horace  (cf.  Virg.  ^En.  vii.  759.  Hor.  Od.  i.  xvii.  20.  Hat. 
ii.  iii.  222.)  indicate  an  acquaintance  with  glass  fvitrea)  in  a  state  of  at  least  considerable  per- 
fection. Colored  glass  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  mosaic  decorations  (cf.  P.  I.  §  220.  2.)  in 
the  time  of  Augustus.  Imitations  of  gems  were  formed  also  by  means  of  glass  (cf.  P.  [.  210). 
The  story  related  by  Tacitus  (Ann.  v.  42.)  of  a  vase  of  malleable  glass  shown  to  Tiberius, 
however  incredible,  shows  that  glass-making  had  been  introduced  at  Rome.  Numerous  ves- 
sels of  glass  have  been  found  at  Pompeii  (cf.  §325).  The  celebrated  Portland  Vase  has  lately 
been  pronounced  to  be  glass  (cf.  P.  I.  §  173)  ;  this  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  Alexander  Severus, 
in  whose  reign  a  special  tax  was  laid,  A.  D.  220,  upon  the  glass  makers  of  Home,  who  were 
then  so  numerous,  it  is  said,  as  to  require  the  assignment  of  a  particular  quarter  of  the  city  for 

the  place  of  their  labors. The  art  of  pottery  also  was  practiced  by  the  Romans.      This  wa- 

early  known  among  the  Jews  (Jerem.  xvur.  3,  A).  The  vessels  found  at  Volaterrae  and 
other  places  (cf.  P.  I. $  173.  3.)  prove  its  existence  among  the  Etrurians  and  the  Greeks  in 
Italy.  There  can  be  no  doubt  it  was  early  introduced  among  the  Romans.  According  to  Vi- 
truvius  they  made  their  watur-pipes  of  potter's  clay.  They  established  potteries  in  England  ; 
vestiges  of  which,  it  is  said,  are  *till  discernible  in  some  parts  of  the  island,  especially  in  Staf- 
fordshire, rf  their vasamurrhina were  porcelain  (cf.  P.  [.$195.4.),  the  art  must  have  reached 
a  high  degree  of  perfection  ;  some  have  attempted  to  shovv  that  these  vessels  were  made  of  a 
transparent  stone  dug  from  the  earth  in  the  eastern  part  of  Asia. — The  manufacure  of  bricks 
(latere,*  coctilesj  was  well  understood.  Bricks  are  found  in  very  ancient  Roman  ruins, 
which  are  said  to  be  superior  to  the  modern  both  in  solidity  and  beauty. — Cf.  Lard  iter's  Cab. 
Cyclopaedia,  vol.  .on Porcelain  and  Glass. — S.  Parkes,  Chemical  Essays  &c.  Lond.  1830.  p.  304. 
316. — Notices  of  Roman  earthern  vessels  are  found  in  TV.  Skerry,  Description  of  the  discov- 
eries at  Heraclea,  translated  <tc.  Lond.  1750.  8. 

§269.  Agriculture  was  in  much  higher  estimation,  and  the  fields 
of  the  wide  Roman  territory,  as  well  as  those  taken  in  war,  were 
chiefly  possessed  by  respectable  Roman  citizens.  Many  noble  Ro- 
mans lived  upon  their  own  lands,  and  made  the  cultivation  and  im- 
provement of  them  a  special  study.  The  ornamenting  of  their  es- 
tates proved,  in  the  flourishing  periods  of  the  state,  an  important 
part  of  Roman  luxury. 

Elsewhere  we  have  spoken  of  the  attention  paid  by  the  Romans  to  agriculture  as  a  science, 
and  of  the  care  taken  in  defining  the  boundaries  of  lands  by  means  of  professional  survey- 
ors (aijrimensores).  See  P.  II.  §  483 — 489.  P.  III.  $88.  Here  we  will  notice  some  of  the  pro- 
ducts and  implements  of  agriculture. 

1.  The  grain  chiefly  cultivated  was  wheat,  but  of  various  kinds;  triticum 
was  a  common  name  ;  far  is  put  for  any  kind  of  corn,  and  farina  for  meal. 
Barley,  hordeum,  and  oats,  avenu,  were  also  raised.  Flax,  linum,  was  an  ar- 
ticle cultivated  considerably.  Meadows,  prata,  were  cultivated  for  mowing; 
they  seem  to  have  yielded  two  crops  of  hay ,  famum . The  breeding  of  cat- 
tle was  an  object  of  attention  usually  included  under  husbandry  ;  chiefly, 
oxen,  horses,  sheep  and  goats.  Much  care  was  also  bestowed  on  bees  (apes). 
Trees,  also,  both  forest,  lruit  and  ornamental,  received  their  share  of  atten- 
tion. The  Romans  were  acquainted  with  most  of  the  various  methods  now 
practiced  for  propagating  the  different  species  and  varieties. — But  the  culture 
of  the  vine  finally  took  the  precedence  of  all  other  cultivation  (cf.  §  331  b). 

2.  Among  the  agricultural  instruments  the  plough,  aratrum,  ranks  first ;  its 
chief  parts  were  the  temo,  beam,  to  which  the  jugum  or  yoke  for  the  oxen 
was  attached  :  stiva,  plough-tail  or  handle,  having  on  its  end  a  cross-bar  (man- 
iculaj  of  which  the  ploughman  took  hold  to  direct  the  instrument ;  buris,  a 
crooked  piece  of  wood  between  the  beam  and  ploughshare  ;  dcntalc  or  dens. 
the  piece  of  timber  which  was  joined  to  the  buris  and  received  on  its  end  the 
share  ;  vomer,  the  share  ;  aurcs,  affixed  to  the  buris,  and  answering  to  mould- 
boards  to  throw  the  earth  back  ;  culter,  the  coulter.  The  rallum  was  a  staff* 
used  for  cleaning  the  plough,  or  beating  off  clods  from  it.     In  some  ploughs 


CIVFL    AFFAIRS.       AGRICULTURE.    CARRIAGES.    WEIGHTS.  597 

wheels  were  attached;  but  the  plough  most  commonly  used  was  more  simple. 

having  neither  coulter  nor  mould-boards. Other  instruments  were  the  ligo, 

spade  ;  rastum,  rake  ;  sarculum,  hoe  or  weeding-hook  ;  bidens,  a  sort  of  hoe, 
with  two  hooked  iron  teeth ;  occa  and  irpex,  different  kinds  of  harrows  ;  mar- 
ra,  a  mattock  or  hoe  for  cutting  out  weeds  ;    dolabra,  a  sort  of  adz  ;  securis, 

axe  ;  falx,  pruning  knife  ;falx  messoria  and  falcula,  sickle. The  implements 

for  beating  out  grain  were  the  perticce,  a  sort  of  flails  ;  traha,  a  sort  of  sledge  ; 
tribula,  a  board  or  beam,  set  with  stones  or  pieces  of  iron,  with  a  great  weight 
laid  upon  it,  and  drawn  by  yoked  cattle.  These  were  all  used  upon  the  thresh- 
ing-floor, area,  which  was  a  round  space,  elevated  in  the  centre  ;  sometimes 
paved  with  stone,  but  commonly  laid  with  clay  carefully  smoothed  and  hard- 
ened. Sometimes  the  threshing  was  done  by  merely  driving  oxen  or  horses 
over  the  grain  spread  on  this  floor,  as  among  the  Greeks  and  Jews. 

Fig.  2.  in  Plate  XXV,  exhibits  the  Roman  plough  ;  T  is  the  temo ;  B,  the  stiva ;  A,  points  to 
the  aures  on  the  buris  ;  D,  to  the  dentale  :  V,  is  the  vomer  ;  C,  the  culler.  In  fig.  iii.  are  Been 
forms  of  the  Syrian  plough,  cf.  $  172,  3. — On  the   Roman  plough,   cf.   Dickson,  as  cited  P.  II. 

$  489.3. Fig.  8,  in  Plate  XXV,  is  a  cut  showing  varieties   of  the  falx,  pruning  knife,  and 

sickle.  Fig.  5,  is  from  an  Egyptian  monument,  and  shows  the  use  of  the  sickle  in  cutting  wheat 

in  the  field. Fig.  7,  is  a  Persian  drag-,  for  the  purpose  of  threshing  grain  ;a  roller  with  teeth, 

fitted  so  as  to  be  drawn  by  cattle  over  the  grain  ;  it  is  taken  from  Sir  R.  K.  Porter.  —  Fig.  iv.  is 
another  instrument  for  the  same  purpose  taken  from  J\riebuhr;  it  has  three  wheels  with  iron 
teeth,  or  with  serrated  edges,  drawn   by  cattle,  the   driver  sitting  on  it.     These  figures  may 

partially  illustrate  the  Roman  traha  and  tribula. Pontedera,  Antiquitatum  Rusticarum  &.c. 

Patav.  1738. 

3.  The  carriages  used  for  agricultual  purposes  were  chiefly  the  plaustra  or 
veha,  which  had  usually  two  wheels,  sometimes  four,  and  were  drawn  com- 
monly by  oxen,  but  also  by  asses  and  horses.  These  often  had  wheels  without 
spokes,  called  tympana.  The  body  of  these  carriages  (and  indeed  of  any  car- 
riage, was  termed  capsum,  and  the  draught-tree  or  beam,  temo.  The  jvgum 
was  the  yoke,  fastened  to  the  beam  and  also  to  the  cattle  by  thongs,  lora,  sub- 
jugia. — Pack-horses  (caballi)  were  sometimes  used  for  carrying  burdens  ;  more 
frequently  asses  or  mules;  called  clitellarii,  from  the  packages  (clitcllai)  on 
their  backs. 

We  may  remark  in  this  connection,  that  the  Romans  had  various  carriages 
for  convenience  and  amusement.  The  chariot,  currvs,  was  the  most  common  ; 
always  with  two  wheels,  but  either  two,  three  or  four,  or  even  six  horses. 
Those  with  two  were  termed  bigai ;  those  with  four,  quadrigae;  in  the  races, 
the  horses  were  always  yoked  abreast.  —  The  carruca  was  a  sort  of  private 
coach  of  the  rich,  sometimes  of  solid  silver,  curiously  carved. — The  pilcntuw, 
was  an  easy  soft  vehicle  with  four  wheels,  used  in  conveying  women  to  public 
games  and  rites.  The  carpcntum  was  a  carriage  with  two  wheels  and  an 
arched  covering.  The  thtnsa  was  a  splendid  carriage  with  four  wheels  and 
four  horses,  in  which  the  images  of  the  gods  were  taken  to  the  puivinaria  in 
the  Circus,  at  the  Circensian  games  (§  233).  The  cislum  was  a  vehicle  with 
two  wheels,  drawn  by  three  mules,  used  chiefly  for  traveling.  The  rheda  was 
a  larger  traveling  carriage  with  four  wheels.  —  The  horses  were  guided  and 
stimulated  by  the  bit  (franuvi )  and  reins  (habenai)  and  whip  (fiugellum). — 
Conveyance  was  also  made  on  horseback,  in  which  case  the  spur  (calcar, 
y.ivrnor,  cf.  Virg.  Mn.  xi.  714)  was  the  stimulus.  Saddles  of  some  kind 
(ephippia,  kpLn/nov),  perhaps  merely  of  cloth  (vestis  stragula),  were  used  ; 
stirrups   (stapi&)  were  also  known,  in  later  times  at  least  (cf.  §  3*29.  3). 

It  has  been  questioned  whether  the  ancients  used  to  shoe  their  horses.  Rut  the  allusions  of 
the  classical  writers  seem  to  indicate  clearly  the  fact  that  they  did,  although,  in  the  remains  ot 
ancient  art  the  shoe  is  scarcely  found,  if  ever,  in  the  representations  of  the  horse.  Some  have 
supposed  that  a  plate  of  metal  was  attached  to  the  roof,  not  by  nails,  but  by  some  other  means. 

—  See  Archceologia,  vol.m  .  p.  35.  as  cited  P.  I.  §  242, 3 See  the  same  work,  vol.  vm.  p.  111.  on 

ancient  spurs. 

Fig  6.  in  our  plate  XXIV.  is  an  ancient  biga,  preserved  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome  ;  it  is  cover- 
ed with  leather.     Fig.  5.  shows  a  triga,  and  fig.  4.  a  quadriga. 

§  270.  Here  will  be  the  place  to  notice  what  is  most  important  re- 
specting the  weights  and  circulating  coins  of  the  Romans. 

1.  The  principal  Roman  weight  was  the  libra  or  pound.  This  was  divided, 
like  the  as,  into  twelve  ounces  ;  and  the  parts  bore  the  same  names  with  those 
of  the  as,  mentioned  below  (2).  Various  weights,  both  parts  and  multiples  of 
the  pound,  were  used  in  transacting  business.     They   were  often  made  of  a 


=598  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

•black  stone  which  some  have  called  Lydius  lapis.  Scales  (libra;)  and  steel- 
yards (trutince),  like  the  modern,  were  employed  in  weighing. 

Various  specimens  of  Roman  weights  are  given  by  Montfaucon,  vol.  m.  p.  166,  as  cited  $  13. 
Some  are  rectangular  solids  ;  but  most  of  them  are  in  a  degree  spherical.  —  Fig.  7,  in  our  Plate 
xxiv,  is  a  steelyard  found  at  Pompeii ;  the  original  has  an  inscription,  bearing  a  date  which  cor- 
responds to  A.  D.  77,  and  asserting  that  the  instrument  had  been  legally  tested  and  proved  in  the 
Capitol.  —  Fig.  8,  is  the  moveable  weight  belonging  to  another  steelyard  found  at  the  same 
place.  —  Roman  steelyards  and  weights  have  been  found  also  in  England.  Archceologia,  cited 
,P.  I.  §243.  3,  vol.  ix.  p.  131. 

2m.  Servius  Tullius  was  the  first  who  caused  money  to  be  coined  (cf.  P.  I. 
§  134),  by  stamping  on  brass  the  image  of  cattle  (pecudes  whence  the  termpecv- 
nia).  Previously,  exchanges  were  made  by  barter,  or  by  means  of  uncoined  met- 
al. The  most  common  brass  coin,  the  as, was  originally  a  Roman  pound  in  weight 
and  was  divided  like  that  into  twelve  ounces  (unciat).  Two  uncia  made  a 
sextans  ;  three,  aqua-drans  ;  four,  a  trims  ;  live,  a  quincunx  ;  six,  a  semis ;  seven, 
septunx  ;  eight,  bes  (bis  triens)  ;  nine,  dodrans  ;  ten,  tlecunx  ;  and  eleven,  deunx. 
Afterwards  the  as  was  gradually  reduced  (Plin.  H.  N.  xxxiii.3)  to  an  ounce 
in  quantity,  and  finally  even  to  a  .half-ounce.  Silver  coin  was  first  stamped 
B.  C.  269  ;  the  most  common  coins  were  the  Denarius,  Quinarius  and  Sester- 
tius. The  Denarius  was  originally  reckoned  as  equal  to  ten  pounds  of  brass, 
and  marked  X,  or  \,  but  after  the  reduction  of  the  as  to  an  ounce  B.  C.  217, 
it  passed  as  equal  to  sixteen  asses.  The  proper  value  of  it  also  varied  at  dif- 
ferent times.  The  Quinarius  was  half  the  Denarius,  and  marked  V.  The 
Sestertius  was  a  fourth  part  of  the  Denarius,  and  originally  equal  to  2  1-2  asses 
(hence  its  name  semis  tertius),  and  marked  LLS,  i.e.  Libra  Libra  Seinis,  ab- 
breviated IIS  or  IIS.  After  the  reduction  of  the  as  to  one  ounce,  the  Sester- 
tius pa'ssed  for  4  asses.  The  Sestertius  , was  often  called  JYummus. —  Gold 
coin  was  first  stamped  at  Rome  B.  C.  207;  the  most  common  coin  was  the 
Aureus  or  Solidus,  equal  in  weight  to  two  Denarii  and  a  Quinarius,  and  in 
value  to  25  Denarii. 

3.  The  temple  of  Juno  Moneta  was  the  place  of  the  Roman  mint,  where 
their  money  was  coined  ;  the  term  moneta  (whence  money)  referred  originally 
to  the  image,  or  stamp,  impressed  on  the  coin  and  reminding  one  of  the  per- 
son or  thing  represented.  The  mint  was  under  the  care  of  the  Triumviri 
monetales  ;  the  coins  were  examined  by  the  JYummularii.  The  impressions  of 
the  As  or  Assipondium  was  a  Janus  bifrons  on  one  side  and  on  the  reverse  the 
rostrum  of  a  skip  ;  on  the  Semis  and  Quadrans  (called  also  Sembella  and  Ter* 
uncius)  was  a  boat  instead  of  the  rostrum.  The  silver  coins  Denarius,  Quin- 
arius and  Sestertius,  often  had  on  one  side  a  chariot  with  two  or  four  horses, 
and  on  the  other  the  head  of  Roma  with  a  helmet  ;  but  other  devices  were 
sometimes  impressed  (cf.  P.  I.  §  139.2).  —  The  value  of  the  Denarius  was 
about  15  cents,  as  deduced  from  the  experiments  of  Letronne  who  carefully 
weighed  1350  consular  denarii ;  that  of  the  Sestertius,  being  one  fourth  of  it. 
was  therefore  about  3  cents  and  8  mills. — The  ratio  of  gold  to  silver  in  tire 
republic  was  about  10  to  1. 

Conger,  as  cited  §  174.  —  Mongcz,  sur  Part  du  Monnoyage  chez  les  anciens  et  chez  les  mod- 
erns &c  in  the  Mem.  de  V  Institut,  Classe  d'  Hist.  ctLit.  Jlnc.  vol.  ix.  p.  187. 

4.  The  usual  rate  of  interest  (focnus)  was  one  as  for  the  use  of  a  hundred  a 
month,  or  12  per  cent,  a  year,  and  was  paid  monthly  on  the  Calends.  It  was 
called  usura  centesima,  as  in  a  hundred  months  the  interest  would  equal  the 
capital  (caput  or  sors).  Horace  speaks  (Sat.  i.  iii.  12)  of  a  ususer,  who  took 
(iO  per  cent. 

§  271?/.  The  Romans  usually  reckoned  money  by  Sestertii.  The  sum  of 
1000  Sestertii  they  called  Sestertium ;  duo  Sestertia,  e.  g.  signifies  the  same  as 
bis  mille  sestertii.  When  the  sum  was  ten  hundred  thousand  or  over,  they 
used  the  word  Sestertium  in  the  case  required,  prefixing  only  the  numeral  ad- 
verb for  the  first  number,  ten,  twenty  &c.  and  leaving  the  hundred  to  be  sup- 
plied by  the  mind;  e.  g.  Decies  Sestertium  signified  10,00,000  Sesterii ;  Quad- 
ragies  Sestertium  signified  40,00,000,  or  4  million  Sestertii. — They  sometimes 
reckoned  by  talents,  in  case  of  large  sums.  The  talcntum  was  equal  to  60 
libra  or  pounds. 

1.  Kennet  gives  the  following  rule  for  interpreting  the  Latin  expressions 
iox  sums  of  money  ;  if  a  numeral  agree,  in  case,  number  and  gender,  with  Ses- 


PLATE     XXV, 


tSMHH 


600  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

tertius,  then  it  denotes  precisely  and  simply  so  many  sesterces ;  if  a  numeral 
of  another  case  be  joined  with  the  genitive  plural,  Sestertiiim,  it  denotes  so 
many  thousand  sesterces  ;  if  a  numeral  adverb  be  joined  to  the  same,  or  be 
used  alone,  it  denotes  so  many  hundred  thousand  sesterces. 

We  have  on  record  some  statements,  from  which  we  may  form  a  notion  of  the  Roman  wealth 
and  luxury.  Crassus,  for  instance,  is  said  to  have  possessed  lands  to  the  value  of  bis  millics  i.  e. 
by  the  above  rule,  2000x100,003=200,000,000  sesterces  ;  taking  the  value  of  the  sesterce  obtain- 
ed as  mentioned  in  the  preceding  section  we  have  3.8X200,000,000-:-1000.=$7,600,000,  for  the 
value  of  the  land  owned  by  Crassus  ;  be  is  said  to  have  had,  in  slaves,  buildings,  furniture  and 
money,  as  much  more.  —  Caligula  laid  out  upon  a  single  supper  ccnties,  i.  e.  100  X100,000  ses- 
terces=3.8x  10,0O0,000-:-1000=$38O,000.  —  Cleopatra  is  said  to  have  swallowed,  at  a  feast  with 
Anthony,  a  pearl  worth  the  same  sum,  cetities  US.  —  Cicero  is  said  to  have  had  a  table  which 
cost  centum  sestertium,  i.  e.  lOOX  1.000  sesterces=$3800.  —  Cf.  Adam,  Rom.  Ant.  (ed.  Boyd)  Edinb. 
1834.  p.  432.  —  Perhaps  these  sums  would  be  much  larger,  if  due  allowance  were  made  for  the 
depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  precious  metals.  Cf.  Saifs  Polit.  Economy,  bk.  i.  ch.  xxi. 
sect.  7.  , 

2.  In  the  Roman  system  of  notation,  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  were1  employed  for  express- 
ing numbers  ;  viz.  I  for  1,  V  for  5,  X  for  10,  L  for  50,  C  for  100,  D  for  500,  and  M  for  1000.  In- 
stead of  D,  they  sometimes  used  IC  to  signify  500  ;  and  instead  of  M,  they  also  used  X  or  CIC, 
or  O  O  ,  to  signify  1000.  Sometimes  a  line  drawn  over  a  letter  indicated  that  it  was  to  be  mul- 
tiplied by  one  thousand;  e.  g.  *  stood  for  10,000;  L,  50,000;  c,  100,000.  —  Combinations  of 
these  letters  usually  signified  the  sum  of  the  numbers  represented  by  the  several  letters  separ- 
ately ;  e.  g.  VIII,  8  ;  XV,  15  ;  LX,  60 ;  CX,  110.  But  when  I,  V,  or  X  was  placed  before  a  let- 
t  r  representine  a  larger  number,  the  combination  expressed  the  difference  ;  e.  g.  IV,  4  ;  XL,  40  ; 
XC,  90  ;  and  when  to  IC  another  C  was  annexed  it  indicated  a  multiplication  hv  10;  e.  g.  IC, 
500;  ICC,  5000  ;  ICCC,  50,000;  in  order  to  signify  the  same  multiplication  of  CIC,  a  C  was 
also  prefixed  as  well  as  O  annexed  ;  e.g.  CIO,  1000;  CCIOQ,  10,000;  CCCIOOO,  100,000. 
For  any  multiple,  however,  of  this  last,  100,000,  the  Romans  did  not  employ  letters  ;  but  pre- 
fixed to  this  expression  a  numeral  adverb  :  as  bis,  to  signifying  200,000  ;  ter,  "to  signify  300,000  ; 
decies,  to  signify  10,00,000,  &c. 

§  272.  It  may  be  in  place  to  speak  here  of  the  modes  of  acquiring  or  trans- 
ferring property  {res  private).  The  following  may  be  named;  (1)  Mancipation 
when  a  regular  compact  or  bargain  was  made,  and  the  transfer  was  attended 
with  certain  formalities  used  among  Roman  citizens  only;  (2)  Cessio  injure, 
when  a  person  gave  up  his  effects  to  another  before  the  Pra;tor,  or  ruler  of  a 
province;  chiefly  done  by  debtors  to  creditors;  (3)  Usucapio,  when  one  ob- 
tained a  thing  by  having  had  it  in  possession  and  use  (usils  auctoritate)  ;  (4) 
Emptio  sub  corona,  the  purchasing  of  captives  in  war,  who  were  sold  at  spe- 
cial auction,  with  garlands  {corona)  on  their  heads  ;  {o)  Audio,  public  sale  or 
auction  ;  (6)  Adjudicatio,  which  referred  strictly  either  to  dividing  an  inheri- 
tance among  co-heirs  or  dividing  stock  among  partners,  or  settling  boundaries 
between  neighbors,  but  is  applied  also  to  any  assignment  of  property  by  sent- 
ence of  a  judge  or  arbiter  ;  (7)  Donatio,  when  any  thing  was  given  to  one  for 
a  present.  Property  was  also  acquired  by  inheritance,  and  this  was  either  (1) 
by  bequest  from  a  testator,  who  could  name  his  heirs  in  a  written  will  {testa- 
mento)  or  in  a  declaration  {viva  voca)  before  witnesses,  or  (2)  by  law,  which 
assigned  the  property  of  one  dying  intestate  to  his  children  and  after  them  to 
the  nearest  relatives  on  the  father's  side. 

§  273.  The  public  sale  of  property  (audio,  also  called proscriptio) 
was  very  common  among  the  Romans.  In  the  place  where  such  sale 
was  held,  a  spear  was  set  up,  whence  the  phrase  sub  hasta  venire  or 
vendere.  A  notice  or  advertisement  of  the  goods  to  be  sold  (tabula 
proscriptions,  tabula  auctionaria)  was  previously  suspended  upon  a 
pillar  in  some  public  place.  Permission  for  such  sales  must  be  ob- 
tained of  the  city  Praetor.  The  superintendent  of  the  sales  was  term- 
ed magister  auctionum ;  in  cases  where  the  sale  was  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  debt,  he  was  selected  by  the  creditors,  and  was  generally 
the  one  who  had  the  highest  claim  against  the  debtor.  The  sale  of 
confiscated  goods  was  termed  sectio ;  the  money  arising  therefrom 
went  to  the  public  treasury. 

§  274.  The  principal  Roman  measures  of  extent  and  capacity 
should  be  explained  here  ;  although  the  best  view  of  such  a  subject  is 
obtained  by  means  of  tables. 

1m.  The  measures  of  length  and  surface  were  the  following;  digitus,  a  fin* 


MILITAY   AFFAIRS.  601 

ger's  breath ;  jour  of  which  made  a  palmus,  or  hands  |breadth ;  and  sixteen,  a 
pes  or  foot;  5  feet  were  equal  to  a  passus  or  pace  ;  125  of  the  latter  formed 
a  stadium,  and  1,000  of  them,  or  8  stadia,  a  milliare.  —  In  land-measures,  the 
following  were  the  most  common  denominations  ;  jugerum,  what  could  be 
ploughed  in  a  day  by  one  yoke  ( jugo  )  of  cattle,  240  feet  long,  120  broad,  or 
containing  28,800  square  feet ',  actus  quadratus,  equal  to  half  the  jugerum,  be- 
ing 120  feet  square  and  containing  14,400  feet ;  clima,  equal  to  an  eighth  of 
the  jugerum,  60  feet  square,  containing  3,600  feet. 

The  smallest  measure  of  capacity  for  liquid  and  for  dry  things  was  the  ligula, 
4  of  which  made  a  cyathus,  and  6  an  acetabulum  ;  the  acetabulum  was  the  half 
of  a  quartarius,  which  was  the  half  of  a  hemina,  and  the  hemina  half  of  a 
sextarius  nearly  equal  to  our  pint.  For  dry  things  there  was  also  the  Modius, 
equal  to  16  sextarii.  In  liquids  the  sextarius  was  a  sixth  of  the  congius;  4 
congii  made  an  urna  ;  two  urnae,  an  amphora  ;  and  20  amphorae,  a  culeus. 

2.  Various  methods  have  been  adopted  to  determine  the  value  of  the  Roman 
foot,  which  is  important  in  learning  the  values  of  the  several  measures  of 
length,  extent,  and  capacity.  1.  One  means  is  furnished  by  specimens  of  the 
Roman  foot  on  tombstones  ;  there  are  four  of  these  preserved  in  the  Capito- 
line  Museum.  2.  Several  foot-rules  also  have  been  discovered.  The  foot- 
rules  were  bars  of  brass  or  iron  of  the  length  of  a  pes,  designed  for  use  in 
actual  measurements.  3.  The  length  of  the  Roman  foot  has  likewise  been 
deduced  from  the  distances  between  the  milestones  on  the  Appian  Way.  4. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  Roman  foot  likewise  from  the  con- 
gius, the  measure  of  capacity,  of  which  two  are  yet  in  preservation,  one  at 
Rome,  the  other  at  Paris;  the  solid  contents  of  the  congius  are  said  to  have 
been  the  cube  of  half  a.  pes.  From  the  same  measure,  it  may  be  remarked  in 
passing,  there  have  been  attempts  to  deduce  the  value  of  the  Roman  libra, 
as  the  congius  is  said  to  have  held  10  pounds  of  wine  or  water.  5.  The  ac- 
tual measurement  of  ancient  buildings  now  standing  at  Rome  is  a  method 
which  is  thought  to  be  most  satisfactory.  By  these  various  methods  the  Ro- 
man foot  is  made  nearly  equal  to  12  inches. 

Conger,  before  cited. —  Gassendi's  experiment  to  ascertain  the  Libra  from  the  Congius  is  re- 
lated in  Diss.  I.  appended  to  vol.  m.  of  Goguefs  Origin  of  Laws,  &c. Among  the  authori- 
ties on  the  Roman  money,  weights,  and  measures,  the  following  may  be  named.  —  Kdstner, 
Matthice,  fy  Warm,  as  cited  §  174.  —  G.  Budams,  De  Asse  et  partibus  ejus,  libri  v.  Lugd.  1551. 
8.  —  J.  F.  Gronov,  De  Sestertiis.  L.  B.  1691.  —  jR.  Beverini,  Syntagma  deponderibus  et  mensu* 
ris  Rom.  Leipz.  1714.  8.  —  The  treatises  of  Pcetus  and  others  in  the  11th  vol.  of  Grcevius,  cited 
$  197. —  G.  Hooper,  State  of  the  Ancient  Measures,  the  Attic,  Roman,  and  Jewish,  with  an 
Appendix  concerning  the  old  English  Money,  &c.  (published  1721).    Also  in  his  works.    Oxf. 

1757.  fol J.  Greaves,  Description  of  the  Roman  Foot  and  Denarius.  —  J.  Arbuthnot,  Tables 

of  Ancient  Coins  &c.  Lond.  1727.  4.  —  Of  later  authors  in  Metrology,  Letronne  and  Warm  (cf. 
§174)  are  most  eminent.  Cf.  Bouillet's  Dictionnaire  Classique;  in  which  (as  also  in  Conger's 
Essay)  are  good  tables  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  weights  and  measures.  —  Cf.  also  Frerct,  Les 
mesures  longues  des  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxiv.  p.  432.  —  Gosselin,  Systemes 
metriques  lineares  d'antiquite,  in  the  Mem.  de  PInstitut,  classe  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  vi.  44. 
—  R.  Hussey,  Essay  on  the  ancient  Weights  and  Money,  with  an  Appendix  on  the  Roman  and 
Greek  Foot.    Oxf.  1837.  8. 

(3)  Affairs  of  War. 

§  275.  The  Romans  were  of  all  the  nations  of  antiquity  preemi- 
nently warlike ;  and  by  an  uninterrupted  series  of  great  military  en- 
terprises made  a  rapid  and  remarkable  advancement  in  power  and 
dominion.  Hence  an  acquaintance  with  what  pertains  to  their  mili- 
tary antiquities  must  aid  in  forming  a  just  idea  of  their  character  and 
the  original  sources  of  their  greatness. 

1  u.  This  knowledge  is  to  be  drawn  from  their  chief  historians  as  the  pri- 
mary source  ;  particularly  from  the  commentaries  of  Julius  Cfesar,  and  the 
historical  works  of  Livy  and  Tacitus ;  to  which  we  may  add  the  Greek  writers 
on  Roman  history,  Polybius  and  Appian,  on  account  of  their  constant  refer- 
ence to  military  affairs.  Besides  these  sources,  there  are  the  Roman  writers 
who  have  made  it  their  chief  object  to  describe  the  Roman  art  of  war,  in  its 
various  particulars  ;  viz.  Hyginus,  Frontinus,  and  Vegetius. 
51 


602  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

2  m.  It  is  from  these  sources  that  those  who  have  formed  treatises  and  mas* 
uals  of  Roman  antiquities,  have  derived  their  materials  on  this  branch  of  the 
subject. 

J.  Lipsius,  de  Militia  Romana  (a  comment,  on  Polybius).  Antv.  1606.  4.  —  Nast  $■  Rosch. 
Rbmische  KriegsalterthUmer,  aus  echten  Q.uellen  geschopft.  Halle,  1782.  8.  A  good  manual  on 
this  branch  of  antiquities.  —  The  10th  vol.  of  Ora-i-ius  (cited  $  197)  consists  of  treatises  by  R, 
H.  Schelius  and  others,  on  the  military  affairs  of  the  Romans.  —  Cf.  also  Rollin,  on  the  Art  mil- 
itary, in  the  History  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  of  the  Ancients ;  found  in  his  Ancient  History.  N.  Y« 
1835.  2  vols.  8.  —  Duncan's  Disc,  on  the  Rom.  Art  of  War,  in  his  Transl.  of  Caesar,  cited  P.  II. 
$528.  7. —  C.  Ouiscard,  Memoires  crit.  et  hist,  sur  plus,  points  d'antiquites  militaires.  Berlin, 
1773.  4  vols.  8.  Cf.  §  42.  —  Le  Beau,  Memoirs  on  Roman  Legion  &c.  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des 
Inscrip.  in  different  Vols,  from  25th  to  42d.  —  De  Maizeroi,  to  complete  the  design  of  Le  Beau, 
in  same  Mem.  fyc.  vol.  xlii. —  Heyne,  on  the  Roman  Legion  &c.  Cf.  Class.  Journ.  xi.  169.  — 
Gibbon,  in  his  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  i. 

§  276.  On  account  of  the  frequent  changes  in  the  military  system 
of  the  Romans  in  the  successive  periods  and  revolutions  of  their  his- 
tory, the  antiquarian  must  in  treating  of  this  subject  pay  constant  at- 
tention to  the  order  of  time.  Of  the  Roman  art  of  war  in  its  earli- 
est state,  we  have  but  imperfect  accounts ;  but  we  know  that  the 
warlike  spirit  of  the  nation  showed  itself  under  the  kings,  and  gave 
no  dubious  intimations  of  their  future  career.  In  the  division  of  the 
people  into  three  tribes,  made  by  Romulus,  a  thousand  men  for  foot 
soldiers  and  a  hundred  for  horsemen  were  taken  from  each  tribe, 
and  thus  originated  the  first  Roman  legion.  The  300  horsemen, 
called  celeres,  and  constituting  in  time  of  peace  a  body-guard  of  the 
king,  were  disbanded  by  Numa,  but  reorganized  by  Tullus  Hostilius, 
and  increased  by  the  addition  of  300  noble  Albani.  The  whole 
number  thus  made  was  doubled  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  the  body 
at  last  comprised  2,400  men. 

§  277.  No  one  could  be  a  soldier  under  17,  and  all  between  17 
and  45  were  enrolled  among  the  class  of  younger  men,  and  liable  to 
service ;  while  those  over  45  were  ranked  among  the  elder  men,  ex- 
cused from  military  duty.  They  were  always  received  to  service  un- 
der a  formal  oath  (sacr amentum, ).  The  regular  time  of  service  was 
16  years  for  foot  soldiers,  and  10  for  horsemen ;  it  was  not  customa- 
ry, however,  to  serve  this  number  of  years  in  succession,  and  whoev- 
er, at  the  age  of  50,  had  not  served  the  prescribed  number  of  cam- 
paigns was  still  excused  from  the  rest.  Persons  of  no  property  {cap- 
ite  censi)  were  not  included  in  the  rule  of  requisition  as  to  service, 
because  having  nothing  to  lose,  they  were  not  supposed  to  possess 
sufficient  bravery  and  patriotism.  In  protracted  wars  the  time  of 
service  was  sometimes  extended  four  years  longer,  and  under  the  em- 
perors 20  years  became  the  regular  period,  except  for  the  imperial 
guard,  who  were  required  to  serve  but  16.  As  all  the  soldiers  were 
Roman  citizens  and  free-born,  the  rank  of  soldier  was  in  high  esti- 
mation ;  and  their  peculiar  rights  and  privileges  were  termed  jus 
militia.  Freed-men  could  be  admitted  only  into  naval  service.  —  In 
the  earliest  times  the  Roman  order  of  battle  resembled  the  Grecian 
phalanx.  Subsequently  it  was  a  custom  to  form  several  platoons  or 
divisions.  At  a  later  period  the  method  of  three  lines  was  adopted, 
which  will  be  described  below  (§  286). 

§  278.  During  the  freedom  of  Rome,  as  has  been  mentioned,  the 
army  was  usually  commanded  by  one  of  the  consuls.  A  consular 
army  commonly  consisted  of  two  legions  of  foot,  and  six  hundred 
horse,  all  native  Romans.     For  two  consuls  a  double   number  was 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       DIVISION    OF    THE    ARMY.  603 

requisite,  4  legions  and  1,200  horse.  The  legion  contained  origin- 
ally 3,000  men,  but  gradually  increased  to  6,000  and  higher ;  in  the 
second  Punic  war  it  consisted  of  6,200  foot  with  300  horse,  and  each 
legion  had  at  that  time  six  tribunes,  of  whom  there  were  of  course 
as  many  as  24  in  all.  These  tribunes  were  chosen  by  the  people, 
partly  from  the  equites,  partly  from  the  plebeians. 

1  u.  In  cases  of  great  urgency,  those  who  had  served  their  time  and  were 
over  six  and  forty  years  of  age,  were  yet  bound  to  defend  their  country,  and 
to  fill  vacancies  in  the  city  legions  ;  in  such  emergencies,  freed  men  and  slaves 
were  sometimes  enlisted.  Soldiers  received  at  such  times  of  sudden  alarm 
(tumultus)  were  called  tumultarii  or  subitarii ;  those  of  them  enlisting  volun- 
tarily were  called  volones. 

2  u.  Entire  freedom  from  military  duty  was  enjoyed  only  by  the  senators, 
augurs  and  others  holding  a  priestly  office,  and  persons  suffering  some  bodily 
weakness  or  defect.  Remission  of  some  part  of  the  legal  term  of  service 
was,  however,  often  granted  as  a  reward  of  bravery  ;  this  was  called  vacatio 
honor ata. 

§  279.  In  the  levying  of  the  soldiers  (delectus),  the  following  were 
the  usages  most  worthy  of  notice.  The  consuls  announced  by  a  her- 
ald the  time  of  a  levy  (diem  edicebant) ;  then  every  citizen,  liable  to 
service,  must  appear,  on  peril  of  his  property  and  liberty,  at  the  Cam- 
pus Martius  ;  each  consul  elected  for  himself  two  legions,  asssisted 
by  the  military  tribunes.  The  common  soldiers  were  taken  from  all 
the  tribes,  which  were  called  successively  and  separately  in  an  order 
decided  by  lot.  Four  men  were  selected  at  a  time,  of  which  the  tri- 
bunes of  each  legion,  in  rotation,  took  one.  Afterwards  the  oath  of 
fidelity  (sacrammtum)  was  taken,  first  by  the  Consuls  and  Tribunes, 
then  by  the  Centurions  and  the  Decuriones,  and  lastly  by  the  com- 
mon soldiers.  Then  the  names  of  the  latter  class  were  placed  in  the 
roll  of  the  legion,  and  under  the  emperors  a  mark  was  branded  on 
the  right  hand,  that  they  might  be  recognized,  if  they  attempted  de- 
sertion. Compulsory  levying,  resorted  to  in  necessities,  was  called 
conquisitio;  the  same  thing  among  the  allies  was  termed  conscriptio. 

§  280.  After  the  levy  was  made,  the  legions  were  directed  to  an- 
other place  of  assembling,  in  which  they  were  formed  into  divisions 
and  furnished  with  arms.  The  younger  and  feebler  were  placed 
among  the  light  troops,  velites ;  the  older  and  richer  among  the 
heavy-armed  ;  to  which  class  belonged  the  hastati,  principes,  and 
triarii. 

1  u.  The  hastati  were  young  men  in  the  flower  of  life,  named  from  the  long 
spear  used  by  them  at  first,  and  occupying  the  foremost  line  in  battle  ;  the 
principes  were  the  men  in  full  vigor  of  middle  age,  standing  in  the  second 
line  in  battle  ;  the  triarii  the  more  advanced  in  age,  veterans,  constituting 
the  third  line  in  battle  and  taking  thence  their  name.  A  legion,  when  it  con- 
sisted of  3,000,  had  ],200  hastati,  1,200  principes,  and  600  triarii.  The  last 
number  always  remained  the  same  ;  the  two  former  were  variously  increased, 
and  light  armed  troops  were  added  according  to  pleasure. 

On  the  three  ranks,  hastati,  &c,  Le  Beau,  as  cited  $  275.  Mem.  fyc.  vol.  xxix.  p.  325. 

2u.  On  this  occasion  the  colors  or  standards  were  brought  forth  from  the 
capital  and  treasury,  and  committed  to  the  proper  officers.     (Cf.  §  282.) 

§  281.  The  subdivisions  were  originally  manipuli  or  centuries, 
containing  each  a  hundred  men  ;  and  the  leader  and  captain  of  this 
number  was  called  Centurio.  —  When  the  legion  was  divided  into 
the  three  ranks  of  the  hastati,  principes,  and  triarii,  each  rank  had 


604  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

at  first  fifteen  maniples ;  and  the  whole  legion,  of  course,  forty-five 
maniples.  These  maniples  were  all  equal,  consisting  of  60  regular 
privates,  two  centurions,  and  a  standard-bearer.  The  maniples  of 
the  hastati  had  300  men  of  the  velites,  distributed  equally  among 
them  ;  to  the  triarii  also  were  allowed  thirty  companies  of  the  same ; 
the  principes  had  none. 

1m.  In  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war,  the  legion  was  divided  into  30 
maniples,  and  each  of  the  three  ranks  into  10.  The  maniples  of  the  triarii 
contained  still  the  same  number,  60  in  each,  600  in  all ;  those  of  the  hastati 
and  principes  contained  double  the  number,  120  men  in  each,  2,400  in  all  of 
both  ranks  ;  among  these  were  divided  1,200  light-armed  soldiers;  thus  mak- 
ing a  legion  of  4,200.  Each  maniple  was  now  divided  into  two  centuries, 
sometimes  called  or  dines.  The  tenth  part  of  a  legion,  three  maniples  of  each 
rank,  and  therefore  including  300  men,  was  called  a  cohors,  and  from  the 
number  of  men  contained,  tricennaria  ;  when  the  legion  contained  4,200,  the 
cohort  had  420,  and  was  termed  quadrigenaria ;  so  also  when  larger,  quinge- 
naria  and  sexcenaria. 

On  the  cohort,  Le  Beau,  as  cited  $275.  Mem.  4*e.  vol.  xxxn.  p.  279. 

2  m.  Each  maniple  had  now  two  centurions,  distinguished  as  prior  and  pos- 
terior ;  and  every  centurion  had  his  assistant,  called  uragus,  subcenturio,  and 
optio.  —  The  300  horsemen  belonging  to  a  legion  were  divided  into  10  turmce, 
and  each  turma  into  3  decurice,  consisting  of  10  horsemen,  whose  head  or  chief 
was  called  decurio. 

§  282.  Each  maniple  had  its  standard,  placed  in  its  midst  when  in 
battle.  The  chief  standard  was  always  in  the  first  maniple  of  the 
triarii,  which  was  styled  primus  pilus.  The  images  and  figures  upon 
the  Roman  standards  were  various  ;  but  the  principal  standard,  com- 
mon to  the  whole  legion,  was  a  silver  eagle  on  a  staff  or  pole,  some- 
times holding  a  thunderbolt  in  his  claws,  an  emblem  of  the  Roman 
power  or  success.  Those  of  the  infantry  were  usually  termed  signet; 
those  of  the  cavalry,  vexilla ;    the  bearers,  signifcri,  or  vcxillarii. 

1.  The  vexillum,  a  flag  or  banner,  was  a  square  piece  of  cloth,  hung  from  a 
bar  fixed  across  a  spear  near  its  upper  end.  It  was  used  sometimes  for  foot- 
soldiers,  especially  for  veterans,  who  were  retained  after  their  term  of  ser- 
vice J  these  were  by  distinction  called  vezillarii,  as  they  fought  under  this  pe- 
culiar standard  (sub  vexilloj  ;  they  were  also  called  subsignani.  On  the  flag 
were  commonly  seen  the  abbreviations  for  Senatus  populusque  Romanus,  or 
the  name  of  the  emperor,  in  golden  or  purple  letters.  — The  sigmnn  was  orig- 
inally a  handful  of  hay,  expressed  by  the  word  manipulus,  and  it  was  from 
this  circumstance  that  a  division  of  soldiers  came  to  be  so  called.  Afterwards 
it  was  a  spear  or  staff  with  a  crosspiece  of  wood,  sometimes  with  the  figure 
of  a  hand  above  it,  in  allusion  perhaps  to  the  word  manipulus  ;  having  below 
the  crosspiece  a  small  shield,  round  or  oval,  sometimes  two,  bearing  images 
of  the  gods  or  emperors.  Augustus  introduced  an  ensign  formed  by  fixing  a 
globe  on  the  head  of  a  spear  or  staff,  denoting  the  dominion  of  the  world.  — 
The  standards  and  colors  were  regarded  with  superstitious  veneration  by  all 
classes  of  the  army. 

In  our  Plate  XXVI.,  eleven  different  forms  of  Roman  standards  are  given,  in  the  figures 
markedjby  the  letter  C— Fig.  D  is  the  hand  of  Mohammed,  a  sort  of  sacred  standard  or  sign  of 
the  prophet's  power  among  his  followers  ;  it  is  taken  from  Moricr  (cited  P.  I.  243.  3),  who  rejv- 
resents  it  as  carried  in  religious  processions  in  Persia.  Two  forms  of  ancient  Persian  stand- 
ards are  also  given,  in  the  figures  marked  B. — The  eight  marked  A  are  Egyptian. 

The  term  Lobar  urn  was  employed  in  later  times  to  designate  the  imperial  standard,  which 
was  richly  embroidered  and  ornamented.    Cf.  Class.  Journ.  vol.  iv.  p.  222. 

2.  Near  the  standard  was  usually  the  station  of  the  musicians.  —  **  The  Ro- 
mans used  only  wind  music  in  their  army  ;  the  instruments  which  served  for 
that  purpose  may  be  distinguished  into  the  tuba,  the  cornua,  the  buccinai,  and 
the  litui. — The  tuba  is  supposed  to  have  been  exactly  like  our  trumpet,  running 
on  wider  and  wider  in  a  direct  line  to  the  orifice.  —  The  cornua  were  bent  al- 


PLATE     XXVI. 


606  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES, 

most  round ;  they  owe  their  name  and  original  to  the  horns  of  beasts,  put  to 
the  same  use  in  the  ruder  ages.  —  The  buccinai  seem  to  have  had  the  same 
rise,  and  may  derive  their  name  from  bos  and  cano.  It  is  hard  to  distinguish 
these  from  the  cornua,  unless  they  were  something  less  and  not  quite  so 
crooked. — The  litui  were  a  middle  kind  between  the  cornua  and  tuba,  being  al- 
most straight,  only  a  little  turning  in  at  the  top,  like  the  lituus  or  sacrecf  rod 
of  the  augurs  ;  whence  they  borrowed  their  name.  —  These  instruments  be- 
ing all  made  of  brass,  the  players  on  them  went  under  the  name  of  ceneatorcs, 
besides  the  particular  terms  of  tubicincs,  cornicines,  buccinator es,  &c. ;  and 
there  seems  to  have  been  a  set  number  assigned  to  every  manipulus  and  tur- 
ma  ;  besides  several  of  higher  order,  and  common  to  the  whole  legion.  In  a 
battle,  the  former  took  their  station  by  the  ensign  and  colors  of  their  particular 
company  or  troop ;  the  others  stood  near  the  chief  eagle  in  a  ring,  hard  by  the 
general  and  prime  officers;  and  when  the  alarm  was  to  be  given,  at  the  word 
of  the  general,  these  latter  began  it,  and  were  followed  by  the  common  sound 
of  the  rest,  dispersed  through  the  several  parts  of  the  army.  —  Besides  this 
classicum,  or  alarm,  the  soldiers  gave  a  general  shout  at  the  first  encounter, 
which  in  later  ages  they  called  barritus,  from  a  German  original."  (Kennet.) 
Galand,  La  Trompette  chez  les  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  i.  p.  104. 

§  283.  The  weapons  of  the  soldiers  differed  acccording  to  the 
class  to  which  they  belonged.  The  vditcs  had  a  round  shield  (par- 
ma),  about  three  feet  in  diameter,  a  spear  for  hurling  (hasta  velita- 
ris),  a  helmet  of  ox-hide  (cudo),  or  of  the  skin  of  a  wild  beast  (ga- 
lerus),  and  in  later  times  a  sword.  —  The  hastati  bore  a  large  shield 
(scutum),  three  and  a  half  and  four  feet  long  and  over,  of  thin  boards 
covered  with  leather  and  iron  plate;  a  short  but  stiff  and  pointed 
sword  (gladius),  on  the  right  hip  ;  two  javelins  of  wood  with  iron 
points  (pila),  one  longer  and  the  other  shorter;  an  iron  or  brazen 
helmet  (galea),  with  a  crest  adorned  with  plumes  (crista) ;  greaves 
for  the  legs,  plated  with  iron  (ocrem),  used  in  later  times  only  for  the 
right  leg;  a  coat  of  mail  (lorica),  formed  of  metal  or  hide,  worked 
over  with  little  hooks  of  iron,  and  reaching  from  the  breast  to  the 
loins,  or  a  breastplate  (thorax)  merely.  —  The  principes  and  triarii 
used  weapons  of  the  same  kind ;  excepting  that  the  triarii  had  longer 
spears,  called  hasta  longcB,  in  later  times  lancea,  and  long  swords, 
called  spathcB,  or  when  of  smaller  size,  semi-spatha.  —  The  shield 
was  marked  by  the  name  of  the  soldier  and  the  number  of  the  legion 
and  maniple  to  which  he  belonged.  Whoever  returned  from  battle 
without  his  srtield,  forfeited  his  life.  —  The  weapons  of  the  cavalry 
were  similar  to  the  Grecian  (§  138) :  a  war  cap  (cassis),  a  coat  of 
mail,  an  oblong  shield,  grieves  or  boots,  a  lance  or  javelin,  and  sword 
and  dagger,  which  last  was  used  only  in  close  fight. 

The  horsemen  in  fig.  1,  of  Plate  XXIII.,  have  a  small  round  shield.  Cf.  §235.  3.  A  sort  of 
shield  is  also  seen  in  fig.  2  of  the  same  plate  ;  which  represents  a  Roman  knight  attackinc  a 
barbarian  soldier  ;  from  an  antique  gem.  Both  these  figures  show  the  horseman's  spear. — The 
scutum  and  gladius  of  the  soldier  are  seen  in  Plate  XXVI.  fig.  1,  which  is  a  Roman  legionary, 
taken  from  Trajan's  Pillar  (cf.  P.  I.  §  188.2).  — The  shield  is  likewise  seen  in  fig.  2,  which 
represents  a  legionary  with  the  accoutrements  and  baggage,  which  he  was  obliged  always  to 
carry  in  marching  (cf.  $298.  2).  —  The  lorica  or  coat  of  mail  may  be  seen  in  Plate  XVII.  fig.  5, 
in  which  the  legs  as  well  as  the  body  are  defended  by  mail ;  this  is  the  figure  given  in  Cahnrt 
to  illustrate  the  armor  of  Goliah,  the  Philistine  ;  it  presents  also  his  shield-bearing  attendant. 
Cf.  1  Sam.  xvii.  4-7.  —  In  fig.  8,  a  coat  of  mail  covers  the  arms  ;  the  helmet  here  seen  extends 
down  behind  to  defend  the  neck  as  well  as  head  ;  the  figure  is  drawn  from  Trajan's  Column. 
In  Plate  XXIII.  fig.?t,  is  a  Dacian  horseman  completely  covered  with  scale  armor  ;  as  is  his 
horse  also.  —  For  other  articles  of  armor,  see  Plates  XIV.  and  XVII.  —  Cf.  Le  Beau,  as  cited 
$  275,  Mem.  <$•<;.  vol.  xxxix.  p.  437. 

§  2S4.  According  to  the  common  accounts,  the  Roman  soldiery 
received  no  pay  during  the  first  three  hundred  years  of  the  city,  and 
wages  (stipcndium)  were  first  given  to  foot-soldiers  B.  C.  405,  and  to 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       REWARDS.    PUNISHMENTS.  607 

horsemen  3  years  after.  Each  soldier  had  a  monthly  allowance  (di- 
nicnsum)  of  4  bushels  of  corn,  and  a  stipend  of  three  asses  per  day. 
The  stipend  was  afterwards  greater  ;  Julius  Caesar  doubled  it,  and 
under  the  emperors  it  sometimes  rose  still  higher.  The  wages  were 
sometimes  doubled  to  particular  soldiers  or  bodies  of  them  as  a  re- 
ward ;  such  were  called  duplicarii.  Certain  days  were  fixed  for  the 
distribution  of  the  allowance  of  corn.  Whatever  any  one  saved  of 
his  pay  was  called  peculium  castrense  ;  half  of  which  was  always  de- 
posited with  the  standards,  until  the  term  of  service  expired. 

I  u.  Various  extraordinary  rewards  were  given  to  those  who  distinguished 
themselves  in  war,  called  dona  militaria.  Donatives,  donativa,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  gifts  or  largesses  distributed  to  the  whole  army  on  particular  occa- 
sions, as  e.  g.  in  cases  of  success,  when  also  sacrifices  and  games  were  cele- 
brated. Among  the  rewards,  golden  and  gilded  crowns  were  particularly  com- 
mon ;  as,  the  corona  castrensis  or  vallaris  to  him  who  first  entered  the  ene- 
my's entrenchments  ;  corona  muralis,  to  him  who  first  scaled  the  enemy's 
walls  ;  and  corona  navalis,  for  seizing  a  vessel  of  the  enemy  in  a  sea-fight ; 
also  wreaths  and  crowns  formed  of  leaves  and  blossoms ;  as  the  corona  civica, 
of  oak  leaves,  conferred  for  freeing  a  citizen  from  death  or  captivity  at  the 
hands  of  the  enemy  ;  the  corona  obsidionalis,  of  grass,  for  delivering  a  be- 
sieged city  ;  and  the  corona  triumphalis,  of  laurel,  worn  by  a  triumphing 
general. 

The  various  crowns  above  named  are  exhibited  in  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  1  is  the  civica;  fig.  2, 
the  castrensis  ;  3,  the  obsidionalis  ;  4,  the  muralis  ;  5,  the  navalis ;  7,  triumpkalis.  —  Fig.  6  is  the 
radiata,  such  as  appears  to  have  been  worn  by  the  emperors. 

2.  "  There  were  smaller  rewards  (premia  minora)  of  various  kinds ;  as  a 
spear  without  any  iron  on  it  (hasta  pura)  ;  a  flag  or  banner,  i.  e.  a  streamer 
on  the  end  of  a  lance  or  spear  (vexillum),  of  different  colors,  with  or  without 
embroidery  ;  trappings  (pkalera),  ornaments  for  horses,  and  for  men  ;  golden 
chains  (aurem  torques),  which  went  round  the  neck,  whereas  the  phalcra  hung 
down  on  the  breast;  bracelets  (armillcB),  ornaments  for  the  arms;  cornicula, 
ornaments  for  the  helmet  in  the  form  of  horns  ;  catcllce  or  catenulai,  chains 
composed  of  rings  ;  whereas  the  torques  were  twisted  (torta)  like  a  rope  ;  Jibw 
Ice,  clasps  or  buckles  for  fastening  a  belt  or  garment."     (Adam.) 

See  Archaologia  (as  cited  P.  I.  $243.  3),  vol.  xxn.  p.  285,  on  an  ancient  bronze  bracelet. — 
The  torques  is  seen  on  the  Dying  Gladiator  (cf.  P.  I.  §  185.  9). 

§  285.  The  punishments  inflicted  for  misdemeanors  and  crimes 
were  very  severe,  both  in  garrison  and  in  camp.  Theft,  false  testi- 
mony, neglect  of  watch,  leaving  a  post  assigned,  or  cowardly  flight, 
was  visited  with  the  punishment  called  fustuarium,  in  which,  on  a 
signal  from  a  tribune,  the  whole  legion  fell  to  beating  the  offender 
with  sticks,  usually  until  his  death  ;  if  he  escaped,  his  disgrace  was 
scarcely  preferable  to  death.  When  a  whole  maniple  had  fled,  this 
punishment  was  inflicted  on  every  tenth  man,  being  taken  by  lot,  and 
the  rest  were  chased  from  the  camp,  and  received  only  barley  instead 
of  wheat  for  their  allowance.  Often  disgrace  was  inflicted  in  other 
ways,  as  by  loss  of  pay  (stipendio  privari),  or  loss  of  rank,  e.  g.  when 
a  soldier  of  the  triarii  was  degraded  into  the  hastati.  The  tribunes 
could  inflict  punishments  only  after  investigation  of  the  case ;  the 
general,  on  the  other  hand,  could  immediately  and  absolutely  pro- 
nounce sentence,  even  to  death.  The  latter  was  the  sentence  for 
wilful  disobedience  of  orders,  for  insurrecction  and  desertion.  The 
mode  of  inflicting  death  was  not  uniform. 

§  286.  Of  the  Roman  order  of  battle  (acies)  a  general  idea  may 
be  given  here  ;  a  minute  detail  would   belong  rather   to  a  system  of 


608  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

tactics.  The  legions  were  commonly  ranged  in  three  lines,  the  fore- 
most occupied  by  the  kastati,  the  next  by  the  principes,  and  the  last 
by  the  triarii.  Between  each  two  maniples  a  space  was  left,  so  that 
the  maniples  of  the  second  line  stood  against  the  spaces  of  the  first, 
and  the  maniples  of  the  third  against  the  spaces  of  the  second. 
These  spaces  were  termed  recta  vies,  and  were  as  broad  as  the  man- 
iples themselves. 

1  u.  This  arrangement  was  called  quincunx.  It  had  the  advantage  hoth  of 
stability  and  of  being  easily  changed  ;  it  avoided  all  confusion  and  interrup- 
tion, and  was  especially  put  in  opposition  to  the  Grecian  phalanx  (§  142), 
which  it  could  easily  penetrate  and  route.  Against  a  violent  attack  it  was 
therefore  often,  in  the  anticipation  of  an  onset  of  the  enemy,  changed  so  as 
to  close  up  the  spaces.  But  in  this  form  of  arrangement  the  soldiers  were 
mutually  sustained  and  relieved  hy  being  in  different  lines,  and  by  means  of 
their  separate  maniples  could  easily  change  the  positions  for  attack  and  de- 
fence. Originally  the  lines  were  ranged  six  feet  apart,  and  the  men  in  the 
maniples  three  feet  from  each  other ;  in  later  times  the  space  was  diminished 
till  the  soldier  had  scarcely  more  than  room  for  his  shield. 

2.  There  were  other  methods  (§  295)  of  drawing  up  the  army  for  battle, 
occasionally  used.  We  mention  here  the  cuncus,  in  which  the  army  was  ar- 
ranged in  the  form  of  a  wedge  in  order  to  pierce  and  break  the  enemy's  lines  ; 
the  globus,  in  which  the  troops  were  collected  into  a  close,  firm,  round  body, 
usually  adopted  in  case  of  extremity  ;  the  forfex,  in  which  the  army  took  a 
form  something  like  that  of  an  open  pair  of  shears  or  the  letter  V,  in  order 
to  receive  the  enemy  when  coming  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge  ;  the  serra,  in 
which  the  lines  were  extended,  and  in  making  the  engagement  some  parts  of 
the  front  advanced  before  the  other  parts,  thus  presenting  an  appearance  a  lit- 
tle like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 

§  287.  The  first  attack  in  a  battle  was  customarily  made  by  the 
light-armed  troops,  which  in  earlier  times  were  ranged  in  front  of  the 
first  line  ;  but  afterwards  they  were  stationed  in  the  intervals  between 
the  maniples,  behind  them,  or  on  the  wings,  and  made  attack  in  con- 
nection with  the  Kastati.  A  considerable  part  of  the  light  armed 
were  stationed  behind  the  triarii,  to  support  them.  The  attack  com- 
menced when  the  legion  was  at  the  distance  of  an  arrow-shot  from 
the  enemy.  As  the  light-armed  now  discharged  their  arrows,  the 
kastati  advanced,  hurled  their  javelins,  and  fought  with  their  swords. 
If  the  enemy  were  not  forced  to  give  way,  or  they  were  themselves 
pressed  hard,  the  signal  was  given  for  retreat ;  on  which  the  light- 
armed  and  the  kastati  drew  back  through  the  intervals  of  the  second 
line,  and  the  principes  advanced  to  the  fight.  In  the  mean  while, 
the  triarii  continued  in  a  stooping  posture,  leaning  on  their  right 
knee  with  the  left  foot  advanced,  covering  themselves  with  their 
shields,  and  having  their  spears  stuck  in  the  ground  with  the  points 
upwards  ;  the  line  thus  presented  the  appearance  of  a  sort  of  wall. 
If  the  principes  were  compelled  to  retreat,  the  triarii  then  rose,  and 
both  the  principes  and  the  hastati  being  received  into  their  intervals, 
renewed  the  action  with  close  ranks  (compressis  ordinibus)  and  all 
three  in  a  body  (uno  contincntc  agmine).  This  united  attack  was 
then  sustained  by  the  light-armed  troops  in  the  rear  of  the  whole. 

§  288.  Of  the  light-armed  troops  a  few  things  further  may  be  no- 
ticed. They  were  commonly  called  v elites ;  in  early  times,  however, 
rorarii  and  accensi,  sometimes  also  adscriptitii,  optiones,  and  fercn- 
tarii.     They  carried  no   shields,   but  slings,  arrows,  javelins,   and 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       LIGHT    TROOPS.      CAVALRY.  609 

swords.  They  were  usually  divided  into  fifteen  companies  (expediti 
manipuli,  or  expedite  cohortes),  and  besides  these  there  were  300 
usually  distributed  among  the  hastati  of  the  old  legions.  The  light- 
armed  often  sat  behind  the  horsemen,  and  when  these  approached 
the  enemy,  sprang  off  and  sought  to  wound  and  push  them  by  the 
javelin  and  sword. 

1  u.  They  were  sometimes  distributed  among  the  maniples  of  the  three 
lines,  about  forty  being  joined  to  each  maniple.  — They  were  of  three  differ- 
ent classes,  designated  by  their  principal  weapon  ;  jaculatores,  who  hurled 
the  javelin  ;  sagittarii,  who  shot  the  arrow  ;  and  funditores,  who  cast  stones 
or  balls  with  the  sling.  There  were  also  afterwards  tragularii  and  balistarii, 
who  threw  stones  by  the  aid  of  machines. 

In  Plate  XXVII.  fig.  a,  is  a.B.omanf auditor ;  fig.  b,  a  Sagittarius. 

2  u.  Those  called  antesignani  were  not  the  light-armed,  but  probably  were  the 
soldiers  of  the  first,  or  of  the  first  and  second  line.  —  The  position  of  the  light- 
armed  during  battle  was  often  changed ;  but  it  would  seem  that  most  com- 
monly they  stood  in  three  lines  behind  the  hastati,  the  principes,  and  the  tria- 
rii,  and  rushed  forward  to  their  attacks  through  the  intervals  between  the 
maniples. 

§  289.  The  Roman  cavalry  was  the  most  respected  part  of  their 
army,  especially  as  long  as  it  was  composed  wholly  of  knights,  and 
this  class  of  citizens  enjoyed  a  high  estimation  and  rank  already  no- 
ticed (§  255).  Even  before  the  regular  establishment  of  this  order 
in  its  full  privileges,  B.  C.  124,  the  cavalry  consisted  chiefly  of  the 
noble  and  respectable  young  Romans ;  such  indeed  was  the  case  on 
the  first  creation  of  the  cavalry  by  Romulus,  who  received  the  most 
noble  youth  among  his  300  horsemen  called  celeres ;  the  same  was 
true  under  the  following  kings,  who  increased  their  number.  To- 
wards the  end  of  the  republic,  the  Roman  knights  began  to  leave 
the  military  service,  and  thus  the  cavalry  of  the  later  armies  was 
made  up  almost  wholly  of  foreigners,  who  were  taken  into  pay  in  the 
provinces  where  the  legions  were  stationed.  The  knights  of  later 
times  served  only  among  the  Prcctorians,  or  the  imperial  body-guard 
(§  309). 

§  290.  At  that  period  also,  the  cavalry  was  often  separated  from 
the  legions,  while  previously  they  had  been  regarded  as  the  same  ar- 
my, and  been  stationed  especially  on  the  wing.  —  The  forces,  com- 
monly called  alee,  were  different  from  the  legionary  cavalry  ;  they 
were  bodies  of  light  horse,  composed  of  foreigners  and  employed  to 
guard  the  flanks  of  the  army.  —  The  usual  number  of  horsemen 
commonly  connected  with  a  legion  has  already  been  named  (§281); 
in  the  first  periods  of  the  republic  it  was  200,  afterwards  commonly 
300,  sometimes  also  400.  The  legions  of  the  auxiliaries  (§  292) 
had  the  same  number  of  foot  soldiers  as  the  Roman  legions,  but  a 
greater  number  of  horsemen ;  although  the  ratio  was  not  always  the 
same. 

1  u.  The  cavalry  was  divided  by  the  tribunes  into  10  turmce,  corresponding 
to  the  number  of  cohorts  in  each  legion,  and  30  decurite,  corresponding  to  the 
number  of  maniples.  For  every  maniple  there  were  therefore  ten  horsemen. 
Each  turma  had  three  Decuriones,  the  first  of  whom  was  commander  of  the 
whole  turma  ;  three  uragi  (ovQaybi)  were  under  them.  In  how  many  lines  the 
cavalry  used  to  be  drawn  up  for  battle  is  not  kno^u.  In  an  attack,  the  first 
line  of  turmce  endeavored  to  break  the  ranks  of  the  enemy  ;    and  were  sup- 


€10  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

ported  therein  by  the  second.  If  the  enemy  were  arranged  in  the  wedge-form, 
the  cavalry  dashed  upon  them  at  full  speed. 

On  the  Roman  Cavalry,  Le  Beau,  as  cited  §  275,  Mem.  4'c  vol.  xxvm. 

2  u.  The  horses  were  protected  by  leather  on  their  bodies  and  plates  of  iron 
on  their  heads  and  breasts.  In  general,  the  Roman  cavalry  were  of  principal 
service  in  protecting  the  flanks  of  the  infantry,  reconnoitring  the  enemy, 
collecting  forage,  occupying  remote  defiles,  covering  retreats,  and  pursuing 
the  routed  foe.  Where  the  ground  was  uneven,  the  horsemen  dismounted 
and  fought  on  foot. 

§  291.  In  early  times,  when  the  line  in  battle  was  not  yet  three- 
fold, but  the  foot  were  ranged  in  a  single  line,  the  horse  were  placed 
in  a  second  to  support  them.  In  the  year  of  the  city  500,  B.  C.  252, 
the  threefold  arrangement  of  the  legion  seems  to  have  been  adopted. 
The  cohorts  have  already  been  mentioned  (§281);  these  also  had 
their  particular  arrangement,  which  probably  was  formed  originally 
by  uniting  the  maniples,  a  thing  not  common  until  later  times,  since 
in  the  second  Punic  war  the  separate  position  of  the  maniples  was 
still  practiced.  Towards  the  end  of  the  republic,  the  threefold  di- 
vision of  the  legionaries  was  abolished  ;  and  the  legion  now  consist- 
ed of  ten  cohorts,  each  of  which  contained  400  or  500  men.  After 
the  time  of  Caesar,  the  more  frequent  order  of  battle  was  to  place 
four  cohorts  in  the  front  line  and  three  in  each  of  the  two  others.  — 
Generally  the  Roman  tactics  became  gradually  more  and  more  like 
the  Greek.  Under  Trajan  the  arrangement  for  battle  was  a  single 
compact  line.  Under  later  emperors,  the  use  of  the  Macedonian 
phalanx  was  adopted,  but  it  was  soon  renounced. 

§  292.  Of  the  legions  of  auxiliaries  we  only  remark  further,  that 
these  consisted  chiefly  of  inhabitants  of  the  Italian  states,  which  at 
an  early  period,  either  of  choice  or  after  subjection,  entered  into 
treaty  with  the  Romans,  and  bound  themselves  to  furnish  for  the  field 
as  many  foot-soldiers  as  the  Romans,  with  more  than  the  Roman  pro- 
portion of  cavalry.  The  auxiliary  legions  occupied  the  two  wings 
when  drawn  up  in  battle  array. 

1  u.  A  complete  consular  army,  comprising  the  full  quota  from  the  allied 
states,  contained  eight  legions  ;  although  the  number  of  allies  was  not  always 
exactly  the  same.  When  in  process  of  time  the  allies  (socii)  were  admitted 
to  Roman  citizenship,  the  distinction  made  between  them  and  the  Romans 
ceased. 

2.  The  number  of  legions  enrolled  and  assembled  for  service  was  different 
at  different  times.  "  During  the  free  state,  four  legions  were  commonly  fitted 
up  every  year,  and  divided  between  the  two  consuls  ;  yet  in  cases  of  necessi- 
ty we  sometimes  meet  with  no  less  than  sixteen  or  eighteen  in  Livy.  — Au- 
gustus maintained  a  standing  army  of  23  or  (according  to  some)  of  25  le- 
gions."    (Kennett.) 

Respecting  the  military  establishment  of  the  emperors,  see  Qibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  i. 

3.  The  forces  of  the  allies  were  termed  alee,  from  the  circumstance  of  being 
usually  placed  on  the  flanks.  They  were  under  command  of  officers  appoint- 
ed for  the  purpose,  called  prarfecti.  A  portion  of  the  foot  and  horse  of  the 
allies,  called  extraor dinar ii,  were  stationed  near  the  consul,  and  one  troop, 
called  abiecti,  served  him  as  a  special  guard. 

§  293.  Besides  its  proper  members,  each  legion  had  its  train  of 
attendants,  and  baggage  and  machines  of  war.  Among  the  numer- 
ous attendants  were  the  following  ;  the  fabri,  mechanics,  workers  in 
wood  and  metal  ;  lixai,  sutlers,  holding  a  sort  of  market ;  chirurgi, 
field-surgeons,  of  which  Augustus  allowed  ten  to  a  legion  ;  metatoresl 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       ORDER  OF  MARCH.      CAMP  611 

whose  business  was  to  mark  out  and  fix  the  ground  for  encampments ; 
frumejitarii,  who  had  the  care  of  furnishing  provisions  ;  librarii  and 
scribes,  who  were  charged  with  duties  such  as  fall  under  the  care  of 
a  quarter-master.  —  The  proper  baggage  of  the  army  (impedimenta) 
consisted  partly  of  the  bundles  or  knapsacks  of  the  soldiers  (sarci- 
n<e),  partly  of  weapons,  military  engines,  stores,  provisions,  and  the 
like,  which  were  carried  in  wagons  and  on  beasts  of  burden.  Each 
person  in  the  cavalry  had  a  horse  and  a  servant  (agaso)  to  carry  his 
baggage.  The  servants  and  waiting  boys  of  the  legions  were  termed 
calones.  Originally  there  were  but  few  persons  of  this  class,  but  in 
later  times  they  were  often  so  many  as  to  surpass  the  number  of 
proper  soldiers. 

§  294.  The  order  of  march,  when  a  Roman  army  moved  to  the 
field  or  into  the  camp,  was  usually  as  follows.  The  light-armed  went 
in  advance  ;  then  followed  the  heavy-armed,  both  foot  and  horse  ; 
then  the  persons  needed  to  pitch  and  prepare  the  camp,  to  level  the 
grounds  and  perform  other  necessary  work  ;  then  the  baggage  of  the 
general  (dux)  and  of  his  lieutenants  (legati),  guarded  by  horsemen  ; 
then  the  general  himself  under  his  usual  escort ;  then  124  horsemen  ; 
after  which  came  the  military  tribunes  and  other  officers.  After 
these  followed  first  the  standards,  next  the  choice  men  of  the  army, 
and  last  the  servants  and  muleteers  or  managers  of  the  beasts.  This 
seems  to  have  been  the  usual  order  of  march  ;  but  it  was  of  course 
changed  and  modified  in  different  cases  in  reference  to  the  nature 
of  the  ground,  the  country  and  other  circumstances.  The  order  in 
marching  out  of  camp  was  also  somewhat  different.  And  in  order 
to  equalize  the  exposure  to  danger,  both  the  wings  and  the  legions 
also  were  required  to  relieve  each  other  in  position. 

§  295.  Besides  the  most  common  arrangement  for  battle  mention- 
ed already  (§286),  there  were  some  others  which  should  be  mention- 
ed. The  triplex  acies  was  not  the  division  into  three  lines  that  has 
been  described,  but,  as  an  order  for  battle,  was  one  which  contained 
three  times  as  many  men  as  usual ;  and,  as  an  order  of  marching,  was 
a  sort  of  side-march  (Seitenmarsch).  The  agmen  quadratum  was 
when  the  army  was  disposed  in  a  compact  form,  usually  that  of 
a  square,  with  the  baggage  in  the  centre,  either  in  expectation  of  the 
enemy,  or  on  a  retreat ;  the  agmen  pilatum,  or  justum,  was  a  close 
array  in  marching.  Orbis  signified  not  a  circular  form,  but  such  a 
four-sided  arrangement  as  presented  a  front  on  every  side.  The  tes- 
tudo  was  also  an  arrangement  of  the  soldiers,  in  which  they  stood 
close  together,  raising  their  shields  so  as  to  form  a  compact  covering 
over  them  (like  the  shell  over  the  tortoise),  and  in  which  they  ap- 
proached the  walls  of  the  enemy,  or  waited  to  receive  the  enemy  at 
a  certain  distance.  The  turris  was  an  oblong  quadrangular  form, 
with  the  end  or  narrow  side  presented  to  the  foe;  laterculus  was  the 
same,  considered  only  in  its  breadth. 

§296.  The  camp  of  the  Romans  resembled  in  many  particulars 
the  Grecian,  but  had  several  peculiar  advantages.  A  camp  occupied 
only  for  a  short  time  during  a  march  was  called  castra,  and  in  the  later 
ages,  mansio;  castra  stativa  signified  a  more  permanent  camp,  in 
which  the  army  remained  for  a  length  of  time ;  e.  g.  over  a  winter, 


612  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

therefore  termed  castra  hiberna,  or  through  summer,  castra  cestiva. 
The  tents  of  such  a  camp  were  covered  with  hides,  boards,  straw  and 
rushes.  The  most  convenient  site  possible  was  selected  for  the  camp. 
The  highest  and  freest  part  of  it  was  chosen  for  the  head  quarters  of 
the  general.  This  was  called  the  prcetorium,  and  occupied  a  space  of 
400  feet  square.  Here  the  council  of  war  was  held.  A  particular 
spot  in  it  was  Appropriated  for  taking  the  auspices,  augur  ale  ;  and| 
another  for  the  erection  of  the  tribunal,  whence  the  commander  some- 
times addressed  the  army.  In  this  space  were  the  tents  of  the  contu- 
bernales  of  the  general  (the  young  Patricians  who  attended  upon  him 
as  volunteers),  and  of  other  persons  belonging  to  his  train.  Near 
the  prcEtorium  were  the  tents  of  the  officers,  andt  he  body-guards. 
The  entrance  to  the  head-quarters  was  always  next  to  the  enemy. 

§  297?.  On  the  right  of  the  Prsetorium  (e),  was  the  Forum  (v),  an  open 
space  for  a  market,  and  for  martial  courts ;  and  on  the  left  the  Qu&stO' 
rium  (w),  where  the  stores,  money,  arms,  and  the  like  were  kept.  A  select 
portion  of  the  cavalry,  equites  ablecti  et  evocati  (o,  o)  were  also  stationed  on 
each  side  of  the  Pratorium,  and  behind  them  the  pedites  ablectiet  evocati  (p,  p). 
Next  were  the  tents  of  the  Tribunes  (**)  and  of  the  Prefects  (tt).  Then  was  a 
passage,  or  free  way,  called  principia  (u),  100  feet  wide,  extending  through 
the  whole  camp  from  one  of  the  side  gates  (c)  to  the  other  (d).  The  rest  of 
the  camp  was  what  was  called  the  lower  part.  Through  the  centre  of  this 
lower  part  ran  another  passage  50  feet  wide,  extending  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. On  each  side  of  this  last  passage,  the  tents  of  the  cavalry  (h)  and  the 
triarii  (I)  were  cast;  then  beyond  these  tents,  on  each  side,  was  another  pas- 
sage 50  feet  wide,  and  then  the  tents  of  the  principes  (k)  and  hastati  (l)  ;  and 
after  another  similar  passage  beyond  these  on  each  side,  the  tents  of  the  aux- 
iliaries, both  cavalry  (m)  and  infantry  (n).  These  five  passages  were  cross- 
ed at  right  angles,  in  the  centre,  by  another  of  the  same  width,  termed  Via 
quintana  (t)  because  five  maniples  were  encamped  on  each  side  of  it.  In 
each  tent  there  were  eleven  men,  which  formed  a  contubemium,  one  of  them 
having  the  oversight  of  the  other  ten.  Around  the  tents  was  a  free  space  200 
feet  wide,  which  was  the  place  of  assembling  to  march  out  of  camp,  and  serv- 
ed also  for  defence  in  case  of  an  attack  from  an  enemy. 

Around  the  whole  camp  was  a  ditch,  fossa,  and  wall  or  rampart,  vallum. 
The  ditch  or  fosse  was  ordinarily  nine  feet  wide  and  seven  deep ;  the  rampart 
three  feet  high  ;  these  measures,  however,  varied  with  circumstances.  The 
rampart  was  formed  of  the  earth  thrown  (agger)  from  the  ditch,  with  sharp 
stakes  (sudes)  fixed  therein.  On  each  of  the  four  sides  was  an  opening  or 
gate,  porta,  guarded  by  a  whole  cohort.  These  gates  were  called  porta  prato- 
ria(A.),  being  near  the  head  quarters  towards  the  enemy  ;  porta  decumana  (b), 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  camp,  called  also  quaestoria  as  in  earlier  times  the 
quaBstorium  was  near  it ;  porta  prhicipalis  dextra  (d),  and  porta  principalis 
sinistra  (c),  being  near  the  principia. 

A  plan  of  a  consular  camp  is  seen  in  Plate  XXVII.  fig.  P,  as  given  in  Boyd's  ed.  of  Adam. 
—  The  letters  and  signs  included  in  parentheses  in  the  above  description  refer  severally  to  the 
corresponding  marks  in  the  Plan.  The  letters  Q.  Q.,  in  the  Plan,  designate  the  tents  occupied 
by  the  extraordinary  cavalry  of  the  allies  ;  R  R,  by  the  extraordinary  foot  of  the  allies  ;  S  S,  by 
strangers  and  occasional  allies.  —  In  fig.  R  is  a  section  of  a  fossa,  here  given  as  12  feet  broad 
and  9  deep  ;  showing  also  the  agger  and  suae*. 

§  298.  The  watches  which  were  maintained  by  night  were  termed 
mgilim  ;  excubice  also  signifies  properly  night-watches,  but  is  used  in 
a  more  general  sense;  statio  was  the  name  for  each  single  post.  Two 
tribunes  had  constantly  the  oversight  of  the  whole  camp,  which  the 
same  two  retained,  at  the  longest,  for  two  months.  At  their  tents  all 
the  officers  and  leaders  were  required  to  assemble  at  day-break  and 
with  them  go  to  the  general  to  receive  his  commands.  The  watch- 
word (symbolum)  was  called  tessera,  from  the  four  sides  or  corners  of 
Ihe  little  wooden  block  on  which  it  was  written. 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       CAMP    EXERCISES.      SIEGES.  613 

In.  The  watch- word  was  given  by  the  general  to  the  tribunes,  and  by  them 
to  the  centurions,  and  by  them  to  the  soldiers.  Those  who  carried  it  from  the 
tribunes  to  the  centurions  were  called  tesserarii.  Short  commands  were  often 
written  on  similar  tablets,  and  in  like  manner  rapidly  circulated  through  the 
army.  Before  the  head-quarters  a  whole  maniple  kept  guard,  particularly  by 
night.  The  outworks  of  the  camp  were  occupied  by  the  light-armed.  Every 
maniple  was  obliged  to  place  four  men  upon  guard,  so  that  240  men  were  al- 
ways on  the  watch  in  a  camp  of  two  legions.  The  night  was  divided  into  four 
parts,  of  three  hours  each,  also  called  watches,  at  the  end  of  which  the  guards 
fvigilesj  were  relieved  by  a  new  set.  The  legions  of  the  auxiliaries  had  also 
their  guards  and  watchmen.  It  belonged  to  the  cavalry  to  inspect  the  watch 
■on  duty,  and  make  the  formal  round  (circuitio  vigilumj  or  visit  the  several 
posts  or  stations. 

2.  In  the  discipline  of  the  Roman  camp,  the  soldiers  were  employed  in  vari- 
ous exercises,  whence  the  army  in  fact  took  its  nsane,exercitus.  These  exer- 
cises included  walking  and  running  completely  armed  ;  leaping,  swimming, 
vaulting  upon  horses  of  wood,  shooting  the  arrow,  hurling  the  javelin,  carry- 
ing weights,  attacking  a  wooden  image  of  a  man  as  an  enemy,  &c.  —  It  was 
essential  to  the  comfort  of  the  soldier,  that  he  should  be  able  to  walk  or  run 
in  his  full  armor  with  perfect  ease  ;  in  common  marching  he  was  obliged  to 
carry,  in  addition  to  his  arms,  a  load  consisting  of  his  provisions  and  custom- 
ary utensils,  amounting  in  weight,  it  is  supposed,  at  least  to  60  pounds. — The 
exercises  were  performed  under  the  training  of  the  campidoctores. 

3.  The  winter  quarters  (castra  hiberna)  of  the  Romans  were  strongly  fortified,  and,  under 
the  emperors  particularly, were  furnished  with  every  accommodation  like  a  city,  as  storehouses, 
workshops  (fabricce),  an  infirmary  (valetudinarium),  Sec.  Many  European  towns  are  supposed 
to  have  had  their  origin  in  such  establishments  ;  in  England,  particularly  those  whose  names 
end  in  Chester  or  center. — Adam. 

§  299.  The  siege  of  a  city  was  commenced  by  completely  encir- 
cling it  with  troops,  and  the  encircling  lines  (corona)  were,  in  case 
of  populous  cities,  sometimes  double  or  triple.  In  the  attacks  upon 
the  city  they  employed  various  methods  and  engines  of  various  sorts. 

1  u.  The  tcstudo  before  mentioned  (§  295)  was  frequently  used  ;  upon  the 
shields  thus  arranged  other  soldiers  mounted,  and  so  attempted  to  scale  the 
walls.  Higher  walls  they  mounted  by  the  help  of  scaling-ladders  (scales).  — 
The  crates,  hurdles,  were  a  kind  of  basket-work  of  willow  ;  they  were  at- 
tached as  a  sort  of  roof  to  stakes,  borne  in  the  hands  of  those  who  used  this 
shelter  over  their  heads,  in  advancing  to  make  an  attack  ;  they  were -also  em- 
ployed by  the  besieged  as  a  breast-work  on  their  walls,  and  on  marches  they 
served  as  fascines  to  fill  or  cover  soft  and  miry  places.  —  Vinece  were  portable 
sheds  or  mantlets  of  light  boards,  eight  feet  high,  seven  feet  broad,  and  six- 
teen long.  They  were  filled  out  and  covered  with  wicker-work  or  hides,  and 
served  to  protect  from  the  arrows  of  the  enemy  while  the  soldiers  were  un- 
dermining the  walls. 

Fig.  1,  of  Plate  XXVII. ,  shows  the  use  of  the  testudo  by  a  body  of  soldiers  approaching  a 
wall  according  to  the  statement  above.—  Fig.  2  shows  the  manner  of  forming  the  crates,  and 
the  vinece. 

2  u.  For  a  similar  purpose  were  the  plutei,  wooden  shelters,  covered  with 
hides,  and  moved  upon  wheels  or  rollers.  Under  these  the  slingers  and  arch- 
ers especially  placed  themselves,  and  sought  to  force  the  defenders  from  their 
walls,  in  order  that  the  scaling  ladders  might  be  the  more  easily  and  effectu- 
ally applied.  Of  the  same  kind,  yet  stronger  were  the  musculi ;  and  also  the 
testudines  (wooden  shelters  to  be  distinguished  from  testudo  before  mentioned)  ; 
these  were  most  commonly  used  to  protect  the  workmen  in  erecting  a  fortifi- 
cation, filling  up  the  ditch,  or  the  like.  With  some  of  these  shelters  they 
often  covered  the  battering  ram. 

Fig.  8,  Plate  XXVII.,  is  apluteus,  advancing  against  a  wall. 

3  m.  The  battering  ram  was  a  large  beam  employed  to  break  in  the  walls  of 
the  besieged  city,  in  order  to  enter  it.  Originally  it  was  managed  immedi- 
ately by  the  hands  of  certain  soldiers  without  protection-j  but  was  afterwards 
placed  under  the  shelters  just  described,  which  covered  the  men  who  thrust 

52 


614  ROMAN   ANTIQfJlTlEtf. 

it  against  the  walls.  Its  name,  aries,  was  derived  from  its  front  end,  whicfi 
Was  covered  with  iron  in  a  form  resembling  a  ram's  head.  Sometimes  it  was 
composed  of  several  pieces  united,  and  so  large  that  125  men  were  required 
to  work  it. 

The  f alecs  murales  and  asseres  falcati  were  beams  with  iron  hooks,  to  breafe 
and  tear  down  the  upper  breastwork  of  the  walls  ;  they  were  managed  by  the 
aid  of  ropes.  — Two  other  instruments,  which  were  probably  of  a  similar  use7- 
Were  termed  the  grus  and  the  corvus.  —  The  tercbra  was  an  instrument  em- 
ployed for  opening  a  hole  in  the  Walls. 

In  fig.  4,  of  Plate  XXVII.,  is  the  battering-ram  in  its  simple  form,  suspended  by  ropes  from 
a  cross-beam  fixed  above  tWo  posts  driven  into  the  ground.  In  fig.  5,  it  is  attached  to  a  com- 
plete and  substantial  frame  placed  upon  rollers.  In  fig.  10  if  appears  under  a  shelter  as  above 
mentioned.  —  Fig.  9  shows  the  asser  falcatus. 

4  m.  One  of  the  most  ordinary  operations  of  a  siege  was  to  construct  mounds 
(aggeres)  as  high  as  the  walls  of  the  city,  or  higher.  On  these  mounds  were 
placed  the  military  engines,  also  moveable  towers  and  other  shelters  of  the 
soldiers.  By  means  of  boards,  palisades,  and  wooden  grapnels,  they  were 
made  capable  of  sustaining  such  vast  weights.  Ort  account  of  the  great  quan- 
tity of  wood  work  in  them,  the  besieged  generally  strove  to  destroy  them  by 
fire,  which  was  often  applied  by  mining  under  ground. 

These  towers  (turves)  were  of  various  size  and  structure,  often  120  feet 
high,  and  often  or  twenty  stories.  They'  were  moved  upon  wheels  or  rollers. 
From  the  upper  stories  were  usually  cast  arrows,  javelins,  and  stones  ;  from 
the  middle,  a  bridge  or  passage  was  sometimes  thrown  over  to  the  walls;  and 
in  the  lower  one  the  battering  ram  was  brought  forward.  When  they  reached 
the  slope  of  the  mound,  they  were  taken  to  pieces  by  stories  and  reconstruct- 
ed on  its  summit.  To  protect  them  from  fire,  they  were  guarded  by  plates  of 
iron,  or  coverings  of  hides,  or  moistened  with  a  solution  of  alum.— —  A  long: 
iron  javelin  fixed  to  a  shaft  of  fir,  wound  with  tow,  smeared  with  pitch  and 
resin,  then  set  on  fire  and  hurled  Upon  the  enemy  from  a  tower,  was  called 
falarica,  which  name  was  also  applied  to  the  tower  itself  from  which  they  were 
thrown.  The  malleoli  were  similar,  a  sort  of  burning  arrows,  or  bunches  of 
tow  attached  to  javelins,  designed  to  set  on  fire  the  works  of  the  enemy. 

Fig.  3,  Plate*XXVII,,  is  a  specimen  of  the  moveable  towers. 

bu.  One  of  the  most  common  and  largest  engines  was  the  catapulta,  by 
Which  arrows,  javelins,  and  particularly  stones  were  hurled  a  great  distance. 
Stakes,  sharp-pointed  and  hardened  in  the  fire  (called  aclidcs  or  sudes  missiles) 
Were  also  thrown  from  the  catapulta.  —  In  a  siege  there  were  usually  a  multi- 
tude  of  these  machines.  Their  construction  is  not  well  understood  ;  we  only 
know  that  ropes  and  cords  or  sinews  were  used  in  order  to  shoot  the  arrows 
and  other  weapons,  which  they  threw  with  fatal  efficacy.  — Of  a  similar  kind 
was  the  balista  ;  called  also  in  later  times  onager,  and  designed  chiefly  for 
throwing  the  javelin.  —  For  shooting  arrows,  sometimes  poisoned,  the  Romans1 
made  use  of  an  engine  termed  the  scorpio,  which  could  be  managed  by  a  sin- 
gle man. 

Fig.  6,  of  Plate  XXVII.,  is  the  scorpio.  —  Fig.  7  is  the  balista,  but  on  a  scale  more  reduced. 

§  300.  The  modes  of  defence  on  the  part  of  the  besieged  were 
various. 

1  u.  They  hurled  rocks,  often  of  mofe  than  a  hundred  pounds  in  weighty 
upon  the  besiegers,  poured  upon  them  boiling  pitch  or  oil,  and  endeavored  to 
thrust  down  the  scaling-ladder  by  means  of  iron  hooks,  and  to  kill,  force  back, 
or  pull  up  to  themselves  the  soldiers  attempting  to  mount.  The  thrusts  of  the 
battering-ram  they  sought  to  baffle  or  weaken  by  hanging  sacks  before  it,  and 
in  various  other  ways,  and  even  to  seize  and  draw  it  up  by  their  ropes  and 
springs.  They  likewise  cast  burning  torches  upon  the  wooden  engines  of  the 
besiegers,  and  in  other  ways  attempted  to  set  them  on  fire. 

2.  "  Where  they  apprehended  a  breach  would  be  made,  they  reared  new 
Walls  behind,  with  a  deep  ditch  before  them.  They  employed  various  meth- 
ods to  defend  themselves  against  the  engines  and  darts  of  the  besiegers.  (Liv. 
xlii.  63.)  —  But  these,  and  every  thing  else  belonging  to  this  subject,  will  be 
best  understood  by  reading  the  accounts  preserved  to  us  of  ancient  sieges? 


PLATE     XXVII. 


616  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

particularly  of  Syracuse  by  Marcellus  (Liv.  xxiv.  33),  of  Ambracia  by  Ful- 
vius  (Id.  xxxviii.  4),  of  Alesia  by  Julius  Caesar  (de  Bell.  Gall,  vii.),  of  Mar- 
seilles by  his  lieutenants  (Cms.  B.  Civ.  ii.),  and  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  Vespa- 
sian (Joseph,  de  Bell.  Jud)." 

§  301.  In  early  times  the  Romans  seldom  hazarded  a  sea-fight, 
and  only  in  special  cases.  Afterwards,  however,  they  acquired  a 
permanent  naval  power,  and  always  kept  two  Jleets  ready  for  sail, 
each  manned  with  a  legion,  at  the  two  harbors  of  Misenum  and 
Ravenna. 

1m.  The  warriors  engaged  in  this  service  were  called  classiarii,  and  were 
enlisted  in  the  same  way  as  the  legions  of  the  land  forces,  but  often  taken 
from  among  them.  The  highest  officers  or  commanders  of  the  fleet  Cclassisj 
were  originally  the  Duumviri  navales,  afterwards  a  Consul  or  a  Praetor,  who 
was  called  prcefectus  classis,  and  stationed  in  the  most  distinguished  vessel 
(navis  pratoria)  known  by  its  flag  (vexillum  purpureum).  Every  other  ship 
had  a  tribune  or  centurion  for  its  particular  commander  (navarchus).  Upon 
the  upper  deck  (stega,  constratuvi  navis)  stood  the  fighting  men. 

2.  Besides  the  navarchus  or  commander  (called  also  magister  navis),  each 
ship  had  a  pilot  (gubernator,  rector)  and  sometimes  two,  who  had  an  assistant 
(proreta)  to  watch  at  the  prow.  Besides  the  classiarii  or  fighting-men  (mari- 
nes, called  also  cpibata),  there  were  also  the  rowers  (remiges)  who  were  more 
or  less  numerous  according  to  the  size  of  the  galley  ;  these  were  under  a  leader 
or  director  (hortator,  xt'/.tvar)^,  cf.  §  158),  who  with  his  voice  and  a  little  mal- 
let (portisculus)  guided  their  motions. 

3w.  War-towers  were  often  placed  on  board  the  vessels,  commonly  two, 
one  in  the  fore  part,  the  other  in  the  hinder  part.  For  seizing  and  boarding 
a  vessel  of  the  enemy  the  fcrreai  manus,  harp agones,  and  corvi  were  employed  ; 
there  were  also  other  instruments  of  this  sort;  combustible  materials  and  the 
like  were  used  in  order  to  fire  the  ships  of  the  enemy. 

§  302  m.  On  engaging  in  a  fight,  the  saUsfvelaj  were  usually  furled,  because 
they  would  easily  take  fire,  and  the  vessel  was  managed  by  the  rudder  alone. 
The  fleet  was  arranged  by  the  commander  in  a  sort  of  battle  array,  and  each 
vessel  was  assigned  its  place,  which  it  must  maintain.  A  position  as  far  as 
possible  from  land  was  usually  desired.  The  larger  vessels  were  usually 
placed  in  front,  although  the  order  of  arrangement  for  naval  combat  was  by  no 
means  uniform,  but  very  various.  The  following  forms  are  mentioned  ;  acies 
simplex,  cuneata,  lunata,  falcata.  Before  the  battle  commenced,  the  omens 
were  examined,  sacrifices  and  vows  were  offered.  Then  upon  all  the  ships 
was  hung  out  a  red  flag,  or  a  gilded  shield,  and  the  signal  for  attack  was  given 
by  a  trumpet  Cclassicum).  The  contest  consisted  partly  in  the  rapid  and  vio- 
lent rushing  of  the  vessels  against  those  of  the  enemy,  for  the  purpose  of 
piercing  the  hostile  ships  by  means  of  the  rostra,  which  were  two  strong 
beams  at  the  prow  of  the  galley,  covered  with  iron  at  the  points,  and  made 
fast  to  both  sides  of  the  keel ;  partly  in  throwing  darts,  spears,  grappling 
irons,  and  the  like  ;  and  partly  in  actual  close  combat. 

§  303.  The  chief  parts  of  a  Roman  ship  were  similar  to  those  of  a  Grecian 
($  154).  The  following  were  some  of  the  terms  ;  prora,  prow  ;  puppis,  stern ; 
alveus,  belly  ;  statumina,  ribs  ;  scntina,  pump  to  draw  off  bilge-water  (nauteayy 
foramina,  holes  to  put  out  the  oars  Crcmij  ;  scdilia,  transtra,  seats  of  the  row- 
ers ;  scalmus,  the  piece  of  wood  to  which  the  oar  was  tied  by  thongs  ( stroppi)  ; 
gubernaculum,  clavus,  rudder  ;  two  rudders  were  common  ;  insigne,  the  im- 
age at  the  prow ;  tutela,  the  image  at  the  stern  ;  aplustria,  ornamental  parts  at 
the  stern,  sometimes  at  the  prow,  having  a  sort  of  staff  with  a  streamer  (tae- 
nia) ;  malus,  mast  ;  modius,  the  place  in  which  the  mast  was  fixed  ;  antennai, 
brachia,  yards  for  the  sails  (vela);  cornua,  extremities  of  the  yards;  pedes, 
the  ropes  fastened  to  the  cornua.  The  rigging  and  tackling  in  general  was 
called  armamenta  ;  the  ropes,  rudentes,  or  funes  ;  the  anchor,  anchor  a  ;  sound- 
ing-lead, molybdis  ;  the  ballast,  saburra. 

§  304.  The  Roman  ships  were  divided  into  three  principal  kinds,  the  war- 
galley,  the  transport,  and  the  ship  of  burden  ;    the  first  was  propelled  chiefly 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       SHIPS  OF  WAR.      TRIUMPH.  617 

t>y  oars  ;  the  second  was  often  towed  by  ropes ;  the  third  depended  mostly  on 
sails.  These  classes  were  called  by  various  names.  Ships  of  burden  had 
the  general  name  of  naves  onerarice  ;  they  were  commonly  much  inferior  in 
size  to  modern  trading  vessels  ;  although  some  ships  are  mentioned  of  vast 
bulk,  as  that  which  brought  from  -Egypt  the  great  obelisk  in  the  time  of  Cali- 
gula, said  to  be  about  1138  tons.  Ships  of  war  were  often  termed  naves  Ion- 
gat,  being  longer  than  others  ;  also  rostrate,  arata,from  their  beaks  ;  and  par- 
ticularly triremes,  quadriremes ,  fyc.  from  the  number  of  benches  of  rowers  in 
them  severally.  As  many  as  ten  banks  are  mentioned  ;  Livy  (xlv.  35)  speaks 
of  a  ship  with  16  banks  ;  and  Ptolemy  Philopator  is  said  to  have  built  one 
with  40  banks.  On  the  manner  in  which  the  benches  were  arranged  in  the 
Roman  and  Grecian  galley  we  refer  to  $156.  2. 

The  naves  Liburnicce  were  light,  fast-sailing  ships,  made  after  the  model  of 
the  galley  used  by  the  Liburni,  a  people  of  Dalmatia  addicted  to  piracy.  — 
The  phascli,  or  naves  actuarial,  were  a  kind  of  yacht  or  small  bark,  with  few 
oars,  also  designed  for  expedition.  — The  Camarm  were  of  a  peculiar  construc- 
tion, with  two  prows  and  rudders,  one  at  each  end,  so  that  they  could  at  pleas- 
ure be  propelled  either  way  without  turning ;  they  could  be  covered  with 
boards  like  the  vaulted  roof  of  a  house.     (Tac.  Mor.  Germ.  44.) 

Fig.  1,  of  Plate  XVIII.,  is  a  specimen  of  the  pkaselus.  —  Fig.  3  is  the  Liburnian  galley.  — 
Fig.  2  is  the  stern  of  a  Roman  vessel,  from  a  painting  at  Pompeii ;  it  shows  the  two  rudders, 
attached  on  each  side,  by  bands,  as  on  a  pivot,  so  that  the  lower  and  larger  ends  could  be 

raised  out  of  water  by  lashing  the  upper  ends  down  to  the  deck.    Cf.  Acts,  xxvii.  40. See 

HolweXl  S[  De  Le  Roy,  as  cited  §  156.  2. It  was  recently  announced  that  the  port  of  Pompeii 

had  been  discovered,  presenting  its  vessels  thrown  upon  their  sides,  and  covered  and  preserved 
by  the  volcanic  matter.     (Downfall  of  Babylon,  Sept.  22,  1835,  citing  Lond.  Lit.  Oaz.J 

§  305.  The  great  public  reward  of  a  Roman  commander,  who 
had  gained  an  important  victory  by  sea  or  by  land,  was  the  triumph, 
a  pompous  show,  which  was  practiced  even  in  the  time  of  the  kings. 
This  honor,  however,  could  be  acquired  only  by  those  who  were  or 
had  been  Consuls,  Dictators,  or  Praetors  ;  it  was  not  awarded  to  Pro- 
consuls. Yet  in  later  times  there  were  some  exceptions  to  this. 
He  who  claimed  the  honor  of  a  triumph  must  have  been  also,  not 
merely  commander,  but  chief  commander  of  the  army,  and  the  victo- 
ry must  have  been  gained  in  the  province  assigned  to  the  Consul  or 
Praetor.  The  importance  of  the  campaign  and  the  victory,  and  its 
advantage  to  the  state  also  came  into  consideration,  and  the  general 
must  have  brought  back  his  army  to  share  with  him  in  the  glory  of 
the  triumph  and  accompany  him  in  procession.  If  the  victory  con- 
sisted only  in  the  recovery  of  a  lost  province,  it  was  not  honored  with 
a  triumph. 

§  306.  The  first  solemnity  which  took  place  at  Rome  after  a  vic- 
tory, was  a  thanksgiving  or  supplicatio  (§  220).  Then  the  general 
must  apply  to  the  senate  in  order  to  obtain  a  triumph.  Permission, 
however,  was  often  given  by  the  people  contrary  to  the  will  of  the 
senate.  A  law  or  vote  was  always  passed  by  the  people  permitting 
the  general  to  retain  his  command  (imperium)  in  the  city,  on  the  day 
of  his  triumph,  because  in  other  circumstances  he  was  required  to 
lay  down  his  command  before  entering  the  city.  The  abuse  of  the 
honors  of  a  triumph  occasioned  the  enactment,  B.  C.  63,  of  the  law 
called  lex  triumphalis  Porcia,  which  prohibited  a  triumph,  unless  at 
least  5000  of  the  enemy  had  fallen  in  battle. 

§  307.  A  general  enjoying  this  honor  was  not  to  enter  the  city  un- 
til the  day  of  his  triumph,  and  his  previous  request  to  the  senate 
must  be  made  out  of  the  city  in  the  temple  of  Bellona.  The  ex- 
penses were  usually  defrayed  from  the  public  treasury,  except  in 
52* 


618  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

cases  where  a  conqueror  held  a  triumphal  procession  without  public 
authority,  as  was  sometimes  clone  on  the  Alban  mountain.  The  ex- 
penses were  commonly  very  great.  Before  a  triumph,  the  general 
usually  distributed  presents  to  his  soldiers  and  to  others.  —  The  Sen- 
ate went  to  meet  the  triumphing  general  as  far  as  the  gate  by  which 
he  entered  the  city. 

1  u.  The  order  of  the  triumphal  procession  was  as  follows.  First  in  the 
line,  ordinarily,  were  the  lictors  and  magistrates  in  a  body.  They  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  trumpeters  and  musicians  of  various  kinds,  the  animals  to  bo 
offered  in  sacrifice,  the  spoils  and  booty  taken  from  the  enemy,  the  weapons 
and  chariots  of  the  conquered,  pictures  and  emblems  of  the  country  reduced, 
the  captive  princes  or  generals,  and  other  prisoners.  Then  came  the  con- 
queror himself,  seated  in  a  high  chariot,  drawn  by  four  white  horses,  robed  in 
purple,  and  wearing  a  wreath  of  laurel.  He  was  followed  by  his  numerous 
train,  consisting  partly  of  his  relatives,  but  chiefly  of  his  army  drawn  out  in 
regular  order. —  The  procession  marched  amid  constant  acclamations,  through 
the  whole  city  to  the  Capitol,  where  the  victims  were  sacrificed,  and  a  portion 
of  the  spoils  of  the  victory  were  consecrated  to  the  gods.  Afterwards  were 
feasting,  merriment,  spectacles,  and  games.  Often  the  scenes  of  the  triumph 
lasted  several  days.  The  pomp,  expense,  and  luxury  atttending  them  became 
constantly  greater  and  greater,  and  the  whole  custom,  on  account  of  its  fre- 
quent occurrence,  and  the  great  abuse  of  it  by  some  of  the  emperors,  was  re- 
duced at  last  to  a  common  and  contemptible  affair.  —  The  first  triumph  for  a 
victory  at  sea  (triumphus  navalis)  was  obtained  by  the  Consul  C.  Duillius, 
after  his  memorable  defeat  of  the  Carthaginians,  B.  C.  261. 

2.  Respecting  the  pillar  and  inscription  in  honor  of  Duillius,  see  P.  I.  §  133.  —  For  a  fuller 
view  of  a  triumphal  display,  read  Plutarch's  description  of  the  triumph  of  Paulus  /Emilius, 
after  the  capture  of  Perseus  king  of  Macedonia.  — See  also  the  account  of  Aurelian's  triumph 
in  his  Life  by  Vopiscus  (cf.  Gibbon,  ch.  xi).  The  last  triumph  recorded  is  that  of  Belisarius,  at 
Constantinople,  related  by  Procopius  (cf.  P.  II.  §257. —  Gibbon,  ch.  xli.) 

§  308.  There  was  an  honor  lower  than  that  of  a  triumph,  fre- 
quently bestowed  on  victorious  generals,  the  opatio.  This  did  not 
differ  very  much  in  form  from  the  triumph  ;  the  essential  peculiarities 
were  that  the  general  entered  the  city  not  in  a  chariot,  but  on  foot  or 
on  horseback,  robed  not  in  the  trabea,  but  the  prcctexta  only,  and  at 
the  Capitol  did  not  offer  bullocks  in  sacrifice,  but  a  sheep  (ovis). 
From  the  last  circumstance,  the  name  of  the  whole  scene  was  prob- 
ably taken.  The  triumph  on  the  Alban  mount  already  alluded  to 
(§  307)  was  less  pompous.  It  was  held  only  by  those  to  whom  the 
senate  had  refused  a  triumph  in  the  city,  and  to  whom  an  ovation 
only  had  been  awarded.  The  ceremonies  were  similar  to  those  of  a 
triumph  in  the  city.  The  procession,  it  is  supposed,  marched  to  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Latiaris,  situated  on  the  mount. 

§  309.  The  Roman  military  system  underwent  various  changes 
under  the  emperors. 

1  u.  By  Augustus  a  standing  army  was  established  ;  he  also  created  an  offi- 
cer called  Prcefectus  pratorio,  who  was  placed  over  the  troops  constituting  the 
imperial  body-guard  and  the  praetorian  cohorts  distributed  in  Italy.  The  Ro- 
man military  service  suffered  by  the  new  establishment.  It  soon  became 
merely  a  system  to  support  the  authority  of  the  emperors,  not  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  the  country ;  and  to  forward  this  end,  many  disorders  and  abuses 
on  the  part  of  the  soldiers  were  overlooked.  From  the  some  cause,  likewise, 
an  unhappy  line  of  distinction  was  drawn  between  the  military  and  the  other 
classes  of  citizens. 

The  praetorian  soldiers  were,  under  the  first  emperors,  divided  equally  into 
ten  cohorts,  containing  1000  men  each.  Under  the  later  emperors  they  were 
entirely  abolished,  and  3500  Armenians  enrolled  in  their  stead  ;  these  were 
divided  into  nine  sckalccr  and  commanded  by  the  officer  styled  Magistcr  ojfici- 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.       SYSTEM    UNDER    THE    EMPERORS.  61£ 

The  legions,  not  including  the  auxiliaries,  were  under  Augustus  twenty-five, 
distributed  among  the  provinces.  Besides  these  he  had  the  ten  -praetorian  co- 
horts just  named,  six  city  cohorts  of  one  thousand  each,  and  seven  cohorts 
styled  cohortes  vigilum,  which  together  amounted  to  20,000  men.  In  after 
times,  the  number  of  troops  was  greatly  increased,  as  well  as  the  naval  force. 
On  the  division  of  the  empire,  the  western  comprised  sixty-two  legions,  and 
the  eastern  seventy. 

At  the  commencement  of  civil  wars  related  by  Tacitus  in  his  History,  there  were  thirty  le- 
gions,distributed  as  follows;  three  in  Britannia  ;  three  in  Hispania  ;  eight  in  Gallia,  three  of  them 
being  in  the  portion  called  upper  Germany,  and  four  in  Lower  Germany  (cf.  P.  V.  §  11)  ;  two 
in  Pannonia  :  two  in  Dalmatia  belonging  to  Illyricum  ;  two  in  Moesia  ;  four  in  Syria,  with 
three  more  in  Judea  under  Vespasian  ;  two  in  Egypt ;  and  one  in  Africa  (cf.  P.  V.  §  173). 

2.  The  epithet  praetorian,  in  the  republic,  was  applied  to  the  cohort  which 
guarded  the  pavilion  of  the  general.  After  the  time  of  Augustus  the  praefect 
of  the  praetorian  bands  was  usually  a  mere  instrument  of  the  emperor,  and 
the  office  was  conferred  only  on  such  as  the  emperors  could  implicitly  trust. 
The  appointment  was  made  or  the  commission  conferred  by  the  emperor's  de- 
livering a  sword  to  the  person  selected.  Sometimes  there  were  two  preetorian 
praefects.  Their  power  was  at  first  only  military  and  small ;  but  it  became 
very  great,  and  finally  trials  were  brought  before  them,  and  there  was  no  ap- 
peal but  by  a  supplication  to  the  emperor.  Marcus  Aurelius  committed  this 
judicial  honor  to  them,  and  increased  their  number  to  three.  —  The  praetorian 
cohorts  had  a  fortified  camp  at  the  city,  without  the  wall,  between  the  gates 
Viminalis  and  Esquilina.  Under  Vitellius  16  prastorian  cohorts  were  raised, 
and  four  to  guard  the  city.  Severus  new  modeled  the  body  and  increased 
them  to  four  times  the  ancient  number.  Constantine  the  Great  finally  sup- 
pressed them  and  destroyed  their  camp.     (Boyd's  Adam,  p.  123,  485). 

3.  Important  changes  in  the  military  system  were  made  by  Constantine.  He 
appointed  two  general  commanders  for  the  wholy  army,  called  Magistri  mili- 
tia ;  one  of  whom  had  command  of  all  the  cavalry,  Magister  equitum  ;  the 
other,  of  the  whole  infantry,  Magister peditum. 

Constantine  did  not  abolish  the  title  of  Prafectus  prwtorio,  when  he  suppressed  the  pratoriafn 
cohorts,  as  above  mentioned  ;  but  he  changed  the  nature  of  the  office,  making  it  wholly  a  civil 
one,  and  dividing  the  care  of  the  whole  empire  between  four  officers  of  this  title;  Prafectus 
prcctorio  Orientis  ;  Prccf.  prait.  per  Illyricum  ;  Prof,  -prat,  per  Italian  ;  Prcef.  prat.  OaHiarum.  The 
city  of  Rome  also  retained  her  special  overseer,  Prafectus  urbis  Roma  )  and  a  similar  officer, 
with  greater  authority,  was  appointed  over  Constantinople,  which  now  became  the  seat  of  the 
empire,  Prafectus  urbis  C'lnstantinnpolis.  Under  the  four  prefects  were  subordinate  officers, 
whose  authority  was  limited  to  particular  dioceses,  of  which  there  were  13  ;  one  of  them  gov- 
erned by  the  officer  styled  Count  of  the  diocese  of  the  East  (  Comes  diaceseos  Orientis);  another 
consisting  of  Egypt,  by  an  officer  styled  Prafectus  JEgypti ;  and  the  other  11  by  officers,  styled 
Vicarii  or  vice-prefects.  The  dioceses  were  subdivided  into  a  great  number  of  provinces,  whose 
governors  were  of  four  different  grades,  termed  proconsulcs,  consulares,  correctores,  and  pro- 
sides. 

4.  The  empire  was  divided  into  eastern  and  western  between  the  two  sons  of 
Constantine.  In  the  western,  the  military  jurisdiction  continued  to  be  vested 
in  two  commanders  styled  Magister  equitum  and  Magister  peditum.  In  the 
eastern,  it  was  vested  in  officers  styled  Magistri  militum,  and  the  number  of 
them  was  five  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  shortly  before  his 
death,  A.  D.  395,  united  the  empire  in  one  ;  it  was  divided  again  after  his 
death  and  so  continued  until  the  final  overthrow  of  the  western,  A.  D.  476. 
The  five  Masters-general  of  the  military  each  had  command  of  several  squad- 
rons (vexillationcs)  of  horse  and  several  legions  of  soldiers  (palatines  comita- 
tenscs)  and  several  corps  of  auxiliaries  (auxilia)  ;  two  of  them  had  also  under 
their  command  a  naval  force,  consisting  of  12  distinct  armaments  or  fleets,  6 
being  assigned  to  each.  There  was  likewise  included  under  this  military  es- 
tablishment, in  addition  to  the  forces  already  mentioned,  a  large  body  of  troops 
designed  particularly  to  defend  the  frontiers,  called  sometimes  borderers,  and 
commanded  by  comites  and  duces,  who  seem  to  have  been  responsible  to  the 
officer,  termed  Qaaistor  sacri  palatii. — The  Masters-general  of  the  West  had 
under  their  command  forces  of  a  similar  description,  including  also  troops  de- 
signated specially  for  the  defence  of  the  frontier.  There  was  a  Magister  mili- 
tum in  Gaul,  but  subordinate  to  the  two  Masters-general. 

For  a  general  view  of  the  civil  and  military  arrangements  of  the  empire  under  Constantine 
and  later  emperors,  see  Gibbon,  cb.  xvii.— For  more  minute  details,  Tableau  Systiwatique  da 
Empires  d>  Orient  ct  d' Occident  See.  in  3d  vol.  of  Scholl's  Hist.  Litt.  llomaine.  Cf.  P.  II.  $  571. 


620  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 


(4)     Affairs  of  Private  Life. 

§  310.  In  order  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  more  private  civil 
and  social  relations  of  the  ancient  Romans,  it  is  important  to  notice 
the  essential  distinction,  which  existed  between  the  freemen  and  the 
slaves.  There  were  two  classes  of  freemen,  the  free-born  (ingenui), 
whose  fathers  were  Roman  citizens,  and  the  free  made  (liberti)  or 
freed  men  who  had  been  enfranchised  from  servitude,  and  who  did 
not  always  enjoy  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens.  The  children  of  ther 
latter  class  were  termed  libertini  and  their  grand-children  ingenui,  in 
early  times  ;  at  a  later  period  the  freed  men  were  call  liberti  only  with 
reference  to  their  former  master,  receiving  when  spoken  of  otherwise 
the  name  libertini  themselves,  while  their  sons,  if  born  after  the  fa- 
ther's manumission,  were  called  ingenui. — The  slaves  were  such  by 
birth,  verncB ;  or  by  captivity  in  war  ;  or  by  purchase,  mancipia.  Of 
their  different  services,  their  treatment,  and  the  ceremonies  of  their 
manumission  we  will  speak  below  ( §  322  ). 

On  the  subjects  belonging  to  the  branch  of  Roman  Antiquities  upon  which  we  now  enter, 
we  may  refer  to  rf'  Arnay  de  la  vie  privee  des  Romains.  Lausanne  1760. 12.  (Consisting  chiefly 
of  treatises  in  the  Memoires  de  V Academic   des   Inscriptions.)     Trans.    Germ.   Leipz.   1761.8. — 

Couture,  La  vie  privee  des  Romains,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  i.  303. Montfaucon,  Usages 

du  siecle  de  Theodore  le   Grand,   in   the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.   xm.  p.  474.  —  Sketches  of  the 
Domestic  Manners  of  the  Romans.     Reprinted,  Phil.  1822.  12.  Cf.  JV.  Am.  Rev.  xvi.  163. 

§311.  The  Romans  commonly  had  three  names;  the  first  was 
called  the  prcenomen  and  had  reference  simply  to  the  individual  who 
bore  it;  the  second  was  called  the  nomen,  and  was  the  name  of  the 
race  or  clan  (gens)  ;  the  third  was  the  cognomen,  which  designated 
the  family  (familia)  :  thus  in  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio;  Scipio  is  the 
cognomen  indicating  the  family  name,  Cornelius  the  nomen  pointing 
out  the  clan  or  gens,  to  which  the  family  belonged,  and  Publius  the 
prcenomen  marking  the  particular  man.  The  distinction  between  gens 
and  familia  was,  that  the  former  was  more  general  denoting  a  whole 
tribe  or  race,  the  latter  more  limited  confined  to  a  single  branch  of 
it. — The  daughter  commonly  received  the  name  of  the  tribe  or  race, 
e.  g.  Cornelia,  and  retained  it,  after  her  marriage.  Sisters  were  dis- 
tinguished by  adding  to  this  name  the  epithets  major  and  minor,  or 
prima,  secunda,  tertia,  &c. 

1.  Sometimes  the  Romans  had  a  fourth  name,  which  has  been  styled  the 
agnomen  ;  this  however  was  only  an  addition  to  the  cognomen,  and  may  be  pro- 
perly included  under  it.  —  The  order  of  the  names  was  not  invariably  the 
same,  although  they  usually  stood  as  above  stated.  Under  the  emperors  the 
proper  name  of  the  individual  was  frequently  put  last. 

2  m.  Even  from  the  first  establishment  of  the  city,  some  among  its  heterogen- 
eous inhabitants  were  of  noble  descent,  and  the  number  of  noble  families  was 
increased  by  the  adoption  of  plebeians  among  the  patricians.  The  following 
were  some  of  the  most  distinguished  races  ;  Fabia  (gens),  Junta,  Antonia, 
Julia,  JEmilia,  Pompeia,  Tullia,  Horatia,  Octavia,  Valeria,  Posthumia,  Sulpicia, 
Claudia,  Papiria,  Cornelia,  Manlia,  Sempronia,  Hortensia. 

It  has  been  observed  (P.  II.  $  483),  that  the  names  of  families  were  often  derived  from  the  em- 
ployment of  an  ancestor.  Names  were  also  applied  to  individuals  by  way  of  ridicule  ;  that  which 
was  at  first  a  mere  nickname,  or  sobriquet,  became  permanently  attached  to  a  person.  —  See 
Mahudel,  De  l'Autorite  que  les  Sobriquets  ou  Surnoms  burlesques  peuvent  avoir  dans  l'histoire, 
in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xiv.  p.  181. — On  the  Roman  names,  and  illustrious  families,  see 
SchbU's  Hist.  Litt.  Rom.  vol.  iv,  p.  367,  and  references  there  given. —  Gibbon,  Dec.  and  Fall  of  R. 
Emp.  ch.  xxxi.  —  Boindin,  Les  noms  dea  Romains,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  1.154. —  Port 
Jioyal  Latin  Gram.  bk.  viu.ch.  1. 


DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       FAMILIES.       MARRIAGES.  621 

§  312.  The  increase  of  these  races  was  much  promoted  by  mar- 
riages, in  regard  to  which  the  Romans  aimed  to  preserve  a  complete 
separation  between  plebeians  and  patricians,  until  B.  C.  445.  Mar- 
riage was  held  to  be  a  duty  of  every  Roman,  and  those  who  neglect- 
ed it  were  obliged  to  pay  a  fine  or  tax.  Citizens  were  forbidden  to 
marry  strangers,  except  by  permission  specially  granted.  Certain  de- 
grees of  consanguinity  were  considered  as  interdicting  marriage. 
Marriage  took  place  at  an  early  age  among  the  Romans,  the  male 
being  sometimes  but  fourteen  and  the  female  only  in  the  twelfth 
year. 

1m.  The  jus  Quiritium  conferred  only  on  Roman  citizens  the  right  of  marry- 
ing a  free-born  woman.  To  freed  men  this  was  prohibited,  until  the  enact- 
ment of  the  Poppaean  law  (A.  D.  9)  ;  by  this  law  the  free-born,  excepting 
senators  and  their  sons,  were  allowed  to  marry  the  daughters  of  freed  men. 

The  Lex  Papia  Pojrpcca  was  an  enlarging  and  enforcement  of  the  Lex  Julia  '  de  maritandis  or- 
dinikiis; '  by  it  whoever  in  the  city  had  three  children,  in  other  parts  of  Italy  four,  and  in  the 
provinces  five,  was  entitled  to  certain  privileges  ;  while  certain  disabilities  were  imposed  on 
those  who  lived  in  celibacy.     This  subject  is  alluded  to  by  Horace,  Carm.  Saec.  vs.  20. 

2u.  Between  slaves  there  was  no  proper  marriage  (connubium),  but  only 
what  was  called  contubcrnium. 

See  Gierig;  Excursus  de  Contuberniis  Romanorum,  in  Lemaire'sYYmy,  as  cited  P.  II.  $  470,  4. 
vol.  2d.  p.  231. iyrer,  Diss,  de  jure  connubiorum  apud  Romanos.  Gbtt.  1737. 

§  313.  The  marriage  was  always  preceded  by  a  solemn  affiance  or 
betrothment,  in  which  the  father  of  the  bride  gave  his  assent  (sti- 
•pulatio)  to  the  request  (sponsio)  of  the  bridegroom.  This  compact 
and  the  ceremonies  attending  it  were  called  sponsalia ;  it  often  took 
place  many  years  before  the  marriage,  even  in  the  childhood  of  the 
parties  betrothed.  The  bridegroom  was  not  always  present  at  the 
betrothing,  which  was  sometimes  effected  by  means  of  letters,  or  by 
an  empowered  substitute.  In  early  times  the  father's  consent  was 
necessary  only  for  the  daughter,  but  afterwards  also  for  the  son.  The 
mutual  consent  of  the  parties  was  the  most  essential.  Friends  and 
relations  were  usually  present  as  witnesses;  the  marriage  contract 
was  written  and  sealed  (legitimes  tabellm)  ;  the  bride  received  from 
her  betrothed  a  ring  as  a  pledge  of  his  fidelity ;  and  the  whole  cere- 
mony was  concluded  with  a  feast. 

§  314.  In  fixing  the  day  of  marriage  care  was  taken  to  select  one 
of  those  esteemed  lucky  or  fortunate.  The  transference  of  the  bride 
from  her  father's  power  to  the  hands  of  the  husband  was  called  con- 
ventio  in  manum,  and  was  accompanied  by  a  religious  ceremony,  and 
a  sort  of  consecration  by  a  priest  (confarreatio.)  Marriages  contract- 
ed in  this  form  were  the  most  solemn  and  could  not  be  dissolved  so 
easily  as  in  other  cases.  Two  other  forms  or  modes  are  mentioned  ; 
one  was  by  prescription  (usus),  the  bride  being  taken  home  and  liv- 
ing with  the  bridegroom  for  a  year  (usucapio)  ;  the  other  by  a  pur- 
chase (coemptio),  in  which  each  party  gave  to  the  other  a  portion  of 
money,  repeating  certain  words. 

§  315  m.  On  the  day  of  marriage,  the  bride  was  adorned  with  a  sort  of  veil 
or  peculiar  ornament  of  the  head  (luteum  flammeum),  and  a  robe  prepared  for 
the  occasion,  which  was  bound  with  the  marriage  girdle  (cingiilum  laneum). 
The  sacrifice  ordered  on  the  marriage  day  was  a  sheep  of  two  years  age,  pre- 
sented especially  to  Juno  as  the  goddess  of  marriage. 

The  conducting  of  the  bride  to  the  residence  of  the  husband,  which  took 
place  in  the  evening,  was  attended  likewise  with  ceremonies.     She  was  taken,. 


622  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

as  it  were  forcibly,  from  the  arras  of  her  mother,  or  if  the  mother  was  not 
living,  of  the  next  near  relative.  She  went  with  a  distaff  (colus)  in  her  hand, 
and  was  careful  to  step  over  or  was  lifted  over  the  threshold  of  both  houses,  as 
it  was  ominous  to  touch  it  with  the  feet.  She  was  supported  by  two  youth. 
one  on  each  side  ;  a  third  preceded  her  with  a  lighted  torch  or  flambeau,  and 
sometimes  a  fourth  followed  carrying  in  a  covered  vase  Ccumerum)  the  bride's 
utensils  (nubentis  utensilia)  and  also  various  toys  (crepundia).  She  bound  the 
door  posts  of  her  new  residence  with  white  woollen  fillets  and  anointed  them 
with  the  fat  of  wolves  (hence  uxor,  quasi  unxor).  She  then  stepped  upon  a 
sheepskin  spread  before  the  entrance,  and  called  aloud  for  the  bridegroom,  who 
immediately  came  and  offered  her  the  key  of  the  house,  which  she  delivered 
over  to  the  chief  servant.  Both  now  touched  fire  and  water,  as  a  symbol  of  pu- 
rity and  nuptial  fidelity.  The  house  was  already  adorned  with  garlands  of 
flowers,  the  work  of  the  preceding  day.  After  their  arrival  the  marriage 
banquet  (coena  nujjtialis)  was  held,  which  was  accompanied  with  music  and 
song.  The  husband  after  supper  scattered  nuts  among  the  youth  and  boys 
present.  Finally  the  pair  were  conducted  to  the  bed  chamber,  by  the  door  of 
which  the  nuptial  hymns  (epithalamia)  were  sung  by  young  men  and  maids. 
The  next  day  the  bride  presented  a  thank  offering  to  the  gods,  and  the  husband 
gave  an  evening  entertainment  (reputia),  and  distributed  presents  to  the  guests 
on  their  departure. 

§  316.  Divorces  (divortia)  were,  especially  in  latter  times,  quite 
common.  When  the  espousals  and  the  marriage  had  been  solemnized 
in  full  formality  especially  with  the  confarreatio  just  described,  par- 
ticular solemnities  were  requisite  for  a  divorce,  and  these  were  called 
diffarreatio.  In  case  of  a  less  formal  marriage  contract,  the  di- 
vorce was  called  rcmancipatio  or  usurpatio.  On  account  of  the  fre- 
quent abuses  of  divorce,  it  was  restrained  by  law  ;  and  properly  the 
men  only  enjoyed  the  right.  The  formula,  with  which  one  dismissed 
his  wife,  was  tuas  res  tibi  habcto.  Sometimes  the  separation  took 
place  before  marriage,  after  the  espousals,  and  then  it  was  called  re- 
pudium;  the  customary  formula  was  as  follows  ;  condition c  tua  non 
utor.  If  a  woman  was  divorced  without  having  been  guilty  of  adul- 
tery, her  portion  or  dowry  was  returned  with  her. 

The  condition  of  females  in  Rome  was  similar  to  their  condition  in  Greece  (cf.  §  181,  182). — 
On  the  regard  to  the  sex  as  illustrated  by  the  writings  of  Tibulltis,  Ovid,  Seneca  &c.  cf.  Ram- 

dohr,  Venus  Urania.  Lips.  1798.  8. The  social  elevation  offemales  is  very  justly  ascribed, 

in  a  great  degree,  to  Christianity.  Buckminster's  Sermons.  Cf.  Cashing,  Social  Influence  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  Bibl.  Repos.  Sec.  Series,  vol.  i.  p.  195. 

§  317.  Among  the  Roman  customs  connected  with  the  birth  of 
children,  that  was  the  most  remarkable,  which  left  it  to  the  arbitrary 
will  of  the  father,  whether  to  preserve  his  new-born  child,  or  leave  it 
to  perish.  In  reference  to  his  decision  of  this  point,  the  midwife  al- 
ways placed  it  on  the  ground  ;  if  the  father  chose  to  preserve  it,  he 
raised  it  from  the  ground,  and  was  said  tollere  infant  em ;  this  was 
an  intimation  of  his  purpose  to  educate  and  acknowledge  it  as  his 
own.  If  the  father  did  not  choose  to  do  this,  he  left  the  child  on  the 
ground,  and  thus  expressed  his  wish  to  expose  it  (exponere) ;  this  ex- 
posing was  an  unnatural  custom  borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  by  which 
children  were  left  in  the  streets,  particularly  at  the  columna  lactaria, 
and  abandoned  to  their  fate.  Generally  the  power  of  the  father  was 
very  great,  but  the  mother  had  no  share  therein.  This  power  ex- 
tended not  only  over  the  life  of  his  children,  but  the  father  could 
three  times  sell  his  son  and  three  times  reclaim  him,  and  appropriate 
all  his  gains  as  his  own.  Under  the  emperors,  this  power  lost  much 
of  its  rigor,  by  the  regulation  allowing  the  children  to  hold  the  in- 
heritance left  by  their  mothers. 


DOMESTIC  AFFAIRS.       DIVORCES.    TREATMENT  OF  CHILDREN.         623 

§  318w.  The  freeing  of  a  son  from  the  power  of  a  father  was  eifected  by 
what  was  called  emancipation,  or  a  fictitious  thrice  repeated  selling  of  the  son  ', 
the  freedom  consequent  upon  this  was  termed  manumissio  legitima  per  vin~ 
dictum.  The  father  and  the  son  appeared  together  with  the  pretended  pur- 
chaser, a  friend  of  the  first,  and  with  a  body  of  witnesses,  before  the  tribunal 
of  the  praetor,  and  here  the  imaginary  thrice  repeated  sale  and  thrice  repeated 
manumission  was  completed  with  certain  established  usages,  sometimes  by 
only  a  double  sale  with  a  delay  of  the  third.  On  the  third  sale,  the  purchaser 
was  called  pater  jiduciariits  ;  in  the  first  two,  dominns. — The  power  of  the 
father  over  his  son  was  otherwise  rarely  terminated  except  by  the  death  or 
banishment  of  the  father  ;  it  belonged  to  the  peculiar  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen 
(§  260).  By  emancipation  the  son  became  his  own  master,  and  possessor  of 
his  own  property,  of  which  however  he  must  give  the  father  half  as  an  ac- 
knowledgement for  his  freedom. 

§  319.  Another  custom  among  the  Romans  in  respect  to  children 
was  that  of  adoption  (adoptio).  In  this,  the  actual  father  of  a  child 
renounced  his  own  rights  and  claims,  and  committed  them  to  another 
who  received  the  child  as  his  own. 

1  u.  The  ceremony  was  performed  before  a  magistrate,  usually  the  praetor. 
The  formalities  were  in  part  the  same  as  in  emancipation,  which  was  always 
presupposed  in  adoption,  and  previously  executed.  Only  in  such  a  case,  the 
son  was  sold  to  the  adopting  father  but  twice,  and  did  not  revert  the  third 
time  to  the  real  father.  There  was  also  sometimes  a  kind  of  adoption  by  will 
or  testament  {adoptio  per  testamentum) ,  in  order  to  preserve  a  family  from  ex- 
tinction. In  such  case  the  person  adopted  received  a  considerable  part  of  the 
estate  left  by  the  person  adopting  him,  and  bore  his  name  after  his  death. 

2  m.  That,  which  was  called  arrogatio,  differed  from  adoption  only  in  the 
formalities  connected.  The  former  was  not  transacted,  as  was  the  latter,  be- 
fore the  praetor,  but  before  the  assembled  people,  in  the  Comitia  Curiata,  and 
by  the  aid  of  the  High  priest;  neither  was  it  limited  to  individuals,  but  often 
included  a  whole  family.  Upon  the  consent  of  the  people  to  the  arrangement, 
the  person  or  persons  adopted  into  a  family  took  a  solemn  oath,  that  they 
Would  remain  faithful  to  the  religion  and  worship  of  the  family  ;  this  was  call- 
ed detestatio  sacrorum. 

§  320  m.  By  what  was  called  legitimation,  a  natural  (naturalis)  or  spurious 
(spurius)  child  was  declared  to  be  legitimate  (legitimus),  and  instated  in  all 
the  rights  of  such.  This  affected,  however,  the  relation  of  the  child  only  to 
the  father,  not  to  other  relatives,  or  to  the  whole  family  of  the  father.  Such 
a  child  shared  in  the  inheritance  an  equal  portion  with  the  lawful  children. 
But  this  custom  was  not  known  to  the  early  Romans  ;  it  came  first  into  prac- 
tice in  the  fifth  century  under  Theodosius  the  second,  and  then  scarcely  at  all 
in  Rome  itself,  but  in  the  municipial  towns,  where  it  was  introduced  to  supply 
the  want  of  the  decuriones  or  members  of  the  senate  (§  260.  3).  For,  as  this 
office  could  be  received  only  by  sons  of  decuriones,  and  was  also  very  burden- 
some, the  fathers  were  allowed  to  transmit  it  to  their  natural  sons,  by  them 
legitimated. 

§  321.  Respecting  the  education  of  the  Roman  youth  we  have  al- 
ready spoken,  in  treating  of  the  Archaeology  of  Roman  Literature 
(P.  I.  §§  123 — 125).  Here  we  only  remark,  that  for  a  long  time 
there  were  no  public  schools,  but  the  youth  received  the  necessary 
instruction  from  private  or  family  teachers  (pcedagogi).  There  were 
however  those,  who  in  their  houses  gave  instruction  to  a  number  of 
youth  together.  The  corporeal  exercises,  especially  in  the  early 
times,  were  viewed  by  the  Romans  as  a  more  essential  object  in  edu- 
cation than  the  study  of  literature  and  science.  They  did  not  neg- 
lect however  an  early  cultivation  of  the  manners,  and  of  noble  feel- 
ings, especially  patriotism,  love  of  liberty,  and  heroic  courage. 

§  322  £.  The  household  of  a  Roman  was  collectively  termed  fami* 


624  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

lia,  but  by  this  word  was  especially  meant  the  body  of  slaves,  of  which 
there  was  often  a  large  number.  Persons  in  opulent  circumstances 
had  them  sometimes  to  the  amount  of  several  thousands.  The  Ro- 
man women  of  rank  usually  had  a  numerous  body  of  servants  of  both 
sexes. — The  slaves  of  a  family  were  divided  into  different  classes  or 
decuricB,  according  to  their  employments,  and  a  particular  registry  of 
them  was  kept,  which  was,  in  some  instances,  read  over  every  morn- 
ing. Their  condition  was  very  hard,  and  they  were  treated  as  mere 
chattels,  rather  than  persons. 

"  Slaves  in  Rome  occupied  every  conceivable  station,  from  the  delegate 
superintending  the  rich  man's  villa,  to  the  meanest  office  of  menial  labor  or 
obsequious  vice  ;  from  the  foster  mother  of  the  rich  man's  child,  to  the  lowest 
■degradation,  to  which  woman  can  be  reduced.  The  public  slaves  handled  the 
oar  in  the  galleys,  or  labored  on  the  public  works.  Some  were  lictors  ;  some 
were  jailors.  Executioners  were  slaves  ;  slaves  were  watchmen,  watermen 
and  scavengers.  Slaves  regulated  the  rich  palace  in  the  city  ;  and  slaves  per- 
formed all  the  drudgery  of  the  farm.  Nor  was  it  unusual  to  teach  slaves  the 
arts.  Virgil  made  one  of  his  a  poet,  and  Horace  himself  was  the  son  of  an 
emancipated  slave. — The  merry  Andrew  was  a  slave.  The  physician,  the 
surgeon,  were  often  slaves.  So  too  the  preceptor  and  pedagogue  ;  the  reader 
and  the  stage  player ;  the  clerk  and  the  amanuensis  ;  the  architect  and  the 
smith  ;  the  weaver  and  the  shoe-maker  ;  the  undertaker  and  the  bearer  of  the 
bier  ;  the  pantomime  and  the  singer  :  the  rope  dancer  and  the  wrestler,  all 
were  bondmen.  The  armiger  or  squire  was  a  slave.  You  cannot  name  an 
occupation  connected  with  agriculture,  manufacturing  industry,  or  public 
amusements,  but  it  was  a  patrimony  of  slaves.  Slaves  engaged  in  commerce  ; 
slaves  were  wholesale  merchants  ;  slaves  were  retailers  ;  slaves  shaved  notes  ; 
and  the  managers  of  banks  were  slaves." 

The  following  is  a  specification  of  some  of  the  principal  servants,  such  as  are  most  frequent- 
ly mentioned  : — 1.  Of  those  employed  in  the  house.  The  servus  admissionalis  received  the  per- 
sons who  visited  the  master  of  the  house,  announced  their  names  and  conducted  them  in  ;  the 
scrvi  cubicularii  were  a  sort  of  valet  or  chamber  servants,  often  enjoying  the  particular  confi- 
dence of  the  master  ;  the  t07isores  and  cinerarii  were  such  as  paid  attention  to  the  beard  and 
hair  of  the  masters  ;  the  amanuenses  and  librarii  were  secretaries  and  copyists  ;  the  anagnosUs 
were  readers  ;  the  vestiarii  attended  to  the  wardrobe  ;  the  balncatores  waited  upon  the  master 
"at  the  bath  ;  the  medici  performed  the  duties  of  surgeons  and  physicians  ;  the  nutritii  and  pmda- 
gogi  took  care  of  the  children. — A  multitude  of  servants  were  employed  in  waiting  upon  table 
at  meals,  and  were  designated  from  their  several  functions.  Among  these  were,  e.  g.  the  scr' 
««^  lectisterniator,  couch  spreader  ;  structor,  arranger  of  dishes  ;  carptor  or  scissor,  carver ;  di- 
ribitor,  distributer  ;  prmgustator,  taster  ;  pocillator,  cup-bearer  ;  detcrsor,  table-wiper,  &x. — ■ 
There  were  others  performing  another  kind  of  house  service  ;  e.  g.  the  servus  ostiarius,  door- 
keeper ;  atriensis,  hall  slave;  dispensator  or  arcartus,  keeper  of  the  stores  ;  cellarius,  pantry 
keeper  ;  pulmentarius,  pottage-maker  ;  dulciarius,  confectioner ;  tadigcr,  torch-bearer  ;  miliaria, 

cradle-rocker  ;    cosmcta,  perfumer  ;  flabellifer,  fan-carrier,  &c 2.  Others  were  employed  out 

of  doors  ;  the  servus  insularis,  who  had*the  oversight  over  his  master's  buildings  ;  the  servus  a 
pcdibus,  who  went  with  errands  ;  the  lecticarii,  who  carried  the  sedan  or  litter,  &c. — A  large 
number  of  slaves  were  kept  at  the  manors  or  county  seats,  to  see  to  the  husbandry  and  fruits  ; 
among  these  were  the  villici,  stewards  or  superintendents  ;  aratores,  ploughmen  ;  runcatores, 
Weed-pullers  ;  occatores,  clod-breakers  ;  fwnisectorcs,  hay-cutters  ;  vindemiatores,  vintagers  ;  ju~ 
garii,  ox-drivers  ;   opiliones,  sheep-tenders  ;  piscatores,  fish-catchers  ;   muliones,  mule-drivers  ; 

gallinarii,  hen-keepers,  &c. For  a  full  list,  see  Blair's  State  of  Slavery  among  the  Romans. 

Edinb.  1833.  8.  Cf.  Am.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xv.  71. — On  the  employment  of  slaves,  cf.  Monger, 
sur  les  travaux  publ.  des  Romain3,  in  the  Mem.  dc  P  Institut,  Classe  de  Lit.  ct  Beaux  Arts,  i.  492. 

§  323.  The  slave  trade  formed  among  the  Romans,  as  with  most 
of  the  ancient  nations,  an  important  part  of  business.  Slave  mer- 
chants (venalitiarii)  were  always  found  attached  to  the  Roman  ar- 
mies, and  importers  of  slaves  (mangones)  often  came  to  Rome  from 
Greece  and  Asia.  There  were  various  laws  regulating  this  traffic ; 
which,  however,  were  often  left  unexecuted,  or  were  evaded  by  the 
arts  of  those  engaged  in  it.  For  exposing  to  view  slaves  offered  for 
sale,  scaffolds  (catastce)  were  erected  in  the  market,  and  commonly 
small  tablets  were  suspended  from  the  necks  of  the  slaves,  stating 
their  country,  age,  character,  &c>     The  price  varied  very  much  ;   it 


DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       SLAVES.    HOUSES.  625 

was  sometimes  above  a  thousand  denarii.  Of  still  greater  value  were 
such  as  possessed  intellectual  cultivation,  and  could  be  employed  as 
leachers,  readers,  accountants,  musicians  and  the  like. 

§  324m.  The  liberating  of  slaves  took  place  in  several  ways.  The  most 
ancient  mode  seems  to  have  been  by  will,  manumissio  per  testamentum,  on 
the  decease  of  the  master.  There  were  two  other  modes  ;  censu,  and  pervin- 
dictam  ;  the  former  was  when  the  slave,  with  the  master's  consent,  was  en- 
rolled in  the  taxation-list  as  a  freedman  ;  the  latter  was  a  formal  and  public 
•enfranchisement  before  the  praetor.  In  the  last  case,  the  master  appeared 
with  his  slave,  before  the  tribunal,  and  commenced  the  ceremony  by  striking 
him  with  a  rod  (mndicia)  ;  thus  treating  him  as  still  his  slave.  Then  a  pro- 
tector or  defender  (assertor  libertatis)  steps  forward  and  requests  the  libera- 
tion of  the  slave,  by  saying  hunc  hominem  liberum  esse  aio,  jure  Quiritium; 
upon  which  the  master,  who  has  hitherto  kept  hold  of  the  slave,  lets  him  go 
(e  manu  emittebat),  and  gives  up  his  right  over  him,  with  the  words,  hunc 
hominem  liberum  esse  volo.  A  declaration  hy  the  praetor,  that  the  slave  should 
be  free,  formed  the  conclusion.  To  confirm  this  manumission,  the  freed  slave 
sometimes  went  to  Terracina  and  received  in  the  temple  of  Feronia  (P.  111.  §91) 
a  cap  or  hat  (pileus)  as  a  badge  of  liberty.  The  slave  to  be  freed  must  not  be 
under  twenty  years  of  age,  nor  the  person  setting  him  free  under  thirty. 

On  the  subject  of  Roman  Slavery,  see  an  able  and  interesting  arrticle  in  the  Biblical  Reposi- 
tory and  Qwarf.  Obscrter,  No.  xx.    Oct.  1835.— Burigny,  Roman  slaves  and  freedmen,  in  the 
Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxv.  p.  328,  and  xxxvn.  p.  313.— Blair,  cited  §  322. 

§  325.  The  dwellings  of  the  Romans  were  at  first  mere  huts  (casm) 
and  during  the  first  three  centuries,  even  to  the  capture  and  plunder 
of  the  city  by  the  Gauls,  the  houses  were  insignificant  (P.  I.  §  241). 
On  its  being  rebuilt,  they  were  larger  and  more  respectable.  As 
luxury  increased  especially  after  the  second  Punic  war,  so  the  private 
dwellings  (domus)  became  more  and  more  costly  and  splendid,  both 
within  and  without;  although  this  was  not  universally  the  case.  In 
the  time  of  Augustus,  there  was  great  magnificence  and  extravagance 
in  the  building  and  ornamenting  of  houses. 

1m.  Among  the  principal  ornaments  of  the  larger  houses  and  palaces  were 
the  following;  the  covering  of  the  outer  and  inner  walls  with  marble;  the 
use  of  phengites  ((peyylrijf)  or  transparent  marble,  in  the  place  of  the  lapis 
specularis,  which  was  commonly  employed  for  windows  ;  mosaic  work  on  the 
floors  (pavimentd  tesselata)  ;  and  various  decorations  in  ivory,  marble,  costly 
wood  and  precious  stones,  attached  to  the  walls,  ceiling  and  door  posts. 

2.  The j)hencrites,  according  to  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  22.  46),  was  discovered  in  Cappadocia 
in  the  time  of  Nero,  and  took  this  name  from  its  translucency. — The  lapis  specularis  waa 
found  in  Spain,  Cyprus,  Cappadocia,  Sicily,  and  Africa ;  it  could  be  split  into  thin  leaves, 
like  slate,  not  above  five  feet  long  each.  Windows  (specularia)  were  formed  of  this  substance, 
yet  chiefly,  it  is  supposed,  in  the  better  sort  of  houses.  Boyd  remarks,  quoting  the  French 
translation  of  Adam,  "  it  appears  that  this  stone  is  nothing  else  than  the  talc  of  Muscovy." 
Launay  (cited  P.  I.  §  195. 2.)  after  comparing  various  allusions  to  it  in  Pliny  and  others,  expres- 
ses in  the  following  words  his  conclusion  ;  u  que  le  lapis  specularis  des  Anciens  etoit  notre 
gypse  feuillete  appelle  Selcnite  "  (vol.  i.  314). 

3.  Horn  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  the  Romans  for  the  windows  fcorneum 
specular e) ;  also  paper  and  linen  cloth  ;  originally  they  were  mere  openings 
(fenestra).  It  has  not  been  generally  supposed,  that  glass  (cf.  §  268.  3.)  was 
manufactured  at  Rome  before  the  time  of  Tiberius,  nor  thaL  it  was  used  for 
windows,  until  a  much  later  period  ;  the  first  distinct  mention  of  glass  win- 
dows Cvitrea  specularia),  is  said  to  be  by  Jerome  in  the  middle  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury (a) ;  although  mirrors  (specula)  of  glass  were  much  earlier.  But  glass 
windows  are  said  to  have  been  discovered  (b)  in  the  buildings  at  Pompeii. 

(a)  Bcckmami's  History  of  Inventions. — (b)  "  In  the  vaulted  roof  (of  a  room  of  the  thcrmcB 
or  baths)  is  a  window,  two  feet  eight  inches  high  and  three  feet  eight  inches  broad,  closed 
by  a  single  large  pane  of  glass,  two  fifths  of  an  inch  thick,  fixed  into  the  wall,  and  ground  on 
one  side  to  prevent  persons  on  the  roof  from  looking  into  the  bath :  of  this  glass  many  frag- 
ments were  found  in  the  ruins.  This  is  an  evident  proof,  that  glass  windows  were  in  use 
among  the  ancients.  The  leartied  seem  to  have  been  generally  mistaken  on  the  subject  of  glass 
making  among  the  ancients.    The  vast  collection  of  bottles,  vases,  glasses  and  other  utensils 

53 


626  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

discovered  at  Pompeii,  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  ancients  were  well  acquainted  with  the 
art  of  glass  blowing."  It  has  been  suggested,  that  these  vessels  may  not  have  been  manufac- 
tured in  Italy,  but  imported  from  the  East,  especially  from  Tyre,  the  place  where  glass  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  first  made.  Another  room  belonging  to  the  same  baths,  "  was  lighted  by  A 
Window  2  feet  6  inches  high  and  3  feet  wide,  in  the  bronze  frame  of  which  were  found  set  four 
Very  beatiful  panes  of  glass  fastened  by  small  nuts  and  screws,  very  ingeniously  contrived,  with 
a  view  to  remove  the  glass  at  pleasure."     Pompeii,  p.  162,  as  cited  P.  I.  $  226.  1. 

4.  Paintings  in  stucco  on  the  walls,  and  fret- work  (laquearia)  on  the  ceil- 
ings, were  among  the  decorations  in  Roman  houses.  The  various  ornaments 
Were  frequently  of  a  character  exceedingly  unfavorable  to  purity  of  mind. 

On  architectural  ornaments  &c  cf.  P.  I.  $  239.  — On  the  Mosaic  of  the  ancients,  P.  I.  $  167* 
189,220.  i      . 

5m.  The  names  of  the  various  parts  of  a  Roman  house  are  known  to  us  much 
better  than  their  exact  design  and  use.  The  following  were  the  principal 
parts.  (I.)  The  vestibulum  or  fore-court,  an  open  space  between  the  house  door" 
and  the  street.  From  this,  one  entered  through  the  door  or  gate  (janua)  of  the 
house  into  (2.)  the  atrium,  aula  or  hall,  in  which  on  both  sides  were  placed 
the  images  of  ancestors  in  niches  or  cases  {armaria).  From  this,  one  passed  di- 
rectly through  into  (3.)  the  impluvium  ;  called  also  compluvium  and  cavadium, 
which  was  a  court,  commonly  uncovered  {subdivale) ,  where  the  rain  water 
fell.  In  this  was  the  proper  dwelling  house,  which  had  two  wings  with  a  cov- 
ered colonnade  or  portico  in  front,  in  order  to  pass  unexposed  from  one  apart- 
ment to  another  of  these  side-buildings.  Of  these  apartments  the  principal 
was  (4.)  the  triclinium  or  dining  room;  the  others  were  termed  cellar,  having 
distinctive  names  from  their  use  )  as  cella  mnaria,  coquinaria,  penuaria  &c. 
Besides  these  there  were  attached  to  the  larger  houses  various  other  appendages  } 
colonnades,  baths,  gardens,  and  the  like. — In  general,  almost  all  the  apartments 
were  on  the  lower  floor  ;  but  detached  houses  or  blocks,  which  were  mostly  oc- 
cupied by  tenants  on  lease  (and  called  insula),  were  higher  and  had  more  stories. 
As  the  population  of  Rome  increased,  the  houses  in  the  city  were  raised  to  such  altitudes  as 
to  occasion  danger,  and  a  maximum  of  height  Was  established  by  law  ;  in  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus it  was  enacted,  that  the  height  of  private  edifices  should  not  exceed  seventy  feet  from  the 
ground.— Gibbon,  vol.  3d.  p.  216.  ed.  N.  Y.  1822. 

6.  The  gate  or  door  {janua)  was  sometimes  made  of  iron  or  brass  often 
highly  ornamented,  and  usually  raised  above  the  ground,  so  that  steps  were 
necessary  to  ascend  to  it.  On  festival  occasions  it  was  hung  with  green  branch- 
es and  garlands.  It  turned  on  hinges  {cardines)  and  was  secured  by  bars 
(obices,  claustra),  locks  {sera)  and  keys  {claves).  Knockers  {mar culi,  mallei) 
or  bells  {tintinnabula)  were  attached  to  it.  —  In  the  atrium  was  anciently  the 
kitchen  {culina).  Here  also  the  mistress  of  the  house  and  servants  carried  on 
the  spinning  and  weaving.  In  this  was  the  family  hearth  (focus)  near  the 
door,  with  a  constant  fire  of  coals,  and  the  lares  (cf.  P.  III.  §  111)  around  it. 
The  Roman  houses,  as  well  as  the  Greek,  seem  to  have  had  no  chimneys,  but 
merely  an  opening  in  the  roof  to  let  off  the  smoke ;  hence  the  epithet  fumosce. 
applied  to  the  images  in  the  atrium  ;  to  avoid  smoke  as  much  as  possible,  the 
wood  was  carefully  dried  and  anointed  with  lees  of  oil.  Portable  hearths  or 
furnaces  were  used  for  warming  the  different  apartments.  In  later  periods, 
houses  were  warmed  by  a  furnace  below  with  pipes  passing  from  it  to  the 
rooms  (Bcckmann's  Hist,  of  Invention). — The  atrium  was  sometimes  divided, 
in  later  times,  into  different  parts  separated  by  curtains. — In  the  open  court,  or 
impluvium,  was  often,  if  not  usually,  a  fountain.  The  apartments  around  it, 
excepting  the  dining  room,  were  usually  small  and  ill  constructed,  and  pro- 
perly called  cells.  Those  designed  for  sleeping  were  termed  cubicula.  The 
solarium  was  a  room  on  the  portico  for  taking  the  sun. — The  covering  or  roof 
was  protected  by  large  tiles  (tegula),  and  was  generally  of  an  angular  form) 
the  highest  part  was  called  fastigium,  a  term  also  used  to  designate  the  whole 
roof.  —  Under  the  better  class  of  houses  were  very  capacious  cellars  (cellarii) 
which  were  specially  prepared  for  storing  various  sorts  of  wines. — Staircases 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  considered  of  much  consequence  ;  they  are  found 
in  the  buildings  at  Pompeii. 

Fig.  a  of  Plate  XXV,  represents  a  key  found  a  Pompeii.— Fig.  b.  a  bolt,  found  also  at  Pom- 
peii.   Fig.  l,in  the  same  Plate,  is  a  plan  of  a  Roman  house,  given  in  Stuart's  Diet,  of  Arch- 
itecture as  according  to  Vitruvius  ;  "  a,  is  the  vestibulum  ;  b,  the  atrium  ;  c,  the  tablinum  ;  d,  d, 
the  ala;  ;  e,  e,  cells  familiaricae  ;  /,  cavsedium  ;  g,  vernal  triclinium,  g,  summer  triclinium,  gf 
winter  triclinium  ;  iii,  baths ;  kklc,  cubiculas  ;  w,  pinacotheca  3  n,  bibliotheca  :  o,  peristyle  j 


DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       ROUTING    OF   DAILY    EMPLOYMENT.         627 

g,  Cyzicene  cecus  ;  rr,  courts  of  the  offices  ;  s,  exedra  ;  1 1,  gardens  ;  u,  rooms  for  embroidery  ; 
v  v,  sudatories." — On  the  Roman  house,  cf.  Wilkins,  Transl.  of  Vitruvius,  cited  P.  1.  §  243.  4. — 
J.  Minutolus  de  Roman,  domibus,  in  Sallengre  cited  §  197.  —  Fr.  M.  Grapaldi  de  partibus  ^Edi- 
um  liber.  Parm.  1506.  4. 

7.  Among  the  various  articles  of  furniture  mentioned  are  chairs  Csellce), 
tables  (menscej,  couches  (lecti),  lamps  Cluctrnccj,  &c. — A  great  number  of  an- 
cient lamps  have  been  found,  particularly  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii ;  of 
various  forms  and  sizes,  and  different  materials  from  the  most  common  to  the 
most  costly  ;  many  of  them,  especially  those  in  bronze,  are  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful workmanship.  They  were  wrought  into  the  most  whimsical  images  and 
shapes  ;  and  were  attached  to  supports  of  various  kinds,  or  suspended  from 
the  ceilings. 

Several  specimens  of  ancient  lamps  are  given  in  our  Plate  XXV,  at  the  bottom  ;  in  Nos.  1 
and  3,  they  are  suspended  from  a  stand  or  branch  ( lychnuchus )  ;  in  Nos.  2  and  4,  they  are  placed 
upon  a  low  tripod  ;  in  No.  5,  on  a  small  erect  pillar  or  stick  (columella)  called  candelabrum. 
Fig.  d,  is  a  couch,  from  an  Egyptian   monument,  showing  the  cushion  or  bed,  and  the  pillow. 

H.  H.  Baber,  Antique  Vases,  Lamps,  Tombs,   Urns,  &c.  Lond.  1836.  4.   containing  170 

Plates  engraved  by  H.  Moses  ;  with  descriptions.  —  See  also  Montfaucon  (,as  cited  P.  II.  §  13), 
vol.  v.  p.  202.  —  Le  Jlntichi  d'Ercolano,  cited  P.  L  §  243.  2.  one  vol.  of  which  treats  particularly 
on  this  subject. 

§  326.  The  villas,  or  country  seats,  of  the  Romans  were  much  more  splen- 
did usually  than  the  houses  within  the  city.  A  complete  establishment  of  this 
kind  included  several  parts.  1.  The  villa  urbana  was  the  chief  edifice,  with 
its  courts,  baths,  porticos  and  terraces,  for  the  residence  of  the  lord.  2.  The 
villa  rustica  was  the  name  applied  to  the  buildings  designed  to  accommodate 
the  steward  (villicus),  and  numerous  slaves  of  the  establishment;  and  those  for 
various  kinds  of  live  stock  ;  e.  g.  gallinarium,  for  hens  ;  aviarium,  for  bees  ; 
suile,  for  swine  &c.  3.  The  villa  fructuaria  was  another  part,  including  the 
structures  designed  for  storing  the  various  products  of  the  farm  ;  as  wine, 
corn,  oil,  and  fruits,  often  comprehended  under  villa  rustica.  4.  The  Aortas  was 
the  garden,  upon  which  in  later  times  great  care  was  bestowed  ;  being  planted 
with  trees,  shrubs  and  flowers,  which  were  often  trained  into  fantastic  shapes 
by  slaves  called  topiarii  ;  watered  sometimes  by  means  of  pipes  and  aqueducts, 
adorned  with  walks  and  statues.  5.  There  was  sometimes  a  sort  of  park,  of 
many  acres,  chiefly  designed  for  deer  or  other  wild  beasts,  tkeriotropnium,  in 

which  was  the  fish-pond  (piscina)  and  the  oyster-bed  (vivarium). Many  of 

these  villas,  owned  by  distinguished  Romans,  are  alluded  to  in  the  classics. 
Cicero  had  a  beautiful  one  atTusculum,  besides  several  in  other  places  further 
from  the  city  (Cf.  Middletoris  Life  of  Cicero,  sect.  xii).  —  Hortensius 
possessed  sumptuous  villas  at  Tusculum,  Bauli  and  Laurentum  ;  the  Piscina 
Mirabilis,  a  subterraneous  edifice,  vaulted  and  divided  by  four  rows  of  arcades, 
under  the  promontory  of  Bauli,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  fish-pond 
of  this  distinguished  orator.  (Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.  ii.  128).  In  his  Tus- 
culan  villa  he  had  a  single  painting,  the  Argonauts,  by  Cydias,  for  which  he 
paid,  according  to  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.  xxxv.  12)  144,000  sesterces,  i.  e.  above 
$5,000. — Horace  is  supposed  to  have  owned  a  villa  at  Tibur,  not  so  splendid, 
yet  affording  a  retreat  delightful  to  the  poet.  (Anthorts  Remarks  in  his  ed.  of 
Horace.) — Pliny  (Ep.  ii.  17),  has  given  a  description  of  one  belonging  to  him- 
self at  Laurentum,  of  great  extent  and  grandeur.  (Stuart's  Dictionary  of 
Architecture.) — But  the  villa  of  the  emperor  Adrian,  near  Tivoli,  was  proba- 
bly the  most  magnificent  ever  erected  ;  its  buildings  and  plantations  covered 
an  area,  it  is  said,  of  at  least  six  miles  in  circumference  ;  its  ruins  have  surviv- 
ed to  modern  time,  and  have  furnished  many  of  the  finest  remains  of  ancient 
art.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  173, 188.  —  Stuart's  Diet.) 

The  excavations  of  Pompeii  have  brought  to  light  a  specimen  of  a  villa  just  without  the 
walls  of  the  place,  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  one  Diomedes.  (See  a  lively  description  of  it, 
in  Johnson's  Philos.  of  Trav.  p.  235.  as  cited  P.  I.  $  190.)— Rob.  Castell,  The  Villas  of  the  Ancients 
illustrated.  Lond.  1728.  fol.  —  Sulzer's  Theorie,  i.  305.  —  On  Remains  of  Roman  villse  discover- 
ed in  England,  Srchatologia  (as  cited  P.  I.  %  243.  3.)  vol.  Tin.  p.  363.  vol.  xvm.  p.  203,  and 
xix.  176.  with   plans. 

§  327.  The  manner  of  life  among  the  Romans  underwent  many 
changes,  in  the  course  of  their  history.  In  the  early  periods  these 
were  favorable  to  their  morals,  but  in  later  times  highly  injurious. 
Their  constant  prosperity  exerted  its  influence  on  their  feelings,  and 


628     p  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

these  affected  their  private  life  and  manners,  their  pursuits,  social  char- 
acter, and  amusements.  At  first,  and  even  down  to  the  first  Punic 
war,  their  domestic  manners  were  characterised  by  simplicity  in 
thought  and  action,  and  united  with  this  there  was  moderation  in  the 
gratification  of  the  senses,  which  they  but  seldom  and  sparingly  in- 
dulged. From  their  primitive  rudeness,  they  gradually  advanced  ill 
refinement  and  urbanity,  and  ere  long  passed  into  an  opposite  extreme. 
The  more  they  became  acquainted  with  the  conveniences  and  plea- 
sures of  the  people  they  conquered,  especially  the  Greeks  and  Asia- 
tics, and  the  more  their  riches  and  abundance  increased  in  conse- 
quence of  these  conquests,  the  more  prevalent  became  pride  and  luxury 
in  private  life.  In  place  of  their  former  heroic  virtues,  their  bravery  and 
self  denial,  now  appeared  effeminacy,  vanity  and  idleness.  Magnifi- 
cence in  buildings,  luxurious  indulgence  in  food  and  liquors,  fondness 
for  dress  and  entertainments,  followed  of  course. 

§  328.  It  is  not  easy  to  decide,  what  was  certainly  a  uniform 
course  of  daily  avocations,  among  a  people  presenting  a  great  varie- 
ty in  pursuits,  conduct  and  manner  of  life.  There  was,  however,  a 
sort  of  regular  routine  in  the  succession  of  daily  employments 
among  the  Romans,  particularly  with  the  more  respectable  and 
orderly  citizens. 

1m.  The  morning  hours  were  appropriated  to  religious  worship  in  the  tem- 
ples, or  their  own  houses.  In  the  morning,  also,  persons  of  the  lower  class 
were  accustomed  to  call  upon  their  superiors  with  salutations,  especially  cli- 
ents upon  their  patrons.  About  the  third  hour  (§  228)  the  business  of  the 
courts,  comitia,  and  other  assemblies  was  commenced.  Between  this  hour 
and  noon  were  the  promenades  for  pleasure  or  conversation  in  the  porticos, 
the  forum,  and  other  public  places.  About  the  sixth  hour  or  mid-day,  they 
had  a  slight  repast,  after  which  it  was  customary  to  take  a  little  rest  or  sleep. 
The  afternoon  was  spent  mostly  in  amusements  and  recreation,  in  visiting, 
bathing,  and  attending  public  spectacles.  About  the  ninth  or  tenth  hour  was 
the  usual  time  for  the  evening  meal. 

See  Pliny's  interesting  account  (Epist.  iii.  1)  of  the  manner  in  which  his  friend  Spurinna 

was  accustomed  to  spend  the  day. Abbe,  Couture,  La  vie  privee  des  Romains,  in  Hist,  de 

VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  i.  p.  303. 

2.  The  following  caustic  remarks  are  from  the  work  of  Johnson  (above  named  §  326). — "  The 
private  houses  in  Pompeii,  and  the  house  of  Diomede,  par  excellence,  show  us  at  once  how  the 
people  lived.  Each  family  met,  when  they  did  meet,  in  the  open  court  of  the  house — while 
the  masters  assembled,  and  might  be  said  to  live,  in  the  public  porticos  and  public  hotels  of 
the  city  !  Such  was  the  state  of  society  among  the  ancients  ;  arid  if  we  examine  the  cafes  and 
other  public  places  of  resort,  some  of  them  not  the  most  moral  or  edifying,  in  Italy  and  Franco, 
at  the  present  day,  we  shall  find  that  the  state  of  society  in  this  respect,  has  not  essentially 
changed.  How  the  women  and  children  contrived  to  pass  their  time  at  home,  while  their 
husbands  and  fathers  were  lounging  in  the  porticos,  the  forums,  the  temples,  and  hotels,  it  is 
not  easy  to  say  ;  but  if  we  may  judge  by  the  figures  and  devices  on  their  work-boxes,  vases, 
flower-pots,  lamps,  amulets,  and  walls,  we  may  safely  conclude  that,  in  their  nanow  and 
darksome  cells,  the  pruriency  (I  dare  not  use  the  proper  term)  of  their  minds  was  at  least  com- 
mensurate with  the  inactivity  of  their  bodies  and  the  enervating  influence  of  the  climate." 

3.  The  customary  time  of  day  for  bathing,  both  at  the  public  thermm  (cf.  P.  I.  §  241.  3.)  and 
the  more  private  balnea,  was  between  2  o'clock  and  dusk.  Between  2  and  3  o'clock  was  con- 
sidered the  most  eligible  time  for  the  exercise  and  the  bath.  The  baths  wvrv  usually  closed 
at  dusk  ;  some  of  the  emperors  allowed  them  to  be  open  until  5  o'clock  in  the  evening.  The 
price  paid  for  admission  was  a  quadrans  or  quarter  of  an  as;  the  charge  for  entrance  was  in- 
creased a  hundred  fold  after  4  o'clock.  Nero's  baths  were  heated  by  12  o'clock  ;  and  Severus 
allowed  the  baths  to  he  open  before  sunrise  and  even  through  the  night,  in  summer.  The  rage 
for  bathing  seems  to  have  continued  until  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  the  empiie  to  Constantino- 
ple ;   after  which  no  new  therma;  were  erected  and  the  old  gradually  fell  into  decay. It  ia 

worthy  of  remark,  that  the  exercise  of  swimming  was  connected  with  the  custom  of  bathing. 
"  This  art,"  it  is  said,  "  was  held  in  such  estimation  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  that,  when 
they  wished  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  complete  ignorance  of  an  individual,  they  would  say  of 
him,  that  he  neither  knew  how  to  read  nor  swim,  a  phrase  corresponding  with  our  familiar  one, 
that  a  person  knows  not  how  to  read  or  write.  Attached  to,  and  forming  a  part  of  the  gym 
nasia  and  palajstrae,  were  schools  for  swimming  ;  according  to  Pliny,  the  Romans  had  basins 
in  their  private  houses  for  the  enjoyment  of  this  exercise."  (Bell,  as  cited  P.  I.  $241.  3..)— 
Ameilhon,  sur  l'exercise  du  nageur  chez  les  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  XXX run  p. 
11,  and  xl.  p.  96. 


DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       FOOD.    EATING-HALLS.    BANQUETS. 

§  329.  The  dinner  of  the  Romans,  or  mid-day  meal  (prandium) 
was  very  frugal ;  indeed  it  was  not  customary  to  prepare  a  table  for 
it,  and  in  the  better  times  of  the  republic,  those  who  took  a  formal 
meal  at  noon,  were  regarded  as  effeminate.  The  fifth  hour,  from 
11  o'clock  to  12  in  modern  reckoning,  was  the  time  assigned  for  it. 

The  principal  meal  was  held  at  evening  (caina),  and  for  this,  par- 
ticularly, the  guest-chambers  or  eating-halls  (triclinia)  were  con- 
structed, which  in  the  palaces  and  manors  of  the  rich  were  very 
splendid.  These  apartments  were  also  called,  from  the  use  made  of 
them,  camationes ;  and  among  the  lower  classes,  caznacula. 

lu.  The  table,  being  either  quadrangular  or  rounded,  had  on  three  sides 
couches,  each  with  three  pillows,  on  which  to  support  the  arm  in  reclining. 
Nine  persons  (§  52)  were  therefore  accommodated  at  a  table.  The  right  of 
the  middle  couch  or  sofa  was  called  locus  consularis.  Often  seven  places 
only  were  prepared,  the  whole  of  the  middle  couch  being  appropriated  to 
some  stranger  or  guest,  by  way  of  especial  honor.  Women  were  not  accus- 
tomed to  recline  at  table,  but  to  sit. 

2.  The  couch  on  the  right  hand  was  called  summits  lectus,  the  one  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  table  was  called  medius  lectus,  while  the  remaining  couch 
on  the  left  was  termed  imus  lectus.  The  post  of  honor  on  each  was  the  central 
place,  those  who  occupied  the  middle  of  each  of  the  three  couches  being  styled 
respectively,  primus  summi  lecti,  primus  medii  lecti,  and  primus  imi  lecti. 
The  most  honorable  of  these  three  places,  and  consequently  of  the  whole  en- 
tertainment, usually  was  the  primus  medii  lecti.  The  least  honorable  was  at 
the  end  of  the  left  couch  farthest  from  that  called  medius.  As  the  guests  all 
reclined  on  the  same  (the  left)  arm,  the  bodies  of  those  on  the  opposite  couches 
were  extended  in  opposite  directions  ;  on  the  right  towards,  on  the  left  from, 
the  middle  couch. — The  rounded  table,  or  semi-circular,  was  used  under  the 
emperors,  accommodating  usually  seven  persons,  and  called  Sigma,  from  the 
form  C ,  and  also  Stibadium.  The  tables  (mensa)  were  often  highly  orna- 
mented. The  monopodium,  was  circular,  with  one  foot;  chiefly  used  by  the 
sick  ;  the  tripes  (Hor.  Sat.  I.  iii.  13,  of  the  poorer  people  had  three  feet.  The 
frames  (spondee)  and  their  supports  (fulcra)  were  of  wood,  ivory,  or  some- 
times metal ;  sometimes  they  were  veneered  with  tortoise-shell ;  on  these  was 
a  sort  of  cushion  which  had  in  it  stuffing  (tomentum)  of  wool,  feathers  or  the 
like ;  and  this  was  sometimes  covered  with  a  cloth  (stragula)  often  of  rich 
embroidery  and  purple  dye. 

In  Plate  XXVIII,  fig.  1,  we  have  the  ground  plan  of  a  summer  triclinium  in  the  small  garden 
of  the  house  of  Sallust,  found  at  Pompeii  ;  and  also  a  view  of  the  couches  and  the  table  in  the 
centre.  In  the  plan,  A  designates  the  summus  lectus ;  B,  the  medius ;  C,  the  imus.  The  couch- 
es, in  this  instance,  are  of  masonry,  and  were  of  course  covered  with  cushions  and  tapestry. 
The  round  table  in  the  centre  was  of  marble.  » 

3.  Before  eating,  the  guests  always  washed  their  hands  and  used  towels 
mantilia)  for  drying  them.  They  were  usually  furnished  each  with  a  napkin 
(mappa)  for  wiping  the  hands  while  at  the  table.  For  bringing  on  and  using 
the  food  (cihum)  there  were  various  articles  of  furniture,  as  dishes  (lances,  pa- 
trincB)  and  the  like;  but  nothing  like  ourjork,  it  is  supposed  (cf.  P.  I.  §  135. 
2.)  ;  although  the  excavations  at  Pompeii  have  shown  that  the  Romans  were 
acquainted  with  many  things,  which  have  been  considered  as  modern  inven- 
tions. 

"  The  surprise  which  is  excited  by  a  survey  of  the  various  implements  of  domestic  econo- 
my and  luxury,  employed  by  the  ancients,  as  disinterred  from  the  tomb  of  Pompeii,  where 
they  slept  since  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  as  compared  with  those  now  in  use, 
must  be  natural,  else  it  would  not  be  so  universal.  This  surprise  is  not  solely  occasioned  by 
the  almost  miraculous  preservation  of  these  objects  during  so  many  centuries.  We  are  aston- 
ished (though  I  know  not  why)  that  the  bakers  of  Pompeii  had  ovens  for  their  bread,  and 
could  stamp  their  names  on  the  loaves— that  the  cooks  had  pots,  stew-pans,  cullenders, 
moulds  for  Christmas-pies  and  twelfth  cakes— that  the  aldermen  and  gourmands  stowed  their 
wines  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  kitchen  and  hot-bath — that  the  cafes  had  stoves  for 
supplying  mulled  wines  to  their  guests — that  the  apothecary's  shop  abounded  in  all  kinds  of 
'Doctor's  stuff,'  a  box  of  pills  remaining  to  this  day  gilt,  for  the  squeamish  palate  of  some 
Pompeian  fine  lady — that  the  surgeon's  room  displayed  a  terrific  '  armamentum  chiruro-icum  ' 
of  torturing  instruments  ;  among  others,  *  Weiss's  Dilator,'  the  boast  of  modern  invention  in 

53* 


630  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

the  Strand— that  the  female  toilets  disclosed  rouge,  carmine,  and  other  cosmetic?,  with  the 
hare's  foot  to  lay  them  gracefully  on  the  pallid  cheek — that  the  masters  and  mistresses  had 
little  bells  to  summon  the  slaves  ("for  servants  there  were  none)  and  that  the  asses,  mules,  and 
oxen  had  the  same  noisy  instruments,  to  warn  carts  and  wheelbarrows  from  entering  the 
streets,  where  two  vehicles  could  not  pass  at  the  same  time— that  play-bills,  quack  advertise- 
tisements,  notices  of  sights,  shows,  <fec.  were  pasted  up  at  the  corners  of  the  streets,  in  mon- 
strous bad  Latin — that  opera  tickets  were  carved  in  ivory,  though  at  a  lower  price  than  8s.  fid. 
— that  dice  were  ingeniously  loaded  to  cheat  the  unwary  Calabrian,  who  came  within  the  vor- 
tex of  the  Pompeian  gaming-table— that  horses  had  bits  in  their  mouths,  stirrups  at  their  sides, 
cruppers  on  their  rumps,  though  the  two  latter  are  omitted  in  statues,  for  the  benefit  of  antiquari- 
an disquisitions— that  windows  were  glazed  when  light  was  preferred  to  air,  which  was  rarely 
the  case— that  the  Pompeians,  like  the  Irish,  had  their  wakes,  their  howlings,  and  their  whis- 
key drinkings  at  funerals— that  the  public  houses  had  chequers  painted  on  their  walls,  as  at 
present— that  the  chemist's  shop  had  for  its  sign  a  serpent  devouring  a  pine-apple,  symbolical 
of  prudence  defeating  death— that  the  Pompeian  ladies  employed  male  accoucheurs,  who  had 
all  the  implements  of  their  art  nearly  similar  to  those  of  the  modern  men  mid-wives — that  the 
houses  were  numbered,  and  the  names  of  the  occupants  painted  on  the  walls — that,  in  the 
public  tribunals,  the  magistrates  protested  to  Heaven  that  they  would  decide  conscicntiouAy, 
while  the  witnesses  swore  most  solemnly  that  they  would  speak  nothing  but  truth — that 
the  men  occupied  all  the  good  seats  in  the  theatre,  leaving  the  gallery  for  the  women,  where 
officers  were  appointed  to  preserve  order — that,  in  short,  men  and  women  had  their  passions 
and  propensities — their  cares  and  their  enjoyments,  long  before  Vesuvius  burst  into  flame  !  " 

(Johnson,  before  cited.) On  curiosities  found  at  Pompeii,  cf.  Class.  Journ.  xv.  305. — For  an 

interesting  account  of  the  luxurious  manners  of  the  later  Roman  nobles,  Gibbo-n,  Dec.  and" 
Fall  of  Rom.  Emp.  chap.  xxxi. 

§  330.  At  the  suppers  of  the  rich,  there  were  commonly  three 
courses.  The  first  was  termed  gustus  or  gustatio,  designed  to  sharp- 
en rather  than  to  satisfy  appetite  ;  it  consisted  of  eggs  (ova),  salad, 
radishes  and  the  like.  With  this  they  drank  usually,  not  wine,  but 
mead,  or  a  mixture  of  honey.  The  second  course  formed  the  essen- 
tial part  of  the  meal,  and  the  principal  dish  was  called  caput  cozruR. 
The  dishes  were  brought  on  by  slaves  in  baskets  or  vases  fitted  for  the 
purpose  (rcpusitoria).  The  third  course  was  the  dessert  (bellaria), 
consisting  of  choice  fruits  (mala),  pastry  and  confectionary. 

1.  Hence  the  introduction  of  the  phrase,   ab   ovo  ad  mala,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 

the  feast.    Cf.  Horace  Sat.  I.  iii.   6. An  account  of  the  fare  provided  for  a  social  supper,  is 

given  by  Pliny,  Epist.  i.  15\. 

2.  A  great  number  of  servants  were  employed  about  the  evening  meal  in 
one  way  or  another  ;  some  of  them  have  already  been  named  (§  322),  e.  g. 
the  structor,  who  arranged  the  tables,  the  carptor,  who  divided  the  food,  &c. 
In  the  times  of  Roman  luxury,  there  was  much  demand  for  skilful  cooks 
(cojui,  archimagiri). 

3.  It  may  be  proper  here  to  advert  to  the  Roman  hospitality.  The  rights  of 
hospitality  (jus  hospitii)  were  highly  respected ;  the  term  hospes  was  applied 
both  to  the  host  and  to  the  guest,  and  always  indicated  mutual  obligations' 
between  them.  These  rights  and  obligations  were  sometimes  created  be- 
tween persons  residing  at  a  distance  and  even  in  different  countries,  by  an 
interchange  of  presents.  The  joining  of  right  hands  was  practiced  as  a  sort 
of  pledge  of  this  fellowship  (arrha  hospitalis) ;  sometimes  a  sort  of  tally  was 
used  consisting  of  a  piece  of  wood  cut  into  two  similar  parts,  of  which  each 
person  kept  one  (tessera  hospitalis). 

Fig.  4,  in  Plate  XXVIII,  is  a  copy  of  a  painting  found  at  Herculaneum,  which  exhibits  two* 
persons  thus  joining  hands,  and  one  giving  to  the  other  the  tessera.— Cf.  Class.[  Journ.  ix.  229* 
x.  229.  xviii.  75. 

§  331a.  In  social  banquets,  held  at  evening,  it  was  customary  to 
choose  a  master  of  the  feast,  rex  or  magistcr  convivii  or  arbiter  biben- 
di ;  he  seems  to  have  been  chosen  by  a  throw  of  dice  (Hor.  Od.  n. 
vii.  25).  To  his  direction  everything  connected  with  the  banquet 
was  submitted,  particularly  all  that  related  to  drinking,  and  the  so- 
cial intercourse  for  the  time.  After  the  completion  of  the  meal,  the 
drinking  was  continued  late  in  the  night.  It  was  customary  to  drink 
healths,  the  memory  of  the  gods  and  heroes  being  usually  honored 
in  the  first  place. — Not  only  after  the  meal,  but  alsaduring  it,  between 


DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       SOCIAL    GAMES.    WINES.  631 

the  different  courses  and  dishes,  social  games  or  plays  were  practiced, 
especially  playing  with  dice. 

l?f.  There  were  two  kinds  of  dice,  tali  and  tessera.  The  former  were  ob- 
long, with  two  sides  or  ends  rounded,  having  therefore  four  sides,  on  which 
they  might  fall,  and  which  were  numbered  successively  one  (unio),  six  (senio)<, 
three  CternioJ,  and  four  (quaternio).  Four  tali  were  used  in  playing ;  the 
most  fortunate  throw,  called  Jactus  Venereus  or  Venus,  was  when  a  different 
number  was  uppermost  on  each  of  the  four,  and  the  worst  throw,  called  Canis, 
was  when  the  same  number  was  uppermost  on  all.  The  tessera  had  six  sides, 
numbered  like  modern  dice.  Three  only  were  used  in  playing  ;  and  the  best 
throw  was  three  sixes,  and  the  poorest  three  aces  or  ones.  The  vessel  from 
which  the  dice  were  thrown,  was  called  fritillus  or  turricula,  a  box  in  the  form  of 
a  tower ;  the  board  or  table  on  which  they  were  received,  was  termed  forus, 
ulveus,  tabula  lusoria. — Another  game  not  so  often  played  was  called  Duode- 
na scripta,  and  was  a  kind  of  trick-track  or  backgammon.  It  was  played  with 
fifteen  counters  or  stones  (calculi)  of  different  colors,  upon  a  table  marked 
with  twelve  lines. — In  the  general  corruption  of  Roman  manners  the  love  of 
playing  at  games  was  carried  to  the  highest  extreme. 

Cf.  Simon,  Jeux  de  hazard,  chez  les  Romains,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  i.  120. 

2.  In  the  time  of  the  Republic,  it  was  customary  for  the  patron  to  invite 
all  his  clients  occasionally  to  a  common  supper  in  his  halls;  this  was  called 
cava  recta.  Under  the  emperors,  it  became  customary  to  give  to  the  clients, 
instead  of  a  supper,  a  portion  of  food  to  carry  home  in  a  small  basket,  spar- 
tula.  At  length  a  quantity  of  money  was  substituted  instead  of  this,  to  the 
amount  of  about  100  quadr antes,  or  25  asses,  which  was  also  called  sportula. 
This  word  was  also  employed  to  designate  sums  of  money  distributed  by  ora- 
tors and  others  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  favor. 

Juv.  i.  95.  118.— Mart.  iii.  7. — De  Mantour,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  i.  161. 

§  331b.  As  wine  was  the  beverage  chiefly  used  by  the  Romans,  especially 
at  their  social  evening  banquets  and  games,  we  will  introduce  here  some  re- 
marks on  the  subject.  Scarcely  anything  else  seems  to  have  been  so  impor- 
tant to  the  rich  Roman  in  all  his  arrangements  for  domestic  comfort,  as  to  be 
well  furnished  with  choice  and  approved  wines. — 1.  Hence  there  was  great 
attention  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine;  even  to  the  neglect  of  other  branches 
of  agriculture.  The  soil  of  Campania  was  considered  as  perhaps  the  most 
desirable  in  Italy,  for  vineyards.  Many  varieties  of  grape  were  cultivated  : 
about  fifty  sorts  are  mentioned  by  Columella  and  Pliny ;  no  expense  was 
spared  to  obtain  the  best  kinds  for  the  vineyards.  It  was  common  to  rear  the 
vines  by  attaching  them  to  certain  trees  (arbusta),  particularly  the  elm  and 
poplar;  and  the  vines  and  trees  were  thus  said  to  be  married  ;  the  vines  were 
allowed  usually  to  reach  the  height  of  30  or  40  feet,  sometimes  a  still  greater, 
in  the  rich  soils;  in  soils  less  favorable,  the  usual  height  was  only  from  8  to 
12  feet. — 2.  The  vintage  or  gathering  of  the  grapes  was  about  the  last  of 
September,  or  in  October.  They  were  picked  in  osier  baskets  (fiscinai  corbes) 
and  carried  directly  to  the  room  for  pressing  (tor cul avium),  where  they  were 
first  trodden  (calcabantur),  and  then  subjected  to  the  press  ;  sometimes  in  or- 
der to  obtain  a  richer  wine,  the  grape  was  exposed  to  the  sun  a  few  days  after 
gathering.  The  common  wine  press  (torcular)  seems  to  have  been  simply  an 
upright  frame,  in  which  was  fixed  abeam  (prelum)  loaded  with  weights,  and 
having  ropes  attached  so  as  to  work  it  more  easily.  The  juice  (mustum) 
passed  through  a  sort  of  strainer  (colum)  into  a  vat  (lacus),  in  which  it  re- 
mained in  order  to  undergo  fermentation  about  9  days,  or  was  put  into  large 
vessels  (dolia)  for  the  same  purpose.  The  juice  which  ran  from  the  grapes 
without  pressing  (mustum  lixivium)  was  usually  preserved  separately,  and 
often  with  much  pains  to  avoid  its  fermentation  ;  one  mode  of  doing  which 
was  to  secure  it  in  a  close  vessel  and  sink  it  in  a  pond  for  a  space  of  a  month  or 
more.  Sometimes  the  juice  obtained  by  pressing  was  boiled  down  instead  of 
being  allowed  to  ferment,  in  a  place  fitted  up  for  this  process  and  called  defrutar 
rium;  the  must  thus  inspissated  and  reduced  to  one  half  its  original  quantity, 
was  termed  defrutum  ;  the  carenum  was  such  as  had  been  reduced  only  to  two- 
thirds  ;  sapa  was  the  name   when  reduced  to  one  third. — 3.  Various   meaner 


632  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

were  employed  for  clarifying  the  fermented   must ;    eggs   particularly  were 
used  for  the  purpose.     Various  methods  were  devised  also  for  modifying  or 
preserving  the  flavor  both  of  the  fermented  and  the  inspissated  juice  ;    aro- 
matic herbs  and  drugs  of  different  kinds  were  introduced  to  effect  the  object. 
— In  order  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  wines,  to  ripen  and  mellow  them,  they 
were  often  subjected  to  the  action  of  artificial  heat  and  smoke,  by  placing  the 
vessels  containing  them  in  the  flues  of  the  furnaces,  or  in  some  room  prepared  for 
the  purpose   (fumarium),   where  the  smoke  for  a  time   passed  around  them. 
These  forced  wines  are  said  to  have  been  in  great  request  at  Rome.      It  is 
probable  that  the  process  tended  to  give  the  wines  a  thicker  consistency  ;  it  is 
stated  that  they  sometimes  became  consolidated  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  was 
necessary  to  dissolve  them   in  hot  water.  —  4.  The  vessel  most  commonly 
used  by  the  Romans,  for  keeping  their   wine,  was  the  amphora,  called  also 
quadrantal  ;  the  terms  testa,  cadus,  and  diota  are  applied  to  the  same  or  a  sim- 
ilar vessel.     It  was  made  of  a  sort  of  clay  baked,  and  held  about  6  gallons  ;  — 
generally  of  an  elegant  form,  having  a  narrow  neck  with  two  handles,  and  ta- 
pering towards  the  bottom,  so  that  they  might  easily  be  fixed  in  the  ground 
or  sand  of  the  wine  cellar,  and  kept  in  an  upright  position.    The  amphora  was 
commonly  lined  with  some  preparation  of  pitch  or  wax  and  aromatic  sub- 
stances, and  was  covered  also  with  a  coating  made  of  pitch  and  the  ashes  of 
the  vine.     When  the  wine  had  been  in  the  vessel   a  suitable  time,  the  cover 
or  stopper  was  confined  and  made   perfectly  close   by   a  coating  of  the  same 
kind,  or  of  plaster.    Skins  (utres),  which  were  originally  the  only  kind  of  ves- 
sel used  for  the  purpose,  seem   also  to  have  remained  until  later  times.     For 
the  richer  sorts  of  wine,  glass  vessels  appear  also  to  have  been  employed  ;  but 
probably  of  a  much  smaller  size  than  the  earthen  amphora  (Martial.  Ep.  ii.  40). 
For  carrying  wine  from  place  to  place,  very  large  vessels  made  of  leather  or 
hide,  supported  and  guarded  by  a  frame  and  hoops,  seem    to  have  been  used. 
A  painting  found  in  a  wine-shop  at  Pompeii   exhibits  a  vessel  of  this  kind  oc- 
cupying the  whole  of  a  wagon   or  car  with  four  wheels  and  drawn  by   two 
horses.  —  5.  The  better  kinds  of  wine   were  usually   valued   more  highly  in 
proportion  to  their  age.     None  of  the  more  generous  wines  were  reckoned  fit 
for  drinking  before  the  fifth   year,  and  the  majority  of  them  were  kept  for  a 
much  longer  period.     The  most  pleasant  and  grateful  for  drinking,  however, 
was  that  of  a  middle  age  ;  although  the  older  might  command  a  higher  price. 
The  opulent  Roman,  as   has  been  mentioned,  attached  vast  importance  to  his 
wine  establishment.     Hence  to  the  house  and  villa  of  every  such  person   was 
attached  the  xcine  cellar   (cella  vinaria).     This  (called  also  apotheca,  cf.  Hor. 
Sat.  ir.  v.  7)  was  commonly  in  part,  if  not  wholly,  under  ground,  and  was  fre- 
quently very  spacious.     Here  the  wine  was  kept,  usually,  in  amphora,  which 
were  ranged  along  the  walls,  sunk  to  a  greater  or  less  depth  in  the  sand  ;  each 
one  having  a  mark  (iiota)  indicating  the  name  of  the   Consul  in  office  when 
the  wine  was  made  ;  hence  the  phrase  interior  nota,  sgnifying  the  oldest  and 
choicest;  because  such,  being  placed  first  in  the  cellar,  would  naturally  be  at 
the   remote  end  of  the  cellar,  or  because,  on  account  of  these  qualities,  it  was 
lodged  in  an  inner  cell  or  apartment.  The  cellar  of  Diomede's  villa  (cf.  §  32G.) 
is  very  large,  extending  round  and  under  the  whole  garden,  and  lighted  and 
ventilated  by  port-holes  from  above  ;  "  some  of  the  amphorae  still  stand  as  they 
were  packed  and   labelled  17  centuries  ago."     Among  the  amphorae  found, 
some  not  many  years  since,  at  Leptis  (cf.  Beechifs  Travels),  was  one  with  the 
following  inscription  in    vermillion,  L.    cassio  c.   mario  cos.  forming  three 
lines  on  the  vessel.  — 6.  Of  the  Italian  wines,  the  most  celebrated  was   the 
Falernian  or  Massic  (vinum  Falernum,  Massicum) ,  which  seem   to  have  been 
the  product  of  the  same  region,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sinuessa.     Others  in  much 
repute  were  the  vinum  Ccecubum,  Setinum,  Surrentinum,  Calenum  ;  of  a  third 
rank  were  the  Albanum  and  Sabinum  ;  The  Sicilian  wines  were  rated  general- 
ly after  these.     Of  foreign  wines,  the  Romans  seemed  to  have  placed  the  Les- 
bian, Chian  and  Thasian,  among  the  first;  cf.  §  161.     Different  kinds  of  wine 
were  used  at  the  same  banquet ;  and  sometimes  the  guests  were  treated  with 
different  sorts  according  to  their  rank.  —  7.  From  the  fact  that  the  wines 
were  so  often  inspissated,  it  was  common  to  dilute  them  for  actual  use,  among 
the  Romans  as  well  as  among  the  Greeks  ;  for  this  purpose  icarmox  hot  water 


DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       DRINKING-CUPS.    COSTUMES.  633 

seems  to  have  been  frequently  used.  The  mixture  was  made  in  a  large  vase 
called  crater.  From  this  it  was  poured  into  cups  (pocula),  of  which  there 
were  almost  countless  varieties. 

Some  of  the  names  employed  to  designate  varieties  of  the  drinking  cup  were  the  following  ; 
caliccs,  phialm,  scyphi,  cymbia,  batiolce.  They  were  made  of  wood  (farina  pocula),  or  of  earth 
(fictilia)  ;  of  glass  (vitrea)  and  of  amber  (succina)  ;  also  of  bronze,  silver  and  gold,  with  various 
ornaments  (toreumata  vasa,  sculpta) ;  of  gems  or  precious  stones,  and  of  the  substance  called 
murrha  (cf.  P.  I.  §  195.  4).  The  specimens  of  these  articles  still  remaining  show  great  skill  in 
workmanship. 

In  our  Plate  XXVIII,  are  seen  a  number  of  the  vessels  connected  with  the  ancient  use  of 
wine.  Fig.  a  is  ajar  filled  with  grapes,  copied  from  paintings  on  the  walls  of  an  edifice  found 
at  Pompeii  and  called  the  Pantheon.  —  Fig.  6  is  drawn  from  an  Egyptian  monument;  and 
shows  a  mode  of  obtaining  the  juice  by  treading  on  the  grapes  collected  in  a  vat.  —  Fig.  2  is 
copied  from  the  painting  mentioned  above  as  found  at  Pompeii  ;  it  shows  a  mode  of  carrying 
wine  about  for  sale ;  a  slave  is  filling  an  amphora  from  the  leathern  vessel  in  the  carriage,  and 
another  slave  holds  a  second  amphora  to  be  filled.  —  Figs,  b,  c,  and  d,  are  wine  vessels,  from 
Egyptian  monuments  ;  c  very  exactly  resembling  the  Roman  amphora  ;  and  b,  a  form  still  in 
actual  use  in  Egypt  for  water.  —  Figs.  e,f,  g,  h,  i,  represent  glass  vessels  found  at  Pompeii  ; 
A  is  probably  a  drinking  cup.  —  Figs.  ?(  and  o  are  also  drinking  cups,  and  may  illustrate  the 
Greek  crater  ;  cf.  Boyd's  Potter,  p.  699.  —  Fig.  7  shows  two  elegant  glass  cups  whicli  seem  to 
have  been  cut,  or  else  cast  in  a  mould.  —  Fig.  5  presents  in  the  hand  of  the  Bacchanal  a  cup 
of  another  form  ;  wine  vessels  also  appear  on  the  small  table  which  stands  by  the  splendid 
couch  on  which  he  reclines  with  a  garland  on  his  head  and  the  thyrsus  in  the  other  hand  ;  a 
monument  from  Pompeii.  —  Fig.  3  is  a  vessel  of  form  like  one  of  those  seen  on  the  table  of  the 
Bacchanal,  given  on  a  larger  scale  and  showing  its  ornaments  ;  it  represents  the  patera,  often 

used  in  libations. Cf.  Pownall,  on  a  Roman  "  drinking-cup  wrought  of  solid  chrystnl,"- 

Archmolos'ia,  cited  P.  I.  $  243.  3.  vol  vu.  p.  180. On  the  topics  of  the  above  section,  Hen- 
derson's History  of  wines,  cited  §  161. 

§  332.  The  fashion  of  dress  among  the  Romans  underwent 
changes  in  different  periods,  but  less  in  respect  to  form  than  ine- 
quality and  expensiveness  of  the  materials,  and  the  ornaments. — The 
most  general  and  peculiar  garment  of  the  Romans  was  the  toga,  a 
national  characteristic,  whence  the  Romans  were  termed  Gens  toga- 
ta,  and  Togati,  while  the  Greeks  were  termed  Palliati.  It  was  a 
loose  robe  or  sort  of  cloak,  extending  from  the  neck  to  the  feet,  close 
below  up  to  the  breast,  but  open  above  the  breast,  and  without 
sleeves.  It  was  therefore  not  put  on,  properly  speaking,  but  thrown 
over  the  body.  It  was  commonly  of  wool,  and  white  in  color ;  black, 
toga  pulla,  being  used  only  on  funeral  occasions.  The  toga  worn 
in  the  house  was  less  loose  and  ample  (toga  restricta)  :  that  used  in 
going  out,  commonly  larger  and  flowing  with  many  folds  (fusa). 

1.  Some  of  the  priests  and  magistrates  wore  it  bordered  with  purple  (togaprm~ 
texta)  ;  this  was  also  worn  by  freeborn  youth,  who,  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 
exchanged  it  for  the  toga  virilis  or  pur  a,  which  was  assumed  in  a  very  formal 
manner  before  the  Praetor,  in  the  Forum. 

2.  A  statue  of  one  Marcus  Tullius,  by  some  supposed  to  be  a  descendant  of  the  great  Cicero, 
was  found  at  Pompeii  ;  "  he  is  represented  clothed  in  a  tog* prwtexta,  the  robe  of  office  of  the- 
Roman  magistrates  ;  and,  which  adds  value  and  singularity  to  the  statue,  this  robe  is  entirely 
painted  with  a  deep  purple  violet  color.  This  seems  to  give  reason  for  believing,  that  the  prae- 
te.xta,  instead  of  being  a  garment  with  only  a  purple  hem,  as  it  is  usually  explained,  was  en- 
tirely dyed  with  this  precious  color  ;  at  least  in  the  later  times  of  the  republic.  The  price  of 
this  purple  was  enormous  ;  the  violet,  though  the  less  costly  sort,  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have  been 
worth  100  denarii  (about  £3  4s.  7d.)  the  pound  ;  the  red  is  valued  by  the  same  authority  at 
1000  denarii.  It  was  obtained  from  the  murex,  a  shell  fish  found  in  various  parts  of  the  Medi- 
terranean."    Pompeii,  p.  205. 

On  the  age  for  assuming  the  toga,  cf.  Dodwell,  de  state  tog.  vir.  sumenda?,  in  his  Prelect*. 
Acad,  (cited' P.  II.  $  542.  7.)  p.  245."—  On  the  color  of  the  toga,  Amcilhon,  sur  la  teinture  des 
anciens,  Mem  dc  Vhistitut,  Classe  de  Lit.  et  Beaux  Arts.  vol.  I.  p.  549.  vol.  in.  p.  357. 

§  333.  The  garment  which  the  Romans  wore  under  the  robe,  was 
the  tunic  (tunica).  It  was  worn  close  to  the  body,  without  sleeves 
and  extending  almost  to  the  knees.  It  was  entirely  open,  and  fas- 
tened by  means  of  a  girdle  above  the  hips.  It  was  commonly,  like 
the  toga,  white.  In  later  times  the  tunic  was  worn  with  sleeves.  — 
With  slaves  and  the  poorer  class  of  citizens  generally,  this  was  the 
only  clothing,  except  the  linen  under-garment  or  shirt  (indusium,  sub^ 


634  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

ucula)  which  had  small  sleeves.  The  higher  classes  never  appeared 
abroad  without  the  addition  of  the  toga.  In  winter  the  latter  often 
wore  another  garment  under  it,  called  tunica  interior  or  interula. 

1m.  Senators  and  their  sons  wore  a  tunic  bordered  in  front  on  the  right  side 
with  a  stripe  of  purple,  called  clavus;  knights  (equites)  had  two  such  stripes, 
but  narrower ;  whence  the  tunic  of  the  senators  was  called  laticlavia,  that  of 
the  knights  angusticlavia. 

2.  The  emperors  exercised  the  prerogative  of  bestowing  the  distinction  of  the  laticlave  upon 
such  persons  as  they  considered  worthy  of  the  honor.     Cf.  Pliny,  Ep.  ii.  9. 

§  334  £.  The  women  used  the  tunic,  with  a  girdle,  as  well  as  the 
men  ;  only  that  of  the  women  reached  down  to  the  feet.  They  wore 
also  an  over-garment  extending  to  the  feet,  called  stola,  having  a 
broad  border  or  fringe  (limbus)  called  instita.  Some  consider  the 
palla  to  be  a  robe  worn  over  the  stola,  others  think  them  both  the 
same  garment.  The  women  sometimes  wore  a  fine  robe  of  a  circu- 
lar form  called  cyclas.  The  mourning  robe  of  women  was  called  ri- 
cinium  or  rica,  covering  the  head  and  shoulders.  The  amiculum  was 
a  short  mantle,  or  veil,  worn  by  the  women. 

"  A  female  statue,  of  the  size  of  life,  was  found  within  the  cellar  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Fortune  at  Pompeii,  clothed  in  a  tunic  falling  to  her  feet  and  above  it  a 
toga.  The  border  of  the  former  is  gilt ;  the  latter  is  edged  with  a  red  purple 
bandeau,  an  inch  and  a  quarter  wide ;  the  right  arm  is  pressed  upon  the 
bosom  with  the  hand  elevated  to  the  chin,  while  the  left  hand  holds  up  the 
toga." 

§  335.  There  were  other  kinds  of  outer  garments  more  or  less  in 
use.  The  Icena  was  a  thick  woollen  over-coat,  used  in  journeying; 
this  name  was  also  given  to  the  purple  robe  of  the  Flamines  (§214), 
which  was  fastened  about  the  neck  with  a  buckle  or  clasp.  The 
paludamentum,  or  chlamys,  was  a  long  Grecian  cloak  of  scarlet  color 
bordered  with  purple,  used  specially  by  generals  and  high  military 
officers.  The  sagum  was  a  soldier's  cloak  of  red  color,  covering 
only  the  back  and  shoulders,  fastened  by  a  clasp.  The  lacerna  was 
a  kind  of  rain  cloak,  very  broad  and  usually  with  a  hood  or  covering 
for  the  head  (cucullus,  capitium).  The  pmnula  was  a  robe  similar 
to  the  toga,  and  more  frequently  used  under  the  emperors. 

The  materials  of  which  the  Roman  garments  were  made,  were  chiefly  linen 
and  woollen.  Silk  was  unknown  to  them  until  the  close  of  the  republic.  The 
Romans  seem  to  have  remained  ignorant  how  silk  was  produced,  for  a  long 
time  after  the  article  was  introduced  among  them  by  importation  from  the 
country  of  the  Seres.  Nor  did  they  at  first  use  it  without  intermixing  linen 
or  woollen  in  texture  with  it ;  for  which  purpose  even  the  silk  stuffs,  which 
were  brought  from  the  east  in  a  woven  state,  were  unraveled  ;  cloth  of  this 
mixed  texture  is  said  to  have  been  first  fabricated  in  the  island  of  Cos.  The 
Coan  vestments  (vestes  Coo)  appear  to  have  been  of  a  very  loose  texture,  al- 
most like  muslin  or  gauze ;  hence  called  ventus  textilis,  woven  wind.  The 
Seric  vestments  (vestes  Serica)  are  supposed  to  mean  such  as  consisted  of  pure 
silk.  The  term  bombycina  was  sometimes  applied  to  both,  although  it  seems 
to  have  been  considered  as  more  appropriate  for  the  Coan  article  ;  as  that  was 
at  length  known  to  come  from  a  worm  ((ivu(iu:,  bombyx),  while  the  Seric  was 
still  imagined  to  be  gathered  from  the  leaves  of  trees  (Virgil,  Georg.  ii.  121). 
Silk  was  considered  as  proper  chiefly  for  the  garments  of  females.  The  em- 
peror Heliogabalus  is  severely  condemned  as  being  the  first  who  wore  a  robe 
of  pure  silk. 

Cf.  Article  Seres,  in  Anthon's  Lempriere. On  the  Roman  costume,  see  Maillot  8;  Martin, 

cited  §  197.  —  Ameilhon,  L'usage  des  Soie  chez  les  anciens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Jnscr.  vol.  xlvi, 
p.  452.—  Qibbon,  Rom.  Emp.  ch.  xl.  —  Mahudel,  Origine  de  le  Soie,  in  the  Mem.  &c.  vol.  v.  p. 
218. For  some  illustrations,  see  Plate  XX. ;  cf.  $  1C9. 


PLATE     XXVIII. 


1       mmmmmmm 

lol  lo|  id    |o|  |o|    |o|  |0I   lol  lol   lol  iol  Ml  HI   M  im~iiirN;r7Tno 


636  ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

§  336.  The  Romans  usually  went  with  the  head  uncovered,  of 
tirew  over  it  a  part  of  the  toga ;  except  at  sacred  rites  and  festivals, 
on  journeys,  and  in  war.  At  the  festival  of  the  Saturnalia,  particu- 
larly, they  wore  a  sort  of  bonnet  or  woollen  cap  (pileus),  which, 
however,  was  allowed  only  to  the  free  by  birth  or  manumission,  but 
forbidden  to  slaves.  The  peiasus  was  a  sort  of  broad-brimmed  hat, 
used  in  journeying.  —  There  were  various  coverings  for  the  feet. 
The  calcei  were  somewhat  like  our  shoes,  and  covered  the  whole 
loot,  and  often  with  their  lacings  (corrigia,  ligula)  covered  the  an- 
cles and  the  lower  part  of  the  leg.  Shoes  of  strong  untanned  leath- 
er were  termed  perones.  The  caligcB  were  a  kind  of  half  boot,  worn 
by  soldiers.  The  sokes  and  crepidat  were  sandals,  covering  only  the 
bottom  of  the  feet,  and  were  fastened  by  leather  thongs  and  bands 
{vinculo)  passing  above. 

The  shoe  of  senators  came  up  to  the  middle  of  the  leg,  and  had  on  the  top 
of  the  foot  a  golden  or  silver  crescent,  or  letter  C  (hence  lunata  pellis,  patri- 
■cia  luna).  The  shoes  of  the  men  were  usually  black  }  those  of  women  com- 
monly white,  sometimes  of  a  red,  yellow,  or  other  color.  The  mullei  were  of 
a  reddish  dye  ;  worn  first  by  the  kings,  afterwards  by  those  who  had  borne 
any  curule  office.  Sometimes  the  Romans  used  socks  made  of  wool  or  goat's 
hair,  udones.  The  thighs  and  legs  were  sometimes  bound  around  with  a  sort 
of  scarfs  (fascia),  which  were  all  in  the  Roman  dress  that  corresponded  to 
modern  pantaloons  or  breeches  (femoralia)  and  stockings  (tibiolia).  —  The 
shoes  of  comedians  were  termed  socci ;  those  of  tragedians,  cothurni  (cf.  §89, 
169)  ;  those  of  pantomimes,  or  the  rattling  appendages  to  them,  scabella. 

§  337.  The  hair,  both  of  the  head  and  beard,  was  allowed  by  the 
more  ancient  Romans  to  grow  freely,  and  was  but  seldom  cut.  In 
the  fifth  century  after  the  building  of  the  city,  it  first  became  a  com- 
mon custom  to  cut  the  hair  more  frequently,  and  also  to  frizzle  and 
anoint  it.  Young  persons  were  accustomed  to  draw  the  hair  back- 
wards and  bind  it  together  in  a  knot,  for  a  sort  of  ornament. 

1  u.  When  the  toga  virilis  was  assumed  (§  332),  the  hair  of  the  youth  was 
shorn  and  a  part  of  it  cast  into  the  fire  in  honor  of  Apollo,  and  a  part  of  it  into 
the  water  in  honor  of  Neptune.  It  was  also  customary,  on  the  first  shaving 
of  the  beard,  to  consecrate  it  to  some  deity.  Under  the  emperors  false  hair 
Were  used,  by  a  contrivance  like  a  peruke  ( capillamentum,  galericulum). 

2.  Among  the  ornaments  of  the  youth  was  the  bulla,  a  sort  of  ball,  which 
hung  from  the  neck  on  the  breast.  The  boys,  who  were  sons  of  citizens  of 
the  higher  ranks,  wore  one  of  gold  (bulla  aurea) ;  it  was  usually  a  hollow 
sphere  ;  but  other  forms,  and  particularly  the  image  of  a  heart,  were  intro- 
duced. The  sons  of  freed-men  and  poorer  citizens  used  only  a  leathern  ball 
(bulla  scortea).  Thi6  ornament  was  laid  aside  when  the  toga  virilis  was  as- 
sumed (§  332),  on  which  occasion  the  bulla  was  consecrated  to  the  lares  or 
other  divinities. 

Baudclot,  Bulle  que  les  enfants  Rom.  portoient  au  cou,  in  the  Mem.  Jlcad.  Tiiscr.  vol.  ill.  p. 

211. Fig.  1,  of  our  Plate  XX.,  is  an  altar-shaped  box,  worn  by  loose  Women  of  the  Hindoo 

temples,  upon  their  necks  ;  richly  ornamented  with  jewels.  Boxes  like  this,  or  bags,  seem  to 
have  been  formerly  worn  on  the  neck  to  contain  perfumes.  Cf.  Istd.  iii.  20  (the  tablets),  and 
Sol.  Song.  i.  13.  —  The  figure  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  Roman  bulla. 

§  338.  Still  greater  care  was  bestowed  by  the  women  upon  the 
dress  of  their  hair,  which  they  frizzled,  plaited  in  locks  and  curls, 
and  adorned  with  golden  chains,  with  pearls,  rings,  and  ribands. 
The  most  modest  fashion  was  the  use  of  a  broad  riband  or  fillet 
(vitta),  by  which  they  gathered  and  bound  the  hair  in  a  bunch  or 
knot.  Besides  the  ointments  by  which  they  made  their  hair  more 
glossy,  it  became  fashionable  in  later  times  to  color  it,  and  even  to 
scatter  gold  dust  upon  it. 


DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS,       PERSONAL  ORNAMENTS.    FUNERALS.        637 

1  1.  The  Roman  women  often  used  paint  (fucus)  to  improve  the  color  of  the 
face  as  well  as  the  hair ;  both  white  Ccerussa  or  cretaj  and  red  (minium).  Va- 
rious cosmetics  and  washes  (medicamina,  smegmata)  were  likewise  used  for  a 
similar  purpose.  Effeminate  men  did  the  same.  The  mirrors  (specula)  used 
at  the  toilet  were  made  of  polished  metal,  commonly  brass  or  steel,  also  of  sil- 
ver;  sometimes  of  glass  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvi.  26,  36).  Cf.  Menard,  cited 
§  169.  6. Among  the  personal  ornaments  of  the  Roman  ladies  were  ear- 
rings, necklaces,  and  finger-rings.  The  ear-rings  (inaures)  were  of  gold, 
pearls,  and  gems,  sometimes  of  immense  value.  Necklaces  (monilia)  were 
often  of  gold  set  with  gems.  The  men  also  used  an  ornament  for  the  neck, 
which  was  a  sort  of  twisted  chain  (torques),  or  a  circular  plate  (circulus  auri). 
Finger-rings  (annuli)  were  of  various  forms  and  devices,  commonly  set  with 
engraved  gems  (cf.  P.  I.  §  205,  206),  and  used  not  merely  for  ornaments,  but 
tor  sealing  papers,  caskets,  and  even  large  packages  or  vessels  ;  hence  perhaps 
they  obtained  the  name  of  symbola.  The  ring  was  a  very  common  ornament 
among  the  men  ;  originally  only  senators  and  equites  (§  255)  were  allowed  to 
were  gold  rings  ;  plebeians  could  wear  only  iron  rings  except  by  special  al- 
lowance ;  those  who  triumphed  also  wore  an  iron  ring  (ferreus  sine  gemma). 

2.  Specimens  of  most  of  these  ornaments  have  been  found  at  Pompeii.  A  gold  ring,  with  an 
engraved  gem  set  in  it,  was  found  near  a  temple,  in  a  I  ox  along  with  41  silver  coins  and  above 
1000  of  brass.  In  several  of  the  houses  were  found  skeletons  with  rings,  bracelets  (armillce), 
necklaces,  and  other  ornaments.  Of  these  specimens  we  only  mention  further  an  ear-ring  of 
gold,  which  had  two  pearl  pendants  ;  and  a  breast-pin,  to  which  was  attached  a  Bacchanalian 
figure,  with  a  patera  in  one  hand  and  a  glass  in  the  other,  having  bat's  wings  joined  to  his 
shoulders  and  two  belts  of  grapes  passing  across  his  body.  This  curious  breast-pin  is  given 
in  our  Plate  V.  fig.  i.  —  In  the  same  Plate,  figs,  o,  and  h,  and  r,  are  ear-pendents,  from  Mont- 
faucon.  Fig.  4  shows  the  ring  which  was  passed  through  the  ear.  —  Fig.  g  is  a  pendent  with 
a  pin  to  attach  it  to  a  bandeau  or  some  part  of  the  head-dress.  —  This  plate  also  shows  a  varie- 
ty of  rings  ;  cf.  P.  I.  $206.  — The  torques  is  seen  in  fig  1,  of  Plate  IV.,  cf.  P.  I.  $186.  9;  also 
in  fig.  5,  Plate  XXVIII. ;  the  latter  is  perhaps  the  necklace.  —  A  mirror,  with  a  box  of  pins, 
&.C  upon  a  toilet-table,  is  seen  in  Plate  XX.  figs.  3  and  4.  Fig.  2  is  a  metallic  purse  for  coins 
and  jewels,  from  an  Egyptian  monument.  The  Plate  also  shows  various  forms  of  the  head- 
dress.   Cf.  R.  A.  Bottiger,  Sabina,  oder  Morgenscenen  im  Putzzimmer  einer  reichen  Ro- 

rnerinn.  Leipz.  1806.  2  th.  8.  —JVadal,  Luxe  des  dames  Romaines,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr. 
vol.  iv.  p.  227. 

§  339.  It  remains  yet  to  mention  some  of  the  more  remarkable 
features  in  the  funeral  customs  of  the  Romans.  The  dying  received 
from  their  relatives  and  friends  present  the  last  tokens  of  love  by  em- 
braces and  kisses.  As  soon  as  they  were  dead,  the  nearest  relatives 
closed  their  eyes  and  mouth,  and  drew  the  rings  from  their  fingers. 
The  corpse  was  then  washed  in  hot  water,  and  anointed  by  the 
slaves  (pollinctores)  of  the  person  taking  charge  of  funerals  (libiti- 
narius).  It  was  then  covered  with  clothing  suitable  to  the  rank  of 
the  deceased,  which,  like  that  of  the  mourners,  sometimes  (§  340.  3) 
was  white.  Such  as  had  been  distinguished  by  a  victory  were 
adorned  with  a  crown  of  palm  leaf.  The  corpse  was  then  brought 
into  the  vestibulum  of  the  house,  placed  on  a  bier,  and  there  left  for 
some  days.  This  exposure  was  termed  collocatio,  and  the  couch  or 
bier,  lectus  feralis.  During  the  time  of  this  exposure,  there  were 
frequent  and  loud  outcries  (condamatio) ,  accompanied  by  the  strong- 
est expressions  of  grief  and  sorrow.  A  branch  of  cypress  or  pine 
was  usually  fixed  before  the  door  of  the  house.  — Children  and  youth 
of  both  sexes  were  interred  by  night,  with  lighted  torches,  without 
attendants  ;  but  adults  on  the  other  hand  by  day,  and  with  more  or 
less  ceremony  according  to  their  rank. 

Claude  de  Ouichard,  On  the  Funerals  of  the  Ancients.  Rom.  1600.  4.  —  J.  Klrchmann,  De  Fu- 
neribus  Romanorum  (Libri  iv.).    Lub.  1672.  12. 

§  340.    Among   the  Romans,  both  interring  and    burning  were 
practiced  from  the  earliest  times.     The  ceremonies  connected  with 
the  funeral  (elatio,  exequies)  were  the  following,  chiefly.     The  fune- 
54 


638  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

ral  of  a  distinguished  person  was  previously  announced  in  the  city  by 
a  herald,  and  therefore  called  funus  indictivum,  and,  if  the  expenses 
were  defrayed  by  the  city,  funus  publicum.  In  the  procession,  the 
musicians  and  women  hired  as  mourners  (prceftcee)  advanced  first, 
uttering  lamentations  and  singing  the  funeral  songs  (nccnia,  cf.  P. 
II.  §  333.  2) ;  then  came  those  who  bore  the  images  of  the  ancestors; 
next  the  relatives,  all  in  black,  with  other  indications  of  grief;  then 
followed  players,  mimics,  and  dancers  (ludii,  histriones),  one  of  them 
(archimimus)  imitating  the  words  and  actions  of  the  deceased,  and 
others  quoting  pertinent  passages  from  dramatic  writings ;  after  them 
followed  the  corpse,  carried  by  bearers ;  and  lastly  a  train,  frequently 
very  numerous,  of  both  sexes. 

1  u.  The  corpse  was  borne  in  a  couch  (lectica)  on  the  shoulders,  usually  by 
the  freed-men  of  the  deceased,  but  often,  in  case  of  high  rank,  by  senators 
and  the  most  distinguished  citizens.  In  the  case  of  the  poorer  and  lower 
classes,  the  corpse  was  borne  on  a  small  bier  (sandapila),  by  ordinary  coffin- 
bearers  Cvespilloncs,  sandapilarii). 

The  rich  and  noble  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  exposed,  and  carried  to  their  buri- 
al, on  elegant  and  costly  couches,  sometimes  made  of  ivory,  and  gilded  with  gold.  That  of 
Herod  is  said  to  have  been  all  of  gold,  and  inlaid  with  precious  stones.  Cf.  Luke,  xiv.  12.  In 
our  Plate  XV.,  fig.  e,  we  have  a  funeral  couch,  which  Will  illustrate  these  remarks ;  it  is  given 
by  Roberts  as  used  now  in  India. 

2u.  The  procession,  when  formally  conducted,  passed  through  the  forum, 
where,  if  the  deceased  had  been  a  person  of  distinction,  the  body  was  laid 
before  the  place  of  harangue  (rostra),  and  a  eulogy  (laudatio)  was  delivered  by 
some  relative  or  friend,  or  a  magistrate,  sometimes  by  appointment  of  the  senate. 

One  is  struck  with  the  difference  between  Roman  and  Egyptian  customs.  The  Egyptians 
brought  the  deceased  to  a  trial,  instead  of  a  eulogy.    Cf.  P.  III.  §  34. 

3.  Women  were  sometimes  honored  with  the  funeral  eulogy  as  well  as  men. 
For  example,  Junia,  the  sister  of  Brutus  and  widow  of  Cassius,  received  the 
honor  of  a  public  funeral  and  a  panegyric  spoken  from  the  rostrum.  The  im- 
ages of  not  less  than  twenty  illustrious  families  were  seen  in  the  procession  'T 
viginti  clarissimarum  familiarum  imagines  antelatce  sunt.  (Tac.  Ann.  iii. 
76.)  —  The  images  of  ancestors,  which  were  thus  used  at  funerals,  were  the 
busts  which  the  higher  class  of  Romans  kept  in  their  halls  (P.  I.  §  164). 

In  Anthori's  Horace,  in  a  note  on  Sat.  vi.  17,  is  the  following  remark  ;  "  One  particular  rela- 
tive to  the  mode  in  which  these  images  were  exhibited,  deserves  attention.  They  were  not 
carried  before  the  deceased  at  funerals,  as  Dr.  Adam  (Rom.  Ant.)  states,  but  actors  were  em- 
ployed to  personate  the  individual  ancestors,  and  these  busts  or  images  formed  a  part  of  the 
disguise."     On  this  topic,  consult  Polybius,  vi.  51,  52. 

4.  "  As  to  the  mourning  habits,  it  has  been  already  observed,  that  the  sena- 
tors sometimes  on  these  occasions  went  attired  like  knights,  the  magistrates  like 
senators,  &c,  and  that  the  common  wear  for  mourners  was  black.  But  we 
may  further  remark,  that  though  this  was  the  ordinary  color  to  express  their 
grief,  used  alike  by  both  sexes  ;  yet  after  the  establishment  of  the  empire 
when  abundance  of  party  colors  came  in  fashion,  the  old  primitive  white 
grew  so  much  into  contempt,  that  at  last  it  became  proper  to  the  women  for 
their  mourning  clothes.  —  The  matter  of  fact  is  evident  from  the  authority  of 
Plutarch,  who  states  this  as  the  subject  of  one  of  his  problems  [or  questions, 
cf.  P.  II.  §  249.  2],  and  gives  several  reasons  for  the  practice."     Kennett. 

§  341.  The  place  of  burning,  as  also  of  interring,  was  without  the 
city.  In  case  of  the  former,  the  procession  finds  the  funeral  pile 
(rogus,  pyra)  already  prepared,  its  height  being  in  proportion  to  the 
rank  and  wealth  of  the  deceased.  Upon  this  they  lay  the  corpse, 
having  sprinkled  it  over  with  spices  or  anointed  it  with  oil ;  it  is  then 
kindled  with  a  torch  by  the  nearest  relatives,  who  do  it  with  averted 
face  (aversi).  Weapons,  garments,  and  other  articles  possessed  by 
the  deceased,  were  thrown  upon  the  pile ;  also  various  things  which 
were  presented  as  offerings  to  the  dead  (munera,  dona).  When  the 
whole  was  consumed,  the  embers  were  quenched  with  wine,  then 


DOMESTIC    AFFAIRS.       FUNERALS.     TOMBS.  639 

followed  the  collecting  of  the  bones  (ossilegium) ;  these  were  placed 
in  an  urn  (feralis  urna)  of  clay,  stone,  or  metals,  along  with  some 
of  the  ashes,  also  spices  and  perfumes  and  sometimes  a  small  phial 
of  tears  (lachrymcB)  ;  and  the  urn  was  solemnly  deposited  in  the 
earth  [tumulus)  or  tomb  (sepulchrum,  conditorium,  cinerarium). 

lu.    Corpses  that  were  not  to  be  burned,  but  merely  interred,  which  was 
altogether  the  most  common  practice   among  the  Romans,  were  placed  in  a' 
marble  coffin  called  area  or  sarcophagus.  — The  erection  of  monuments  to  the 
dead  (monuinenta)  was  a  very  common,  almost  universal  practice.  They  were 
not  always  raised  over  the  spot  of  burial. 

2.  Over  the  grave  of  one  buried  in  the  ground,  it  was  customary  to  raise  at 
least  a  mound  of  earth  (tumvlus).  When  a  monumental  structure  was  erect- 
ed, it  Usually  received  an  inscription  Ctitulus,  epitaphiumj  with  the  name  of 
the  deceased,  and  something  of  his  life  and  character.  Columns  or  pillars, 
particularly  small  cippi,  for  sepulchral  inscriptions,  appear  to  have  been  com- 
mon among  the  Romans,  as  well  as  the  Greeks  (cf.  §  187).  Sometimes  an 
inscription  was  put  on  the  coffin,  when  the  body  was  buried  in  the  earth. — 
Monuments  not  on  the  spot  of  burial  (tumuli  inanes  or  cenotaphia)  were  erect- 
ed among  the  Romans  for  the  same  reasons  as  among  the  Greeks. 

3.  There  were  public  and  private  places  of  burial.  The  public  were  com- 
monly in  the  Campus  Martius  or  Campus  Esquilinus,for  great  men,  on  whom 
the  honor  of  such  a  burial  place  was  conferred  by  vote  of  the  senate.  Those 
for  the  poor  were  without  the  Esquiline  gate,  and  called  puticula..  The  pri- 
vate burial  places  were  usually  in  gardens  or  fields  near  the  highways. 

4.  A  family  tomb  was  excavated  at  Pompeii,  which  may  be  considered  a  fair  representation 
of  such  structures  among  the  Romans  generally.  "  It  consists  of  a  square  building,  containing 
a  small  chamber,  by  the  side  of  which  is  a  door  giving  admission  to  a  small  court  surrounded 
by  a  high  wall.  The  entrance  to  the  chamber  is  at  the  back.  From  the  level  of  the  outer  wall 
there  rise  two  steps,  supporting  a  marble  cippus  richly  ornamented.  Its  front  is  occupied  by  a 
basrelief  and  inscription.  —  A  sort  of  solid  bench  for  the  reception  of  urns  runs  round  the  fu- 
neral chamber,  and  several  niches  for  the  same  purpose  are  hollowed  in  the  wall,  called  co- 
lumbaria from  their  resemblance  to  the  holes  of  a  pigeon  house.  Some  lamps  were  found  here, 
and  many  urns,  three  of  glass,  the  rest  of  common  earth.  The  glass  urns  were  of  large  size,  one 
of  them  J5  inches  in  height  by  10  in  diameter,  and  were  protected  by  leaden  cases.  They  con- 
tained burnt  bones,  and  a  liquid  which  has  been  analyzed  and  found  to  consist  of  mingled  water, 
wine,  and  oil.  This  liquid,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  was  the  libation  poured  upon  the  ashes." 

5.  Common  tombs  are  said  to  have  been  usually  built  under  ground,  and 
called  hypogcea.  Such  are  those  discovered  at  Voleterrse  and  other  places  in 
ancient  Etruria.  Cf.  P.  I.  §  173.3.  "Many  of  the  hypogoea  of  Tarquinia, 
in  Etruria,  are  similar  to  those  found  in  Egypt,  containing  a  number  of  rooms 
and  corridors  branching  out  in  various  directions ;  and  when  the  rooms  are  of 
a  large  size,  the  roof  is  supported  by  square  pillars.  The  walls  of  many  are 
coated  with  stucco  and  ornamented  with  paintings  representing,  sometimes  the 
arrival  of  the  soul  in  Hades,  and  the  punishments  inflicted  on  the  guilty;  but 
in  general,  mythological,  heroic,  and  civil  subjects." 

For  an  account  of  the  discoveiy  of  various  tombs  in  Etruria  in  1829,  see  Chevalier  Kestner, 
in  the  Annali  deW  Instituto  di  Correspondcnza  Archelogica.  Rom.  1829.  vol.  1st.  p.  101.  —  Cf.  J, 
jMillinoen,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  173.  3. 

6.  Roman  sepulchres  have  been  found  in  England  containing  urns  with  ashes  and  sarcophagi 
with  skeletons.  (Stuart's  Diet,  of  Architecture.)  —  A  Roman  burial  place  was  called,  in  the 
later  times,  Ustrinum,  or  Ustrina,  from  the  circumstance  of  burning  the  corpse.  One  of  these 
burial  places  was  discovered  in  1821,  at  Littington  ;  many  sepulchral  vessels  were  collected, 
which  are  said  to  be  preserved  in  the  library  of  Clare  Hall,  at  Cambridge.  —  In  the  parish  of 
Ashdon,  in  Essex  county,  are  several  artificial  sepulchral  mounds,  known  by  the  name  of  Bart- 
low  Hills.  Many  have  supposed  them  to  have  been  cast  up  after  a  battle  with  the  Danes.  They 
are  eight  in  number ;  four  larger  ones  in  a  line,  and  four  smaller  ones  in  a  line  in  their  front.  The 
smaller  ones  were  opened  in  1832,  and  relics  were  found  which  seem  clearly  to  prove  them  of 
Roman  origin.  In  one,  was  found  a  remarkable  brick  sepulchre  or  coffin  6  feet  and  3  inches 
long,  2  feet  and  3  1-2  inches  wide,  and  1  foot  and  11  inches  high.  There  were,  in  this  brick 
coffin  or  chest,  three  glass  vessels.  One  of  them  was  a  sort  of  urn,  eleven  and  a  half  inches 
high  and  ten  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  reeded  handle  ;  it  was  nearly  two  thirds 
full  of  a  clear  pale  yellow  liquor  covering  a  deposit  of  burnt  human  bones  ;  on  the  top  of  the 
bones  was  seen  lying  a  gold  ring,  which  was  found  to  be  a  signet-ring  having  a  carnelian  in- 
taglio, with  the  device  of  two  bearded  ears  of  corn.  Afterwards,  on  examination  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  urn,  a  brass  coin  was  found,  very  much  corroded,  bearing  the  head  of  the  emper- 
or Hadrian  on  the  obverse,  and  on  the  revere  a  figure  supposed  to  be  that  of  Fortuna  Redux. 
A  representation  of  the  brick  coffin,  with  the  vessels  in  it  as  they  were  found,  is  given  in  our 
Plate  XV,  fig.  hh.  One  of  the  larger  mounds  was  opened  in  April  1835.  An  urn  like  the  one 
above  described,  with  bones,  was  found  ;  also  other  similar  vessels,  two  bronze  strigiles,  and 
Other  articles,    A  bronze  vase,  with  colored  enamels,  was  among  the  most  remarkable  ( cf.  P.  I. 


640  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

$  173.  2).  —  Arclueologia  (as  cited  P.  I.  $  243.  2),  vol.  xxv.  p.  1.  xxvi.  p.  300,  368,  with,  en- 
gravings. 

7.  The  phials,  or  small  vessels,  which  are  supposed  to  have  received  the  tears  of  relatives 
shed  at  funerals,  have  been  found  in  great  number,  and  of  various  forms.  They  are  termed 
lachrymatories  (urncs  lacliry males).  The  tears  are  said  to  have  been  kneaded  and  compounded 
with  odoriferous  balsams.  It  has  also  been  supposed  that  the  vessels  might  have  contained 
merely  a  preparation  of  fragrant  essences,  which  were  figuratively  called  tears.  The  lachryma- 
tories found  in  tne  ancient  tombs  are  sometimes  of  terra  cotta,  sometimes  of  alabaster  (cf.  P.  I. 
§  195.  5),  frequently  of  glass  (cf.  §  268.  3).  Many  of  the  latter  material  have  been  gathered 
from  the  catacombs  in  the  island  Milo,  the  ancient  Melos  one  of  the  Cyclades  (cf.  P.  V.  §  146). 
"  Among  the  decayed  bones  are  found  coins,  ornaments  of  gold  and  precious  stones  for  the  ears, 
lamps,  lachrymatory  vases,  with  large  quantities  of  glass,  earthern  and  copper  vessels,  probably., 
for  oils  and  perfumes.  *  *  Many  of  the  earthern  cups  are  of  the  form  we  call  Etruscan  ;  the 
larger  are  painted  with  a  light  pencil  ;  often  only  the  outlines  are  given,  but  generally  with 
much  spirit.  The  question  whether  the  ancients  knew  the  use  of  glass  was  settled  by  the  discov- 
eries in  Pompeii  ;  this  is  the  first  I  have  heard  of  among  the  Greeks.  The  vesselsare  general- 
ly flat  at  the  bottom  and  four  inches  over  ;  they  rise  one  inch,  of  this  diameter,  and  then  sud- 
denly narrowing  to  the  diameter  of  an  inch  and  a  half,  pass  thus  to  the  height  of  seven  or 
eight  inches  ;  their  shape  is  much  like  that  of  a  candlestick.  But  I  have  several  other  forms 
running  through  a  considerable  variety."  Jones's  Sketch  of  Naval  Life.  New  Haven,  1829. 
2  vols.  12. — Cf.  Silliman's  Journal,  vol.  xvi.  p  333,  for  a  view  of  some  these  vases.  —  Speci- 
mens of  the  vases  from  this  island  are  in  the  Cabinet  of  Amherst  College.  —  Several  forms  of 
lachyrmatories  and  vasa  ungaentaria  are  given  in  our  Plate  XV.  fig  a,  and  fig.  d  d.  —  See  Mem . 
del'  Institut,  Classe  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  riu  p.  92.  sur  vases  lachrymatories. 

§  342.  A  period  of  mourning  was  observed  in  memory  of  the 
deceased;  its  duration  in  each  particular  case  was  fixed  bylaw;  in 
the  case  of  widows  it  continued  for  ten  months.  In  the  time  of  the 
emperors,  a  general  mourning  (luctus  publicus)  was  appointed  at  their 
decease  or  that  of  their  sons ;  a  thing  previously  not  practiced,  ex- 
cept on  occasions  of  great  public  calamity. — Immediately  after  the 
funeral  obsequies,  it  was  also  customary  to  slay  the  victims  (called 
inf erics)  offered  in  sacrifice  to  the  departed,  and  to  connect  therewith 
a  solemn  funeral  repast. 

1m.  When  the  deceased  was  of  distinguished  character,  this  repast  or  enter- 
tainment was  publicly  given,  and  meat  was  sometimes  distributed  among  the 
people  (visceratio) .  These  funeral  sacrifices  were  annually  repeated  at  the 
graves  or  spot  of  interment.  On  such  occasions,  public  games  (ludi  fun- 
ebres)  were  appointed,  especially  gladiatoral  sports. 

2.  Gladiatorial  shows  probably  had  their  origin,  as  has  been  observed  (§  235), 
in  funeral  celebrations.  And,  although  they  were  exhibited  on  many  other 
occasions,  "  yet  the  primitive  custom  of  presenting  them  at  the  funerals  of 
great  men,  all  along  prevailed  in  the  city  and  Roman  provinces ;  nor  was  it 
confined  only  to  persons  of  quality,  but  almost  every  rich  man  was  honored 
with  this  solemnity  after  his  death  ;  and  this  they  very  commonly  provided 
fbr  in  their  wills,  defining  the  number  of  gladiators,  as  their  due  by  long  cus- 
tom. Suetonius  to  this  purpose  tells  us  of  a  funeral,  in  which  the  common 
people  extorted  money  by  force  from  the  deceased  person's  heirs,  to  be  expend- 
ed on  this  account."     (Kcnnctt.) 

3.  A  very  vivid  picture  of  the  funeral  sacrifices  and  games  annually  repeated  at  the  graves 
of  the  deceased  is  given  by  Virgil  in  the  fifth  book  of  the  ^Eneid,  where  he  describes  the  hon- 
ors rendered  by  ^Eneas  to  the  manes  of  his  father  Anchises.  He  mentions  particularly  a  con- 
test in  rowing  galleys,  a  foot-race,  a  boxing-match,  a  trial  of  skill  in  shooting  arrows,  and  a 
mock  equestrian  battle  (pugnce  simulacra).     Cf.  §  187. 

§  343  u.  The  greatest  funeral  solemnity  among  the  Romans  was  the  deifica- 
tion (consecratio)  of  the  emperors,  something  like  the  apotheosis  of  Grecian 
heroes.  It  took  place  in  the  Campus  Martius,  where  the  image  of  the  person 
to  be  deified  was  placed  upon  a  lofty  funeral  pile.  From  this  pile,  whenever 
it  was  set  on  fire,  an  eagle,  previously  bound  alive  upon  it,  flew  aloft  in  the 
air;  which,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  people,  bore  the  soul  to  Olympus. 
The  deified  person  then  received  the  surname  or  appellation  Divus.  This  sol- 
emnity was  accompanied  also  with  religious  rites,  public  games  and  banquets. 
The  custom  did  not  entirely  cease  under  the  first  Christian  emperors. 

This  ceremony  was  wholly  distinct  from  the  funeral.  The  true  body  was  burned  and  the 
ashes  buried  in  the  usual  manner  and  with  a  splendid  show,before  these  rites  were  performed 
with  the  image  of  wax.  The  whole  ceremony  is  well  described  by  Herodian  (cf.  P.  II.  §  254), 
in  the  fourth  book  of  his  History, 


PART  V. 


CLASSICAL 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  CHRONOLOGY. 


54» 


PLATE    XXIX 


PLAN    OF    ANCIENT   ATHENS. 
(According  to  that  given  in  Barthelemy's  Anacharsis.) 


I   Porta   Fl 
nia. 

2.  Porta  Collina. 

3.  Porta  Vimina 

lis. 

4.  Porta  Esquili 

ni. 

5.  Porta  Nrevia. 

6.  Porta  Carmen 

talis. 

7.  Porta  Capena 

8.  Porta  Trium 

phalis. 

9.  Aqua  Claudia. 

10.  Aqua  Appia. 

11.  Aqua  Marcia. 

12.  Aqua  Julia. 

13.  Aqua  Virgo. 

a.  .TElian  Bridge. 

b.  Triumphal  Bridge. 

c.  Janiculensian  Bridge. 

d.  Bridge  of  Cestus. 

e.  Bridge  of  Fabricius. 

f.  Palatine  Bridge. 

g.  Subliciau  Bridge. 


h.  Temple  of  Jupiter  Ca 

pitolinUB. 
i.  Capitol. 

k.  Temple  of  Apollo. 
1.  Temple  of  Diana, 
m.  Forum  Boarium. 
n.  Forum  Nervs. 
o.  Forum  Augmti. 
p.  Forum  Trajani. 


PLAN   OF   ANCIENT   ROME. 
(Aa  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge.) 


EPITOME  OF  CLASSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Introduction. 

§  1.  The  earlier  Greeks  must  have  been  very  ignorant  of  the  neighboring- 
countries,  for  the  scenes  of  some  of  the  wildest  fictions  of  the  Odyssey  were 
within  a  few  hours  sail  of  Greece.  The  account  of  the  Argonautic  expedi- 
tion furnishes  a  still  stronger  proof  of  this,  for  these  adventurers  are  described 
as  having  departed  by  the  Hellespont  and  Euxine  sea,  and  as  having  return- 
ed through  the  straits  of  Hercules  ;  whence  it  manifestly  appears,  that  at  that 
time  the  Greeks  believed  that  there  was  a  connection  between  the  Palus  Maeo- 
tis  (sea  of  Azof)  and  the  Ocean. 

§  2.  In  later  times,  however,  the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  Athenians 
corrected  these  errors.  Their  ships  sailed  through  the  seas  to  the  east  of 
Europe  and  brought  home  such  accurate  information,  that  we  find  the  descrip- 
tion of  these  seas  and  the  neighboring  coasts  nearly  as  perfect  in  ancient  as 
in  modern  writers.  —  The  expedition  of  Clearchus  into  Asia,  related  in  the 
Anabasis  of  Xenophon  (cf.  P.  II.  243),  and  still  more  that  of  Alexander,  gave 
the  Greeks  opportunities  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  distant  regions  of 
the  east.  —  The  west  of  Europe  was  visited  and  described  by  the  Phoenicians, 
who  had  penetrated  even  to  the  British  Islands. 

From  these  different  descriptions  several  geographical  treatises  were  com- 
piled, all  of  which  were  in  a  great  measure  superseded  by  the  work  of  Ptole- 
my, styled  Syntaxis,  or,  as  the  Arabians  called  it,  Almagest  (P.  II.  §  218). 
This  embraced  all  the  astronomical  and  geographical  knowledge  of  the  an- 
cients, and  from  it  we  are  enabled  to  trace  with  some  degree  of  precision  the 
limits  of  the  ancient  world.  (Cf.  P.  II.  §  206  ss.) 

§  3.  The  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  were  known  by  name;  an  im- 
perfect sketch  of  India  limits  their  eastward  progress  ;  the  dry  and  parched 
deserts  of  Africa  prevented  their  advance  to  the  south  ;  and  the  Atlantic  ocean 
limited  the  known  world  on  the  west.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  all  the 
countries  within  these  limits  were  perfectly  known;  we  find,  that  even  within 
these  narrow  boundaries,  there  were  several  nations,  of  whom  the  ancient  geo- 
graphers knew  nothing  but  the  name. 

Let  us  attempt  to  trace  a  line,  which  would  form  a  boundary  including  the  whole  of  the 
earth  that  was  known  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy.  We  will  begin  at  Ferro,  one  of  the  Insula;  For- 
tunate (Canary  Islands,),  which  because  it  was  the  most  westerly  land  known,  was  taken  by 
Ptolemy  for  his  fixed  meridian.  Our  line  extending  hence  northerly  would  include  the  British 
Isles,  and  the  Shetland  Isles ;  the  latter  are  probably  designated  by  the  Thulc  of  the  ancients, 
according  to  d'Anville,  although  some  have  supposed  it  was  applied  to  Iceland.  From  the 
Shetland  Isles  the  line  would  pass  through  Sweden  and  Norway  probably  ;  perhaps  around  the 
North  cape,  as  it  has  been  thought  that  this  must  be  the  Rubeas  Promontormm  of  Ptolemy. 
The  line  would,  in  either  case,  be  continued  to  the  White  Sea  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Dwina, 
which  seems  to  be  described  by  Ptolemy  under  the  name  Carambucis.  Thence  it  would  ex- 
tend to  the  Ural  Mountains,  which  were  partially  known  by  the  name  of  Hyperborei ;  near 
which  the  poets  located  a  people  of  the  same  name  (Virg.  Georg.  i.  240J  said  to  live  in  all  pos- 
sible felicity.  From  these  mountains  the  line  would  pass  along  through  Scythia  to  the  northern 
part  of  the  Belur  Tag  Mountains,  the  ancient  Imaus.  Crossing  these,  it  enters,  the  region  of 
Kashgar  (in  Chinese  Tartary),  called  by  Ptolemy  CasiaRegio  j  a  region  of  which,  however,  he 
evidently  knew  little.  Our  line  would  be  continued  thence  to  the  place  called  by  the  ancients 
Sera;  which  is  most  probably  the  modern  Kan  or  Kan-tcheou,  near  the  north-west  corner  of 
China  and  the  termination  of  the  immense  wall  separating  China  and  Tartary.  From  Sera  or 
Kan,  it  must  be  carried  over  a  region,  probably  wholly  unknown  to  the  ancients,  to  a  place 
called  ThyniB  in  the  country  of  the  Sinai;  this  place  was  on  the  Cotiaris,  a  river  uniting  with  the 
Senus,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  modern  Gamboge.  On  the  coast,  which  we  now  approach 
with  our  line,  the  most  easterly  point  ('that  is  particularly  mentioned)  is  thought  to  be  Point 
Condor,  the  southern  extremity  of  Cambodia ;  this  was  called  Promontorium  Satyrorum,  and 


644 


CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


some  small  Isles  adjacent  Insula  Satyrorum,  because  monkies  were  found  here,  whose  appear- 
ance resembled  the  fabled  Satyrs.  The  general  ignorance  respecting  this  region  is  obvious  from 
the  fact,  that  it  was  imagined,  that  beyond  the  Promontory  of  Satyrs  the  coast  turned  first  to 
the  south  and  then  completely.to.the  west,  and  thus  proceeded  until  it  joined  Africa.  From  the 
point  or  cape  just  named,  the  boundary  we  are  tracing  would  run  around  the  Aurea  Chcrsonesus, 
or  peninsula  of  Malaya  or  Malacca,  take  in  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  anciently  called  Jabadii  Insula, 
and  pass  to  Taprobana  or  Salice,  the  modern  Ceylon.  Thence  sweeping  around  the  Maldives, 
called  by  Ptolemy  Insula  ante  Taprobanam,  and  crossing  the  equator  it  would  strike  Africa  at 
Cape  Delgrado,  supposed  to  correspond  to  the  Prasum  Promontorium ,  being  about  10  degrees  S. 
Latitude.  The  boundary  would  exclude  Madagascar  as  the  ancient  Mcnuthias  designates,  not 
Madagascar  as  has  been  conjectured,  but  most  probably  the  modern  Zanzibar.  It  may  be  im- 
possible to  trace  the  line  across  Africa;  of  the  interior  of  which  the  ancients  knew  more  than 
one  would  suppose,  judging  from  the  ignorance  of  the  moderns  on  the  subject.  The  line 
would  pass  south  of  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  Luna  Monies,  which  are  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy  ;  and  also,  in  part,  of  the  river  Niger,  which  as  d'Anvillc  remarks,  was  known  even  in 
the  time  of  Herodotus.  On  the  Atlantic  coast  the  line  would  come  out  a  little  south  of  Sierra 
Leone  at  Cape  St.  Anns  about  10  degrees  N.  Latitude  ;  this  point  answering  to  the  ancient 
Noti  Cornu,  Southern  Horn,  oft'  against  which  lay  the  islands  called  Insula  Hcspcridum.  From 
this  cape  our  line  passes   up  the  shore  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  Insula  Fortunate . 

From  this  it  is  obvious,  that  the  portion  of  the  earth  known  to  the  ancients  Mas  small  in 
proportion  to  the  whole.  It  has  been  said  with  probable  accuracy,  that  it  was  scarcely  one 
third  of  the  land,  now  known,  which  has  been  estimated  as  42  or  44  millions  of  square  miles  ; 
and  of  the  155  millions  of  square  miles  of  -water,  covering  the  rest  of  the  globe,  they  knew  al- 
most nothing. 

On  the  knowledge  of  the  ancients  respecting  the  earth,  Class.  Journ.  v.  103.  ix.  133. For 

the  principal  helps  in  studying  Classical  Geosraphy,  consult  the  references  given  P.  II.  $  7.  7 
(b) ;  see  also  P.  II.  $$  206-208,  371  ss. 

§  4.  The  division  of  the  earth  into  the  large  portions,  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  is  of  very  ancient  date  ;  but  although  the  names  have  been  preserved, 
the  boundaries  in  several  particulars  differed.  Egypt  was  formerly  reckoned 
among  the  Asiatic  kingdoms  ;  at  present  it  is  esteemed  part  of  Africa  :  Sar- 
matia  was  esteemed  part  of  Europe  ;  a  great  part  of  it  now  forms  one  of  the 
divisions  of  Asia. 

§  5.  The  division  of  the  earth  into  zones  has  remained  unaltered ;  but  the 
ancients  believed  that  the  Temperate  alone  were  habitable,  supposing  that  the 
extreme  heat  of  the  Torrid  and  extreme  cold  of  the  Frigid  zones  were  destruc- 
tive of  animal  life.  — Another  division,  introduced  by  Hipparchus,  was  that  of 
climates.  A  climate  is  a  space  included  between  two  parallels  of  latitude,  so 
that  the  longest  days  of  the  inhabitants  at  one  extremity  exceeds  that  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  other  by  half  an  hour.  Of  these,  eight  were  known.  The 
parallels  pass  successively  through  Meroe  on  the  Nile,  Sienne,  Alexandria  in 
Egypt,  Carthage,  Alexandria  in  the  Troas,  the  middle  of  the  Euxine  sea, 
Mount  Caucasus,  and  the  British  Islands. 

Note.  — In  studying  this  Epitome,  it  is  indispensable  to  success  that  some  Atlas  should  be 
used.  That  of  Butler  is  very  suitable  for  the  purpose.  The  student  need  not  commit  to  mem- 
ory in  the  usual  way.  Let  him  first  learn  the  general  divisions  and  names  of  the  countries  or 
provinces  included  in  the  lesson,  and  next  carefully  read  over  the  whole  lesson,  tracing  every 
thing,  as  far  as  possible,  on  his  maps.  For  recitation,  let  the  Teacher  question  him  on  the  maps 
of  the  Atlas,  or  on  large  maps  in  mere  outline,  prepared  for  the  purpose,  which  will  be  far  better. 


I.  Of  Europe. 


§  6.  Europe,  though  the  smallest,  is,  and  has  been  for  many  ages,  the  most 
important  division  of  the  earth.  It  has  attained  this  rank  from  the  superiority 
in  arts  and  sciences,  as  well  as  in  government  and  religion,  that  its  inhabitants 
have  long  possessed  over  degraded  Asia  and  barbarous  Africa. — It  derives  its 
name  from  Europa,  the  daughter  of  Agenor,  a  Phoenician  king,  who  being  car- 
ried away,  according  to  the  mythological  tales  (P.  III.  §  23J,  by  Jupiter  under 
the  disguise  of  a  bull,  gave  her  name  to  this  quarter  of  the  globe. 

§  7.  The  boundaries  of  ancient  and  modern  Europe  were  nearly  similar,  but 
we  learn  from  Sallust  that  some  geographers  reckoned  Africa  a  part  of  Europe. 
The  northern  ocean,  called  by  the  ancients  the  Icy  or  Saturnian,  bounds  it  on 
the  north  ;  the  north-eastern  part  of  Europe  joins  Asia,  but  no  boundary  line 
is  traced  by  ancient   writers  ;  the  remainder  of  its  eastern  boundaries  are  the 


EUROPE.       NORTHERN    COUNTRIES.  645 

Pal  us  Meeotis,  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  Euxine  sea,  Thracian  Bosphorus,  Pro- 
pontis,  Hellespont,  and  xEgean  sea  ;  the  Mediterranean  sea  is  the  southern  and 
the  Atlantic  ocean  the  western  boundary. 

§  8.  The  countries  of  the  mainland  of  Europe  may  be  arranged,  for  con- 
venience in  the  present  geographical  sketch,  in  three  divisions;  the  northern, 
middle,  and  southern.  The  islands  may  be  considered  in  a  separate  division. 
The  north  of  Europe  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  an- 
cients until  the  unwearied  ambition  of  the  Romans  stimulated  them  to  seek 
for  new  conquests  in  lands  previously  unnoticed.  From  these  countries,  in 
after  times,  came  the  barbarian  hordes  who  overran  Europe,  and  punished  se- 
verely the  excesses  of  Roman  ambition.  —  The  southern  division  contains 
the  countries,  which,  in  ancient  times,  were  the  most  distinguished  in  Europe 
for  their  civilization  and  refinement. 

The  Northern  countries,  with  their  ancient  and  modern  names,  were  the 
following;  Scandinavia,  Norway  and  Sweden;  Chersonesus  Cimbrica,  Jut- 
land, or  Denmark  ;  Sarmatia,  Russia  ;  Germania,  Germany.  —  The  Middle 
countries  were  the  following  :  Gallia,  France  and  Switzerland;  Vindelicia, 
Suabia ;  Rh^etia,  country  of  the  Grisons ;  Noricum,  Austria;  Pannonia, 
Hungary ;  Illyricum,  Croatia  and  Dalmatia;  M,esia,  Bosnia,  Servia  and 
Bulgaria;  Dacia,  Transylvania  and  Walachia.  —  In  the  Southern  divis- 
ion we  include  Hispania,  Spain  and  Portugal;  Italia,  Italy;  Thracia, 
Macedonia  and  Grjecia,  all  lately  comprehended  under  the  Turkish  Empire. 

(a)     The  Northern  Countries  of  Europe. 

§  9.  Scandinavia,  or  Scandia,  by  the  Celts  called  Lochlin,  was  falsely  sup- 
posed to  be  a  large  island.  The  inhabitants  were  remarkable  for  their  num- 
ber and  ferocity  ;  they  subsisted  chiefly  by  piracy  and  plunder.  From  this 
country  came  the  Goths,  the  Heruli,  the  Vandals,  and  at  a  later  period,  the 
Normans,  who  subjugated  the  south  of  Europe. 

§  10.  The  Chersonesus  Cimbrica,  a  large  peninsula  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Baltic,  was  the  native  country  of  the  Cimbri  and  the  Teutones,  who  alter 
devastating  Gaul  invaded  the  northern  part  of  Italy,  and  made  the  Romans 
tremble  for  the  safety  of  their  capital.  They  defeated  the  consuls  Manlius 
and  Servilius  with  dreadful  slaughter,  but  were  eventually  destroyed  by  Ma- 
jius. 

§  11.  Sarmatia  included  the  greater  part  of  Russia  and  Poland,  and  is  fre- 
quently confounded  with  Scythia.  This  immense  territory  was  possessed  by 
several  independent  tribes,  who  led  a  wandering  life  like  the  savages  of  North 
America.  The  names  of  the  principal  tribes  were  the  Sauromatse,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Tanais,  and  the  Geloni  and  Agathyrsi,  between  the  Tanais  and 
the  Borysthenes.  The  latter  were  called  Hamaxobii  from  their  living  in  wag- 
ons. Virgil  gives  them  the  epithet  picti,  because  they,  like  the  savages  of 
America,  painted  their  bodies  to  give  themselves  a  formidable  appearance. — 
From  these  districts  came  the  Huns,  the  Alans  and  Roxolanians,  who  aided 
the  barbarians  formerly  mentioned  (§  8)  in  overthrowing  the  Roman  empire. 

The  peninsula,  now  known  by  the  name  of  the  Crimea,  or  Crim  Tartary, 
was  anciently  called  the  Chersonesus  Taurica.  Its  inhabitants,  called  Tauri, 
were  remarkable  for  their  cruelty  to  strangers,  whom  they  sacrificed  on  the 
altar  of  Diana.  From  their  cruelty  the  Euxine  sea  received  its  name  ;  it  was 
called  Euxine  (favorable  to  strangers)  by  antiphrasis,  or  euphemism.  —  The 
principal  towns  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese  were  Panticapmum  (Kerche),  where 
Mithridates  the  Great  died  ;  Saphra  (Trocop),  and  Theodosia  (Kaffa).  —  At  the 
south  of  this  peninsula,  was  a  large  promontory,  called  from  its  shape  Criu- 
Metopon,  or  the  Ram's  Forehead. 

§  12.  Ancient  Germany,  Germania,  is,  in  many  respects,  the  most  singu- 
lar and  interesting  of  the  northern  nations.  In  the  remains  of  its  early  lan- 
guage, and  the  accounts  of  its  civil  government,  that  have  been  handed  down 
to  us,  the  origin  of  the  English  language  and  constitution  may  be  distinctly 
traced.  The  inhabitants  called  themselves  Wer-men,  which  in  their  language 
signifies  [Far-men,  and  from  this  boasting  designation  the  Romans  named 
them,  with  a  slight  change,  Ger-men. The  boundaries  of  ancient  Germa- 


646  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

ny  were  not  accurately  ascertained,  but  the  name  is  generally  applied  to  the 
territories  lying  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Vistula,  the  Baltic  Sea  and 
the  Danube. 

§  13.  These  countries  were,  like  Sarmatia,  possessed  by  several  tribes,  of 
whom  the  principal  were  the  Hermiones  and  Suevi,  who  possessed  the  middle 

of  Germany. The  tribes  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  were  mosi  known 

to  the  Romans.  The  chief  of  these  were  the  Frisii,  through  whose  country 
a  canal  was  cut  by  Drusus,  which  being  increased  in  the  course  of  time  formed 
the  present  Zuyder  Zee;  the  Cherusci,  who  under  the  command  of  Arminius 
destroyed  the  legions  of  Quintilius  Varus  ;  the  Sicambri,  who  were  driven 
across  the  Rhine  by  the  Catti,  in  the  time  of  Augustus;  the  Catti,  the  most 
warlike  of  the  German  nations,  and  most  irreconcilable  to  Rome;  the  Marco- 
manni,  who  were  driven  afterwards  into  Bohemia  by  the  Allemanni,  from  which 

latter  people  Germany  is,  by  the  French,  called  Allemagne. Near  the 

Elbe  were  the  Angli  and  Saxones,  progenitors  of  the  English,  and  the  Longo- 

bardi,  who  founded  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy,  in  the  north  of  Italy. The 

nations  on  the  Danube  were  the  Hermundurii,  steadfast  allies  of  the  Romans  ; 
the  Marcomanni,  who  retired  hither  after  their  expulsion  from  the  Rhine ;  the 
Narisci  and  Quadi,  who  waged  a  dreadful  war  with  the  Romans  during  the 
reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 

§  14.  The  Germans  had  no  regular  towns,  andindeed  a  continuity  of  houses 
was  forbidden  by  their  laws     The  only  places  of  note  were,  consequently,  forts 

built  by  the  Romans,  to  repress  the   incursions  of  the  natives. A  great 

part  of  Germany  was  occupied  by  the  Hercynian  forest,  which  extended,  as 
was  said,  nine  days  journey  from  south  to  north,  and  more  than  sixty  from 
west  to  east.  A  portion  of  the  Sylva  Hercynia  is  now  called  the  Black  Forest, 
which  still  has  its  fabled  terrors. 

§  15.  The  largest  river  of  the  northern  division  of  Europe  was  the  Rha, 
now  Wolga.  It  was  called  Mel  or  Etel  by  the  Byzantine  writers  (P.  II.  § 
239  a)  and  others  in  the  middle  ages.  It  had  70  mouths  discharging,  and  with 
more  water  formerly  than  now,  into  the  Mare  Caspium.  It  was  in  part  the 
eastern  boundary  of  Europe,  separating  Sarmatia  from  Scythia.  —  The  river 
next  in  size  was  the  Borysthenes,  called  in  the  middle  ages  Danapris,  whence 
its  modern  name  Dneiper.  Just  at  its  entrance  into  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  it 
was  joined  by  the  Hypanis,  called  in  the  middle  ages  Bogus,  and  now  the 
Bog.  The  long  narrow  beach  at  the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes  was  called 
Dromus  Achillei.  —  Between  the  Borysthenes  and  the  Rha  was  the  Tanais, 
the  present  Don,  which  separated  Sarmatia  Europea  from  Sarmatia  Asiatica, 
and  flowed  into  the  Palus  M&otis  or  modern  sea  of  Azof ;  near  its  mouth  was 
a  city  of  extensive  commerce,  called  Tanais  Emporium.  The  strait  connect- 
ing the  Palus  Mseotis  with  the  Euxine  was  called  Bosphorus  Cimmerius.  — 
Another  river,  discharging  into  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  was  the  Tyras,  the  mod- 
ern Dneister  :  it  flowed  between  Sarmatia  and  Dacia,  and  formed  in  part  the 
southern  boundary  of  what  is  included  in  our  northern  division  of  Europe.  — 
Two  rivers,  from  sources  near  those  of  the  Tyras,  flowed  in  a  northerly  course 
to  the  Baltic,  the  ancient  Sinus  Codanus  ;  they  were  the  Vistula,  still  so  called, 
and  the  Viadcr  or  Oder.  The  principal  streams  discharging  into  the  Oceanus 
Germanicus  were  the  Mbis,  Elbe,  and  the  Rhenus,  Rhine,  which  formed  the 
western  boundary  of  the  division  of  Europe  now  under  notice,  dividing  Ger- 
mania  and  Gallia. 

(b)     The  Countries  of  the  Middle  of  Europe. 

§  16.  We  will  begin  with  Gallia,  which  is  at  the  western  extremity  of 
the  division.  The  Romans  called  this  extensive  country  Gallia  Transalpina, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  province  of  Gallia  Cisalvina  in  the  north  of  Italy. 
The  Greeks  gave  it  the  name  of  Galatia,  and  subsequently  western  Galatia, 
to  distinguish  it  from  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor,  where  the  Gauls  had  planted  a 
colony. 

Ancient  Gaul  comprehended,  in  addition  to  France,  the  territories  of  Flan- 
ders, Holland,  Switzerland,  and  part  of  the  south-west  of  Germany.  Its  bound- 
aries were  the  Atlantic  ocean,  the  British  sea,  the  Rhine,  the  Alps,  the  Med- 


EUROPE.       MIDDLE    COUNTRIES.  647 

iterranean,  and  the  Pyreness.  —  The  country  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  was 
possessed  by  three  great  nations,  divided  into  a  number  of  subordinate  tribes. 
Of  these  the  Celtai  were  the  most  numerous  and  powerful ;  their  territory 
reached  from  the  Sequana,  Seine,  to  the  Garumna,  Garonne  ;  the  Belgce  lay 
between  the  Sequana  and  lower  Rhine,  where  they  united  with  the  German 
tribes  ;  the  Aquitani  possessed  the  country  between  the  Garumna  and  the 
Pyrenees. 

§  17.  Augustus  Coasar  divided  Gaul  into  four  provinces;  Gallia  Narbonen- 
sis, Aquitania,  Gallia  Celtica,  and  Belgica. 

Gallia  Narbonensis,  called  also  the  Roman  province,  extended  along 
the  sea-coast  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Alps.  It  contained  several  nations,  the 
principal  of  which  were  the  Allobroges,  Salyes,  and  Volcse.  The  principal 
cities  were  JVarbo  Martins,  the  capital,  (Narbonne)  ;  Massilim  (Marseilles), 
founded  by  an  Ionian  colony,  from  Phocaea,  in  Asia  Minor  ;  Forum  Julii  (Fre- 
jus)  ;  and  Aqua  Sextia  (Aix).  —  Narbonensis  contained  the  modern  provin- 
ces, Languedoc,  Provence,  Dauphine,  and  Savoy. 

Aquitania  extended  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Liger  (Loire).  The  prin- 
cipal nations  were  the  Tarbelli,  south  of  the  Garumna,  and  the  Santones,  Pic- 
tones,  and  Lemovices,  north  of  that  River.  The  chief  towns  were  Mediola- 
num  (Saintes)  ;  Portus  Santonum  (Rochelle)  ;  and  Uxellodunum. 

Gallia  C  e  1 1  i  c  a,  or  Lugdunensis,  lay  between  the  Liger  and  Sequana.  — ■ 
The  principal  nations  were  the  Segusiani,  ^Edui,  Mandubii,  Parisii,  and  Rhe- 
dones.  The  principal  cities  were  Lugdunum  (Lyons),  founded  by  Munatius 
Plancus  after  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar  ;  Bibracte,  called  afterwards  Augusto- 
dunum  (Autun)  ;  Alesia  (Alise),  the  last  city  of  Gaul  that  resisted  the  arms 
of  Caesar;  and  Portus  Brivates  (Brest),  near  the  Promontorium  Gobaum  (Cape 
St.  Malo).  —  The  country  along  the  coast,  from  the  Liger  to  the  Sequana, 
was  called  Armorica,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  very  fierce  and  warlike. 

The  remainder  of  Gaul  was  included  in  the  province  B  e  1  g  i  c  a  .  This 
contained  a  great  number  of  powerful  states  ;  the  Helvetii  occupying  that  part 
of  modern  Switzerland  included  between  Lacus  Lemanus  (the  lake  of  Ge- 
neva) and  Lacus  Brigantinus  (the  lake  of  Constance) ;  the  Sequani,  possess- 
ing the  present  province  of  Franche  Comte ;  and  the  Batavi,  who  inhabited 
Holland.  —  That  part  of  Belgic  Gaul  adjoining  the  Rhine  below  Helvetia  was 
called  G  e  r  m  a  n  i  a,  from  the  number  of  German  tribes  who  had  settled 
there,  and  was  divided  into  Superior  or  Upper,  the  part  nearer  the  sources  of 
the  Rhine,  and  Inferior  or  Lower,  the  part  nearer  its  mouth.  The  principal 
of  these  tribes  were  the  Treveri,  Ubii,  Menapii,  and  Nervii.  In  the  country 
of  the  Treveri  was  the  extensive  forest  Ar duenna  (Ardennes),  traces  of  which 
still  remain. 

§  18.  The  principal  mountains  of  Gaul  were  Cebenna  (the  Cevennes),  in 
Languedoc;  Vogesus  (the  Vauge),in  Lorraine  ;  and  Alpes  (the  Alps).  —  The 
Alps  were  subdivided  into  Alpes  Maritime,  joining  the  Etruscan  sea  ;  Cottice, 
over  which  Hannibal  is  supposed  to  have  passed  ;  Graca,  so  called  from  the 
passage  of  Hercules  ;  Penninm,  so  called  from  the  appearance  of  their  tops, 
(from  penna,  a  wing)  ;  Rhatica,  joining  Rhaetia  ;  JSorica,  bordering  Noricum  ; 
Pannonicte  ;  and  Julia,  the  eastern  extremity,  terminating  in  the  Sinus  Fla- 
naticus  (Bay  of  Carnero),  in  Liburnia. 

The  chief  rivers  of  Gaul  were  Rhenus  (the  Rhine)  ;  this  river,  near  its 
mouth,  at  present  divides  itself  into  three  streams,  the  Waal,  the  Leek,  and 
the  New  Issel ;  the  last  was  formed  by  a  great  ditch  cut  by  the  army  of  Drusus  ; 
the  ancient  mouth  of  the  Rhine,  which  passed  by  Leyden,  has  been  choked 
up  by  some  concussion  of  nature  not  mentioned  in  history  ;  Rhodanus  (the 
Rhone),  joined  by  the  Arar  (Saone)  ;  Garumna  (Garonne),  which  united  with 
the  Duranius  (Dordogne) ;  Liger  (the  Loire),  joined  by  the  Elaver  (Allier)  ; 
and  Sequana  (the  Seine). 

The  principal  islands  on  the  coast  of  Gaul  were  Uzantos  (Ushant) ;  Uliarus 
(Oleron) ;  Ccesarea  (Jersey) ;  Sarmia  (Guernsey) ;  and  Riduna  (Alderney)  ; 
on  the  south  coast  wrere  the  Stcechades  or  Ligustides  insula  (isles  of  Hieras). 

§  19.  The  government  of  ancient  Gaul,  previous  to  the  Roman  invasion,  was  aristocratical, 
and  so  great  was  their  hatred  of  royalty  that  those  who  were  even  suspected  of  aiming  at  sove- 
reign power,  were  instantly  put  to  death.  The  priests  and  nobles,  whom  they  called  Druids 
and  knights,  possessed  the  whole  authority  of  the  state ;  the  peasantry  were  esteemed  as 


648  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

slaves  ;  in  most  of  the  states  an  annual  magistrate  was  elected  with  powers  similar  to  those  of 
the  Roman  consul,  but  it  was  ordained  that  both  the  magistrate  and  the  electors  should  be  of 
noble  birth.  —  In  person,  the  Gauls  are  said  to  have  been  generally  fair-complexioned,  with 
long  and  ruddy  hair,  whence  their  country  is  sometimes  called  Gallia  Comata,  or  Hairy  Gaul. 
In  disposition  they  are  described  as  irascible,  and  of  ungovernable  fury  when  provoked  ;  their 
first  onset  was  very  impetuous,  but  if  vigorously  resisted  they  did  not  sustain  the  fight  with 
equal  steadiness. 

$20.  The  history  of  Gallia  before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans  is  involved  in  obscurity; 
we  only  know  that  it  must  have  been  very  populous  from  the  numerous  hordes  who  at  differ- 
ent times  emigrated  from  Gaul  in  search  of  new  settlements.  They  seized  on  the  north  of  Ita- 
ly, which  was  from  them  called  Cisalpine  Gaul ;  they  colonized  part  of  Germany  ;  they  invaded 
Greece  ;  and  one  tribe  penetrated  even  to  Asia,  where  mingling  with  the  Greeks,  they  seized  on 
a  province,  from  thence  called  Galatia  or  Gallo-Gracia.  —  Another  body  of  Gauls,  under  the 
command  of  Brennus,  seized  and  burned  Rome  itself;  and  though  they  were  subsequently 
routed  by  Camillus,  the  Romans  ever  looked  on  the  Gauls  as  their  most  formidable  opponents, 
and  designated  a  Gallic  war  by  the  word  Tumultus,  implying  that  it  was  as  dangerous  as  a 
civil  war. 

§  21.  The  alliance  between  the  people  of  Massilite  (Marseilles)  and  the  Romans  furnished 
the  latter  people  with  a  pretext  for  intermedling  in  the  affairs  of  Gaul,  which  they  eagerly  em- 
braced. The  first  nation  whom  they  attacked  was  the  Salyes,  who  had  refused  them  a  pas- 
sage into  Spain  ;  the  Salyes  were  subdued  by  Caius  Sextius,  who  planted  a  colony  called  af- 
ter his  name,  Aquae  Sextis  ;  about  four  years  after,  the  greater  part  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  was 
Kiibdued  by  Quintus  Martius  Rex,  who  founded  the  colony  Narbo  Martins,  and  made  it  the 
capital  of  the  Roman  province.  —  After  the  subjugation  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  the  Gauls  re- 
mained unmolested  until  the  time  of  Cresar,  who  after  innumerable  difficulties  conquered  the 
entire  country,  and  annexed  it  to  the  Roman  dominions. 

Though  grievously  oppressed  by  the  Roman  governors,  the  Gauls  under  the  emperors  made 
rapid  advances  in  civilization  ;  they  are  particularly  noticed  for  their  success  in  eloquence  and 
law.  A  curious  circumstance  of  the  mode  in  which  these  studies  were  pursued  is  recorded  by 
many  historians  ;  an  annual  contest  in  eloquence  took  place  at  Lugdunum,  and  the  vanquished 
were  compelled  to  blot  out  their  own  compositions,  and  write  new  orations  in  praise  of  the  vic- 
tors, or  else  be  whipped  and  plunged  into  the  Arar. 

§  22.  The  country  called  V  i  n  d  e  1  i  c  i  a  was  situated  between  the  sources 
of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  Its  chief  town  was  Augusta  Vindelicorum 
(Augsburg,  celebrated  for  the  confession  of  the  protestant  faith,  presented  by 
Melancthon  to  the  Diet  assembled  there  at  the  commencement  of  the  Reform- 
ation). —  Between  Vindelicia  and  the  Alps  wTas  Rh^tia,  containing  rather 
more  than  the  present  territory  of  the  Grisons.  Its  chief  towns  were  Curia 
(Coire),  and  Tridentum  (Trent),  where  the  last  general  council  was  assem- 
bled. —  Vindelicia  and  Rhsetia  were  originally  colonized  by  the  Tuscans,  and 
for  a  long  time  bravely  maintained  their  independence.  They  were  eventu- 
ally subdued  during  the  reign  of  Augustus  Caesar,  by  Drusus  the  brother  of 
Tiberius. 

§  23.  Noricum  lay  to  the  east  of  Vindelicia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  river  JEnus  (Inn).  Its  savage  inhabitants  made  frequent  incursions  upon 
the  Roman  territories,  and  were,  after  a  severe  struggle,  reduced  by  Tiberius 
Caesar.  The  iron  of  Noricum  was  very  celebrated,  and  swords  made  in  that 
country  were  highly  valued.  —  East  of  Noricum  was  Pannonia,  also  subdued 
by  Tiberius.  It  was  divided  into  Superior,  the  chief  town  of  which  was  Vin- 
dobona  (Vienna)  ;  and  Inferior,  whose  capital  was  Sirmium,  a  town  of  great 
importance  in  the  later  ages  of  the  empire.  —  Noricum  is  now  called  Austria, 
and  Pannonia,  Hungary. 

§  24.  The  boundaries  of  Illyricum  have  not  been  precisely  ascertained;  it 
occupied  the  north-eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  and  was  sub-divided  into 
the  three  provinces  of  Istria,  Liburnia,  and  Dalmatia.  It  included  the  mod- 
ern provinces,  Croatia,  Bosnia,  and  Sclavonia.  —  The  chief  towns  were  Salo- 
na,  near  Spalatro,  where  the  emperor  Dioclesian  retired  after  his  resignation 
of  the  imperial  power;  Epidaurus  or  Dioclea  (Ragusi  Vecchio),  and  Ragusa. 

The  Illyrians  were  infamous  for  their  piracy  and  the  cruelty  with  which  they  treated  their 
captives;  they  possessed  great  skill  in  ship-building,  and  the  light  galleys  of  the  Liburnians 
contributed  not  a  little  to  Augustus's  victory  at  Actium.  —  The  Romans  declared  war  against 
the  Illyrians,  in  consequence  of  the  murder  of  their  ambassadors,  who  had  been  basely  massa- 
cred by  Teuta,  Queen  of  that  country.  The  Illyrians  were  obliged  to  beg  a  peace  on  the  most 
humiliating  conditions,  but  having  again  attempted  to  recover  their  former  power,  they  were 
finally  subdued  by  the  praetor  Anicius,  who  slew  their  king  Gentius,  and  made  the  country  a 
Roman  province. 

§  25.  Mcesia  lay  between  the  Danube  and  Mount  Haemus.  It  was  divided 
into  Superior,  the  present  province  of  Servia,  and  Inferior,  now  called  Bulgar- 
ia. Part  of  Mcesia  Superior  was  possessed  by  the  Scordisci,  a  Thracian  Tribe  ; 
next  to  which  was  a  district  called  Dardania  ;  that  part  of  Mcesia  Inferior  near 
•the  mouth  of  the  Danube  was  called  Pontus,  which  is  frequently  confounded 


EUROPE.      SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.    HISPANIA.  649 

Villi  Pontus,  a  division  of  Asia  Minor. — The  principal  cities  in  Mcesia  Superior 
Were  Singidunuvi  (Belgrade J  at  the  confluence  of  the  Save  and  Danube; 
■Nicopolis  built  by  Trajan  to  commemorate  his  victory  over  the  Dacians;  and 
JVaissus  (Nissa),  the  birth  place  of  Constantine  the  Great.  —  In  Mcesia  Infe- 
rior were  Marcianopolis,  the  capital;  Tomi,  the  place  of  Ovid's  banishment; 
Odessus  south  of  Tomi,  and  JEgissus,  hear  which  was  the  bridge  built  by  Da- 
rius in  his  expedition  against  the  Scythians. 

§  26.  Dacia  lay  between  the  Danube  and  Carpathian  mountains.  It  was 
possessed  by  two  Scythian  tribes,  the  Daci  and  Getce,  who  for  a  long  time  re- 
sisted every  effort  to  deprive  them  of  their  freedom ;  they  were  at  length  sub- 
dued by  Trajan.  After  having  conquered  the  country,  Trajan  joined  it  to 
Mossia  by  a  magnificent  bridge  over  the  Danube,  traces  of  which  fstill  exist. 
His  successor,  Adrian,  influenced  either  by  jealousy  of  his  predecessor's  glory, 
or  believing  it  more  expedient  to  contract  than  to  extend  the  bounds  of  the 
empire,  broke  down  the  bridge,  and  left  Dacia  to  its  fate.  The  celebrated 
Hercynian  Forest,  Sylva  Hercynia,  stretched  over  the  north  and  west  part  of 
Dacia  (§  14J.  —  Dacia  included  the  modern  provinces  Transylvania,  Moldavia, 
and  Wallachia. 

A  people  has  been  found  among  the  Wallachians,  that  now  speak  a  language  very  similar  to 
the  Latin,  and  are  therefore  supposed  to  be  descended  fron  Roman  colonists.  —  See  Walsh's 
Journey  from  Constantinople. 

(c)  The  Countries  included  in  the  Southern  Division  of  Europe. 

§  27.  In  treating  of  this  division  we  will  also  commence  with  the  most  west- 
ern country,  which  was  Hispania.  This  name  included  the  modern  king- 
doms of  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  country  was  also  called  Iberia,  Hesperia, 
and  (to  distinguish  it  from  Italy,  sometimes  termed  Hesperia,  from  its  western 
situation  jHesperia  Ultima.  The  Romans  at  first  divided  it  into  Hispania  Cit- 
erior,  or  Spain  at  the  eastern  side  of  the  Iberus,  and  Hispania  Ulterior,  at  the 
western  side ;  but  by  Augustus  Caesar,  the  country  was  divided  into  three 
provinces  ;  Tarraconensis ,  Bcetica,  and  Lusitania.  Like  the  provinces  of  Gaul, 
these  were  inhabited  by  several  distinct  tribes. 

§  28.  T  ar  r  a  c  on  e  n  s  i  s  exceeded  the  other  two  provinces  together,  both 
in  size  and  importance.  It  extended  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Durius,  and  received  its  name  from  its  capital,  Tarraco  (Tarragona),  in  the 
district  of  the  Cositani. 

The  other  principal  towns  were  Saguntum,  on  the  Mediterranean,  whose 
siege  by  Hannibal  caused  the  second  Punic  war ;  some  remains  of  this  city 
still  exist,  and  are  called  Murviedro,  a  corruption  of  Muriveteres  (old  walls)  ; 
Carthago  Nova  (Carthagena),  built  by  Asdrubal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal,  also 
on  the  Mediterranean  :  in  the  interior,  north-east  of  the  capital,  Ilerda  (Lerida), 
the  capital  of  the  Ilergetes,  where  Caesar  defeated  Pompey's  lieutenants,  Afran- 
ius  and  Petreius  ;  Numantia,  near  the  sources  of  the  Durius,  whose  inhabitants 
made  a  desperate  resistance  to  the  Roman  invaders,  and,  when  unable  to  hold 
out  longer,  burned  themselves  and  the  city  sooner  than  yield  to  the  conquer- 
ors ;  Bilbilis,  the  birth-place  of  Martial,  among  the  Celtiberi ;  Caesar ea  Au- 
gusta (Saragossa),  capital  of  the  Edetani ;  Toletum  (Toledo);  Complutum 
(Alcala),  and  Kibora  (Talavera),  in  the  same  district ;  Calagtirris,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Vascones,  whose  inhabitants  suffered  dreadfully  from  famine  in 
the  Sertorian  war,  being  reduced  to  such  straits,  that  the  inhabitants  (as  Juve- 
nal says)  actually  devoured  each  other.  In  this  part  of  Spain,  near  the  town 
of  Segovia,  are  the  remains  of  a  splendid  aqueduct,  built  by  Trajan.  Calle 
(Oporto),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Durius,  was  also  called  Portus  Gallorum,  from 
some  Gauls  who  settled  there,  and  hence  the  name  of  the  present  kingdom  of 

Portugal. The  north  of  Tarraconensis  was  possessed  by  the    Cantabri,  a 

fierce  tribe,  who  for  a  long  time  resisted  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Romans  ; 
their  territory  is  the  modern  province  of  Biscay. 

§  29.  The  southern  part  of  Spain,  between  the   Anas  and  Mediterranean, 

was  called   B  ae  t  i  c  a,  from  the  river  Baetis.     Its  chief  towns  were    Corduba 

Cordova),  the  birth-place  of  the  two  Senecas,  and  the  poet  Lucan ;    in  this 

town  are  the  remains  of  a  splendid  mosque,  built  by  the  Moorish  king,  Al- 

55 


650  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

manzor  ;  it  is  more  than  500  feet  long,  and  400  wide  ;  the  roof  is  richly  orna- 
mented, and  supported  by  800  columns  of  alabaster,  jasper,  and  black  marble  ; 
Hispalis  (Seville);  Italica,  the  native  city  of  Trajan,  Adrian,  and  the  poet 
Silius  Italicus  ;  Custulo,  called  also  Parnassia,  because  it  was  founded  by  a 
Phocian  colony ;  all  on  the  Baetis. — The  south-western  extremity  of  Baetica 
Was  possessed  by  a  Phoenician  colony,  called  the  Bastuli  Poeni,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Libyan  Pceni,  or  Carthaginians ;  their  capital  was  Gades 
(Cadiz),  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Baetis  ;  near  it  were  the  little-island 
Tartessus,  now  part  of  the  continent,  and  Junonis  Promontorium  (Cape  Tra- 
falgar). —  At  the  entrance  of  the  straits  of  Hercules  or  Gades,  stood  Carteia, 
on  mount  Calpe,  now  called  Gibraltar,  a  corruption  of  Gebel  Tarik,  i.  e.  the 
mountain  of  Tarik,  the  first  Moorish  invader  of  Spain.  Mount  Calpe  and 
mount  Abyla  Con  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa)  were  named  the  pillars  of  Her- 
culcs,  and  supposed  to  have  been  the  boundaries  of  that  hero's  western  con- 
quests. North  of  this  was  Munda,  where  Caesar  fought  his  last  battle  with 
Labienus,  and  the  sons  of  Pompey. 

Lusitania,  which  occupied  the  greatest  part  of  the  present  kingdom  of 
Portugal,  contained  but  few  places  of  note ;  the  most  remarkable  were  Au- 
gustus Emerita  (Merida),  and  Olisippo  (Lisbon),  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Ulysses. 

§  30.  The  principal  Spanish  rivers,  were  :  Iberus  (Ebro) ;  Tagus  TTajo^  ; 
Durius  f  Douro; ;  Batis  f  GuadalquiverJ  ;  Anas  (Guadiana^.  —  The  promontory 
at  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  peninusla  was  named  Artabrum  or  Cel- 
ticum  (FinisterreJ  ;  that  at  the  south-western,'  Sacrum,  because  the  chariot  of 
the  sun  was  supposed  to  rest  there  ;  it  is  now  called  Cape  St.  Vincent. 

$  31.  Spain  was  first  made  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  conquests  of  Hercules.  In  later 
times  the  Carthaginians  became  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  the  country  ;  they  were  in  their 
turn  expelled  by  the  Romans,  who  kept  possession  of  the  peninsula  for  several  centuries. — 
During  the  civil  wars  of  Rome,  Spain  was  frequently  devastated  by  the  contending  parties. 
Here  Sertorius,  after  the  death  of  Marius,  assembled  the  fugitives  of  the  popular  party,  and 
for  a  long  time  resisted  the  arms  of  Sylla  :  here,  Afranius  and  Petreius,  the  lieutenants  of 
Pompey,  made  a  gallant  stand  against  Julius  Caesar  ;  and  here,  after  the  death  of  Pompey,  his 
sons  made  a  fruitless  effort  to  vindicate  their  own  rights,  and  avenge  their  father's  misfortunes. 
—  Upon  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire,  Spain  was  conquered  by  the  Vandals,  who  gave 
to  one  of  the  provinces  the  name  Vandalusia,  now  corrupted  into  Andalusia. 

§  32.  Italy,  Italia,  has  justly  been  denominated  the  garden  of  Europe  both 
by  ancient  and  modern  writers,  from  the  beauty  of  its  climate  and  the  fertility 
of  its  soil.  The  Italian  boundaries,  like  those  of  Spain,  have  remained  unal- 
tered; on  the  north  are  the  Alps,  on  the  east  the  Adriatic,  or  upper  sea,  on 
the  south  the  Sicilian  strait,  and  on  the  west  the  Tuscan,  or  lower  sea.  By 
the  poets  the  country  was  called  Saturnia,  Ausonia,  and  CEnotria ;  by  the 
Greeks  it  was  named  Hesperia,  because  it  lay  to  the  west  of  their  country. 

Italy  has  always  been  subdivided  into  a  number  of  petty  states,  more  or  less 
independent  of  each  other.  We  shall  treat  it  as  comprehended  in  two  parts 
denominated  the  northern  and  southern;  and  as  the  chief  city  and  capital  of 
the  country  is  of  such  celebrity,  shall  enter  into  a  more  particular  description 
of  Rome  ;  adopting  the  following  arrangement;  1.  the  Geography  of  the 
northern  portion  of  Italy ;  2.  the  Geography  of  the  southern  portion ;  3.  the 
Topography  of  the  city  of  Rome. 

§  33.  (1)  Geography  of  the  northern  portion.  The  principal  ancient  di- 
visions of  this  part,  were  Gallia  Cisalpina,  Etruria,  Umbria,  Picenum,  and 
Latium. 

Gallia  Cisalpina,  called  also  Togata,  from  the  inhabitants  adopting 
after  the  Social  war  the  toga,  or  distinctive  dress  of  the  Romans,  lay  between 
the  Alps  and  the  river  Rubicon.  It  was  divided  by  the  river  Eridanus,  or  Pa- 
dus,  into  Transpadana,  at  the  north  side  of  the  river,  and  Cispadana  at  the 
south  ;  these  were  subdivided  into  several  smaller  districts. 

North  of  the  Padus,  or  Po,  was  the  territory  of  the  Taurini,  whose  chief 
town,  Augusta  Taurinorum,  is  now  called  Turin;  next  to  these  were  the  In- 
subres,  whose  principal  tows  were  Mediolanum  (Milan) ;  and  Ticinum  (Pavia), 
on  the  river  Ticinus,  where  Hannibal  first  defeated  the  Romans,  after  his  pas- 
sage over  the  Alps  ;  the  Cenomanni,  possessing  the  towns  of  Brixia  (Brescia); 
Cremona;  and  Mantua,  the  birth-place  of  Virgil;  and  the  Euganei,  whose 
chief  towns  were  Tridentum  (Trentj ;  and  Verona,  the  birth-place  of  Catul- 


EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.    ITALIA.  651 

Ius. — Next  to  these  were  the  Veneti  and  Carni ;  their  chief  towns  were  Pata- 
vium  (Padua),  the  birth-place  of  Livy,  built  by  the  Trojan  Antenor,  after  the 
destruction  of  Troy  ;  and  Aquileia,  retaining  its  former  name  but  not  former 
consequence  ;  it  is  celebrated  for  its  desperate  resistance  to  Attila  king  of  the 
Huns.  Next  to  these  was  the  province  Histria,  or.  Istria;  chief  town,  Ter- 
geste  (Trieste). 

South  of  the  Po  were  the  territories  of  the  Ligures  ;  chief  towns,  Genua 
(Genoa),  on  the  Sinus  Ligusticus  (Gulf  of  Genoa)  ;  Portus  Herculis  Monad 
(Monaco),  and  Niccea  (Nice)  ;  the  territory  of  the  Boii,  containing  Bononia 
(Bologna) ;  Mutina  (Modena),  where  Brutus  was  besieged  by  Antony  ;  Parma, 
and  Placentia;  and  the  country  of  the  Ligones,  whose  chief  town  was  Raven- 
na, where  the  emperors  of  the  west  held  their  court,  when  Rome  was  possess- 
ed by  the  barbarians. 

§  34.  Cisalpine  Gaul  contained  the  beautiful  lakes  Verbanus  (Maggiore) ; 
Larius,  the  celebrated  lake  of  Como,  deriving  its  modern  name  from  the  vil- 
lage Comum,  near  Pliny's  villa;  and  Benacus  (Di  Gardi). 

The  rivers  of  this  province  were  the  Eridanus  or  Padus  (Po),  called  by  Vir- 
gil the  king  of  rivers,  which  rises  in  the  Cottian  Alps,  and  receiving  several 
tributary  streams,  especially  the  Ticinus  (Tesino)  and  Mindus  (Mincio) ,  falls 
into  the  Adriatic;  the  Mhesis  (Adige),  rising  in  the  Rhaetian  Alps;  and  the 
Rubicon  (RugoneJ,  deriving  its  source  from  the  Apennines,  and  falling  into  the 
Adriatic. 

§35.  The  inhabitants  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  were,  of  all  the  Italian  states,  the  most  hostile  to 
the  power  of  Rome  ;  they  joined  Hannibal  with  alacrity  when  he  invaded  Italy,  and  in  the 
eocial  war  they  were  the  most  inveterate  of  the  allied  states  in  their  hostility.  — When  the  em- 
pire of  the  west  fell  before  the  northern  tribes,  this  province  was  seized  by  the  Longobardi,  from 
whom  the  greater  part  of  it  is  now  called  Lombardy.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  divided  into 
a  number  of  independent  republics,  which  preserved  some  sparks  of  liberty,  when  freedom  was 
banished  from  the  rest  of  Europe. 

§  36.  E  tr  u  r  i  a  extended  along  the  coast  of  the  lower  or  Tuscan  sea,  from 
the  small  river  Macra,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber. 

The  most  remarkable  towns  and  places  in  Etruria  were  :  the  town  and  port  of 
Luna,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Macra ;  Pisa  (Pisa) ;  Florentia  (Florence)  ; 
Portus  Herculis  Leburni  (Leghorn)  ;  Pistoria,  near  which  Catiline  was  defeat- 
ed ;  Perusia,  near  the  lake  Thrasymene,  where  Hannibal  obtained  his  third 
victory  over  the  Romans;  Clusium,  the  city  of  Porsenna;  Volsinii  (Bolsena), 
where  Sejanus,  the  infamous  minister  of  Tiberius,  was  born  ;  Falerii  (Palarij, 
near  mount  Soracte,  the  capital  of  the  Falisci,  memorable  for  the  generous  con- 
duct of  Camillus  while  besieging  it ;  Veii,  the  ancient  rival  of  Rome,  captured 
by  Camillus  after  a  siege  often  years  ;  Care,  or  Agylla  (Cer  Veteri),  whose  in- 
habitants hospitably  received  the  Vestal  virgins,  when  they  fled  from  the 
Gauls,  in  reward  for  which  they  were  made  Roman  citizens,  but  not  allowed 
the  privilege  of  voting,  whence,  any  Roman  citizen  who  lost  the  privilege  of 
voting  was  said  to  be  enrolled  among  the  Ccerites ;  Centum  Cello.  (Civita  Vec- 
chia),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  the  port  of  modern  Rome. 

§  37.  The  principal  rivers  of  Etruria,  were  the  Arnus  (Arno),  rising  in  the 
Apennines  and  falling  into  the  sea  near  Pisa;  and  the  Tiber,  which  issuing 
from  the  Umbrian  Apennines,  and  joined  by  the  Nar  fNeraJ  and  Jlnio  fTev- 
erone>>,  running  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  falls  into  the  sea  below  Rome# 
The  Etrurians  was  called  by  the  Greeks,  Tyrrheni ;  they  are  said  to  have  come  originally 
from  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor,  and  to  have  preserved  traces  of  their  eastern  origin,  to  a  very  late 
period.  From  them  the  Romans  borrowed  their  ensigns  of  regal  dignity,  and  many  of  their 
superstitious  observances,  for  this  people  were  remarkably  addicted  to  auguries  and  soothsay- 
ing.    Cf.  P.  I.  §  109,  §  173. 

§  38.  Umbria  was  situated  east  of  Etruria,  and  south  of  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  Rubicon.  The  principal  river  of  Umbria 
was  the  Metaurus  (Metro),  where  Asdrubal  was  cut  off  by  the  consuls  Livius 
and  Nero  while  advancing  to  the  support  of  his  brother  Hannibal.  Its  chief 
towns  ;  Ariminum  (Rimini),  the  first  town  taken  by  Caesar,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  civil  war;  Pesaurum  (Pesaro)  ;  Senna  Gallica  (Senigaglia),  built 
by  the  Galli  Senones  ;  Camerinum  ;  Spoletium  (Spoletto),  where  Hannibal  was 
repulsed  after  his  victory  at  Thrasymene. 

The  memory  of  this  repulse  is  still  preserved  in  an  inscription  over  one  of  the  gates,  thence 
called  Porta  di  Fuga.  "  Here  also  is  a  beautiful  aqueduct  carried  across  a  valley  three  hundred 
feet  high,"  W.  Fiske,  p.  343,  as  cited  P.  I.  $  186.  6. 


652  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 

§  39.  P  i  c  e  n  u  m  lay  to  the  east  of  Umbria,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic 
Its  principal  towns  were  Asculum  (Ascoli),  the  capital  of  the  province,  which 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Asculum  in  Apulia,  near  which  Pyrrhus  was 
defeated;  Confiniurn  (San  Ferino),  the  chief  town  of  the  Peligni  ;  and  Sulmo, 
the  birth-place  of  Ovid.  Ancona,  retaining  its  ancient  name,  founded  by  a 
Grecian  colony  ;  cljse  to  the  harbor  of  this  town  is  a  beautiful  triumphal  arch 
erected  in  honor  of  Trajan;  the  pillars  are  of  Parian  marble,  and  still  retain 
their  pure  whiteness  and  exquisite  polish,  as  if  fresh  from  the  workmen's 
hands;  the  celebrated  chapel  of  Loretto  is  near  Ancona. 

South  of  Picenum  and  Umbria,  were  the  territories  of  the  Marsi  and  Sabi- 
ni.  The  former  were  a  rude  and  warlike  people  ;  their  capital  was  Marru- 
bium,  on  the  Lacus  Fucinus  :  Julius  Caesar  vainly  attempted  to  drain  this  lake; 
it  was  afterwards  partially  effected  by  Claudius  Cassar,  who  employed  thirty 
thousand  men  for  eleven  years,  in  cutting  a  passage  for  the  waters  through 
the  mountains,  from  the  lake  to  the  river  Liris.  When  every  thing  was  pre- 
pared for  letting  off  the  waters,  he  exhibited  several  splendid  naval  games, 
shows,  &c. ;  but  the  work  did  not  answer  his  expectations,  and  the  canal,  be- 
ing  neglected,  was  soon  choked  up,  and  the  lake  recovered  its  ancient  di- 
mensions.—  The  Sabine  towns  were  Cures,  whence  the  name  Quirites  is  by 
some  derived  (cf.  §  53);  Reate,  near  which  Vespasian  was  born  ;  Amiternum ,  the 
birth-place  of  Sallust ;  Crustumerium,  and  Fidena.  Mons  Sacer,  whither  the 
plebeians  of  Rome  retired  in  their  contest  with  the  patricians,  was  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Sabines.  In  these  countries  were  the  first  enemies  of  the  Ro- 
mans, but  about  the  time  of  Camillus  the  several  small  states  in  this  part  of 
Italy  were  subjugated. 

§  40.  Latiura,  the  most  important  division  of  Italy,  lay  on  the  coast  of 
the  Tuscan  sea,  between  the  river  Tiber  and  Liris  ;  it  was  called  Latium, 
from  lateo,  to  lie  hid,  because  Saturn  is  said  to  have  concealed  himself  there, 
when  dethroned  by  Jupiter. 

The  chief  town  was  Rome  (see  $51  ss).  Above  Rome  on  the  Tiber,  stood 
Tibur  (Tivoli),  built  by  an  Argive  colony,  a  favorite  summer  residence  of  the 
Roman  nobility,  near  which  was  Horace's  favorite  country  seat  (P.  IV.  §  326): 
south  of  Rome,  Tusculum  (Frescati),  remarkable  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  for  the  salubrity  of  the  air  and  beauty  of  the  surrounding  scenery  ;  it 
is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Telegonus,  the  son  of  Ulysses ;  near  it  was  Cic- 
ero *s  celebrated  Tusculan  villa  :  east  of  Tusculum,  Prmneste  (Palestrina),  a 
place  of  great  strength  both  by  nature  and  art,  where  the  younger  Marius 
perished  in  a  subterranean  passage,  while  attemping  to  escape,  when  the  town 
was  besieged  by  Sylla:  south  of  Tusculum,  Longa  Alba,  the  parent  of  Rome, 
and  near  it  the  small  towns  Algidum,  Paedum,  and  Gabii,  betrayed  to  the  Ro- 
mans by  the  well-known  artifice  of  the  younger  Tarquin.  — On  the  coast,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  stood  Ostia,  the  port  of  ancient  Rome,  built  by  An- 
eus  Martius ;  south  of  this  were  Laurcntum,  Lavinium  (built  by  JEneas  and 
called  after  his  wife  Lavinia),  and  Ardea,  the  capital  of  the  Rutuli,  where  Ca- 
millus resided  during  his  exile.  South  of  these  were  the  territories  of  the 
Volsci,  early  opponents  of  the  Roman  Power  ;  their  chief  cities  were  Antium, 
where  there  was  a  celebrated  temple  of  fortune  ;  Suessa  Pometia,  the  capital 
of  the  Volsci,  totally  destroyed  by  the  Romans  ;  and  Corioli,  from  the  cap- 
ture of  which  Caius  Marcius  was  named  Coriolanus. 

South  of  the  Volsci,  were  the  town  and  promontory  of  Circeii,  the  fabled 
residence  of  Circe;  Anxur  (Terracina),  on  the  Appian  Way;  the  town  and 
promontory  Caieta,  deriving  its  name  from  the  nurse  of  JEneas  who  was  there 
interred  ;  Formicc,  near  which  Cicero  was  assassinated  by  command  of  Anto- 
ny;  and,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Liris,  MinturncB,  near  which  are  the  Pontine  or 
Pomptine  Marshes,  in  which  the  elder  Marius  endeavored  to  conceal  himself 
when  pursued  by  his  enemies.  The  Pontine  Marshes  extended  through  a  great 
part  of  Latium,  and  several  ineffectual  efforts  have  been  made  to  drain  them. 
The  exhalations  from  the  stagnant  water  have  always  made  the  surrounding 
country  very  unhealthy. — On  the  confines  of  Campania  were  Arpinum,  the 
birth-place  of  Marius  and  Cicero,  the  rude  soldier  and  the  polished  statesman; 
Aquinum,  the  birth-place  of  Juvenal ;  and  Sinuessa,  celebrated  for  its  mineral 
waters,  originally  called  Sinope. 


EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.    ITALIA.  653 

§  41.  The  principal  rivers  of  Latium  were  the  Anio  (TeveroneJ  ;  the  Alliay 
on  the  banks  of  which  the  Gauls  defeated  the  Romans  with  dreadful  slaugh- 
ter ;  and  the  Cremera,  where  the  family  of  the  Fabii,  to  the  number  of  three 
hundred,  were  destroyed  by  an  ambuscade,  while  carrying  on  war  at  their 
own  expense  against  the  Veierttes ;  these  three  rivers  fall  into  the  Tiber  ;  the 
Litis  (Gariglianoj,  which  divided  Latium  from  Campania,  falls  into  the  Tus- 
can sea.  —  The  principal  lakes  were  named  Lacus  Albulus  (Solfatara)  re- 
markable for  its  sulphurous  exhalations,  and  for  the  adjoining  grove  and  ora- 
cle of  Faunus;  Lacus  Regillus,  near  which  Posthumius  defeated  the  Latins, 
by  the  assistance  of  Castor  and  Pollux  as  the  Romans  believed;  and  Lacus 
Albanus,  near  which  was  Mount  Albanus  where  the  solemn  sacrifices  called 
Feriae  Latinae  were  celebrated. 

The  capital  of  Latium,  in  the  reign  of  king  Latinus,  was  Laurentum  ;  in  the  reign  of  JEne~ 
a?,  Lavinium  ;  in  the  reign  of  Ascanius,  Longa  Alba ;  but  all  these  were  eclipsed  by  the  supe- 
rior grandeur  of  Rome.  The  several  independent  states  were  subdued  by  the  Romans  in  the 
earlier  ages  of  the  republic. 

§  42.  (2)  Geography  of  the  southern  portion.  The  southern  part  of  Italy 
was  named  Magna  Groecia,  from  the  number  of  Greek  colonies  that  at  differ- 
ent periods  settled  there.  It  was  divided  into  Campania,  Samnium,  Apulia, 
Calabria,  Lucania,  and  Bruttium. 

Campania,  the  richest  and  most  fertile  of  the  divisions  of  Italy,  extend- 
ed along  the  shores  of  the  Tuscan  sea,  from  the  river  Liris  to  the  river  Sila- 
rus,  which  divided  it  from  Lucania. 

The  chief  city  was  Capua,  so  named  from  its  founder,  Capys,  celebrated 
for  its  riches  and  luxury,  by  which  the  veteran  soldiers  of  Hannibal  were  en- 
ervated and  corrupted.  North  of  it  were  Teanum,  celebrated  for  the  mineral 
waters  in  its  vicinity,  and  Venafrum,  famous  for  olives.  —  South  of  Capua 
was  Casilinum,  where  a  garrison  of  Prenestines,  after  having  made  a  most 
gallant  resistance,  and  protracted  the  siege  till  they  had  endured  the  utmost 
extremity  of  famine,  were  at  last  compelled  to  surrender ;  next  to  this  was 
Liternum,  at  the  mouth  of  the  little  river  Clanius,  where  Scipio  Africanus  for 
a  long  time  lived  in  voluntary  exile. — Farther  south  was  Cuma,  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  the  residence  of  the  celebrated  Cumean  Sibyl, 
and  near  it  the  town  and  promontory  Misenum,  so  named  from  Misenus,  the 
trumpeter  of  iEneas,  who  was  buried  there.  —  Below  the  cape  were  Baia,  fa- 
mous for  its  mineral  waters ;  Puteoli  (Puzzoli),  near  which  were  the  Phlegraei- 
campi,  where  Jupiter  is  said  to  have  vanquished  the  giants;  Cimmerium^ 
whose  early  inhabitants  are  said,  by  Homer,  to  have  lived  in  caves.  After 
these  we  come  to  Parthcnope  or  Neapolis,  Naples.  This  beautiful  city  was 
founded  by  a  colony  from  Cumse,  and  for  a  long  time  retained  the  traces  of  a 
Grecian  original ;  it  was  called  Parthenope  from  one  of  the  Sirens  said  to 
have  been  buried  there.  Close  to  the  town  is  the  mountain  Pausilypus  (PaUi 
silippo),  through  which  a  subterranean  passage  has  been  cut,  half  a  mile  in 
length  and  twenty-two  feet  wide ;  neither  the  time  of  making  nor  the  maker 
is  known ;  a  tomb,  said  to  be  that  of  Virgil,  is  shown  on  the  hill  Pausilippo, 
—  Between  Naples  and  Mount  Vesuvius  were  Hercula?ieum  and  Pompeii,  de- 
stroyed by  a  tremendous  eruption  of  that  volcano,  A.  D.  79.  The  remains  of 
these  towns  were  accidentally  discovered  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  centu- 
ry, and  the  numerous  and  valuable  remains  of  antiquity  give  us  a  greater 
sight  into  the  domestic  habits  of  the  Romans  than  could  previously  be  ob- 
tained. See  references  P.  I.  $242.  2.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Si- 
nus Puteolanus  (bay  of  Naples),  were  Stabia,  remarkable  for  its  mineral  wa- 
ters, and  Surrentum,  celebrated  for  its  wines  ;  near  the  latter  was  the  Pro- 
montorium  Surrentinum  or  Athenaum  (Capo  della  Minerva) ;  east  of  Naples 
was  A'ola,  where  Hannibal  was  first  defeated,  and  where  Augustus  died  ;  in 
thesouth  of  Campania  was  Salernum  (Salerno),  the  capital  of  the  Picentini. 

§  43.  The  principal  Campanian  rivers  were  the  Vulturnus  (Vulturno) ;  Se- 
ethus  (Sebeto),  now  an  inconsiderable  stream,  its  springs  being  dried  up  by 
the  eruptions  of  Mount  Vesuvius;  and  the  Sarnus  (Sarno).  —  The  principal 
lakes  were  the  Lucrinus,  which  by  a  violent  earthquake,  A.  D.  1538,  was 
changed  into  a  muddy  marsh,  with  a  volcanic  mountain,  Monte  Nuovo  de  Cin- 
ere,  in  the  centre ;  and  the  Avernus,  near  which  is  a  cave  represented  by  Vir- 
gil as  the  entrance  of  the  infernal  regions.  It  was  said  that  no  birds  could  pass 
55* 


654  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

over  this  lake  on  account  of  the  poisonous  exhalations;  whence  its  name, 
from  a  (not)  and  oong  (a  bird). 

Upon  the  invasion  of  the  northern  nations,  Campania  became  the  alternate  prey  of  different 
barbarous  tribes  ;  at  length  it  was  seized  by  the  Saracens  in  the  tenth  century.  "  These  were 
expelled  by  the  Normans,  under  Tancred,  who  founded  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

§  44.  East  of  Latium  and  Campania  was  Samniura,  including  the  coun- 
try of  the  Hirpini.  —  The  chief  towns  were  Samnis,  the  capital ;  Benevcntum 
(Benevento),  at  first  called  Maleventum,  from  the  serverity  of  the  winds,  but 
when  the  Romans  sent  a  colony  here  they  changed  the  name,  from  motives  of 
superstition ;  near  this  town  Pyrrus,  king  of  Epirus,  who  had  come  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Samnites,  was  totally  defeated  by  the  Roman  army,  command- 
ed by  Curius  Dentatus;  Caudium,  near  which  are  the  Caudina;  FutcuIce  (For- 
chia  d'Arpaia),  a  narrow  and  dangerous  defile,  in  which  the  Roman  army  be- 
ing blocked  up  by  the  Samnite  general,  Pontius,  were  obliged  to  surrender  on 
disgraceful  conditions;  and  Alfeniai,  remarkable  for  its  manufactory  of  earth- 
en ware. — Among  the  Hirpini,  were  Equotuticum,  whose  unpoetical  name  is 
celebrated  by  Horace;  Trixicum  and  Herdonia  (Ordonia),  on  the  borders  of 
Apulia.  —  Near  Herdonia  was  the  celebrated  valley  of  Amsanctus,  surround- 
ed by  hills,  and  remarkable  for  its  sulphurous  exhalations  and  mineral  springs; 
on  a  neighboring  hill  stood  the  temple  of  Mephitis,  the  goddess  who  presided 
over  noxious  vapors,  whence  the  valley  is  now  called  Moffeta. 

§  45.  The  principal  rivers  of  Samnium  were  the  Sabatas  (Sabato),  and  Ca- 
lor  (Calore),  both  tributary  to  the  Vulturnus. 

The  Samnites  were  descended  from  the  same  parent  stock  as  the  Sabines,  and  for  many 
years  contended  with  the  Romans  for  the  empire  of  Italy  ;  at  length,  after  a  war  of  more  than 
seventy  years,  during  which  the  Romans  were  frequently  reduced  to  great,  extremities,  the  for- 
tune of  Rome  prevailed,  and  the  Samnites  were  almost  totally  extirpated,  B.  C.  272. 

§  46.  Apulia,  called  also  Daunia  and  Japygia,  but  now  La  Puglia,  occu- 
pied the  greater  part  of  the  east  of  Italy,  extending  from  the  river  Frento  to 
the  Bay  of  Tarentum. 

Its  chief  towns  :  Teamim,  named  Apulum  to  distinguish  it  from  a  town  of 
the  same  name  in  Campania  ;  Arpi,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Diomede,  after 
his  return  from  the  Trojan  war;  north  of  Arpi  is  Mount  Garganus  (Saint  An- 
gelo),  in  the  spur  of  the  boot  to  which  Italy  is  commonly  compared  ;  east  of 
Arpi  were  Uria,  which  gave  the  ancient  name  to  the  Sinus  Urius,  and  Sipon- 
tum  (Manfredonia),  which  gave  the  modern  name  (Gulf  of  Manfredonia)  ;  on 
the  borders  of  Samnium,  stood  Luceria,  celebrated  for  its  wool ;  Salapia  (Sal- 
pe) ;  and  Asculum,  called  Apulum,  to  distinguish  it  from  a  town  of  the  same, 
name  in  Picenurn. —  Near  the  river  Aufidus  stood  the  village  of  Cannm,  where 
Hannibal  almost  annihilated  the  power  of  Rome  ;  through  the  fields  of  Can- 
nce  runs  the  small  stream  Vergeltus,  which  is  said  to  have  been  so  choked 
with  the  carcasses  of  the  Romans,  that  the  dead  bodies  served  as  a  bridge  to 
Hannibal  and  his  soldiers.  Canusium,  a  Greek  colony,  where  the  remains 
of  the  Roman  army  were  received  after  their  defeat. —  Venusia  (Venosa), 
near  Mount  Vultur,  the  birth-place  of  Horace  ;  Barium  (Bari),  where  excel- 
lent fish  were  caught  in  great  abundance  ;  and  Egnatiai,  on  the  Matinian 
shore,  famous  for  bad  water  and  good  honey. 

The  principal  Apulian  rivers  were  Cerbalus  (Cerbaro),  and  Aufidus  fOfan- 
to),  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  of  its  waters  ;  both  falling  into  the  Adriatic. 

§  47.  Calabria,  called  also  Mesapia,  lay  to  the  south  of  Apulia,  forming 

what  is  called  the  heel  of  the  boot. Its  chief  towns,  on  the  eastern  or 

Adriatic  side,  were  Brundusium  (Brindisi),  once  remarkable  for  its  excellent 
harbor,  which  was  destroyed  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  from  this  the  Italians 
who  wished  to  pass  into  Greece  generally  sailed ;  Hydrantum  (Otranto), 
where  Italy  makes  the  nearest  approach  to  Greece  ;  Castrum  Minerva  (Cas- 
tro), near  which  is  the  celebrated  Japygian  cape,  now  called  Capo  Santa  Ma- 
ria de  Luca.  On  the  west  side  of  Calabria  were  Tarentum  (Tarento),  built  by 
the  Spartan  Phalanthus,' which  gives  name  to  the  Tarentine  bay  ;  Rudiai,  the 
birth-place  of  the  poet  Ennius  ;  and  Callipolis  (Gallipoli),  built  on  an  island 
and  joined  to  the  continent  by  a  splendid  causeway. 

The  principal  river  of  Calabria  was  the  Galesus  (Galeso),  which  falls  into 
the  bay  of  Tarentum. 

§  48.  Lucania  lay  south  of  Campania,  extending  from  the  Tuscan  sea  to 


EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       ITALIA.  655 

the  bay  of  Tarentum  ;  in  the  middle  ages  the  northern  part  was  named  Basili- 
cata,  from  the  emperor  Basil ;  and  the  southern  part  was  called  Calabria-citra 
by  the  Greek  emperors,  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  ancient  Calabria,  which 
they  had  lost. 

The  principal  towns ;  on  the  Tuscan  sea,  Pastum,  near  Mount  Alburnus, 
celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  its  roses,  and  in  modern  for  its  beautiful  ruins 
(cf.  Eustace,  cited  P.  I.  §  190.  1,  and  Winckelmann,  Histoire  &c.  vol.  hi.  p. 
297,  as  cited  P.  I.  §  324) ;  near  it,  Velia  or  Elea,  the  birth-blace  of  Zeno,  the 
inventor  of  logic,  founded  by  a  division  of  the  Asiatic  colony,  who  built  Mar- 
seilles ;  Buxentum,  called  by  the  Greeks  Pyxus,  on  the  Lausine  bay  ;  and 
Laus,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  from  which  the  Lausine  bay  is  designated. 
—  In  the  interior,  were  Minum,  on  the  Tenagrus;  Mcrnum,  on  the  Silarus  ; 
Grumcntum,  on  the  Aciris ;  and  Lagaria,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Epeus, 
the  framer  of  the  Trojan  horse. — On  the  shore  of  the  Tarentine  bay,  were  Meta- 
pontum,  the  residence  of  Pythagoras  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  the 
head-quarters  of  Hannibal  for  several  winters  ;  Heraclea,  where  the  congress  of 
the  Italo-Grecian  states  used  to  assemble  ;  Sybaris, on  a  small  peninsula,  infa- 
mous for  its  luxury  ;  and  Thurium,  at  a  little  distance,  whither  the  Sybarites 
retired  when  their  own  city  was  destroyed  by  the  people  of  Crotona.  The 
plains  where  these  once  flourishing  cities  stood  are  now  desolate ;  the  rivers 
constantly  overflow  their  banks,  and  leave  behind  them  muddy  pools  and  un- 
wholesome swamps,  while  the  few  architectural  remains  contribute  to  the  mel- 
ancholy of  the  scene  by  recalling  to  memory  the  days  of  former  greatness. 

The  principal  rivers  of  Lucania  were  the  Tanagrus  (Negvo,)  which,  after 
sinking  in  the  earth,  breaks  forth  near  the  beautiful  valley  of  Alburnus,  and 
falls  into  the  Tuscan  sea  ;  Melpus  (MelfaJ,  which  empties  itself  into  the  Laus 
Si?ms  fGulf  of  Policastro,  so  called  from  the  number  of  ruins  on  its  shores)  ; 
the  Bradanus,  a  little  rivulet,  dividing  Lucania  from  Calabria,  and  falling  into 
the  Tarentine  bay  ;  the  Aciris  (Agv'iJ,  and  the  Sybaris  (Coscilej,  small  streams 
on  the  Tarentine  coast. 

§  49.  The  south-west  of  Italy,  below  the  Sybaris,  was  named  Bruttio-tellus 
or  Bruttium,  but  is  now  called  Calabria-ultra.  —  The  principal  cities  of 
the  Bruttii,  on  the  Tuscan  sea,  were  Pandosia,  where  Alexander,  king  of  Epi- 
rus,  who  waged  war  in  Italy  while  his  relative  and  namesake  was  subduing 
Asia,  died  ;  Consentia  fCosenzaJ,  the  capital  of  the  Bruttii ;  Terina,  on  the  Si- 
nus Tcrirucus  (Gulph  of  St  Euphemia)  ;  and  Vibo,  or  Hippo,  called  by  the 
Romans  Valentia  fMonte  heonej.  —  On  the  Sicilian  strait,  were  the  town 
and  promontory  Scyllamm  CScyllaJ,  whose  dangerous  rocks  gave  rise  to  the 
fable  of  the  sea-monster  Scylla  (cf.  P.  III.  §  117;;  opposite  to  the  celebrated 
whirlpool  Charybdis  on  the  coast  of  Sicily  :  Rhegium  (Reggio),  so  .named  by 
the  Greeks,  because  they  believed  that,  at  some  very  remote  period,  Sicily 
was  joined  to  Italy,  and  broken  of  here  by  some  violent  natural  concussion  ; 
it  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Calchis,  in  the  island  of  Eubcea,  and  the  sur- 
rounding country  was  celebrated  for  its  fertility  ;  not  far  from  Rhegium  were 
the  village  and  cape  Lcucopetra,  so  named  from  the  whiteness  of  its  rocks, 
now  Capo  dcW  Jlrnai. 

On  the  Tarentine  bay  were  Petilia,  the  city  of  Philoctetes  ;  Crotona  founded 
by  some  Achreans  on  their  return  from  the  Trojan  war,  where  Pythagoras  es- 
tablished his  celebrated  school  of  philosophy  ;  the  people  were  so  famous  for 
their  skill  in  athletic  exercises,  that  it  was  commonly  said  "  the  last  of  the 
Crotoniates  is  the  first  of  the  Greeks  "  ;  south  of  this  was  the  Promontorium 
Lacinium,  where  a  very  celebrated  temple  of  Juno  stood,  whence  she  is  fre- 
quently called  the  Lacinian  goddess;  from  the  remains  of  this  temple,  the 
promontory  is  now  called  Capo  della  Colonne;  Scylacaium  (Squillace),  founded 
by  an  Athenian  colony  on  a  bay  to  which  it  gives  name  ;  Caulon  fCostel  Ve- 
tere),  an  Achaean  colony,  almost  destroyed  in  the  wars  with  Pyrrhus  ;  south 
of  it,  JYcryx  (GeraceJ,  near  the  Promontorium  Zephyrium  (Burzano),  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Locrians,  who  at  a  very  early  period  settled  in  this  part,  of  Italy.  — 
The  cape  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Italy  was  named  Promontorium  Hercw- 
lis  now  Spartivento. 

The  principal  rivers  of  the  Bruttii  were  the  Crathcs  (Crati),  and  Ncmthcs 
CNeii),  which  received  its  name  from  the  Achaean  women  having  burned  their 
husbands'  ships  to  prevent  their  proceeding  further  in  search  of  a  settlement. 


656  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

§  50.  A  great  proportion  of  the  Greeks  who  colonized  the  south  of  Italy,  were  generals,  who 
on' their  return  from  the  Trojan  wars,  found  that  they  had  been  forgotten  by  their  subjects,  and 
that  their  thrones  were  occupied  by  others.  The  intestine  wars  that  almost  continually  devas- 
tated Greece,  increased  the  number  of  exiles,  who  at  different  times,  and  under  various  lead- 
ers, sought  to  obtain  in  a  foreign  country,  that  tranquility  and  liberty  that  had  been  denied  them 
at  horned  —  These  different  states  were  internally  regulated  by  their  own  laws  ;  but  an  annual 
congress  similar  to  the  Amphictyonic  council  of  Greece,  assembled  at  Heraclea,  and  united  the 
several  communities  in  one  great  confederacy. 

Sybaris  seems  to  have  been,  at  first,  the  leading  state,  but  after  a  bloody  war,  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  jealousy  of  the  people  of  Crotona ;  the  Sybarites  did  hot  yield  to  despair  ;  five  times 
tliey  rebuilt  their  city,  but  at  length  it  was  leveled  to  the  ground,  and  its  wretched  inhabi- 
tants, forced  to  relinquish  their  native  place,  built  a  new  town  at  Thurium The  Crotonia- 

tes  did  not  long  preserve  their  supremacy,  for  the  vices  of  the  Sybarites  were  introduced  into 
their  city,  and  they  consequently  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  Locrians To  secure  their  superior- 
ity, the  Locrians  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  kings  of  Syracuse,  who  by  this  means  ob- 
tained considerable  influence  in  the  south  of  Italy,  until  the  attempt  of  the  elder  Dionysius  to 
secure  to  himself  a  part  of  the  country  by  building  a  wall  from  theTerinsan  gulf  to  the  Ionian 
sea,  and  still  more  the  ingratitude  of  the  younger  Dionysius,  gave  them  a  distaste  for  the  con- 
nection. —  After  breaking  off  their  alliance  with  the  Sicilians,  the  Locrians  united  themselves 
to  the  Romans  ;  during  the  war  with  Pyrrhus,  they  adhered  to  the  fortunes  of  Rome  with  the 
most  unshaken  fidelity;  but  afterwards  becoming  justly  alarmed  at  the  restless  ambition  of  their 
allies,  they  readily  joined  Hannibal.  —  It  is  remarkable,  that  in  all  the  other  ltalo-Grecian 
states  the  people  embraced  the  Carthaginian  side,  while  the  nobles  sided  with  the  Romans, 
but  among  the  Locrians  the  division  of  parties  was  directly  the -contrary. 

The  Tarentines  ruled  the  shores  of  the  Tarentine  bay,  but  being  enervated  by  riches  and 
luxury,  they  were  obliged  to  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Pyrrhus,  kingof  Epirus,  to 
secure  their  city  from  "the  Romans.  After  the  disgraceful  termination  of  Pyrrhus's  Italian 
campaign,  that  monarch  returned  home,  leaving  a  garrison  in  Tarentum,  under  the  command 
of  Milo~who  betrayed  the  city  to  the  Romans. 

After  the  termination  of  the  second  Punic  war,  these  states,  though  acknowledging  the  so- 
periority  of  Rome,  retained  their  own  laws  and  private  jurisdiction,  even  to  the  latest  periods 
of  the  Roman  empire. 

§  51.  (3)  The  Topography  of  Rome.  This  city  was  originally,  it  is  stated, 
nearly  in  the  form  of  a  square,  and  its  whole  perimeter  was  scarcely  one  mile. 
In  the  time  of  Pliny  the  wills  were  said  to  have  been  nearly  20  miles  in  cir- 
cuit. The  wall  built  by  Belisarius  to  resist  the  Goths,  still  remaining,  is 
about  14  miles  in  circumference.  —  The  Gates  (Porta)  of  Rome  were  origin- 
ally four  ;  in  the  time  of  the  elder  Pliny,  there  were  thirty-seven  ;  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian  only  fourteen.  The  following  were  the  most  noted  ;  Porta 
Carmentalis,  Collina,  Tiburtina,  Cadimontana,  Latina,  Capena,  Flaminia,  Os- 
tiensis. 

For  a  plan  of  ancient  Rome,  see  our  plate  XXIX. 

§  52.  Thirty-one  great  Roads  centered  in  Rome.  Some  of  the  principal 
were  Via  Sacra,  Appia,  JEmilia,  Valeria,  Flaminia.  These  public  roads  "  is- 
suing from  the  Forum  traversed  Italy,  pervaded  the  provinces,  and  were  ter- 
minated only  by  the  frontiers  of  the  empire."  Augustus  erected  a  gilt  pillar 
in  the  middle  of  the  forum,  called  Milliarium  aureum  (Tac.  Hist.  i.  27),  from 
which  distances  on  the  various  roads  were  reckoned.  "  This  curious  monu- 
ment was  discovered  in  1823."     (Butler's  Geogr.  Class,  p.  39.) 

"  They  usually  were  raised  some  height  above  the  ground  which  they  traversed,  and  pro- 
ceeded in  as  straight  a  line  as  possible,  running  over  hill  and  valley  with  a  sovereign  con- 
tempt for  all  the  principles  of  engineering.  They  consisted  of  three  distinct  layers  of  materi- 
als :  the  lowest,  stones,  mixed  with  cement,  statumcn;  the  middle,  gravel  or  small  stones,  ru~ 
dera,  to  prepare  a  level  and  unyielding  surface  to  receive  the  upper  and  most  important  struc- 
ture, which  consisted  of  large  masses  accurately  fitted  together.  These  roads,  especially  in 
the  neighborhood  of  cities,  had,  on  both  sides,  raised  foot-ways,  margines,  protected  by  curb- 
stones, which  defined  the  extent  of  the  central  part,  agger,  for  carriages.  The  latter  was  bar- 
relled, that  no  water  might  lie  upon  it."—"  The  public  roads  were  accurately  divided  by  mile- 
stones. They  united  the  subjects  of  the  most  distant  provinces  by  an  easy  intercourse;  but 
their  primary  object  had  been  to  facilitate  the  march  of  the  legions."  The  advantage  of  receiv- 
ing the  earliest  intelligence,  and  of  conveying  their  orders  with  celerity,  induced  the  emperors 
to  establish,  throughout  their  extensive  dominions,  the  regular  institution  of  posts.  Houses 
were  every  where  erected  only  at  the  distance  of  five  or  six  miles  ;  each  of  them  was  constantly 
provided  with  forty  horses,  and  by  the  help  of  these  relays,  it  was  easy  to  travel  a  hundred  miles 
in  a  day  along  the  Roman  roads.  The  use  of  the  posts  was  allowed  to  those  who  claimed  it 
by  an  imperial  mandate  ;  but  though  originally  intended  for  the  public  service,  it  was  some- 
times indulged  to  the  business  or  conveniency  of  private  citizens." The  most  ancient  and 

celebrated  of  all  was  the  Appian  way,  called  Regina  Viarum,  the  Queen  of  Roads.  It  was 
constructed  by  the  censor,  Appius  Claudius,  in  the  year  of  the  city  441,  and  extended  from 
Rome  to  Capua.  Afterwards  it  was  continued  to  Brundusium,  360  miles.  At  Sinuessa  it  threw 
off  a  branch  called  the  Domitian  way,  which  ran  along  the  coast  to  Baia;,  Neapolis,  Hercula- 
neum,  and  Pompeii. 

JV.  Bergier,  Hist,  des  grands  chemins  des  Romains.  Par.  1792.  2  vols.  4.  —  Z>'  Anville,  on 
the  extent  of  ancient  Rome  and  the  grand  roads  leading  from  it,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol* 
xxx.  p.  193. 


EUROPE.       ITALIA.       TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ROME.  657 

§  53.  There  were  eight  principal  bridges  over  the  Tiber,  which  flowed 
through  the  city  from  the  north  ;  Pons  Milvius  ;  JElius,  still  standing  ;  Fa* 
bricius ;  Cestius  ;  Palatinus  or  Senatorius,  some  arches  of  it  still  remaining;. 
Sublicius  or  JEmilius  ;  Jatiicularis,  still  existing;    Triumphalis  or  Vaticanus. 

Rome  was  called  Septicollis,  from  having  been  built  on  seven  mountains  or 
hills.  These  were  Mons  Palatinus,  Capitolinus,  Esquilinus,  Cozlius,  Aventi- 
nus,  Quirinalis,  Viminalis. 

The  foundation  or  commencement  of  the  city  was  made,  according  to  the  common  accounts, 
on  the  Movs  Palatinus  or  Palatium.  Here  Romulus  had  his  residence.  Here  the  emperors 
usually  abode,  and  hence  the  term  Palatium,  palace,  applied  to  designate  a  royal  or  princely 
dwelling.  The  hill  first  added  was  probably  the  Quirinalis,  on  which  it  has  been  supposed 
was  a  Sabine  settlement  called  Quirium  ;  this  addition  being  made  when  the  union  was  formed 
between  the  Romans  and  Sabines,  before  the  death  of  Romulus,  and  the  Romans  took  the 
name  of  Quiritcs.  The  double  Janus  on  the  earliest  coins  is  by  some  supposed  to  refer  to  this  un- 
ion. JVext  was  added  the  hill  Ctelius,  on  which  a  Tuscan  settlement  is  supposed  to  have  been 
planted.  The  other  four  hills  were  successively  added,  at  least,  before  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Servius  Tullius,  sixth  king  of  Rome.  Two  hills  on  the  north  of  the  Tiber  were  also  connected 
with  the  city.  The  Janiculum  was  fortified  by  Ancus  Martius,  4th  king  of  Rome,  as  a  sort  of 
out-post  and  joined  to  the  city  by  a  bridge.  The  other  the  Vaticanus,  so  called  perhaps  from 
the  predictions  uttered  there  by  soothsayers,  votes,  was  added  at  a  later  period  ;  it  was  rather 
disliked  by  the  ancients,  but  is  now  the  principal  place  in  Rome,  being  the  seat  of  the  Pope's 
palace,  St.  Peter's  church,  and  the  celebrated  Vatican  library.  A  tenth  hill,  Collis  hortulorum, 
called  also  Pincius,  was  taken  into  the  city  by  Aurelian. 

On  the  side  of  the  Capitoline  hill  towards  the  Tiber  was  the  Tarpeian  Rock.  Johnson  says, 
fin  his  Philos.  of  Travel,  cited  P.  I.  $  190),  "  of  all  that  tremendous  precipice,  painted  in  such 
terrilfic  colors,  by  Seneca,  immcnsce  altitudivis  aspectus,  only  thirty  feet  of  its  summit  now  over- 
look the  consolidated  dust  of  ancient  temples  and  the  accumulated  filth  of  modern  hovels."  — 
The  spot  was  visited  in  1829  by  two  American  gentlemen,  eminent  scholars,  one  of  whom 
writes,  "  after  very  cautious  estimates  we  both  judged  the  original  height  to  have  been  about 
80  feet,  of  which  about  20  may  be  filled  up,  leaving  about  60  for  its  present  altitude." 

§  54.  Rome  was  originally  divided  into  four  districts.  From  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus there  were  fourteen.  The  last  division  is  followed  by  most  topographers, 
and  affords  the  most  convenient  order  for  mentioning  the  objects  worthy  of 
notice  in  the  city.  The  names  of  the  districts  were  as  follows  ;  I.  Porta  Ca- 
pena ;  2.  Ccelimontium ;  3.  Isis  and  Serapis  or  Moneta ;  4.  Tcmplum  Pads  ox 
Via  Sacra  ;  5.  Esquilina  cum  turri  et  colle  Viminali ;  6.  Alta  Semita  ;  7.  Via 
Lata;  8.  Forum  Romanum ;  9.  Circus  Fiaminius ;  10.  Palatium ;  11.  Circus 
Mazimus;  12.  Piscina  Publica  ;  13.  Aventinus  ;  14.  Trans  Tibcrim.  To  de- 
scribe only  the  most  remarkable  objects  in  each  region  or  district  would  tres- 
pass on  our  designed  limits,  and  we  must  be  content  with  merely  naming  somo 
of  them. 

A  tabular  statement  of  the  objects  included  in  the  14  regions  is  given  in  Kennetfs  Antiqui- 
ties, ch.  ii.  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  197.  2 See  O.  C.  Mlcr's  ahsfurliche  Beschreibung  der  Stadt 

Rom.  Altona  1781.  4.  with  engravings.  The  basis,  mainly,  is  the  arrangement  of  Sextus  Ru- 
fus  and  Publius  Victor  with  the  additions  of  Nardini  and  others.  (Cf.  Grcevii  Thesaurus,  vols. 
3.  and  4.)  JVarrfmi's  Italian  original  was  published  anew  by  jS.  JVibby,  Rome  1820.  4.  with 
plates.  —  Descrizione  di  Roma  Antica  forma  novamente  con  le  Autorita  di  Bart.  JWarlianiy 
Onof.  Panvinio,  &c.  with  plates.  Rom.  1697.  2  vols.  4.  —  C.  Fea,  Nuova  descrizione  di  Roma 
antica  emoderna.  Rom.  1820.  3  vols.  8.  with  plate3.  —  C.  Burton,  Monuments  and  Curiosities 
of  Rome.  Transl.  into  German  by  Sicklcr,  Weim.  1823.  8.  —  Venuti,  Descrizione  topografia 
delle  antichita  di  Roma,  ed.  by  Visconti,  1803.  —  Buriress,  Topography  and  Antiquities  of 
Rome.  Lond.  1831.  2  vols.  8.  —  Platner,  Bunsen,  Gerhard,  fy  Rostell,  Beschreibung  der  Stadt 
Rom.     Tubing.  &.  Stffttg.  1829-37.  3  vols,  with  a  Bilderheft  (or  Number)  of  plates.  —  F.  Blume, 

Iter  Italicum.   Halle.  1836.  4  vols.  8. On  the  remaining  monuments  of  ancient  Rome,  c£ 

P.  I.  $  186,  188,  191,  226,  243. 

§  55.  There  were  large  open  places  in  the  city,  designed  for  assemblies  of 
the  people,  and  for  martial  exercises,  and  also  for  games,  termed  Campi.  Of 
the  nineteen,  which  are  mentioned,  the  Campus  Martius,  was  the  largest  and 
most  famous.  It  was  near  the  Tiber;  thence  called  sometimes  Tiberinus,  but 
usually  Martius,  as  consecrated  to  Mars.  It  was  originally  the  property  of 
Tarquin  the  Proud,  and  confiscated  after  his  expulsion.  In  the  later  ages  it 
was  surrounded  by  several  magnificent  structures ;  and  porticos  wrere  erected 
under  which  the  citizens  could  exercise  in  rainy  weather.  It  was  also  adorned 
with  statues  and  arches.  Comitia  were  held  here ;  and  there  were  Septa  or 
Ovilia  (P.  IV.  §  259),  constructed  for  the  purpose. 

§  56.  The  main  streets  of  the  city  were  termed  via;.  On  each  side  were 
connected  blocks  of  houses  and  buildings  ;  these  being  separated  by  interve- 
ning streets  and  by  lanes  or  alleys,  would  form  separate  divisions,  or  a  sort  of 
squares  ;  the  portions  occupied  by  buildings  and  thus  separated  were  called 
Vici ;  of  these  there  were,  it  is  said,  424.  They  had  particular  names;  e.  g. 
Vicus  albus,jugarius,  lanarius,,  Tibertinus,  Junonis,  Minerva,  4"C- 


658  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

§  57.  The  name  of  Fora  was  given  to  places  where  the  people  assembled 
for  the  transaction  of  business.  Although  at  first  business  of  every  sort  was 
probably  transacted  in  the  same  place,  yet  with  the  increase  of  wealth,  it  be- 
came convenient  to  make  a  separation  ;  and  the  Fora  were  divided  into  two 
sorts,  Civilia  and  Venalia.  The  Roman  Fora  were  not  like  the  ayoqai  of  the 
Greeks,  nearly  square,  but  oblong;  the  breadth  not  more  than  two  thirds  of 
the  length  ;  the  difference  between  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  chief  Forum 
discovered  at  Pompeii  is  greater. 

Until  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar  there  was  but  one  Forum  of  the  first  men- 
tioned class ;  that  generally  called  Forum  Romanum,  or  Forum  simply,  by 
way  of  eminence.  This  gave  name  to  the  8th  region  (§  54),  and  was  between 
the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  hills ;  it  was  800  feet  wide,  built  by  Romulus, 
and  adorned  on  all  sides,  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  with  porticos,  shops  and 
other  buildings.  On  the  public  buildings  around  the  Forum  great  sums  were 
expended  in  the  architecture  and  ornaments  ;  so  that  it  presented  a  very 
splendid  and  imposing  spectacle  ;  here  were  the  Basilica,  Curice,  and  Tabula- 
rice  ;  temples,  prisons,  and  public  granaries  ;  here  too  were  placed  numerous 
statues,  with  other  monuments.  In  the  centre  of  the  Forum  was  the  place 
called  the  Curtian  Lake,  where  Curtius  is  said  to  have  plunged  into  a  myste- 
rious gulph  or  chasm,  and  to  have  thus  caused  it  to  be  closed  up.  On  one 
side  were  the  elevated  seats  (or  suggestus,  a  sort  of  pulpits),  from  which  mag- 
istrates and  orators  addressed  the  people  ;  usually  called  the  Rostra  ;  because 
adorned  with  the  beaks  of  ships,  taken  in  a  sea-fight  from  the  inhabitants  of 
Antium.  Near  by  was  the  part  of  the  Forum  called  the  Comitium,  where 
some  of  the  legislative  assemblies  were  held,  particularly  the  Comitia  Curiata. 
In  or  near  the  Comitium  was  the  Puteal  Mtii ;  a  puteal  was  a  little  space  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  in  the  form  of  a  square  and  roofed  over ;  such  a  structure 
was  usually  erected  on  a  spot  which  had  been  struck  with  lightning.  Not  far 
from  the  Puteal  Mtii  was  the  Praetor's  Tribunal,  for  holding  courts.  There 
was  in  the  Forum,  near  the  Fabian  arch,  another  structure  marking  a  place 
struck  with  lightning,  the  Puteal  Libonis,  near  which  usurers  and  bankers 
were  accustomed  to  meet  (Hor.  Sat.  II.  vi.  35,).  The  milliarium  in  the  Forum 
has  already  been  mentioned  CQ  52J. 

Besides  this  ancient  Forum  there  were  four  others  built  by  different  emperors,  and  designed 
for  civil  purposes ;  the  Forum  Julium,  built  by  Julius-  Cssar,  with  spoils  taken  in  the  Gallic 
war ;  the  Forum  Aagtisti,  by  Augustus,  adorned  with  the  statues  of  the  kings  of  Latium  on 
one  side  and  the  kings  of  Rome  on  the  other ;  the  Forum  JVervce,  begun  by  Domitian  and  fin- 
ished bf!*Nerva,  having  statues  of  all  the  emperors;  and  the  Forum  Trajani,  by  Trajan,  the 
most  splendid  of  all. 

The  Fora  Venalia  were  14  in  number ;  among  them  the  Forum  Boarium, 
ox  and  cow  market ;  adorned  with  a  brazen  bull ;  Piscarium,  fish  market ;  01- 
itorium,  vegetable  market ;  Suarium,  swine  market,  &c. 

§  58.  In  speaking  of  the  temples  of  Rome,  the  first  place  belongs  to  the 
Capitolium.  The  Capitol  was  one  of  the  oldest,  largest,  and  most  grand  edifi- 
ces in  the  city.  It  was  first  founded  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  afterwards 
from  time  to  time  enlarged  and  embellished.  Its  gates  wer^  brass  and  it  was 
adorned  with  costly  gilding  ;  hence  the  epithets  aurea  and  fulgens  applied  to 
it.  It  was  on  the  Capitoline  hill  in  the  highest  part  of  the  city,  and  was  some- 
times called  arx.  The  ascent  from  the  forum  to  it  was  by  100  steps.  It  was 
in  the  form  of  a  square  extending  about  200  feet  on  each  side..  Its  front  was 
decorated  with  three  rows  of  pillars,  the  other  sides  with  two.  —  Three  tem- 
ples were  included  in  this  structure  ;  that  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  in  the  centre, 
one  sacred  to  Minerva  on  the  right,  and  one  to  Juno  on  the  left.  The  Capitol 
also  comprehended  some  minor  temples  or  chapels,  and  the  Casa  Romuli,  or 
cottage  of  Romulus,  covered  with  straw.  Near  the  ascent  to  the  capitol  was 
also  the  asylum,  or  place  of  refuge. 

This  celebrated  structure  was  destroyed  or  nearly  so,  by  fire,  three  times  ;  first,  in  the  Ma- 
rian war,  B.  C.  83,  but  rebuilt  by  Sylla  ;  secondly  in  the  Vitellian  war,  A.  D.  70,  and  rebuilt 
by  Vespasian  ;  thirdly,  about  the  time  of  Vespasian's  death,  after  which  it  was  rebuilt  by  Do- 
mitian with  greater  magnificence  than  ever.    A  few  vestiges  only  now  remain. 

§  59.  The  temple  next  in  rank  was  the  Pantheon,  built  by  Marcus  Agrippa, 
son-in-law  of  Augustus,  and  consecrated  to  Jupiter  Ultor,  or  as  its  name  im- 
ports to  all  the  gods  (navr&v  d««r).  It  is  circuTar  in  form  and  said  to  be  150 
feet  high  and  of  about  the  same  breadth  within  the  walls,  which  are  18  feet 
thick.     The  walls  on  the  inside  are  either  solid  marble  or  incrusted.     The 


EUROPE.       ITALIA.      TOPOGRAPHY    OP    ROME.  659 

front  on  the  outside  was  covered  with  brazen  plates  gilt  and  the  top  with  sil- 
ver plates  ;  but  now  it  is  covered  with  lead.  The  gate  was  of  brass  of  extraor- 
dinary size  and  work.  It  has  no  windows,  but  only  an  opening  in  the  top,  of 
about  25  feet  in  diameter,  to  admit  the  light.  The  roof  is  curiously  vaulted, 
void  spaces  being  left  here  and  there  for  the  greater  strength.  "  The  vestibule 
is  supported  by  sixteen  Corinthian  columns,  fourteen  feet  in  circumference, 
and  thirty-nine  feet  in  heighth,  each  shaft  being  an  entire  block  of  red  orien- 
tal granite,  having  bases  and  capitals  of  white  marble."  The  Pantheon  is  one 
of  the  most  perfect  of  the  ancient  edifices  remaining  at  Rome.  It  is  now 
called  the  Rotunda,  having  been  consecrated  by  pope  Boniface  4th,  A.  D.  607, 
to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  all  the  Saints. 

Dr.  Adam,  in  his  account  of  the  Pantheon,  says,  "  they  used  to  ascend  to  it  by  12  steps,  but 
now  they  go  down  as  many."  On  this  point  the  gentleman  mentioned  in  §  53,  writes,  "  the 
statement  that  it  was  originally  entered  by  seven  steps  is  doubtless  correct.  At  present  one 
ascends  two  steps  to  enter  it.  The  statement  of  twelve-  steps  of  descent  can  only  have  been  true 
four  centuries  ago,  before  the  place  anterior  to  the  Pantheon  was  cleansed.  This  took  place 
under  Pope  Eugene  IV.,  who  was  elected  in  1431." 

§  60.  There  were  many  other  temples  in  ancient  Rome  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  203), 
which  cannot  here  be  described.  The  temple  of  Saturn  was  famous  particularly 
as  serving  for  the  public  treasury  •  perhaps  thus  used  because  one  of  the  strong- 
est places  in  the  city;  although  some  ascribed  it  to  the  tradition,  that  in  the 
golden  age,  under  Saturn,  fraud  was  unknown.  In  this  temple  were  also  kept 
the  public  registers  and  records,  among  them  the  Libri  Elepkantini,  or  ivory 
tables  containing  lists  of  the  tribes. 

The  temple  of  Janus  was  built  or  finished,  at  least,  by  Numa;  a  square  edi- 
fice, with  two  gates  of  brass,  one  on  each  side  ;  which  were  to  be  kept  open  in 
time  of  war  and  shut  in  time  of  peace. 

So  continually  was  the  city  engaged  in  wars,  that  the  gates  of  Janus  were  seldom  shut ;  first, 
in  the  reign  of  Numa  ;  secondly  at  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  B.  C.  241 ;  three  times  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus  ;  the  last  time  near  the  epoch  of  Christ's  birth ;  and  three  times  afterwards, 
once  under  Nero,  once  under  Vespasian,  and  lastly,  under  Constantius,  about  A.  D.  350.    The 

gates  were  opened  with  formal  ceremony  (  Virg.  JEn.  vii.  707;. Sainte  Croix,  Sur  la  cloture 

der  temple,  de  Janus,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlix.  p.  385. 

The  temple  of  Apollo  on  the  Palatine  hill  was  celebrated  on  account  of  its 
library  (P.  I.  §  126). — The  temple  of  Vesta  yet  exists  in  a  small  circular  church, 
on  the  side  of  the  Palatine  hill  towards  the  Tiber. — Besides  these,  we  may 
name  the  temple  of  Concord  ;  of  the  goddess  of  Peace  (Pact  (eterna)  ;  of  Cas- 
tor and  Pollux  ;  of  Valor,  built  by  Marcellus. 

The  Romans  were  accustomed,  like  other  ancient  nations,  to  consecrate 
groves  and  woods  to  the  gods.  As  many  as  230  sacred  groves  (luci)  are  enu- 
merated, chiefly  within  the  city  of  Rome.  ' 

§  61.  The  Curia  were  public  edifices,  or  parts  of  public  edifices,  and  appro- 
priated, some  of  them  for  assemblies  of  the  senate  and  civil  councils,  others  for 
meetings  of  the  priests  and  religious  orders  for  the  regulation  of  religious 
rites.  To  the  former  class  the  Senacula  seem  to  have  belonged.  The  follow- 
ing were  among  the  Curise;  viz.  Curia  Romana,  Vetus,  Hostilia,  Vallensis, 
Pompeii,  &c. 

The  Basilica  were  buildings  of  great  splendor,  devoted  to  meetings  of  the 
senate,  and  to  judicial  purposes.  Here  counsellors  received  their  clients,  and 
here  bankers  also  had  rooms  for  transacting  their  business.  There  were  four- 
teen of  these  buildings;  among  them,  Basilica  vetus,  Constantiniana, 
Siciniana,  Julia,  &c. — Both  the  Basilicae  and  the  Curiee  were  chiefly  around 
the  Forum. 

It  should  be  remarked  that  the  term  Basilica  was  applied  to  many  of  the  ancient  Christian 
churches,  because  they  so  much  resembled  the  Basilica  just  described.  The  earliest 
churches  bearing  this  name  were  erected  under  Constantine.  He  gave  his  own  palace  on  the 
Coelian  hill  to  construct  on  its  site  a  church,  which  is  recognized  as  the  most  ancient  Christian 
Basilica.  Next  was  that  of  St.  Peter  on  the  Vatican  hill,  erected,  A.  D.  324,  on  the  site  and 
with  the  ruins  of  the  temples  of  Apollo  and  Mars  5  it  stood  about  12  centuries,  and  was  then 
pulled  down  by  pope  Julius  2d,  and  on  its  site  has  arisen  the  modern  church  of  the  same 
name. 

§  62.  The  Circi  were  structures  appropriated  to  public  spectacles,  to  races, 
and  to  fighting  with  wild  beasts.  They  were  generally  oblong,  having  one 
end  at  right  angles  with  the  sides,  and  the  other  curved,  and  so  forming  near- 
ly the  the  shape  of  an  ox-bow.    A  wall  extended  quite  round,  with  ranges  of 


660  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

seats  for  the  spectators.  There  were  eight  of  these  buildings,  besides  the 
Circus  Maximus,  described  in  another  place  (P.  IV.  §  232),  situated  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  Forum.  We  only  add  here,  that  this  is  said  to  have  been  en- 
larged after  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  so  as  to  contain  260,000  persons. 

The  Stadia  were  structures  of  a  similar  form,  designed  for  contests  in  racing, 
but  less  in  size  and  cost.  —  Hippodromi  were  of  the  same  character  and  seem 
to  have  been  sometimes  built  for  private  use. 

§  63.  Ancient  Rome  had  also  a  number  of  large  edifices  constructed  for  the 
purpose  of  dramatic  exhibitions,  and  for  gladiatorial  shows.  Those  for  the 
former  use  were  termed  theatra  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  238).  The  first,  permanent,  was 
that  erected  by  Pompey,  of  hewn  stone  ;  near  this  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river 
were  two  others,  that  of  Marcellus  and  that  of  Balbus ;  hence  the  phrase  ap- 
plied to  them,  tria  theatra. — The  structures  designed  for  the  gladiatorial  shows 
were  termed  Amphitheatra  (P.  IV.  §  239),  of  which  the  most  remarkable  was 
the  Coliseum,  still  remaining,  a  most  stupendous  ruin.  —  The  Odea  were  build- 
ings circular  in  form,  and  ornamented  with  numerous  seats,  pillars  and  statues, 
where  trials  of  musical  skill  were  held,  and  poetical  and  other  literary  com- 
positions were  exhibited,  after  the  manner  of  the  Greeks  (P.I.  §  65;.  Those 
established  by  Domitian  and  Trajan  were  the  most  celebrated. 

§  64.  The  buildings  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  bathing  (balnea)  were 
very  numerous  ;  such  as  were  of  a  more  public  character  were  called  thermae. 
In  the  time  of  the  republic  the  baths  were  usually  cold.  Maecenas  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  to  erect  warm  and  hot  ones  for  public  use.  They  were 
then  called  therma,  and  placed  under  the  direction  of  the  cedilcs.  Agrippa, 
while  he  was  sedile,  increased  the  number  of  thermal  to  170,  and  in  the  course 
of  two  centuries  there  were  no  less  than  800  in  imperial  Rome.  The  thermal 
Diocletiani  were  especially  distinguished  for  their  extent  and  magnificence 
(cf.  P.  I.  §  241.  3.)  Those  of  Nero,  Titus,  Domitian,  and  especially  Caracalla, 
were  also  of  celebrated  splendor.  v 

§  65.  The  name  of  Ludi  or  schools  was  given  to  those  structures,  in  which 
the  various  athletic  exercises  were  taught  and  practiced  ;  those  most  frequent- 
ly mentioned  are  the  Ludus  Magnus,  Matutinus,  Dacicus,  and  JEmilius.  There 
were  also  several  structures  for  exhibiting  naval  engagements,  called  Kaw 
machia;  as  JYaumachia  Jlugusti,  Domitiani.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  $  233.) 

Finally  there  were  large  edifices  sacred  to  the  nymphs  and  called  Nymphaa  ; 
one  particularly  noted,  which  contained  artificial  fountains  and  wTater-falls, 
and  was  adorned  with  numerous  statues  of  these  imaginary  beings.    Cf.  P.  III. 

§  ioi. 

§  66.  The  Porticos  or  Piazzas  iporticus)  were  very  numerous.  These  were 
covered  colonnades,  adorned  with  statues  and  designed  as  places  for  meeting 
and  walking  for  pleasure.  They  were  sometimes  separate  structures  ;  some- 
,  times  connected  with  other  large  buildings,  such  as  basilicap,  theatres  and  the 
like.  The  most  splendid  was  that  of  Apollo's  temple  on  Mount  Palatine,  and 
the  largest,  the  one  called  Milliaria.  Courts  were  sometimes  held  in  porti- 
cos ;  and  goods  also  of  some  kinds  were  exposed  for  sale  in  them.  Cf.  P.  L 
$  237. 

The  city  was  adorned  with  Triumphal  arches  (arcus  triumphales),  to  the 
number  of  36,  having  statues  and  various  ornaments  in  bas-relief  (T.  I.$  188). 
Some  of  them  were  very  magnificent,  as  e.  g.  those  of  Nero,  Titus,  Trajan, 
Septimius  Severus,  and  Constantine.  These  were  of  the  finest  marble,  and 
of  a  square  figure,  with  a  large  arched  gate  in  the  middle,  and  small  one  at 
the  sides. 

§  67.  There  were  single  pillars  or  columns,  columns,  also  erected  to  com- 
memorate particular  victories,  e.  g.  those  of  Duillius  (cf.  P.  I.  $  133.  1;,  Trajan, 
and  Antoninus.  The  last  two  are  still  standing  and  are  reckoned  among  the 
most  precious  remains  remains  of  antiquity  fcf.  P.  I.  $  188.  2).  —  With  great 
labor,  obelisks  were  removed  from  Egypt,  of  wrhich  those  still  existing,  hav- 
ing been  conveyed  there  by  Augustus,  Caligula,  and  Constantius  the  second, 
are  the  most  remarkablo. 

Innumerable  also  were  the  statues,  which  were  found  not  only  in  the  tem- 
ples, but  also  in  many  public  places,  in  and  upon  large  edifices.  More  than 
eighty  of  a  colossal  size  are  mentioned. 


EUROPE.       ITALIA.    TOPOGRAHY    OF    ROME.  661 

There  were  likewise  erected  at  Rome  a  few  trophies,  tropcBa.  These  were 
trunks  of  marble,  sometimes  of  wood,  on  which  were  hung  the  spoils  taken 
from  the  enemy,  especially  the  weapons  of  war.  There  are  two  trunks  of 
marble  decorated  like  trophies,  still  remaining  at  Rome,  and  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  by  Marius  for  his  victories,  over  Jugurtha,  and  over  the  Cimbri. 

§  68.  Among  the  memorable  things  of  Rome,  the  Aqueducts,  aquceductus, 
should  be  mentioned.  Their  design  was  to  furnish  the  city  with  a  constant  sup- 
ply of  water,  and  great  expense  was  laid  out  in  constructing  and  adorning  them. 
There  were  14  of  the  larger  sort;  the  Aqua  Appia,  Marcia ,  Virgo,  Claudia, 
Septimia  and  Alsictina,  are  the  most  known.  The  smaller  reservoirs  (lacus) 
were  commonly  ornamented  with  statues  and  carver's  work. 

Some  of  the  aqueducts  brought  water  more  than  60  miles,  through  rocks  and  mountains, 
and  over  valleys,  supported  on  arches,  sometimes  above  100  feet  high.  The  care  of  these  origin- 
ally belonged  to  the  asdiles  ;  under  the  emperors,  particular  officers  were  appointed  for  it,  called 
curatores  aquarum. R.  Fabretti,  De  Aqua;ductibus  veteris  Roma?.  Rom.  1680.  4. 

The  Cloaca  were  also  works  of  great  cost  and  of  very  durable  structure.  They  were  a  sort 
of  sewers  or  drains,  some  of  them  very  large,  passing  under  the  whole  city,  and  discharging  its 
various  impurities  into  the  Tiber.  The  principal  was  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  first  built  by  Tarquin- 
ius  Priscus,  cleansed  and  repaired  by  M.  Astippa  ;  it  was  16  feet  broad  and  30  feet  high,  formed 
of  blocks  of  hewn  stone.  The  Pantheon  (§  59)  was  over  it ;  and  many  private  houses  stood 
directly  upon  the  cloaca?.  (Stuart's  Diet,  of  Arch.)  These  were  under  the  charge  of  officers 
styled  curatores  cloacarum. 

§  69.  Splendid  tombs  and  monuments  to  the  dead  were  sometimes  erected 
(cf.  P.  IV.  §  341).  We  may  name  here  particularly  the  Mausoleum  of  Augustus 
of  a  pyramidical  form,  385  feet  high,  with  two  Obelisks  standing  near  it ;  the 
Moles  Hadriani;  and  the  Tomb  or  Pyramid  of  Cestius  (cf.  P.  I.  §  226.  P.  IV. 
§  187.4J. 

§  70.  The  number  of  private  buildings  amounted,  in  the  reign  of  Theodo- 
sius,  to  48,  382;  including  the  domus  and  the  insula;  the  former  of  which 
classes  comprised,  according  to  Gibbon,  the  "great  houses,"  and  the  latter  the 
"  plebeian  habitations  "  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  325).  Among  them  were  some  of  great 
splendor,  partly  of  marble,  and  adorned  with  statues  and  colonnades.  The 
more  celebrated  were  the  palaces  of  Julius  Caesar,  Mamurra,  Junius  Verus, 
Cicero,  and  Augustus,  the  golden  house  of  Nero,  the  palace  of  Licinius  Cras- 
sus,  Aquilius,  Catulus,  JEmilius  Scaurus,  Trajan,  Hadrian,  &c.  Before  the 
conflagration  of  the  city  under  Nero,  the  streets  were  narrow  and  irregular, 
and  the  private  houses  were  incommodious,  and  some  even  dangerous  from 
their  imperfect  architecture  and  the  height  of  three  lofty  stories.  In  the  time 
of  Nero,  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  city  was  burnt.  Of  the  14  districts,  only 
4  remained  entire.  The  city  was  rebuilt  with  more  regularity,  with  streets 
broader  and  less  crooked  (cf.  Tac.  Ann.  xv.  43) ;  the  areas  for  houses  were 
measured  out,  and  the  height  restricted  to  70  feet. 

§  71.  The  suburbs  of  ancient  Rome  were  so  extensive,  that  its  neighborhood  was  almost  one 
immense  village  ;  but  at  present,  the  vicinity  of  Rome  called  Compacrna  di  Roma,  is  a  com- 
plete desert.  Modern  Rome  is  built  chiefly  on  the  ancient  Campus  Martius.  The  accumula- 
tion of  ruins  has  raised  very  sensibly  the  soil  of  the  city,  as  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said 
•respecting  the  entrance  of  the  Pantheon  f§59),  and  the  height  of  the  Tarpeian  rock  (§  53). 

§  72.  We  proceed  now  to  what  remains  to  be  described  in  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope fcf.  §  27) ;  and  we  might  include  the  whole  under  the  term  Grcecia,  taken 
in"  a  very  comprehensive  sense,  in  which  it  has  sometimes  been  used.  For  it 
has  been  made  to  cover  not  only  the  Peloponnesus  and  Greece  Proper,  but 
also  Epirus,  Thessalia,  Macedonia,  and  even  Thracia.  The  victories  of  Philip 
having  procured  him  a  vote  in  the  Amphictyonic  council,  his  Thessalian  and 
Macedonian  dominions  were  consequently  ranked  among  the  Grecian  states. 
The  valor  and  policy  of  the  Epirote  kings  procured  the  same  honor  for  Epirus 
not  long  after  ;  and  finally,  Thrace  was  raised  to  the  same  dignity,  when  it 
became  the  habitation  of  the  Roman  emperors.  But  Groecia  is  rarely  used  in 
so  large  a  sense  ;  and  we  shall  first  consider  ancient  Thrace  separately,  and 
include  the  other  countries  under  Grcecia. 

Thracia  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  chain  of  mount  Hsemus,  which 
separated  it  from  Moesia  ;  on  the  east  by  the  Euxine  sea,  Thracian  Bosphorus, 
and  Hellespont,  which  divided  it  from  Asia  ;  on  the  south  by  the  JEgean  sea; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  river  Strymon,  dividing  it  from  Macedon.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  conquests  of  Philip,  the  river  Nessus  became  the  mutual  bounda- 
56 


662  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Ty,  of  Thrace  and  Macedon,  the  intermediate  district  being  annexed  to 
the  latter  country. — The  peninsula  contained  between  the  Bay  of  Melas,  and 
the  Hellespont  was  called  Thracice  Chersonesus ;  celebrated  in  the  wars  be- 
tween Philip  and  the  Athenians. 

§  73.  The  capital  of  Thrace,  and  at  one  time  of  the  civilized  world,  was 
Byzantium,  or  Constantinopolis,  built  on  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the 
Chersonese,  called  from  its  beauty  Chrusoceras,  or  the  golden  horn.  By  whom 
this  city  was  founded  is  a  matter  of  dispute  ;  but  it  was  greatly  enlarged  and 
beautified  by  Constantine  the  Great,  who,  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  transferred  the  seat  of  government  hither  from  Rome.  On  the  di- 
vision of  the  Roman  empire,  this  city  became  the  capital  of  the  Greek  or 
eastern  part ;  it  retained  this  distinction  for  many  years,  until  from  the  vices 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  imbecility  of  their  rulers,  it  was  captured  by  the 
Turks,  on  the  29th  of  May,  A.  D.  1453. 

On  the  topography  of  Byzantium,  Gibbon,  ch.  xvii.  —  James  Dallaway,  Constantinople  ancienl 
and  modern.  —  JYorth  Arner.  Rev.  16th  vol.  or  7th  of  New  Series,  p.  438. 

The  other  principal  towns  were,  Salmydcssus  (Midijeh),  celebrated  for  ship- 
wrecks ;  Thynia,  a  town  and  promontory,  whence  came  the  Thyni,  who  colon- 
ized Bithynia  in  Asia  Minor ;  Apollonia  called  afterwards  Slzopolis  (Sizeboli), 
and  Mesembria,  built  by  a  colony  of  Megarensians;  all  on  the  Euxine  sea. — 
Selymbria  (Selibria),  and  Perinthus,  or  Hcraclea  (Erekli),  on  the  Propontis. — 
Cailipolis  (Gallipoli),at  the  junction  of  the  Propontis  and  Hellespont;  the 
small  towns  Madytos  and  Cissa,  near  where  the  little  river  JEgos  Potamos 
joins  the  Hellespont,  the  scene  of  the  battle  in  which  Lysander  destroyed  the 
naval  power  of  the  Athenians  ;  and  Sestos  (Zenunie),  where  Xerxes  built  his 
bridge  of  boats  across  the  Hellespont.  —  Sestos  and  Abydos  are  also  celebrate- 
ted  for  the  loves  of  Hero  and  Leander.  The  possibility  of  swimming  across 
the  Hellespont  was  for  a  long  time  doubted,  but  it  was  performed  by  the  late 
Lord  Byron. 

On  the  bay  of  Melas,  so  named  from  the  river  Melas,  that  empties  itself  into 
it,  were  Cardia,  destroyed  by  Lysimachus,  to  procure  inhabitants  for  a  new 
town  ;  Lysimachia,  that  he  had  built  a  little  farther  south  ;  and  Eion,  which 
was  burned  by  its  governor,  Boges. — In  the  interior  were  Trajanopolis ,  built 
by  Trajan;  and  Adrianopolis ,  its  successful  rival,  built  by  Adrian,  and  now 
the  second  city  of  the  Turkish  empire.  At  the  east  mouth  of  Hebrus,  stood 
JEnos,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  ./Eneas,  near  the  territory  of  the  Cico- 
nes ;  on  the  west  side,  Doriscus,  where  Xerxes  reviewed  his  immense  arma- 
ment after  passing  the  Hellespont,  and  it  is  said  that  his  army  were  so  nu- 
merous as  completetly  to  drain  the  neighboring  river  Lessus.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  Nessus  was  Abdera,  the  birth-place  of  the  philosopher  Democritus, 
near  which  were  the  stables  of  Diomede,  who  is  said  to  have  fed  his  horses  on 
human  flesh. 

§  74.  The  principal  rivers  of  Thrace  were  the  Hebrus  (Maritza),  celebrated 
for  the  clearness  and  rapidity  of  its  waters;  JYessus  (Nissar),  and  Strymon 
(Jamboli).  —  The  principal  mountains  were  Mount  Haimus,  extending  from 
the  Euxine  sea  in  a  western  direction  between  Mcesia  and  Thrace  ;  Rhodope, 
extending  from  the  Euxine  sea  to  the  sources  of  the  Nessus  ;  and  Pangaius7 
extending  thence  to  the  north  of  Macedon.  It  was  on  the  Pangaus  that  the 
wonders  ascribed  to  the  lyre  of  Orpheus  were  said  to  have  been  performed 
(P.  II.  §  48).  Two  precipices  of  this  mountain,  now  called  Castagnas,  ap- 
proach to  the  sea  nearly  opposite  to  the  island  Thasus,  and  form  very  narrow 
passages,  which  were  defended  by  walls.  —  The  principal  seas  and  bays,  ad- 
joining this  extensive  maritime  country  were  Pontus  Euxinus,  Bosphorus 
Thracius,  Propontis,  Hellespontus,  Melanis  Sinus  (Gulf  of  Saros),  and  Stry- 
monicus  Sinus  (Gulf  of  Contesse). 

§  75.  Thrace  was  anciently  possessed  by  several  independent  tribes,  one  of  these,  the  Dol- 
onei,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Absynthi,  their  neighbors,  sent  to  Delphi  to  consult  the  ora- 
cle about  the  event  of  the  war.  The  ambassadors  were  directed  to  choose  as  leader  the  per- 
son who  should  first  invite  them  to  his  house.  While  passing  through  Athens  they  were  hos- 
pitably entertained  by  Miltiades  the  son  of  Cypselus  ;  they  immediately  requested  him  to  ac- 
company them  to  the  Chersonesus,  and  Miltiades,  having  consulted  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  ac- 
cepted the  invitation.  —  On  his  arrival  he  was  immediately  created  king,  and  the  Absynthians 
Were  soon  after  defeated.  He  fortified  the  Chersonesus  by  building  the  long  walls  across  the 
Isthmus,  and  after  a  prosperous  reign  bequeathed  the  crown  to  his  nephew  Stesagoras.  —  Stes- 


EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.    THRACIA.  663 

agoras  dying  after  a  short  reign,  his  brother  Miltiades  was  sent  from  Athens  by  the  Pisistratidse 
as  his  successor.  He  had  not  reigned  long,  when  Darius  king  of  Persia,  sent  a  fleet  of  Phoeni- 
cians against  the  Chersonese,  and  Miltiades,  unable  to  make  any  effective  resistance,  retired  to 
Athens. — The  Chersonese,after  the  defeat  of  the  Persians, was  principally  possessed  by  the  Athe- 
nians, who  colonized  all  the  coast.  The  interior  of  Thrace  remained  subject  to  the  native 
princes,  until  the  whole  country  was  united  to  Macedon  by  Philip  and  Alexander. 

§  76.  What  remains  to  be  described  in  Europe  we  shall  include,  as  already- 
remarked  (§  72),  under  Gjcecia,  using  this  name  in  what  is  commonly 
considered  its  most  comprehensive  sense  (cf.  P.  IV.  §  2).  The  extensive  re- 
gion thus  included  in  Grsecia  presents  four  general  divisions,  which  are  obvi- 
ously suggested  by  the  natural  face  of  the  country.  The  1st  is  that  part, 
which  lies  north  of  the  chain  of  mountains  called  Cambunii,  which  are  con- 
nected by  the  Stymphaei  Montes  with  the  Aero  Ceraunii ;  the  2d  is  the  part 
between  the  Cambunii  on  the  north,  and  another  line  of  highlands  and  moun- 
tains on  the  south,  which  may  be  traced  from  the  Sinus  Maliacus  on  the  east, 
to  the  Sinus  Ambracius  on  the  west ;  in  its  eastern  extremity  it  forms  the  pass 
of  Thermopylae,  and  the  chain  is  in  this  portion  of  it  called  (Eta  ;  as  it 
stretches  back  in  a  northerly  and  then  westerly  direction,  it  is  called  Pindus  ; 
this  sends  down  a  spur  from  the  sources  of  the  river  Achelous  to  the  Sinus 
Ambracius,  where  it  forms  another  pass  corresponding  to  that  of  Thermopylae 
on  the  east ;  the  3d  is  the  part  between  the  mountains  just  traced  and  the  gulfs 
on  each  side  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  Sinus  Corinthiacus ,  and  Sinus  Saron- 
icus  ;  and  the  4th  is  the  peninsula  connected  to  the  main  by  that  isthmus. 
The  first,  is  Macedonia;  the  second,  Epirus  and  Thessalia;  the  third,  Hellas; 
the  fourth,  Peloponnesus. 

§  77.  (1)  Macedonia,  considered  as  including  the  first  of  the  natural 
divisions  above  described,  was  bouned  W.  by  the  Mare  Hadriaticum  ;  N.  by 
Illyricum  and  Mcesia;  E.  by  Thracia  from  which  it  was  separated  by  Mt. 
Rhodope  and  the  river  Nestus  flowing  from  Rhodope  ;  S.  by  the  yEgaeum 
Mare,  the  Cambunii  Montes  and  the  other  mountains  forming  the  chain,  al- 
ready mentioned,  which  terminates  in  the  Aero  Ceraunii  on  the  western  ex- 
tremity. 

In  noticing  the  physical  features  of  Macedonia,  it  will  be  observed  that  Mt. 
Hcemus  and  Mt.  Rhodope,  meeting  on  its  N.  E.  corner,  stretch  along  on  its 
north  in  a  single  chain  ;  this  was  called  Orhelus  Mons ;  a  spur  from  Orbelus 
will  be  noticed  running  down  south  through  Macedonia,  and  forming  a  con- 
nection with  the  Stymphcei,  or  Mons  Stympha,  already  named,  between  the 
Cambunii  and  Aero  Ceraunii.  The  waters  east  of  this  spur  flow  to  the  iEgean; 
those  west  of  it,  to  the  Hadriatic. 

§  78.  The  principal  river  of  the  west  was  the  Drilo  (Drino),  which  runs 
through  lake  Lychnidus,  and  empties  into  a  bay  of  the  Hadriatic,  north  of  the 
point  called  JVymphamm  Promontorium. — One  of  the  most  important  places  in 
this  western  portion  was  Apollonia,  on  the  Hadriatic  coast,  celebrated  in  the 
Roman  age  of  Greek  Literature  (P.  II.  §  9)  for  its  cultivation,  and  said  to  be 
the  place  where  Augustus  acquired  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  and  finished  his 
education.  Another  place  is  worthy  of  notice,  Epidamnus,  further  north, 
called  Dyrrachium  by  the  Romans,  the  place  where  travelers  from  Italy  to 
Greece  generally  landed.  This  portion,  west  of  the  spur,  was  taken  from  Illy- 
ricum by  Philip  (Rollin,  B.  14.  §  1). 

§  79.  The  country  east  of  the  spur  is  principally  champaign.  We  notice 
three  most  considerable  rivers  ;  the  Haliacmon  (Platemone),  in  the  southern 
part,  flowing  east  to  the  Sinus  Thermaicns  (Gulf  of  Thessalonica,  or  Saloni- 
chi)  ;  the  Axius  (Vardari),  rising  in  the  heights  between  Macedonia  and  Moe- 
eia,  and  running  S.  to  the  head  of  the  same  gulf,  receiving  on  its  way  many 
tributaries,  and  uniting  with  the  Erigon  on  the  west  before  its  discharge  ;  the 
Strymon,  rising  in  Mt.  Rhodope,  and  flowing  to  the  Sinus  Strymonicus  (Gulf 
of  Contessa).  —  Between  the  two  gulfs  or  bays  just  named,  was  the  peninsula 
sometimes  called  Chalcidice,  and  presenting  peculiar  features,  having  a  cluster 
of  mountains  on  its  neck,  and  being  split  into  three  smaller  peninsulas  by  two 
bays,  the  Toronaicus  (G.  of  Cassandra),  and  the  Singeticus  (G.  of  Monte 
Sancto).  The  western  of  these  smaller  peninsulas  was  Pellena  or  Phlegra, 
the  fabled  scene  of  the  battle  between  Jupiter  and  the  Giants  (Ov.  x.  151)  ; 
the  eastern  was  marked  by  Mt.  Athos,  extending  several  leagues  upon  and  pro- 


664  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

jecting  into  the  sea,  and  was  celebrated  for  a  canal  said  to  be  cut  across  its 
neck  by  Xerxes  to  avoid  the  passage  around  Mt.  Athos,  that  passage  having 
proved  so  fatal  to  the  fleet  of  Darius. 

§  80.  This  portion  of  Macedonia  had  numerous  subdivisions,  many  of  which 
are  not  important,  even  if  they  could  be  accurately  traced.  Pceonia  was  in  the 
northern  part.  The  partbetAveen  the  Strymon  and  Nestus  was  called  Edonis. 
The  southern  part  on  the  west  of  the  Sinus  Thermaicus,  was  Pieria.  Emathia 
was  north  of  Pieria,  and  of  the  same  gulf. 

Emathia  was  the  most  important  province.  In  this  was  situated  Edessa, 
the  original  capital  of  the  country,  on  the  Erigon ;  also  Pella,  on  the  Lydias, 
subsequently  made  the  capital  by  Amyntas,  the  father  of  Philip.  Further  east, 
on  the  Sinus  Thermaicus,  was  Thermo;,  afterwards  called  Thcssalonica,  the 
place  of  Cicero's  banishment,  and  the  capital  of  the  country  as  a  Roman  pro- 
vince;  here  still  remains  an  ancient  structure  (see  Plate  XXX),  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  a  Cabirian  temple  (cf.  P.  III.  §  129).  On  the  peninsula 
which  has  been  described  f§  79>>  were  Potidaa,  or  Cassandria,  on  the  neck  of 
Pallene,  celebrated  for  its  splendor  under  king  Cassander ;  Olynthus,  memora- 
ble for  its  siege  by  Philip,  who  after  much  labor  captured  it  by  treachery  ; 
Chalcis,  which  gave  name  to  the  region  ;  Stagira  f  Stagrosj,  on  the  eastern 
coast,  the  birth-place  of  Aristotle.  —  In  Pieria,  one  of  the  most  memora- 
ble places  was  Pydna  fKitraj,  where  Olympias  was  murdered  by  Cassander, 
and  where  the  Roman  general  Paulus  iEmilius  made  a  prisoner  of  Perseus  the 
last  king  of  Macedonia,  B.  C.  168.  North  of  this,  on  the  coast,  was  Met  hone, 
at  the  siege  of  which  Philip  lost  his  right  eye.  —  In  Edonis  were  two  im- 
portant towns  ;  Amphipolis ,  originally  on  an  island  in  the  river  Strymc  .  an 
Athenian  colony;  Phiiippi,  further  east,  near  Mons  Pangeeus,  a  branch  from 
Rhodope. 

The  latter  was  built  by  Philip,  for  the  same  purpose  for  which  the  Athenians  built  Amphi- 
polis  ;  to  secure  the  valuable  gold  and  silver  mines  found  in  this  region.  It  is  celebrated  for 
the  battle  in  which  rrutus  and  Cassius  were  defeated  by  Augustus  and  Antony,  B.  C.  42 ;  and 
memorable  as  the  place  where  Paul  and  Silas,  having  been  "  thrust  into  the  inner  prison,  with 
their  feet  fast  in  the  stocks,  at  midnight  sang  praises  unto  God  "  (Acts,  xvi.  25).  Its  site  is 
still  marked  by  ruins  (Miss.  Herald,  Sept.  1836.  p.  334;.  —  Like  most  of  the  Greceian  cities, 
it  was  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  or  mount  on  which  was  its  Acropolis.  A  view  of  the  Acropolis  and 
of  the  plain  below  is  given  in  our  Plate  XXXI.  A  traveler  on  horseback  is  advancing  on  the 
road  from  Neapolis  to  Phiiippi ;  he  is  just  passing  a  modern  Turkish  burying-ground  on  his 
right  hand  under  a  near  hill  ;  the  Acropolis,  with  its  ruins,  appears  on  the  eminence  beyond  at 
the  right;  at  the  base  of  this  eminence,  was  the  lower  city,  on  the  south  and  southwest; 
farther  to  the  south  is  an  open  plain  ;  the  mountain  on  the  left  is  the  southern  extremity  of 
Pangaus. 

§  81.  The  kingdom  of  Macedonia  was  said  to  be  founded  by  Caranus,  a  descendant  of  Her- 
cules, B.C.  814;  but  it  did  not  acquire  consequence  until  the'reign  of  Philip,  who  ascended 
the  throne  B.  C.360.  It  has  been  stated,  that  15U  different  nations  or  tribes  were  finally  includ- 
ed within  its  'Units. 

§  82.  (2)  Epirus  and  Thessalia,  embraced  in  the  second  natural  division 
pointed  out  (§  76),  are  next  to  be  noticed. 

Thessalia  is  described  by  Herodotus  as  a  very  extensive  plain,  embosomed 
in  mountains.  The  Cambunii  and  Olympus  were  on  the  north  ;  Pelion  and 
Ossa,  on  the  east;  Pindus,  on  the  west;  and  (Eta,  on  the  soutli  :  so  that  only 
the  small  portion  of  coast  between  the  Sinus  Pelasgicus  and  the  Sinus  Ma- 
liacus  is  without  the  guard  of  mountains  :  and  even  this  has  a  guard  a  little  in 
the  interior,  by  Mt.  Othrys,  which  strikes  across  from  Pindus  to  Pelion. 

The  extensive  plains  of  Thessaly  were  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  breeding 
of  horses  ;  and  the  Thessalians  were  the  first  who  introduced  the  use  of  cav- 
alry, horses  having  been,  at  first,  only  used  for  draught.  Hence,  perhaps, 
arose  the  fable  of  the  Centaurs,  a  people  of  Thessaly,  who  were  supposed  to 
have  been  half  man  and  half  horse.  The  Thessalian  cavalry  maintained  their 
superiority  to  a  very  late  period,  and  to  them  Philip  was  indebted  for  many  of 
his  victories. 

§  83.  The  northern  part  of  Thessaly  was  called  Pelasgiotis,  from  the  Pel- 
asgi,  an  Asiatic  wandering  tribe,  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  in- 
habitants of  Greece  (P.  I.  $  33).  The  principal  cities  in  Pelasgiotis  were 
Larissa,  the  capital  of  the  province  ;  Gomphi,  destroyed  by  Ceesar  ;  Gonnus 
and  Gyrtona,  near  the  entrance  of  the  vale  of  Tempe,  so  celebrated  for  its  nat- 
ural beauties  ;  Scotussa,  near  which  are  some  hills,  called,  from  their  shape, 


PLATE    XXX. 


1 .  The  Rotunda  of  Salonica,  the  ancient  Thessalonica.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  Cabirian  Temple.  By  the  Christians  it  was  converted  into  a 
church  of  Paul  and  Peter.  The  Turks  have  turned  it  into  a  mosque;  and 
erected  the  minaret,  which  appears  attached  to  it,  and  in  the  gallery  of 
which  is  seen  a  Muezzin,  whose  office  is  to  announce  from  the  gallery  the 
hour  of  prayer. 

2.  A  fountain  for  the  Mussulman  ablution  before  prayers. 


56* 


6Q6  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Cynos  Cephale,  where  Philip  was  defeated  by  Quintus  Flaminius  ;  and  Phar- 
salus7nedLT  which, in  a  plain  called  Pharsalia,Vompey  was  overthrown  by  Cffisar. 
The  eastern  part  of  Thessaly  was  named  Magnesia;  the  most  remarka- 
ble places  were  Sepias,  a  small  village  on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name, 
where  the  fleet  of  Xerxes  received  an  omen  of  their  final  overthrow,  being 
shattered  in  a  storm  ;  Demetrius  fVlooJ,  built  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and 
which,  from  the  commercial  advantages  of  its  situation,  almost  depopulated 
the  neighboring  towns  ;  Melibceu,  the  city  of  Philoctetes  ;  lolcos,  the  residence 
of  Jason  and  Medea;  Pagasce,  where  the  ship  Argo  was  built,  from  which  the 
Sinus  Pelasgicns  is  sometimes  called  Pagasams  :  Aphetce  ^FetioJ,  whence  the 
Argonaut"c  expedition  sailed;  Pherce,  the  residence  of  the  tyrant  Alexander; 
and  Thebce,  near   the  river   Amphrysus,  where  Apollo  fed  the  herds  of  king 

Admetus. In  the  southern  parts  of  Thessaly  were  Mulia,  which  gives 

name  to  the  Maliac  bay  ;  Larissu,  called  Cremaste  from  its  sloping  situation, 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Achilles;  Jllos,  at  the  foot  of  mount  Othrys, 
near  which  the  combat  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithae  took  place  ;  Phy- 
lace  on  the  sea  coast,  the  residence  of  Protesilaus  ;  Dorion,  where  the  musical 
contest  between  Thamyris  and  the  Muses  took  place  ;  Hypatu,  famous  for  the 
magical  arts  of  its  women  (Hor.  Ep.  5  J ;  Lamia,  where  Antipater  was  fruit- 
lessly besieged  by  the  Athenians  ;  and  Trachis  (Ze'iton),  celebrated  for  its  des- 
2>erate  resistance  when  besieged  by  the  Romans- 

§  84.  The  mountains  have  been  mentioned  above  (§  82 J.  The  most  remark- 
able river  was  the  Peneus,  which  passing  the  vale  of  Tcmpe  falls  into  the 
JSgean  sea.  This  river  is  said  to  have  overflowed  Thessaly,  until  Hercules 
opened  a  passage  for  the  waters  between  mounts  Olympus  and  Ossa.  The 
principal  inlets  of  the  iEgean  sea,  on  the  Thessalian  coast,  were  Sinus  Pelas- 
gicns or  Pagasceus  fGulf  of  Volo),  and  Sinus  Muliacus  fGulf  of  ZeitonJ. 

§  85.  The  inundation  of  Thessaly,  during  the  reign  of  Deucalion,  is  one  of  the  first  events 
recorded  in  profane  history  ;  all  the  inhabitants,  except  Deucalion  and  his  wife  Pyrrha,  are  said 
to  have  been  destroyed.  Perplexed  to  discover  by  what  means  the  human  race  might  be  re- 
stored they  consulted  the  oracle  of  Themis,  and  were  ordered  to  throw  stones  behind  them  ; 
those  thrown  by  Deucalion  became  men  and  those  by  Pyrrha  women.  In  this  fable  the  history 
of  some  partial  inundation  seems  to  be  confounded  with  the  tradition  of  the  universal  deluge. 

The  next  remarkable  occurrence  was  the  A rgonautic  expedition  under  Jason,  aided  by  the 
bravest  heroes  of  Greece,  in  the  ship  Argo  (P.  III.  §  127 J.  —  Achilles  was  the  most  remarka- 
ble Thessalian  prince  after  Jason  ;  he  was  the  son  of  Peleus  and  the  sea-nymph  Thetis  ;  an 
oracle  had  foretold  that  he  would  perish  if  he  accompanied  the  Greeks  to  Troy  ;  to  prevent 
this,  his  mother  concealed  him  at  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  king  of  Scyros,  by  one  of  whose 
daughters  he  begat  Pyrrhus,  or  Neoptolemus,  afterwards  king  of  Epirus.  Achilles  was  at  last 
discovered  by  Ulysses  and  brought  to  Troy,  where  he  was  slain  by  Paris,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Priam. 

During  the  supremacy  of  Athens  and  Sparta.  Thessaly  seems  to  have  been  of  little  impor- 
tance. The  greater  part  of  it  was  annexed  to  Macedon  by  Philip  and  his  successors.  —  It  was 
cruelly  devastated  in  the  wars  between  the  Romans  and  the  Macedonian  and  Syrian  kings  ;  it 
also  suffered  very  severely  in  the  civil  wars  between  Caesar  and  Pompey. 

§  86.  Under  Epirus  a  greater  extent  than  we  have  assigned  to  it  is  often 
included.  We  have  suggested  as  its  natural  boundaries  on  the  north  the 
mountains  Cambunii  and  Aero  Ceraunii,and  on  the  south,  the  Sinus  Ambra- 
cius;  but  the  region  called  Orestis  between  the  Aero  Ceraunii  and  the  river 
Aous  is  commonly  termed  a  province  of  Epirus  ;  and  Jicurnuniu,  within  the 
proper  limits  of  Hellas,  is  also  often  considered  as  another  province.  In  all 
descriptions,  it  is  separated  from  Thessaly  by  Mt.  Pindus ;  while  the  Mare 
Ionium  bounds  it  on  the  west.  Within  the  compass  here  given,  it  included 
the  provinces  Chaonia,  Thesprotia,  and  Molossis. 

§  87.  Chaonia  was  the  portion  under  the  Aero  Ceraunii  on  the  south, 
said  to  be  named  from  Chaon,  the  brother  of  Helenus  son  of  Priam.  These 
mountains  were  so  called  from  their  summits  («xoa)  being  often  struck  with 
lightning  (xeoawug)  ;  they  were  remarkable  for  attracting  storms,  and  were 
dreaded  by  mariners ;  the  rocks  at  the  westerm  extremity  of  their  southern 
branch,  Jlcro-Ccruunia,  were  called  infamous  (infames).  —  The  principal 
towns  were  Oricum  in  the  extreme  north,  on  the  coast  between  the  branches 
of  the  mountains  just  mentioned;  and  Anchesmus  also  on  the  coast  and  in 
the  extreme  south  of  the  province. 

Thesprotia  extended  on  the  coast  from  Chaonia  to  the  Sinus  Ambrucius 
(G.  of  Arta).     Its  principal  places  were,  Buthrotum  on  the  river  Xanthus,  near 


EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       GR^CIA.  667 

which  iEneas  is  said  to  have  landed  on  his  flight  from  Troy  to  Italy  ;  and 
Ephyra  (a),  on  the  river  Acheron,  flowing  to  the  harbor  called  Glycis  Limeu 
(yXvxvg  ?.iu>ir).  The  river  Acheron  is  joined  at  its  mouth  by  the  Cocytus. — 
These  were  ranked  in  the  ancient  mythology  among  the  flumina  inferorum, 
or  infernal  rivers;  three  others  had  the  same  rank  ;  the  Styx,  in  Arcadia;  the 
Lethe,  in  Bceotia  probably  ;  and  the  Phlegethon,  the  location  of  which,  as  an 
actual  river,  is  unknown,  although  it  is  represented  sometimes  as  uniting 
with  the  Acheron. 

(a)  Ephyra  was  subsequently  called  Cichyrus ;  the  ruins  of  its  walls  are  said  to  be  still  visi- 
ble. —  Hughes,  Travels  in  Greece  and  Albania.  Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  4. 

M  o  1  o  s  s  i  s  was  east  of  Thesprotia,  and  north  of  the  Sinus  Ambracius.  Its 
principal  towns  were  Ambracia,  the  residence  of  the  Epirote  kings,  on  the 
river  Aracthus  or  Arethon  ;  Dodona,  famous  for  its  oracle  and  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter (P.  IV.  §  71),  and  Passaro,  where  the  kings  of  Epirus  took  the  corona- 
tion oath.  —  The  Molossian  dogs  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients. 

$  88.  We  meet  but  casual  mention  of  the  Epirotes  in  history  until  the  Macedonian  Empire 
was  divided  after  Alexander's  death.  It  was  then  that  this  people,  who  had  hitherto  been 
looked  on  as  barbarians,  and  held  in  subjection  by  the  Macedonians,  began  to  take  a  lead  in 
the  affairs  of  Greece.  —  The  folly  of  Pyrrhus,  who  hoped  by  his  victories'  in  the  west,  to  rival 
the  conquests  of  Alexander  in  the  east,  weakened  their  forces  and  diminished  their  authority. 

On  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  the  Epirotes  adhered  to  the  cause  of  Grecian  liberty  with 

a  desperate  fidelity,  worthy  of  better  success.  When  the  conquest  of  their  country  had  been 
achieved  by  Paulus  iEmilius,  enraged  at  their  resistance,  he  ordered  seventy  of  their  cities  to 
be  destroyed,  and  150,000  of  the  inhabitants  to  be  sold  as  slaves ;  an  instance  of  atrocious  re- 
venge scarcely  to  be  parallelled  in  history. 

When  the  empire  of  Constantinople  fell  before  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Mahometans,  the 
remnants  of  the  Christian  forces  retreated  to  the  fastnesses  of  the  mountains  of  Suli  and  the 
town  of  Parga  in  this  territory.  —  The  Suliotes,  after  performing  feats  of  valor  only  to  be  paral- 
lelled in  the  brighter  days  of  Grecian  freedom,  were  duped  by  Ali  Pacha  and  treacherously  mas- 
sacred ;  and  Parga,  after  many  vicisitudes,  fell  under  the  power  of  Turkey.  —  For  an  account 
of  Parga,  cf.  Lond.   Quart.  Rev.  xxm.  p.  111. 

§  89.  (3)  Our  3d  division  of  Greece  includes  the  portion  between  Mt.  CEta 
and  the  large  gulfs,  Sinus  Corinthiacus  and  Sinus  Saronicus.  It  is  what  is 
properly  termed  Hellas,  and  is  also  called  GrjEcia  Propria. 

This  division  is  washed  on  every  side  but  the  north  by  the  sea.  On  the 
east  are  first  the  waters  of  Sinus  Maliacus  then  of  Sinus  Opuntius  and  those 
between  the  main-land  and  Euboea,  which  are  called  in  the  narrowest  place 
Euripus.  Leaving  these  and  drawing  near  the  southern  point  of  the  country, 
you  enter  the  Myrtoum  Mare,  and  having  passed  that  point,  Sunium  Promon- 
torium,  with  the  splendid  temple  of  Minerva  in  sight,  you  proceed  up  the  Si- 
nus Saronicus  (Gulf  of  Egina)  ;  at  the  end  of  which  you  must  take  a  land  car- 
carriage,  but  of  5  miles  only,  over  the  isthmus  of  Corinth  (Hexa-Mili),  when 
you  reach  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus  (Gulf  of  LepantoJ. —  This  opens  into  Hel- 
las several  bays,  one  at  its  eastern  extremity  called  Halcyonium  Mare,  and  an- 
other central  and  opening  to  the  north  called  Sinus  Crissams  (Bay  of  Salona). 
—  Continuing  the  survey  of  the  coast  of  Hellas,  you  pass  out  of  the  Sinus 
Corinthiacus  through  the  strait  called  Dardanelles  of  Lepanto  between  Rhium 
on  the  Peloponnesus,  where  is  the  tomb  of  Hesiod,  and  Antirrhium  on  the  op- 
posite side.  Issuing  from  this  strait  you  enter  and  continue  in  the  Mare  Io- 
nium, till  having  gone  through  the  artificial  channel  separating  Leucas  from 
the  mainland,  you  turn  round  the  Promontorium  Actium  and  enter  the  Sinus 
Ambracius,  which  ends  the  tour,  and  the  eastern  extremity  of  which  is  not 
more  than  70  miles  distant,  across  the  mountains,  from  the  Sinus  Maliacus^ 
where  the  imaginary  tour  began. 

§  90.  If  an  observer  could  take  an  elevated  station  in  the  air,  and  thence 
look  down  upon  Hellas,  his  eye  would  rest  upon  an  almost  countless  number 
of  hills  and  mountains,  with  rich  vales,  and  small  pure  streams.  At  first  its 
summits  might  seem  to  rise  up  over  the  country  in  disorder  and  confusion, 
but  soon  he  would  trace  some  obvious  lines  of  connection.  —  He  would  per- 
ceive one  line  of  summits  stretching  from  Mt.  (Eta  at  Thermopylae  down  par- 
allel to  the  eastern  coast  and  to  the  island  Euboea  as  far  as  to  the  strait  Euri- 
pus.  —  He  would  observe  another  of  more  lofty  and  attractive  summits  pro- 
ceeding from  Pindus  (in  about  the  centre  between  the  Sinus  Maliacus  and  Si- 
nus Ambracius)  running  quite  southerly  a  short  distance,  and  then  sending  off 
on  its  right  a  line  of  minor  summits  down  to  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Sinus  Corinthiacus,  but  itself  bending  to  the  south-east,  and  at  length  verging 


668  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

along  the  shore  of  that  gulf  to  its  eastern  extremity  and  there  connecting  with 
the  Geranii  Montes  and  Mons  Oncius  on  the  isthmus,  and  with  Mons  Cith&rori, 
which  proceeds  directly  east  to  the  sea  south  of  the  straits  of  Euripus.  —  The 
part  of  this  line  joining  Pindus  includes  probably  the  mountains  in  which  the 
ancient  Dryopes  dwelt.  The  first  part  of  the  branch  which  it  sends  off  to 
the  west,  is  the  Coras  chain,  and  the  termination  of  this  branch  at  the  gulf  ia 
in  the  summits  called  Taphiassus  and  Chalcis.  —  In  the  main  line  bending  to 
the  south-east  occur  first  Parnassus,  which  although  of  barren  soil  was  cele- 
brated for  its  green  valleys  and  shady  groves  suited  for  meditation  ;  then  Hel- 
icon, with  its  fountain  Hippocrene,  sprung  (according  to  fable)  from  the  stamp- 
ing of  Pegasus  (cf.  P.  III.  §  117./).  —  After  this,  as  you  turn  eastward,  ap- 
pears Cithmron,  which  has  a  summit  in  the  eastern  part,  called  Parnes.  —  In 
the  territory  south  of  these,  were  several  summits,  particularly,  Pentelicus, 
famous  for  its  marble,  north-east  from  Athens  ;  Hymettus,  celebrated  for  its 
honey,  east  and  south-east  of  Athens  ;  Laurius  containing  the  silver  mines, 
in  the  southern  extreme  of  Attica.  —  Aracynthus  was  a  chain  in  iEtolia. 

§  91.  Hellas  contained  eight  small,  but  independant  provinces  or  districts. 
These  were,  beginning  on  the  west,  Acarnania,  JEtolia,  Doris,  Locris,  Phocis, 
Boeotia,  Meg  arts,  Attica. 

The  two  western  districts  Acarnania  and  JEtolia  were  very  inferior  to  the 
rest  in  fame,  although  nature  presented  herself  in  a  grander  and  sublimer  as- 
pect than  in  some  other  districts. 

§  92.  Acarnania  was  marked  for  its  woods  and  forests,  and  its  inhabit- 
ants were  noted  for  their  attachment  to  sensual  pleasures.  We  have  alluded 
(§  76)  to  the  natural  boundaries  between  this  district  and  Epirus,  viz.  the  Si- 
nus Ambracius  and  the  spur  af  mountains  running  from  Pindus  down  to  that 
bay.  This  line  of  highlands  is  now  called  Makrinoros,  which  name  is  also 
given  to  the  narrow  pass  under  their  abrupt  and  steep  termination  near  the 
bay,  a  pass  similar  to  that  of  Thermopylae.  The  boundary  between  Acar- 
nania and  the  next  district  of  Hellas,  ^Etolia,  is  the  river  Achelous,  rising 
among  the  valleys  of  Mt.  Pindus  and  flowing  to  the  Mare  Ionium. 

Of  the  places  in  Acarnania,  we  mention  Argos  Amphilochius,  on  the  river 
Inachus  emptying  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Sinus  Ambracius  ;  Anacto- 
rium  on  a  peninsula  forming  the  north-western  corner  of  the  district;  Act  mm 
a  little  further  to  the  east,  on  the  Promontory  of  the  same  name.  At  this 
place  Augustus  gained  his  great  naval  victory  over  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  and 
to  commemorate  it,  built  a  town  called  JSicopolis,  and  instituted  games  cele- 
brated every  third  year,  called  Actio,.  —  Leucas  was  on  the  northern  point  of 
the  island  Leucadia,  which  was  a  peninsula  before  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
but  after  that  separated  by  an  artificial  channel.  On  the  south  part  was  a 
temple  of  Apollo  on  the  Promontory  Leucate,  from  which  the  despairing  Sap- 
pho, is  said  to  have  thrown  herself  (cf.  P.  II.  §  54).  —  Stratus,  once  its  me- 
tropolis, was  on  the  Achelous  which  is  now  called  Aspro-potamo. 

§  93.  iE  t  o  1  i  a  was  east  of  Acarnania,  separated  by  the  river  Achelous  ;  it 
is  now  called  Flakia  from  a  tribe  of  barbarians  to  whom  the  Greek  emperors 
gave  this  province.  Its  other  chief  river  was  the  Evenus  (Fideri)  falling  into 
the  Corinthian  bay  ;  this  and  the  Achelous  are  the  largest  rivers  of  Hellas. 

The  following  are  the  chief  places  ;  Calydon  on  the  Evenus,  under  Mt. 
Chalcis  ;  associated  with  the  story  of  the  Caledonian  boar  (destroyed  by  the  son 
of  the  king  of  iEtolia),  whose  tusks  were  said  to  have  been  preserved  in  Greece 
until  Augustus  carried  them  to  Rome  as  curiosities  ;  Thermus  the  ancient 
capital,  in  the  interior  or  between  the  Evenus  and  Lake  Trichonis.  —  JYau- 
pactus,  on  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  under  Mt.  Taphiassus,  was  not  included  in 
the  proper  limits  of  iEtolia,  but  was  given  to  this  province  by  Philip  of  Mace- 
don  ;  it  was  said  to  have  its  name  from  vavg  and  Tt^yvvui,  because  the  Herac- 
lidas  built  here  their  first  ship  to  invade  Peloponnesus. 

§  94.  D  o  r  i  s  ,  a  very  small  district,  lay  under  mount  Pindus,  between  CEta 
on  the  east  and  the  mountains  of  the  Dryopes  on  the  west,  having  Parnassus 
on  the  south-west  and  being  separated  from  Phocis  by  elevated  hills  on  the 
south-east ;  thus  wholly  surrounded  by  mountains.  It  was  called  Doris  from 
Dorus,  son  of  Deucalion  ancient  monarch  of  Thessaly.  It  was  a  rocky,  moun- 
tainous region.     Its  towns  were  situated  on  the  river  Pindus  a  branch  of  the- 


EUROPE.       SOUTHERN    COUNTRIES.       HELLAS.  669 

Cephissus,  which  also  rises  in  the  hills  of  Doris.  From  its  four  towns  Pin- 
dus,  Erineum,  Boium  and  Cytinium,  it  was  called  Tetrapolis  ;  and  sometimes 
Hexapolis,  the  two  places  Lilceum  and  Carphia  being  added 

§  95.  L  o  c  r  i  s  consisted  of  two  parts  separated  from  each  other.  —  The 
larger  part  was  on  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus  having  iEtolia  on  the  west,  and 
Phocis  on  the  east  (partly  separated  from  it  by  the  Sinus  Crissceus).  The  in- 
habitants of  this  part  were  called  Western  Locri,  or  Locri  Hesperii  and  Locri 
OzoIcb.  Of  the  origin  of  the  latter  name,  different  accounts  are  given  ;  the 
people  are  said  to  have  disliked  the  name  exceedingly. One  of  their  prin- 
cipal places  was  jimphissa,  in  the  interior,  where  was  a  temple  to  Minerva.  — 
JYaupuctus  (§  93)  originally  belonged  to  them. 

§  96.  The  other  and  smaller  part  of  Locris  was  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Hel- 
las, on  the  waters  separating  it  from  Euboea.  It  was  north-east  of  Phocis  and 
Bosotia,  divided  from  them  by  a  chain  of  mountains  and  extending  from  Mt. 
(Eta  on  the  north  to  the  Platanius,  a  small  river  flowing  to  the   channel  of 

Euboea  and  separating  Locris  from  Bceotia,  on  the  south. This  part  was 

inhabited  by  two  tribes.  —  the  Opuntii  were  in  the  southern  region,  so  called 
from  their  principal  city  Opus,  which  gave  name  also  to  the  bay  adjacent,  5'i- 
nus  Opuntius,  containing  a  small  island,  Atalanta.  The  port  of  Opus,  called 
Cynos,  was  north  of  it,  on  the  bay.  —  The  other  tribe  or  people  were  the  Ep- 
icnemidii,  so  named  from  Mt.  Cnemis.  On  this  there  was  a  small  town  of  the 
same  name  ;  other  places  of  note  were  JYaryx,  the  city  of  Ajax,  son  of  Oileus  ; 
Thronium  ;  and  Anlhela,  where  the  Amphictyonic  council  assembled  annually 
in  a  temple  of  Ceres,  or  as  she  was  called  here,  in  allusion  to  the  council, 
Thesmophora  (the  lawgiver). 

Close  to  Anthela  were  the  ever-memorable  straits  of  Thermopylae,  deriving 
their  name  from  some  hot  springs  and  fortified  gates  that  were  there.  This 
celebrated  pass,  usually  reckoned  the  key  of  Greece,  is  about  sixty  paces 
wide,  and  is  situated  between  the  ridge  of  Mount  OZta  and  the  Malian  gulf, 
at  the  junction  of  the  three  countries,  Locris,  Phocis,  and  Thessaly.  Here 
Leonidas,  with  a  handful  of  men,  bravely  resisted  the  countless  myriads  of 
Persia,  and  died  rather  than  violate  the  Spartan  law,  which  forbade  flight  to 
the  citizens.  In  the  same  place  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  was  defeated  by 
the  consul  Acilius  ;  and  during  the  late  struggle  for  Grecian  freedom,  two  sig- 
nal triumphs  were  obtained  by  the  Greeks  over  their  Turkish  oppressors  on 
the  same  inspiring  spot. 

$  97.  Phocis  extended  between  the  two  parts  of  Locris,  from  the  Corin- 
thian gulf  to  the  borders  of  Thessaly. 

The  capital  was  Elatea,  on  the  river  Cephissus,  the  capture  of  which  by 
Philip  first  awakened  the  attention  of  the  Greeks  to  the  dangerous  ambition 
of  the  Macedonian  monarch.  West  of  Elatea  was  Delphi,  on  mount  Parnas- 
sus, celebrated  for  the  oracle  of  Apollo  (P.  IV.  $  72),  and  for  the  annual  meet- 
ings of  the  Amphictyonic  council  (P.  IV.  §  105)  held  in  the  temple.  It  is 
now  a  mean  village,  called  Castri.  Parnassus  (Haliocoro)  had  two  summits, 
one  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  one  to  Bacchus  ;  the  town  stood  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain,  and  the  temple  was  built  on  a  neighboring  eminence  (a),  close  to 
the  fountain  Castalia.  Near  the  town,  the  Pythian  games  were  celebrated,  in 
memory  of  Apollo's  victory  over  the  serpent  Python  —  Cirrha,  on  the  small 
river  Plistus,  falling  into  the  Corinthian  gulf,  was  esteemed  the  port  of  Del- 
phi ;  near  this  was  Crissa,  from  which  an  inlet  of  the  Corinthian  gulf,and  some- 
times the  whole  gulf,  was  called  Crissaeus ;  and  Anticyra,  celebrated  for  the 
production  of  hellebore.  —  The  principal  river  of  Phocis  was  the  Cephissus, 
which  is  sometimes  confounded  with  a  river  of  the  same  name  in  Attica. 

(a)  A  view  of  Delphi  and  the  heights  of  Parnassus  is  presented  in  the  Frontispiece  of  this 
Manual,  as  given  by  Boca^e,  in  Barthelemy's  Anacharsis.  —  A  plan  of  Delphi,  with  explana- 
tions is  found  in  Lissen'a  Pindar,  vol.  ii.  p.  628.  as  cited  P.  II.  §  60.  4. 

$  98.  At  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  the  Phocians  strenuously  exerted  themselves  for 
the  common  liberties  of  Greece  ;  in  revenge,  Xerxes  despatched  a  large  army  to  lay  waste  the 
country  and  plunder  the  temple  of  Delphi.  The  greater  part  of  the  men  were  destroyed  by  earth- 
quakes and  lightning  ;  the  inhabitants,  encouraged  by  these  appearances  of  a  divine  assist- 
ance, rose  en  masse,  and  completely  destroyed  the  remainder About  280  B.  C,  a  large 

body  of  Gauls,  under  the  command  of  Brennus,  invaded  their  country,  and  were  defeated  un- 
der circumstances  similar  to  the  defeat  of  Xerxes. 

§  99.  B  03  o  t  i  a  occupied  the  north-east  of  Groecia  propria,  on  the  shores  of 
the  Euripus,  a  narrow  strait,  between  the  island  of  Euboea  and  the  continent. 


670 


CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


The  capital  was  Thebes,  built  by  Cadmus,  the  Phoenician,  who  first  intro- 
dused  letters  into  Greece.  The  city  stood  on  the  river  Ismenus,  and  was  or- 
namented with  seven  gates,  whence  it  is  called  Heptapylos.  It  was  the  birth- 
place Of  the  demi-gods  Hercules  and  Bacchus,  of  the  poet  Pindar,  and  of 
those  illustrious  warriors  and  statesmen,  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas.  The 
citadel  was,  from  its  founder,  called  Cadmea.  —  South  of  this  was  Platcea, 
where  the  Persian  army  were  totally  destroyed  by  the  united  valor  of  the 
Athenians,  Spartans,  and  Plateans  ;  it  was  afterwards  destroyed  by  the  Spar- 
tans in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  We  mention  also  Leuctra,  near  lake  Copias, 
where  the  Spartans  were  defeated  by  Epaminondas  ;  Coronea,  near  mount 
Helicon ;  Charonea,  where  Philip  having  defeated  the  Athenians  and  The- 
bans,  became  absolute  master  of  Greece  ;  Lebadea,  remarkable  for  the  temple 
of  Trophonius  ;  and  Orchomenus,  near  which  was  the  Acidalian  fountain,  sa- 
cred to  Venus.  —  Near  the  Corinthian  gulf  was  Thespia,  sacred  to  the  MuseSj 
having  a  port  named  Creusa ;  and  Ascra,  the  birth-place  of  the  poet  Hesiod. 
—  On  the  Euripus  were  Aulis,  the  rendezvous  of  the  Grecian  fleet  in  the 
Trojan  expedition,  and  the  scene  of  Tphigenia's  sacrifice;  Tanagra,  where 
the  celebrated  poetess  Corinna  was  born ;  and  Delium,  a  village,  which  de- 
rived its  name  from  a  temple  of  Apollo,  built  in  imitation  of  that  at  Delos, 
and  was  the  place  where  Socrates,  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  saved  the  life 
of  his  pupil  Alcibiades. 

§  100.  The  chief  mountains  of  Bceotia  were  Helicon,  with  the  fountain  Ag- 
anippe and  Hippocrene,  sacred  to  the  Muses  ;  Pimpla,  on  the  borders  of  Pho- 
cis,  dedicated  to  the  same  divinities  5  Dirce,  near  Thebes ;  and  Cithceron,  on 
the  borders  of  Megaris,  sacred  to  Bacchus. 

The  people  of  Bceotia  were  usually  described  as  naturally  stupid,  but  with  apparently  little 
justice  ;  for  it  gave  birth  to  many  men  of  superior  talents,  and  the  barbarous  custom  of  exposing 
children,  common  in  the  rest  of  Greece,  was  here  totally  prohibited.  They  have  been  accused 
of  nourishing  a  deadly  hatred  for  trifling  causes.  —  In  the  heroic  ages,  Thebes  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Grecian  states,  but  its  history  is  so  involved,  that  the  dis- 
covery of  the  truth  is  very  difficult.  It  certainly  declined  in  after  times  ;  probably  the  misfor- 
tunes and  civil  discords  of  the  posterity  of  Cadmus  had  weakened  the  power  and  destroyed 
the  spirit  of  the  people. 

§  101.  Megaris  was  a  small  territory,  said  not  to  be  more  than  eight 
miles  square,  south  of  Mount  Cithaeron,  near  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  Its 
chief  city  was  Megara,  situated  midway  between  Corinth  and  Athens,  built 
on  two  cliffs  not  far  from  the  the  Sinus  Saronicus  ;  its  port  was  Ariscea,  taken 
and  destroyed  by  Pericles.  The  only  other  place  of  note  was  Crommyon, 
near  the  Scironian  rocks  ;  these  were  said  to  be  very  dangerous,  and  to  have 
derived  their  name  from  Sciron,  a  notorious  pirate  and  robber. 

§  102.  The  remaining  province  of  Hellas  was  Attica,  east  of  Megaris, 
and  south  of  Cithaeron.  The  district  so  named  was  of  a  triangular  shape,  not 
30  miles  wide  at  its  base  on  the  north  and  tapering  until  it  terminates  in  the 
point  called  Sunium,  projecting  into  the  Myrtoum  Mare,  east  of  the  Sinus  Sa- 
ronicus (gulf  of  Engia).  It  was  also  called  Acte  (axrl,)  from  its  maratime  sit- 
uation. The  capital  was  Mheiis,  a  more  full  description  of  which  we  shall 
give  below. 

§  103.  About  ten  miles  north  of  Athens  is  Marathon,  where  the  first  Persian 
invaders,  under  the  command  of  Datis  and  Artaphernes,  were  completely 
routed  by  the  Athenians,  commanded  by  Miltiades.  North  of  this  was  the 
village  Rhamnus,  where  a  statue,  formed  of  the  marble  that  the  Persians  had 
brought  to  raise  a  trophy  of  their  anticipated  victory,  was  erected  to  the 
goddess  Nemesis ;  a  little  to  the  east  was  Phyle,  a  strong  fort,  which  was  oc- 
cupied by  Thrasybulus,  in  his  expedition  against  the  thirty  tyrants.  On  the 
Euripus  was  Delphinum,  and  Oropus,  where  there  was  a  celebrated  temple 
of  Amphiaraus.  Nearer  to  Athens,  on  the  north  side,  wasAkraffi,  where  the 
Lacedaemonians  encamped  when  they  invaded  Attica;  and  Decelia,  which  they 
fortified  by  the  advice  of  Alcibiades. — East  of  Athens,  was  Brauron,  where 
the  statue  of  Diana,  brought  from  Taurus  by  Orestes,  was  preserved  until 
taken  away  by  Xerxes ;  a.nd*  Sunium,  a  town  and  promontory  at  the  south- 
eastern extremity  of  Attica,  celebrated  for  a  splendid  temple  of  Minerva, 
.{from  the  ruins  of  which  it  is  now  called  Cape  Colonna),  and  is  in  modern 
limes  remarkable  as  the  scene  of  the  shipwreck  beautifully  described  by 
Falconer.— West  of  Athens  was  Eleusis,  where  the   Eleusinian  mysteries  in 


EUROPE.      TOPOGRAPHY    OF   ATHENS.    HELLAS.  671 

honor  of  Ceres  were  celebrated.     There  are  two  remarkable  temples  at  Eleu- 
sis;  that  of  Ceres  and  that  of  Triptolemus. 

§  104.  Topography  of  Athens.  The  city  of  Athens  was  founded  by  Ce- 
crops,  an  Egyptian,  who  led  thither  a  colony  from  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  At 
first,  it  was  called  Cecropia,  from  the  name  of  its  founder  ;  and  afterwards 
'A&fjvai,  Athens,  in  honor  of  the  goddess  Minerva  (whom  the  Greeks  called 
'A&tjrtj),  because  she  was  the  protectress  of  the  city.  In  its  most  flourishing 
state,  it  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  cities  of  Greece,  and  is 
said  by  Aristides  to  have  been  a  day's  journey  in  going  around  it;  according 
to  other  and  more  exact  computations,  it  was  about  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
eight  stadia,  or  rather  more  than  twenty-two  Roman  miles  ;  and  Dion  Chry- 
6ostom  reckons  it  to  have  been  two  hundred  stadia,  about  twenty-five  Ro- 
man miles  in  circumference. — Col.  Leake  considers  the  ancient  city  to  have 
been  much  larger  than  the  modern,  and  estimates  the  circumference  as  not 
less  than  19  miles  at  least,  reckoning  the  sinuosities  of  the  coasts  and  walls. 
— The  number  of  gates  is  not  knowTn;  thirteen  are  named  by  Robinson;  the 
largest  was  called  JItivIov,  and  was  near  the  Ceramicus;  the  r leqa  was  that 
leading  to  Eleusis. 

For  a  plan  of  of  Athens,  see  our  Plate  XXIX.— The  description  here  given,  is  drawn  chiefly 
from  Robinson's  Archasologia  Grreca. 

§  105.  Athens  lies  in  a  valley,  extending  from  mount  Pentelicus  on  the 
east  to  the  Sinus  Saronicus  on  the  west,  between  mount  Parnes  on  the  north, 
and  Hymettus  on  the  south.  In  the  plain  of  this  beautiful  valley  thus  sur- 
rounded by  natural  ramparts,  we  behold  the  very  singular  geological  feature 
of  six  insular  mountain  rocks  standing  in  regular  succession,  and  gradually 
diminishing  as  you  descend  from  Pentelicus  westward  to  the  sea.  The  one 
nearest  the  sea  is  called  the  hill  of  Musaius.  On  the  next  is  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens.  The  one  next  to  this  on  the  east  is  Mt.  Anchesmus,  on  the  summit 
of  which  was  a  temple  and  statue  in  honor  of  Jupiter  ;  from  this  eminence 
an  observer  could  survey  the  whole  of  Athens  and  its  environs. — Two  streams 
furnished  their  waters  to  the  city.  One  was  the  llissus,  which  flowed  to  the 
east  and  south  of  the  city,  and  which  is  supposed,  from  the  appearance  of  its 
channel  and  from  the  allusions  of  the  poets,  to  have  been  anciently  much 
larger  than  it  has  been  seen  in  modern  times.      The  other,  Ccphissus,  was 

still  smaller  and  ran  on  the  other  side. Athens  may  be  described  in  two 

parts  ;  the  Cecropia,  built  by  Cecrops  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  termed  Acrop- 
olis (axQo7io?.tg),  and  called  the  upper  city,  i)  avu  ni>).ig;  and  the  part  built 
afterward,  ij  y.arco  Tcol.tg,  or  the  lower  city. 

The  hill  or  Acropolis  as  distinguished  from  the  lower  part  is  distinctly  seen  in  the  View  given 
in  our  Plate  immediately  following  the  title-page  ;  which  is  taken  from  J.  C.  Hobhouse's  Jour- 
ney through  Albania  and  other  provinces  of  Turkey  <fcc.  Lond.  1813.  2  vols.  4. — The  Grecian 
method  of  thus  connecting  an  Acropolis  with  their  towns  is  also  illustrated  by  our  Plate 
XXXI.  cf.  §  80. 

§  106.  The  citadel,  or  upper  city,  was  sixty  stadia  in  circumference,  and 
was  fenced  with  wooden  pales,  or,  as  some  say,  was  surrounded  with  olive- 
trees.  It  was  fortified  on  the  south  side  with  a  strong  wall,  which  was  built 
by  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades,  from  the  spoils  taken  in  the  Persian  war,  and 
which  was  called  Kuia>viov  rityog.  The  north  wall  was  built  many  ages  be- 
fore by  Agrolas,  or  according  to  some,  by  Euryalus  and  Hyperbius,  two  brothers, 
who  first  taught  the  Athenians  the  art  of  building  houses.  This  wall  was  de- 
nominated nt?.aoyiy.6v  or  IIsXaQyixov,  from  the  Pelasgi,the  name  of  its  found- 
ers. This  wall  was  beautified  with  nine'gates,  from  which  it  is  sometimes 
called  * EwcujtvZov  ;  but,  though  there  were  several  lesser  gates,  there  was 
one  grand  entrance  into  the  citadel,  the  UqoTii'J.aia,  to  which  the  Athenians 
ascended  by  steps  covered  with  white  marble,  and  which  was  built  by  Peri- 
cles, at  great  expense.  Over  this  entrance  is  one  of  those  enormous  slabs  of 
marble,  called  "  marble  beams  "  by  Wheeler  ,  and  to  which  Pausanias  partic- 
ularly alluded,  when,  in  describing  the  Propylrea,  he  says,  that,  even  in  his 
time,  nothing  surpassing  the  beauty  of  the  workmanship,  or  the  magnitude  of 
the  stones  used  in  the  building,  had  ever  been  seen. 

The  inside  of  the  citadel  was  ornamented  with  innumerable  edifices,  stat- 
ues, and  monuments  on  which  the  ancient  stories  were  fully  described.  The 
noble  statues  of  Pericles,  Phormio,  Iphicrates,  Timotheus,  and  other  Atheni- 
an generals,  were  here  intermingled  with  those  of  the  gods. 


672  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Here  was  the  temple  of  Minerva,  called  Nixrj  or  Victory,  constructed  of 
white  marble,  and  placed  on  the  right  of  the  entrance  into  the  citadel. 

§  107.  About  the  middle  of  the  citadel  was  the  stately  temple  of  Minerva, 
called  Parthenon,  because  that  goddess  preserved  her  virginity  inviolate,  or 
because  it  was  dedicated  by  the  daughters  of  Erechtheus,  who  were  particu- 
larly called  naodivoi,  virgins.  It  was  also  denominated  'ExaruuTteSov,  be- 
cause it  was  one  hundred  feet  square.  It  was  burnt  by  the  Persians,  but  re- 
stored by  Pericles,  who  enlarged  it  fifty  feet  on  each  side.  It  was  of  the 
Doric  order,  and  built  of  that  beautiful  white  marble,  found  in  the  quarries  of 
Pentelicus,  a  mountain  of  Attica.  Within  this  temple  was  the  statue  of  Mi- 
nerva, so  celebrated  for  its  size,  the  richness  of  its  materials,  and  the  exquis- 
ite beauty  of  the  workmanship.  The  figure,  the  work  of  Phidias,  was  twen- 
ty-six cubits  high.  This  temple  still  remains  a  noble  monument  of  antiquity, 
being  229  feet  in  length,  101  in  breadth,  and  69  in  height.  TSee  Plate  XVI. 
fig.  1.  Cf.   P.  IV.  $  96.  P.  I.  vS  190.  4  J 

Here  also  was  the  temple  of  Neptune,  surnamed  Erechtheus.  This  was  a 
double  building,  and,  besides  other  curiosities,  contained  the  salt  spring  called 
'E^tr^tiSf  which  was  feigned  to  have  sprung  out  of  the  earth  from  a  stroke 
of  Neptune's  trident,  when  he  contended  with  Minerva  for  the  possession  of 
the  country.  This  part  of  the  temple  was  consecrated  to  Neptune.  The 
other  part  belonged  to  Minerva,  surnamed  Tloiiuq,  the  protectress  of  the  city, 
and  r/uvSyoooc,  from  one  of  the  daughters  of  Cecrops  of  that  name.*  Here  so 
late  as  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  asra,  was  the  sacred  olive-tree,  which 
was  said  to  have  been  produced  by  Minerva,  and  to  have  been  as  old  as  the  foun- 
dation of  the  citadel.  Here  also  was  the  image  of  the  goddess,  which  was 
said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  in  the  reign  of  Erichthonius,  and  which  was 
guarded  by  dragons,  called  oixovqoi  oipeig,  and  had  a  lamp  always  burning 
with  oil,  and  an  owl  before  it.  The  whole  structure  was  called  'Eftix&ttov. 
Both  these  buildings  still  remain.  The  smaller  edifice,  which  is  an  entrance 
to  the  other,  js  29  feet  in  length,  and  21  feet  3  inches  in  breadth.  The  larger 
is  63  1-2  feet  in  length,  and  36  feet  in  breadth.  The  roof  is  supported  by 
channeled  Ionic  pillars. 

Behind  the  temple  ot  Minerva  stood  the  public  treasury,  which  from  its  sit- 
uation was  called  'OTtio&odouoc;,  and  in  which,  besides  other  public  money,  a 
thousand  talents  were  deposited  for  any  very  great  exigency  of  the  state. 

In  the  citadel  were  also  several  other  edifices,  as  the  chapel  of  Jupiter  2<a- 
t/^,  and  of  Minerva  Sitttiqa',  the  temple  of  Agraulos,  the  daughter  of  Ce- 
crops, or  rather  of  Minerva,  who  was  worshiped  under  that  name,  in  the  front 
and  steep  side  of  the  rock  ;  and  the  temple  of  Venus, r ItttcoZvtshx,  consecrat- 
ed by  Phaedra,  when  in  love  with  Hippolytus. 

§  108.  The  lower  city,  which  contained  all  the  buildings  that  surrounded  the 
citadel,  with  Munychia,  Phalerum,  and  Piraeus,  was  encompassed  with  walls 
cf  unequal  strength,  built  at  different  times  and  by  different  persons.  The 
principal  parts  of  the  walls  were  the  Muxqu  tsi///,  which  joined  the  harbor 
of  Piraeus  to  the  city,  and  which  being  about  five  miles  in  length,  were  some- 
times called  Muxqu  oxilt],  long  legs,  and  brachia  longa,  long  arms.  They 
consisted  of  two  sides.  The  wall  on  the  north  side  was  built  by  Pericles  at 
great  expense,  and  continued  forty  stadia.  That  on  the  south  side  was  called 
JVoTiov  rtixoq,  or  TcctQu  uioov  rsi/tj,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  south  wall  of 
the  citadel,  and  sometimes  rsi/og  (pa?.rlQixbv,  because  it  included  the  port  of 
of  Phalerum.  It  was  built  by  Themistocles,  of  huge  square  stones,  not  ce- 
mented together  with  mortar,  but  fastened  on  the  outside  by  iron  and  leaden 
cramps.  The  height  of  it  was  forty  cubits,  but  Themistocles  wished  to  raise 
it  to  eighty  cubits.  Its  length  was  thirty -five  stadia.  Upon  both  of  the  walls 
was  erected  a  great  number  of  turrets,  which,  after  the  Athenians  became  so 
numerous  that  the  city  could  not  contain  them,  were  converted  into  dwell- 
ing-houses. The  Mowv/iov,  or  wall  that  emcompassed  the  Munychia,  and 
joined  it  to  the  Pireeus,  contained  sixty  stadia  ;  and  the  exterior  Wall  on  the 
other  side  was  forty -three  stadia  in  length  ;  and  hence  it  appears,  as  has  been 
before  observed,  that  the  whole  circumference  of  Athens  was  178  stadia,  or 
rather  more  than  22  Roman  miles. 

§  109.  Of  the  buildings  of  the  lower  city,  the  principal  and  most  remarka- 


EUROPE.       HELLAS,    TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ATHENS.  673 

Me  were  the  following. — IIouttiiov  was  a  stately  edifice,  in  which  were  kept 
the  sacred  utensils  used  at  festivals,  and  in  which  were  prepared  all  things 
necessary  for  solemn  processions. — The  temple  of  Vulcan,  or  of  Vulcan  and 
Minerva,  situated  not  far  from  the  Ceramicus  within  the  city,  was  a  public 
prison. — Near  to  this  building  was  the  temple  of  the  Heavenly  Venus  ;  for  the 
Athenians  had  two  deities  of  the  name  of  Venus,  of  which  one  was  desig- 
nated Ovoavia,  and  the  other  TluvS^uog  :  the  former  presided  over  chaste  and 
pure  love  ;  the  latter  was  the  patroness  of  lust  and  debauchery. — 3 \Avaxsiov 
was  a  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  who  were  called  avccxs^.  In  this  place 
slaves  were  exposed  to  sale. 

The  temple  of  Theseus  was  erected  by  Cimon  in  the  middle  of  the  city, 
near  the  place  where  the  youths  employed  themselves  in  wrestling  and  other 
bodily  exercises.  This  temple  was  a  sanctuary  for  slaves,  and  for  all  persons 
of  low  condition  that  fled  from  the  persecution  of  men  in  power,  in  commem- 
moration  of  Theseus,  who,  when  alive,  was  the  guardian  and  protector  of  the 
distressed. 

Speaking  of  the  Temple  of  Theseus,  Dr.  Clarke  observes,  that  this  beautiful  Doric  temple 
more  resembling,  in  the  style  of  its  architecture,  the  temples  of  Paestum  than  that  of  Minerva 
in  the  Acropolis,  and  the  most  entire  of  any  of  the  remaining  structures  of  ancient  Greece, 
were  it  not  for  the  damage  which  the  sculptures  have  sustained,  may  be  considered  as  still 
perfect.  The  entire  edifice  is  of  Pentelican  marble  ;  it  stands  east  and  west,  the  principal 
front  facing  the  east ;  and  it  has  a  portico  of  six  columns  in  each  front,  and  on  each  side  a 
range  of  eleven  columns,  exclusive  of  the  columns  on  the  angles.— See  Plate  XVI.  fig.  3. 

§  110.  'OlvuTTiov,  or  ^OlvHTcttov,  was  a  temple  erected  in  honor  of  Jupiter 
the  Olympian,  and  was  the  most  magnificent  structure  in  Athens.  The  area, 
or  peribolus,  within  which  it  stood,  was  four  stadia  in  circumference.  It  was 
constructed  with  double  rows  of  columns,  10  in  front,  and  21  in  flank,  amount- 
ing in  all  to  124 ;  the  extent  of  the  front  being  171  feet,  and  the  length  of  the 
flank  more  than  400.  These  pillars  are  the  majestic  ruin  of  this  sumptuous 
and  stately  temple.  The  foundation  of  this  edifice  was  laid  by  Pisistratus, 
whose  sons  continued  the  work  ;  but  it  was  not  completely  finished  till  the 
time  of  Adrian,  700  years  after  the  structure  had  been  commenced. 

The  temple  of  Apollo  and  Pan  stood  on  the  north  side  at  the  bottom  of  the 
citadel,  in  a  cave  or  grotto,  which  was  called  Maxoai  Tiirqai,  or  KexooTtictt. 
nixqat.  —  The  temple  of  Diana,  surnamed  Avaltwr&c,  because  in  it  women, 
after  the  birth  of  their  first  child,  dedicated  their  girdles  to  that  goddess. 

Ilav&tov  was  a  temple  consecrated  to  all  the  gods,  who  as  they  were  united 
in  one  edifice  were  honored  with  one  common  festival,  which  was  called  0to- 
clriu.  This  was  also  a  very  magnificent  structure,  and  was  supported  by  120 
pillars  of  marble.  On  the  outside  were  curiously  engraved  the  deeds  and  story 
of  all  the  gods;  and  on  one  great  gate  two  horses  were  carved  by  Praxiteles. 

The  temple  of  the  Eight  Winds  was  a  tower  of  eight  squares,  of  marble,  on 
every  side  of  which  was  carved  the  figure  of  a  wind,  according  to  the  quarter 
whence  it  blew. 

The  model  of  this  building  was  furnished  by  Andronicus  Cyrrhastes,  who  placed  upon  the 
top  of  the  tower  a  small  pyramid  of  marble,  upon  the  summit  of  which  he  erected  a  brazen 
triton,  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  switch  or  wand.    The  triton  was  so  placed  that  he  turned 

round  with  the  wind,  and  pointed  with  the  Wand  to  the  Wind  which  blew. A  view  of  this 

structure  is  given  in  our  Plate  XVI.  fig.  2.  . 

§  111.  2roai,  porticos,  were  very  numerous  at  Athens  ;  but  the  most  re- 
markable was  that  called  Tlaaiuvuy.rioq,  and  afterwards  Uov/Ali],  from  its  con- 
taining a  variety  of  curious  pictures,  drawn  by  those  great  masters,  Polygno- 
tus,  Mycon,and  Pansenus,  the  brother  of  Phidias.  At  the  gate  of  the  TIoiy.i?.tj 
was  the  statue  of  Solon. — To  the  north  of  the  Acropolis,  not  far  from  the  tem- 
ple of  Theseus,  are  the  ruins  of  a  structure  once  evidently  very  splendid,  sup- 
posed by  Stuart  to  be  the  ruins  of  this  celebrated  Stoa  or  Porch.  Some  travel- 
ers have  mistaken  them  for  the  remains  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius 
-already  described,  which  was  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city,  near  the  foun- 
tain Calirrhoe. 

Movasiov  was  a  fort  near  the  citadel,  which  received  its  name  from  the  poet 
Musaeus,  the  scholar  of  Orpheus,  who  used  to  repeat  his  verses  in  this  place, 
where  he  was  also  buried. — 'SiSsiov  was  a  music  theatre,  built  by  Pericles. 
The  inside  of  this  building  was  filled  with  seats  and  ranges  of  pillars  ;    and 

£7 


674  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 

the  outside  roof  of  covering  was  gradually  bent  downwards.  The  roof,  whicri 
was  constructed  of  the  masts  and  yards  of  the  vessels  taken  from  the  Per- 
sians, and  in  its  form  resembled  the  tent  of  Xerxes,  was  supported  by  columns' 
of  stone  or  marble.  It  was  burnt  by  Sylla  at  the  siege  of  Athens,  but  after- 
wards rebuilt.  This  Odeum  was  situated  on  the  south-east  angle  of  the  cita- 
del. The  Odeum  of  Herodes  Atticus  has  sometimes  been  confounded 
with  that  of  Pericles,  but  the  Odeum  of  Herodes  was  situated  at  the  south- 
west angle  of  the  citadel.  This  last  was  built  by  Herodes,  in  memory  of  his 
wife,  and  was  considered  as  far  surpassing,  in  magnitude  and  in  the  costliness 
of  its  materials,  every  other  edifice  of  the  kind  in  all  Greece.  The  roof  of 
this  building  was  of  cedar. 

The  Ceramicus  received  its  denomination  from  Ceramus,  the  son  of  Bac- 
chus and  Ariadne ;  or  more  properly  «,id  t>~c  y.tnautly.yig  xi/vt^,  from  the  pot- 
ter's art,  which  Was  invented  here  by  Corsebus.  This  extensive  space  was  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  one  of  which  was  situated  within  the  city,  and  contain- 
ed a  great  number  of  temples,  theatres,  porticos,  &c. ;  the  other  was  in  the 
suburbs,  was  a  public  burying  place,  and  contained  the  academy,  and  several 
other  buildings.  The  academy  and  other  gymnasia  have  been  already  mention- 
ed (P.  I.  §  74,64). 

§  112.  ' Ayooui,  forums,  were  very  numerous  ;  but  the  most  remarkable 
were  the  old  and  the  new  forum.  The  new  forum  was  in  a  place  called 
'JEgrfo&r,  which  it  is  probable  was  near  to  the  portico  of  Zeno.  The  old  forum 
was  situated  in  the  Ceramicus  within  the  city,  and  was  called  *  Aoyala  hyoQu. 
It  was  extremely  spacious,  and  was  decorated  with  buildings  dedicated  to  the 
worship  of  the  gods,  or  to  the  service  of  the  state ;  with  others  which 
sometimes  afforded  an  asylum  to  the  wretched,  but  which  were  often  a  shelter 
for  the  wicked;  and  with  statues  decreed  to  kings  and  individuals,  who  had 
merited  well  of  the  republic.  In  it  were  held  the  public  assemblies  of  the 
people ;  but  every  trade  had  a  different  place  assigned  as  a  market,  and  the 
forum  was  divided  into  different  parts,  according  to  the  wares  exposed  for' 
sale.  Thus  Ki'yJ.og  denotes  the  place  where  slaves  were  sold;  'A/.ipirorrwkig 
ityoqa,  the  bakers'  market;  Iyd-vuTiu/.ig  Jtyooa  the  fish-mongers'  market; 
JTwaixsla  ayoou,  the  market  for  women's  apparel.  The  time  when  goods  were 
exposed  to  sale  was  called  rr'.'.t^ovaa  uyoQu,  full  market,  from  the  great  num-' 
ber  of  persons  assembled ;  and  different  hours  of  the  day  seem  to  have  been 
appointed  for  the  sale  of  different  commodities.  To  this  place  the  inhabitants 
resorted  every  day.  The  Scythians,  kept  in  pay  by  the  republic  to  maintain 
order,  were  encamped  in  the  middle  of  the  forum,  Collectors  also  attended 
to  receive  the  duties  imposed  on  every  thing  that  was  sold,  and  magistrates  to  ■ 
superintend  what  passed. 

BovlevTtlQia  were  public  halls,  in  which  each  company  of  tradesmen  metj. 
and  deliberated  on  matters  relating  to  their  trades.  At  Athens  trade  was  very 
much  encouraged  ;  and  if  any  one  reproached  another,  even  the  lowest  citi- 
zen, with  living  by  the  profit  of  his  traffic,  he  was  liable  to  an  action  of' 
slander. 

§  113.  Aqueducts  were  not  common  at  Athens  before  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans ;  and  the  want  of  them  was  supplied  by  wells,  some  of  which  were  dug 
by  private  persons,  and  others  at  the  public  expense  ;  but  as  good  water  at 
Athens  was  extremely  scarce,  frequent  quarrels  arose  among  the  citizens. 
Adrian  laid  the  foundation  of  a  stately  aquedut  which  was  finished  by  his 
successor  Antoninus,  and  which  was  supported  by  Ionic  pillars. 

The  stadium  was  a  large  semicircle  in  which  exercises  were  performed  ;  and 
for  the  accommodation  of  spectators,  who  resorted  thither  in  great  numbers,  it 
was  built  with  steps  above  each  other,  in  order  that  the  higher  ranks  might 
look  over  the  heads  of  those  placed  below  them.  The  most  remarkable  at 
Athens,  and  indeed  in  all  Greece,  was  the  stadium  erected  near  the  river  Ilis- 
sus  by  Lycurgus,  and  afterwards  enlarged  by  Herodes  Atticus,  one  of  the 
richest  of  the  Athenians.  It  was  built  of  Pentelic  marble,  with  such  magnifi- 
cence that  Pausanias  did  not  expect  to  be  credited,  even  in  his  brief  descrip- 
tion of  this  work,  and  says  that  it  was  a  wonder  to  be  taken  for  a  mountain  of 
of  white  marble  upon  the  banks  of  the  Ilissus.  It  was  about  125  geometrical- 
faces  in  length,  and  26  or  27  in  breadth,  and  was  therefore  called  a  stadium/ 


EUROPE.       HELLAS.    TOPOGRAPHY    OF   ATHENS.  675 

a  measure  in  ordinary  use  among  the  Greeks,  being  the  eighth  part  of  a  Ro- 
man mile. 

§  114.  The  Areopagus  was  a  small  eminence  a  little  to  the  north-west  of 
the  Acropolis.  On  this,  the  court  or  senate  of  the  Areopagus  usually  held  its 
meetings.  (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  108).  A  space  was  leveled  for  the  purpose  on  the 
summit  of  the  rock  ;  and  the  steps  which  conducted  to  it,  were  cutout  of  the 
natural  solid  stone.  There  was  originally  neither  enclosure  nor  roof;  but  mere- 
ly an  altar  to  Minerva,  and  two  stone  seats  for  the  accuser  and  defendant.  The 
court  was  occasionally  protected  by  a  temporary  erection. — The  Pnyx,  JTvic, 
was  another  eminence,  opposite  the  Areopagus,  not  far  from  the  citadel,celebrat- 
ed  as  the  place  where  the  Athenians  held  their  assemblies.  Almost  the  whole  of 
the  structure,  as  appears  from  a  recent  removal  of  the  earth  in  this  place,  was 
an  excavation  of  the  rock.  The  foiia,  on  which  theorators  stood  to  address  the 
people,  was  carved  from  the  stone,  and  yet  remains.  Before  this  was  a  semi- 
circular area,  of  which  the  part  most  distant  from  the  orator's  stone  consists  of 
masonry.  In  the  perpendicular  surface  of  the  rock,  facing  this  area,  are  niches 
for  votive  tablets. 

§  115.  Athens  had  theatres  besides  those  termed  Odea.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  was  the  theatre  of  Bacchus,  capable  of  accommodating  30,000  spec- 
tators. (Cf.  P.  I.  $235).  This  contained  statues  of  many  of  the  tragic  and 
comic  writers,  and  was  the  place,  where  the  dramatic  contests  (P.I.  §  66)  were 
decided;  it  was  near  the  Acropolis,  at  its  south-east  angle.  Nothing  of  it  is 
now  seen  except  the  circular  sweep  scooped  in  the  rock  for  the  seats.  Above 
it,  in  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis,  still  appears  a  cavern  or  grotto, formerly  term- 
ed the  Cave  of  Bacchus,  but  now  converted  into  a  sort  of  chapel. — Close  by 
this  cavern  stands  a  building,  called  the  Choragic  monument  of  Thrasyllus; 
having  on  its  front  three  inscriptions  recording  dramatic  victories  obtained  in 
the  theatre.  Over  this  building  and  higher  up  the  rock  are  the  two  Columns 
of  ike  tripods,  or  Choragic  pillars.  There  were  several  other  edifices  in 
Athens,  erected  for  the  same  purpose  ;  one,  exquisitely  wrought,  is  near  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Acropolis,  commonly  called  the  Lantern  of  Demosthenes, 
but  proved  by  its  inscription  to  be  a  choragic  monument  erected  by  Lysicrates. 
This  edifice  stood  in  the  street  of  the  tripods  so  called  from  the  circumstance, 
that  in  it  were  erected  (on  choragic  monuments  or  pillars,  or  otherwise  located) 
numerous  tripods,  which  had  been  obtained  as  prizes  in  the  musical  or  theatri- 
cal contests  (a). — North-east  from  the  Acropolis,  on  this  street  of  the  tri- 
pods, was  the  Iluvrarslor,  were  was  a  public  hall,  and  where  the  laws  of  Solon 
were    deposited-     Near  it  was  the  Bov?.tiov  or  senate-house. 

(a)  See  P.  I.  §66.  —  A  view  of  the  Monument  of  Thrasyllus  is  given  in  Plate  VI.,  fig.  C  j 
and  of  that  Lysicrates,  in  the  same  Plate,  fig.  A. 

§  116.  Athens  had  three  harbors  for  ships.  — 1.  IleiQaiivg,  Pirceus,  which 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Hippothoontis,  and  was  about  35  or  40  stadia  distant 
from  the  city,  before  the  building  of  the  uaxoa  rhlyn  or  l°ng  walls.  After 
that  time,  the  Athenians,  by  the  direction  of  Themistocles,  rendered  this  their 
principal  harbor.  It  contained  three  oouoi  or  docks.  In  this  harbor  were  five 
porticoes,  which  being  joined  together  formed  a  very  large  one,  called  on  that 
account  May.oa  aro'a.  The  Piraeus  also  contained  two  forums.  Here  the  pro- 
ductions of  all  countries  were  aecumulated  ;  and  this  was  the  market  not  of 
Athens  only,  but  of  all  Greece.  In  this  harbor  three  hundred  galleys  have 
sometimes  been  collected  at  once  ;  and  it  was  sufficiently  capacious  to  contain 
four  hundred.  The  advantages  of  this  place  were  first  observed  by  Themis- 
tocles, when  he  devised  the  plan  of  giving  a  navy  to  Athens.  Markets  and 
magazines  were  presently  erected,  and  an  arsenal  capable  of  furnishing  every 
thing  necessary  for  the  equipment  of  a  great  number  of  vessels.  — 2.  Mov- 
rvy'ia,  Munychia,  which  was  a  promontory  not  far  distant  from  Piraeus,  and 
extended  not  unlike  a  peninsula,  and  was  well  fortified  both  by  nature  and  art. 
It  received  its  name  from  a  person  called  Munychus,  who  dedicated  in  this 
place  a  temple  to  Diana,  surnamed  Movwyia.  —  3.  <£>aP.j/oov,  Phalerum,  which 
belonged  to  the  tribe  Antiochis,  and  was  distant  from  the  city  35  stadia,  or  as 
«ome  say  only  20  stadia.  This  was  the  most  ancient  of  the  three  harbors  ;  and 
from  it  Theseus  is  said  to  have  sailed  for  Crete,  and  Mnestheus  for  Troy. 
For  further  details  respecting  the  interesting  objects  in  this  renowned  city,  we  refer  to  the 


676  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

works  cited  P.  I.  $243.  1.  ;  P.  II.  $7.  (b).  —We  may  add  Waddington,s  Visit  to  Greece.— 
Hughes,  Travels  in  Greece,  &c.  Lond.  1820.  2  vols.  4.  —  Kruse,  Hellas,  oder  Darstellung  des 
alten  Griechenlandes,  &c.  Leipz.  1725.  3  vols.  8.  In  this  work  may  be  found  an  account  of 
Lord  Elgin's  proceedings  (cf.  P.  I.  §  190.  4)  ;  also  of  the  various  modern  works  illustrating  the 
remains  of  Grecian  art  in  general. —  Cf.  Stuart's  Diet,  of  Architect,  under  Athenian  Architecture  ; 
cf.  also  Chateaubriand's  Travels,  in  Introduction.  —  E.  D.  Clarke,  Travels  in  various  countries, 
&.c.  Part  II.  sect.  2. —  Barthelennfs  Anacharsis,  ch.  xii.,  a  beautiful  description. —  W.  M.  Leake, 
Topography  of  Athens.  Cf.  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature  of  the  United  King- 
dom, vol.  in.  p.  183. —  Riendcker,  Topographie  von  Athen  (a  German  translation  of  Leake). 
Halle,  1829.  With  notes  of  Muller  and  Meier.  —  C.  0.  Muller,  De  Munimentis  Athenarum, 
&c.  Gbtt.  1837.  4.  With  plates.  —  L.  Bergmann,  Die  Alterthiimer  von  Athen,  nach  Stuart  und 
Revett  &c.  Weimar,  1838.  80  plates.  —  Hiris  Plan  des  Athen.  —Ensch  #  Orubcr,  Encyclopa- 
die,  under  Attika  (written  by  Muller).  —  There  is  a  glance  at  some  of  the  most  interesting  ob- 
jects, in  W.  Colton,  Visit  to  Constantinople  and  Athens.  N.  York,  1836.  12.  ch.  18,  19. 

§  117.  (4.)  The  Peloponnesus,  the  fourth  division  of  Graecia  (§  76),  re- 
mains to  be  noticed.  In  looking  at  the  physical  features  of  this  peninsula,  we 
perceive  in  the  interior  a  circular  chain  of  mountains,  almost  surrounding  an 
included  tract  of  country  which  was  called  Arcadia.  From  this  circle  of  el- 
evated summits,  various  branches  are  sent  off  towards  the  sea;  and  we  find  a 
line  running  out  to  each  of  the  principal  promontories  ;  to  Rhium  Prom,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus  ;  to  Chelonites  Prom,  on  the  western  side 
of  the  peninsula;  to  Acritas  Prom,  west  of  the  Sinus  Messeniacus  ;  to  Tama- 
rum,  to  Malea,  and  to  Scyllceum,  the  other  points,  which  occur  in  passing  round 
the  peninsula  to  the  east.  —  Between  these  several  mountains  were  fruitful 
valleys,  watered  by  numerous  streams  descending  from  the  mountains  in  eve- 
ry direction. 

§  118.  This  country  was  originally  called  Argia  and  Pelasgia,  but  after  the 
conquests  of  Pelops  was  called  the  island  of  Pelops,  TIi).o;io;  r^aoz;  it  was 
also  called  Apia.  Its  present  name,  Morea,  is  said  to  be  drawn  from  its  re- 
semblance to  a  mulberry-leaf  in  shape,  or  from  the  number  of  mulberry-trees 
that  it  produces. — It  may  be  considered  in  six  divisions;  Achaia,  Argolis, 
Elis,  Arcadia,  Messenia,  and  Laconia.  Sicyonia  and  Corinthia  are  sometimes 
added  to  these  ;  but  they  may  be  included  under  Achaia. 

§  119.  Achaia,  in  the  extent  we  have  just  given  to  it,  includes  the  whole 
north  coast  of  Peloponnesus,  and  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  by  which  it  is  joined 
to  Hellas.  Exclusive  of  Sicyonia  and  Corinthia,  it  comprised  twelve  towns, 
each  independent  and  possessed  of  its  own  little  territory,  which  were  from  a 
very  early  time  united  in  a  sort  of  confederacy,  called  the  Achaean  league  ; 
they  were  Dyme,  Olenus,  Pharae,  Tritaea,  Patra  (now  Patras),  Rhype,  JE>- 
gium,  the  place  where  the  deputies  of  the  league  met,  Helice,  Bura,  iEge, 
JEgina,  and  Pellene.  In  the  resistance  to  the  Romans  made  by  the  Achaean 
league  in  the  later  ages,  the  cities  of  Sicyon  and  especially  Corinth  took  part. 
It  was  from  the  opposition  made  in  Achaia,  that  the  Romans,  when  Mummius 
reduced  Greece  to  a  subject  province  by  the  capture  of  Corinth,  B.  C.  146, 
applied  the  name  Achaia  to  the  whole  country. 

§  120,  Sicyon  was  the  most  ancient  city  of  Greece,  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed B.  C.  2089.  —  But  Corinth  has  obtained  greater  notoriety  ;  it  was  on  the 
isthmus  at  nearly  an  equal  distance  from  the  Saronic  and  Corinthian  gulfs- 
It  was  once  called  Ephyra.  Its  citadel  was  on  a  hill  called  Acro-Corinthus. 
It  had  two  ports ;  Lcchceum,  on  the  Sinus  Corinthiac?is,  and  Cenchrecc,  on  the 
Sinus  Saronicus.  Although  destroyed  by  Mummius,  it  afterwards  recovered 
its  splendor,  being  rebuilt  by  Julius  Caesar,  and  became  more  famous  than  be- 
fore for  its  luxury  and  licentiousness. 

The  isthmus  of  Corinth  was  an  important  pass.  Several  attempts  have  been 
made,  at  different  periods,  to  join  these  two  seas  by  a  canal,  and  from  the  fail- 
ure of  them  all,  "  to  cut  through  the  Corinthian  isthmus  "  has  become  a  pro- 
verbial expression  for  aiming  at  impossibilities.  Here  the  Isthmian  games,  in 
honor  of  Neptune,  were  triennially  celebrated  ;  and  here  a  stand  has  frequent- 
ly been  made  against  foreign  invaders,  the  narrowness  of  the  isthmus  easily 
admitting  of  regular  fortification. 

§  121.  Argolis  occupied  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  Peloponne- 
sus. Its  chief  town  was  Argos,  on  the  river  Inuchus,  more  celebrated  in  the 
heroic  than  the  historic  ages  of  Greece.  When  Perseus  had  accidently  slain* 
his  grandfather  Acrisius,  he  transferred  the  seat  of  government  to  Myccnce  ; 
this  latter  city  retained  its  power  to  the  end  of  the  Trojan  war ;  but  after  the 


EUROPE.       PELOPONNESUS.      TOPOGRAPHY    OF    SPARTA.       677 

tieath  of  Agamemnon,  the  Argives,  through  motives  of  jealousy,  besieged, 
captured,  and  leveled  it  with  the  ground.  —  North  of  Argos  was  Ncmea, 
where  Hercules  slew  the  Nemean  lion,  and  instituted  the  Nemean  games  in 
memory  of  his  victory ;  and  Tirynthus  a  favorite  residence  of  Hercules, 
whence  he  is  frequently  called  the  Tirynthian  hero.  —  On  the  Argolic  bay 
(Gulf  di  Napoli)  were,  JYauplla  (Napoli  di  Romania),  in  ancient  and  modern 
times  the  principal  port  in  these  countries  ;  Epidaurus,  remarkable  for  a  cel- 
ebrated temple  of  ^Esculapius  (P.  III.  §  84)  ;  and  Troezene,  whither  the  aged 
inhabitants  of  Athens  retired  when  their  city  was  burned  by  Xerxes. 

§  122.  E  1  i  s  was  a  small  province  south  of  Achaia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Io- 
nian sea. 

Its  chief  town  was  Elis,  the  residence  of  king  Salmoneus,  who  is  said  to 
have  provoked  the  indignation  of  Jupiter,  by  his  attempts  to  imitate  thunder 
and  lightning  ;  it  was  on  the  Pencils  (Belvidere  or  Igliaco),  a  principal  river 
of  the  province.  Pisa,  destroyed  at  a  very  remote  period,  was  on  the  Mpheus 
(Rouphia),  a  larger  river  flowing  from  Arcadia.  Not  far  from  Pisa  was  Olym- 
pian, the  place  near  which  the  Olympic  games  were  celebrated. 

Olympia  was  the  name  not  of  a  city,  but  of  the  sacred  site  near  which  the  games  were  per- 
formed. Here  was  the  grove  Altis,  with  splendid  monuments  scattered  in  it ;  the  temple  of 
Olympian  Jupiter,  with  its  celebrated  statue  (cf.  P.  III.  §24) ;    the  Cronium  or  Hill  of  Saturn  ; 

also  a  famous  hippodrome  and  stadium.  —  Barthelemy,  ch.  xxxviii.  as  cited  P.  II.  $  153.  2 

Choiscul-Gouffier,  Sur  l'Hippodrome  d'Olympia,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xlix."  p.  122. — 
Disserts  Pindar,  vol.  n.  p.  630,  where  is  a  plan  with  explanations. 

§  123.  Arcadia  occupied  the  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus  ;  and  being  en- 
tirely devoted  to  agriculture,  was  said  to  be  sacred  to  Pan.  —  Its  principal 
towns  were  Tegma,  the  capital ;  Orchomenus,  near  the  lake  Stymphalus,  where 
Hercules  destroyed  the  Harpies;  Mantinea,  where  Epaminondas  fell ;  and 
Megalopolis,  built  by  that  general  to  repress  the  incursions  of  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians. Near  the  ruins  of  Mantinea  is  Tripolitza,  the  present  metropolis  of  the 
Morea. 

The  mountains  of  Arcadia  were  greatly  celebrated  by  the  poets ;  the  prin- 
cipal were  Cyllene,  the  birth-place  of  Mercury;  Erymanthus,  where  Hercu- 
les slew  an  enormous  boar  ;  Mamalus,  sacred  to  the  Muses  ;  Parthenius,  where 
Atalanta  resided  ;  Parrhasius  and  Lycams,  sacred  to  Jupiter  and  Pan.  From 
the  hill  Nonacris  flowed  the  celebrated  river  Styx;  its  waters  were  said  to  be 
poisonous. 

$124.  The  south-western  division  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  Messenia, 
of  which  Messene,  a  strongly  fortified  town,  was  the  capital;  the  citidal  was 
called  Ithome,  and  was  supposed  to  be  impregnable. — The  other  principal  towns 
were  Pylos,  the  city  of  Nestor,  now  called  jYavarin  ;  Methone,  where  Philip 
defeated  the  Athenians  ;  and  CEchalia  or  Erytopolis,  conquered  by  Hercules. 

The  Messenians,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  were  subdued  by  the  Lacedremonians,  and  the 
greater  part  compelled  to  leave  the  country.  Subsequently  their  city  lay  long  in  ruins  ;  but 
when  Epaminondas  had  destroyed  the  supremacy  of  Sparta,  he  recalled  the  descendants  of  the 
exiles  and  rebuilt  Messene.  After  his  death,  the  Spartans  again  became  masters  of  the  coun- 
try, but  did  not  expel  the  Messenians  from  their  restored  possessions. 

§  125.  The  south-eastern  and  most  important  division  of  the  Peloponnesus 
was  L  a  c  o  n  i  a.  Its  capital  was  Sparta,  which  we  shall  describe  in  the  fol- 
lowing sections. 

The  other  towns  of  note  were  Jlmycla,  on  the  Eurotas,  the  residence  of  Le- 
da  ;  Therapne,  on  the  same  river,  the  birth-place  of  Castor  and  Pollux;  Gy- 
theum,  the  principal  port  of  Laconia;  Helos,  whose  inhabitants  were  enslaved 
by  the  Spartans  ;  and  Sellasia,  where  the  Achoeans,  by  the  defeat  of  Cleome- 
nes,  liberated  the  Peloponnesus  from  the  power  of  Lacedsemon. 

The  Sinks  Laconicus  (Gulf  of  Colochina),  was  bounded  by  the  capes  Ma- 
lea  (St.  Angelo),  and  T&narum  (Matapan).  Near  Tsenarum  was  a  cave  rep- 
resented by  the  poets  as  the  entrance  into  the  infernal  regions ;  through  this 
Hercules  is  said  to  have  dragged  up  Cerberus. 

The  Peloponnesian  states  were  first  subjected  by  Pelops ;  but  about  eighty  years  after  the 
Trojan  war,  the  Heraclidje,  or  descendants  of  Hercules,  returned  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
became  masters  of  the  different  kingdoms.  This  event,  which  forms  a  remarkable  epoch  in 
Grecian  history,  took  place  1104  B.  C. 

§  126.  Topography  of  Sparta.  The  city  of  Lacedsemon,  which  was  an- 
ciently called  Sparta,  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  king  Lacedsemon,  who  gave 

57* 


678  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

,  it  the  latter  denomination  from  his  wife  Sparta,  though  he  designated  the 
country  and  the  inhabitants  from  his  own  name ;  but  some  think  that  this  city 
received  the  appellation  of  Sparta  from  the  Sparti,  who  came  with  Cadmus 
into  Laconia.  It  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  mount  Taygctus,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  river  Eurotas,  which  runs  into  the  Laconic  gulf.  It  was  of  a  circular 
form,  and  forty-eight  stadia  or  six  miles  in  circumference,  and  was  surround- 
ed, to  a  great  extent,  with  vineyards,  olive  or  plane  trees,  gardens,  and  sum- 
mer-houses. 

Anciently  the  city  was  not  surrounded  with  walls  ;  and  its  only  defence 
was  the  valor  of  its  inhabitants.  Even  in  the  reign  of  Agesilaus,  and  for  the 
space  of  eight  hundred  years,  this  city  was  without  any  fortifications ;  but  af- 
ter it  fell  into  the  hands  of  tyrants,  it  was  surrounded  with  walls,  which  were 
rendered  very  strong.  It  had  however,  some  eminences,  upon  which  soldiers 
might  be  posted  in  case  of  an  attack.  The  highest  of  these  eminences  served 
as  a  citadel ;  its  summit  was  a  spacious  plain,  on  which  were  erected  several 
sacred  edifices.  Around  this  hill  were  ranged  five  towns,  which  were  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  intervals  of  different  extent,  and  each  of  which  was 
Occupied  by  the  five  tribes  of  Sparta. 

§  127.  The  great  square  or  forum,  ^Jyonu,  in  which  several  streets  termi- 
nated, was  embellished  with  temples  and  statues.  It  also  contained  the  edi- 
fices, in  which  the  senate,  the  ephori,  and  other  bodies  of  magistrates  assem- 
bled. Of  these  public  edifices  the  most  remarkable  was  the  Portico  of  the 
Persians,  which  the  Lacedaemonians  erected  after  the  battle  of  Platsea,  at  the 
expense  of  the  vanquished,  whose  spoils  they  shared.  The  roof  of  this  build- 
ing was  supportedijy  colossal  statues  of  the  principal  officers  in  the  army  of 
Xerxes,  who  had  been  taken  or  killed  in  that  battle,  and  who  were  habited  in 
flowing  robes.  —  The  Scias  was  a  building  not  far  from  the  forum,  in  which 
assemblies  of  the  people  were  commonly  held.  The  Chorus  was  a  part  of  the 
forum,  where  dances  were  performed  in  honor  of  Apollo  in  the  Gj'mnopse- 
dian  games. 

Upon  the  highest  of  the  eminences  stood  a  temple  of  Minerva,  which  had 
the  privilege  of  asylum,  as  had  also  the  grove  that  surrounded  it,  and  a  small 
house  appertaining  to  it,  in  which  king  Pausanias  was  left  to  expire  with  hun- 
ger. The  temple  was  built  with  brass  (Xuly.'ioiy.oc).  Within  the  building 
were  engraven,  in  bas-relief,  the  labors  of  Hercules,  and  various  groups  of 
figures.  To  the  right  of  this  edifice  was  a  statue  of  Jupiter,  supposed  to  be 
the  most  ancient  statue  of  brass  in  existence  ;  of  the  same  date  with  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Olympic  games. 

The  most  ornamented  place  in  Sparta,  however,  was  the  Pcecile,  which,  in- 
stead of  being  confined  to  a  single  gallery  like  that  at  Athens,  occupied  a  ve- 
ry considerable  extent.  The  Romans  afterwards  took  away  the  superb  paint- 
ings in  fresco  which  had  been  employed  to  decorate  the  walk.  —  Farther  ad- 
vanced in  the  city,  appeared  different  ranges  of  Porticoes,  intended  only  for 
the  display  of  different  kinds  of  merchandize. 

§  128.  Columns  and  statues  were  erected  for  Spartans  who  had  been  crowned 
at  the  Olympic  games ;  but  never  for  the  conquerors  of  the  enemies  of  their 
country.  Statues  might  be  decreed  to  wrestlers,  but  the  esteem  of  the  peo- 
ple was  the  only  reward  of  the  soldiers.  It  was  not  till  forty  years  after  the 
battle  of  Thermopylae,  that  the  bones  of  Leonidas  were  conveyed  to  Sparta 
and  deposited  in  a  tomb  near  the  theatre  ;  and  at  the  same  time  also  the  names 
of  the  three  hundred  Spartans  who  had  fallen  with  him,  were  first  inscribed 
on  a  column.  —  The  theatre  was  in  the  vicinity  of  the  forum,  and  was  con- 
structed of  beautiful  white  marble.  Not  far  from  the  tomb  of  Leonidas  were 
those  of  Brasidas  and  Pausanias.  Funeral  orations  and  games  were  annually 
given  near  these  monuments. 

Of  the  edifices  and  monuments  of  Sparta  it  may  be  remarked  in  general,  that  they  were  not 
distinguished  for  architectural  beauty  ;  and  the  city  had  nothing  imposing  or  splendid  in  its 
appearance. 

§  129.  On  the  south  side  of  the  city  was  the  r  Ittttv^qouoc,  or  course  for  foot 
and  horse  races,  some  vestiges  of  which  are  still  visible ;  and  a  little  distance 
from  it  was  the  Platanistas,  or  place  of  exercise  for  youth,  shaded  by  beauti- 
ful plane-trees,  and  enclosed  by  the  Eurotas  on  one  side,  by  a  small  rivex 


EUROPE.       ISLANDS    OP    THE    ATLANTIC.  679 

which  fell  into  it  on  the  other,  and  by  a  canal  which  opened  a  communication 
with  both  on  the  third.  The  Platanistas  was  entered  by  two  bridges,  on  one 
of  which  was  the  statue  of  Hercules,  or  all-subduing  force,  and  on  the  other 
that  of  Lycurgus,  or  all-regulating  law. 

The  place  which  served  Sparta  for  a  port  or  harbor,  was  Gytheium,  rrdnor, 
situated  west  from  the  mouth  of  the  Eurotas,  and  distant  from  Sparta  240  sta- 
dia according  to  Strabo,  and  30  [300?]  according  to  Polybius.  It  was  early 
surrounded  by  strong  walls,  and  had  an  excellent  harbor,  in  which  the  fleets 
of  Sparta  rode  in  security,  and  where  they  found  every  requisite  for  their 
maintenance  and  security. 

The  ruins  of  Sparta  are  found,  under  the  name  Palwochori  or  old  town,  about  two  miles  dis- 
tant from  the  modern  town  Misitra,  near  a  spot  called  Magoula.  "  The  whole  site,"  says  Cha- 
teaubriand, "  is  uncultivated  ;  when  I  beheld  this  desert,  not  a  plant  adorned  the  ruins,  not  a 
bird,  not  an  insect,  not  a  creature  enlivened  them,  save  millions  of  lizards,  which  crawled 
without  noise  up  and  down  the  sides  of  the  scorching  walls.  A  dozen  half  wild  horses  were 
feeding  here  and  there  upon  the  withered  grass  ;  a  shepherd  was  cultivating  a  few  watermel- 
ons in  a  corner  of  the  theatre  ;  and  at  Magoula,  which  gives  its  dismal  name  to  Lacedaemon,  I 
observed  a  small  grove  of  cypresses." On  the  topography  and  ruins  of  Sparta,  see  Chateau- 
briand's Travels  (p.  94,  ed.  N.  Y.  1814).  —  Le  Roi,  Monumensde  la  Grece.  —  Sir  W.  Qell,  Itin- 
erary of  the  Morea.  —  Leake's  Travels  in  the  Morea.  Lond.  1830.  3  vols.  8. —  Cramer,  Dodwell, 
4-c,  as  cited  P.  II.  §7.  (b). 

(d)  Islands  belonging  to  Europe. 

§  130.  It  was  mentioned  ($8),  that  having  considered  the  mainland,  under 
three  divisions,  northern,  middle,  and  southern,  we  might  notice  the  islands 
together  under  a  fourth.  The  European  islands  known  to  the  ancients  were 
in  the  Atlantic  or  Mediterranean ;  of  those  in  the  Baltic  they  knew  but  little. 
We  will  speak  first  of  those  in  the  Atlantic. 

§  131.  Of  these,  Bri  tannia  was  the  most  important.  It  was  scarcely 
known  to  exist  before  the  days  of  Julius  Caesar.  Being  peopled  by  success- 
ive migrations  from  Gaul,  the  Britons  naturally  aided  the  mother  country 
when  invaded,  and  thus  provoked  the  vengeance  of  Rome.  The  south-west- 
ern shores  are  said  to  have  been  visited  by  the  Phoenicians  at  a  much  earlier 
period  ;  and  that  enterprising  people  have  been  described  as  carryiug  on  an 
extensive  trade  for  tin  with  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  isles,  which,  from  their 
abounding  in  that  metal,  were  called  the  Cassiterides  Insula  or  Tin  islands. 

§  132.  The  enumeration  of  the  several  tribes  and  villages  being  a  matter 
rather  of  curiosity  than  utility,  we  shall  only  notice  a  few  of  the  more  remark- 
able. —  The  Cantii  occupied  the  south  of  the  island;  in  their  territory  were 
Rutupicp  (Richborough),  celebrated  for  its  oysters  by  Juvenal ;  and  PortusLe- 
manis  fLymne),  where  Cassar  landed  B.  C.  55.  —  The  Trinobantes  possessed 
the  country  north  of  the  Cantii;  their  chief  town  was  Londinum  (London), 
the  most  flourishing  Roman  colony  in  Britain.  —  The  Silures  possessed  South 
Wales,  and  appear  to  have  been  a  very  flourishing  and  warlike  tribe.  Carac- 
tacus,  one  of  their  kings,  is  celebrated  for  having  bravely  defended  the  liber- 
ties of  his  country;  and  for  a  long  time  baffled  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Ro- 
mans :  he  was  at  length  subdued  by  Ostorius  Scapula,  A.  D.  51,  and  sent  in 
chains  to  Rome.  —  On  the  eastern  coast  were  the  Iceni.  whose  queen  Boadi- 
cea,  having  been  cruelly  abused  by  the  Roman  deputies,  took  up  arms  to 
avenge  her  own  and  her  country's  wrongs  ;  at  first  she  obtained  several  victo- 
ries over  her  oppressors,  but  was  finally  defeated  by  Suetonius  Paulinus,  A.  D. 
61.  —  The  north  of  England  was  possessed  by  the  Brigantes,  the  most  pow- 
erful and  ancient  of  the  British  nations;  their  principal  towns  were  Eboracum 
(York),  and  Isurium  (supposed  to  be  Aldborough),  the  capital  of  their  tribe. 

§  133.  Scotland  was  still  less  known  than  England  ;  five  nations  on  the 
borders,  known  by  the  general  name  of  Meatce,  were  subdued  by  Agricola ; 
and  became  nominally  subject  to  the  dominion  of  Rome. 

When  Britain  became  a  Roman  province,  it  was  divided  into  the  five  fol- 
lowing provinces;  Britannia  prima,  comprising  the  eastern  and  southern  di- 
vision of  the  country  ;  Flavia  Casariensis,  containing  the  western  tribes  ; 
Britannia  secunda,  which  included  all  Wales  ;  Maxima  Casdriensis.  which 
contained  the  country  between  the  former  divisions  and  the  river  Tweed ;  and 
Valejitia,  occupied  by  the  Meatae. 


680  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

§  134.  To  repel  the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots,  who  frequently  laid 
waste  the  Roman  settlements,  several  walls  were  built  across  the  island.  The 
first  was  erected  by  the  celebrated  Agricola,  who  completed  the  conquest  of 
Britain.  But  this  being  found  insufficient  to  restrain  the  incursions  of  the 
barbarians,  the  emperor  Adrian  erected  a  rampart  of  great  strength  and  di- 
mensions. —  It  extended  from  JEstuarium  Itunce,  (Solway  Firth),  on  the  west- 
ern coast,  to  Segedunum  (Cousin's  House),  a  village  north  of  Pons  JElii  (New 
Castle-upon-Tyne),  on  the  eastern  coast,  a  distance  of  about  70  miles.  It 
consisted  of  a  double  rampart  and  ditch,  and  was  strengthened  by  forts  erect- 
ed at  short  intervals.  —  Twenty  years  after  this,  the  emperor  Antoninus  re- 
built the  wall  of  Agricola,  which  was  nearly  parallel  to  that  of  Adrian,  and 
had  been  neglected  after  that  was  built,  whence  this  is  usually  called  the  ram- 
part of  Antoninus. 

§  135.  But  the  last  and  greatest  of  these  structures  was  the  wall  erested  by 
the  emperor  Severus,  A.  D.  200.  —  It  was  situated  a  few  yards  north  of  the 
wall  of  Adrian,  and  was  one  of  the  strongest  fortifications  of  antiquity.  The 
wall  was  twelve  feet  wide  and  eight  feet  high,  built  of  stone  and  cement;  it 
was  strengthened  by  eighteen  stations  or  garrisons,  thirty-one  castles,  and 
three  hundred  and  twenty-four  towers  :  the  whole  body  of  forces  employed  to 
garrison  this  immense  range  of  fortification  were  ten  thousand  men,  besides 
six  hundred  mariners,  appointed  to  guard  the  points  where  the  ramparts  com- 
municated with  the  shore. 

§  136.  The  islands  adjoining  Britain  were  the  Orcades  (Orkneys),  Hebrides 
(Western  Isles),  Mono,  Taciti  (Anglesea),  Mono.  Ccesaris  (Man),  Vectis  (Isle 
of  Wight),  and  Cassiterides  (Scilly  Isles).  —  Ireland  was  known  to  the  an-> 
cients  only  by  name,  and  was  called  Ierne  Juverna,  or  H  i  b  e  r  n  i  a. 

The  Irish  say  that  they  are  descended  from  a  Scythian  nation,  and  that  at  an  early  period. 
part  of  the  country  was  colonized  by  the  Phoenicians  ;  in  proof  of  the  latter,  it  has  been  urged 
that  the  specimens  of  the  Punic  language  preserved  by  Plautus,  are  almost  pure  Irish,  and 
that  antique  swords,  found  in  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  have  on  analysis  been  proved  to  consist  of 
materials,  precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  Punic  swords  dug  up  by  Sir  \V.  Hamilton  in  the 
field  of  Cannae.  —  Cf.  P.  II.  §  352.  2. 

An  island  called  T  h  u  1  e  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  classical  authors  as 
the  most  distant  known,  but  its  situation  has  not  been  described,  and  therefore 
we  cannot  be  certain  what  particular  island  was  meant.  Iceland,  some  of  the 
Shetland  isles,  and  Greenland,  have  been  named  by  different  modern  writers 

(cf.  $  3;. 

§  137.  In  speaking  of  the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  we  begin  in  the 
western  'part.  The  Balearicts,  deriving  their  name  from  the  skill  of  the  in- 
habitants in  slinging  and  archery,  were  on  the  coast  of  Spain.  Their  names 
were  Balearis  major  (Majorca),  Balearis  minor  (Minorca),  and  Ebusus  (Ivica). 

Between  Spain  and  Italy  are  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  separated  by  the  Fretum 
Fossa;  (Strait  of  Bonefacio).  Corsica,  called  by  the  Greeks  Cyrnos,  was 
of  little  note  in  ancient  times,  but  is  celebrated  for  having  given  birth  to  Na- 
poleon Bonaparte.  It  contained  two  Roman  colonies,  Mariana  planted  by 
Marius,  and  Aleria  by  Sylla.  North  of  Mariana  was  Matinorum  Oppidinn 
(Bastia),  the  present  capital  of  the  island. — S  a  r  d  i  n  i  a  derived  its  name  from 
Sardus,  an  African  prince,  said  to  be  a  son  of  Hercules,  who  at  a  very  early 
period  Jed  a  colony  hither  ;  it  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Ichnusa,  from  its  re- 
remblance  to  the  human  foot.  Neither  serpents  or  wolves  were  found  in  this 
island,  and  as  we  are  told,  only  one  poisonous  herb,  which  caused  those  who 
eat  of  it  to  expire  in  a  fit  of  laughter,  and  hence  the  expression,  a  Sardonic  grin. 
The  chief  town  was  Calaris  (now  Cagliari).  Both  islands  were  long  tributary 
to  the  Carthaginians,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Romans  in  the  first  Punic 
war. 

There  were  several  small  islands  of  no  great  importance  on  the  coast  of  It- 
aly;  the  chief  were  Una  (Elba),  which  is  of  some  interest,  as  the  spot  of  Na- 
poleon's temporary  banishment ;  Prochyta  ;  and  Caprece  (Capri),  infamous  as 
the  scene  of  Tiberius's  unnatural  debaucheries. 

§  138.  S  i  c  i  1  i  a  ,  the  largest  and  most  fertile  of  the  Mediterranean  islands, 
lies  to  the  south  of  Italy,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Fretum  Siculum 
(Strait  of  Messina).  —  It  was  called  Triquetra,  or.Trinacria,  from  its  triangu- 
lar shape,  terminating  in  three  promontories  ;  Pelorus  (Faro),  on  the  north; 
Pachynus  (Passaro)  on  the  south;  and  Liiyb&um  (Boco),  on  the  west. 


EUROPE.       ISLANDS    OF    THE    MEDITERRANEAN.  681 

Syracusa  (Siracusa)  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Sicily,  and  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  cities  of  antiquity.  It  was  founded  by  a  Corinthian  colony  led  by 
Archias,  and  arrived  at  such  a  pitch  of  greatness  that  the  circuit  of  its  walls 
exceeded  twenty  miles.  —  It  was  divided  into  five  parts,  which  were  so  large 
as  to  be  esteemed  separate  towns  ;  viz.  Ortygia,  a  small  island,  on  which  the 
Greeks  originally  settled  ;  Acradina  facing  the  sea;  Tycha,  between  that  and 
the  following  division  ;  Neapolis,  which  stood  on  the  great  port;  and  Epipo- 
lae.  —  Syracuse  had  two  ports,  the  lesser  formed  by  the  island  Ortygia,  and 
the  greater  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Anapus,  which  here  flows  into  a  large 
bay,  having  the  island  at  its  northern,  and  the  fort  of  Plemmyrium  at  its 
southern  extremity.  The  celebrated  prison  of  Latoma  was  cut  out  of  the 
rock,  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius;  in  this  was  a  cavern  shaped  like  the  human 
ear,  so  contrived  as  to  transmit  all  sounds  from  below  to  a  small  apartment 
where  the  tyrant  used  to  conceal  himself,  in  order  to  overhear  the  conversa- 
tion of  his  victims  ;  it  is  now  a  very  handsome  subterraneous  garden.  —  This 
city  is  remarkable  for  the  defeat  of  the  Athenians,  in  their  fatal  Sicilian  expe- 
dition, and  the  formidable  resistance  made  by  the  inhabitants  when  the  town 
was  besieged  by  Marcellus.  This  siege  was  protracted  principally  by  the  me- 
chanical contrivances  of  Archimedes. 

§  139.  Some  of  the  other  considerable  towns  in  Sicilia  were  Messana  ;  Le- 
ontium;  Agrigentum,  where  the  tyrant  Phalaris  resided;  Lilybceum,  Drepa~ 
num,  Panormos  (PalermoJ,  Himera;  JYaulochus,  where  the  oxen  of  the  sun 
were  supposed  to  be  kept  ;  Tricola,  where  Trypho  and  Athenis  established 
the  head  quarters  of  a  republic  of  slaves,  and  held  out  against  the  Roman 
power  for  several  years. 

The  principal  Sicilian  rivers  are  the  Simcethus  (Giaretta),  celebrated  for  the 
production  of  amber;  Asinarius,  where  the  Athenian  generals  Nicias  and  De- 
mosthenes were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Syracusans,  and  Helorus  on  the  east- 
ern coast;  on  the  south  side  were  Camicus  and  Crimisus,  with  some  smaller 
streams  ;  and  on  the  north,  the  river  Himera.  —  Mount  Mtna,  so  celebrated 
for  its  volcano,  occupies  a  great  part  of  Sicily  ;  the  poets  feigned  that  the  gi- 
ants, when  defeated  by  Jupiter,  were  buried  under  this  heap,  and  that  the 
eruptions  were  caused  by  their  efforts  to  relieve  themselves.  —  The  first  in- 
habitants of  Sicily  were  the  Cyclopes  and  Laestrigons,  a  barbarous  race  of 
people,  almost  extirpated  by  the  different  Greek  colonies,  whom  the  commer- 
cial advantages  of  Sicily's  situation  induced  to  settle  in  this  island. 

§  140.  Near  Lilybamm  are  three  small  islands  called  JEgates,  opposite  one 
of  which,  JEgusa,  Lutatius  Catulus  defeated  the  Carthaginians  in  a  great  na- 
val engagement,  and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  first  Punic  war.  ■ —  North  of  Sici- 
ly were  the  Insula.  JEolioe  (Li pari  islands),  sacred  to  Vulcan;  the  largest  is 
Lipara,  which  was  once  a  place  of  great  consequence ;  the  next  in  size  is 
Strongyle  (Stromboli),  where  iEolus  is  said  to  have  imprisoned  the  winds,  and 
where  there  is  a  celebrated  volcano. 

Southeast  of  Sicily  is  Melite  (MaltaJ,  remarkable  in  ancient  times  for  its 
cotton  manufactories.  Here  St.  Paul  was  shipwrecked  in  his  voyage  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Rome.  —  Malta  was  first  peopled  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  found 
this  island  a  convenient  station  for  commerce,  on  account  of  its  excellent  har- 
bor. —  Near  Malta  is  the  small  island  Gaulos  (Gozo). 

§  141.  We  notice  next  the  Ionian  Islands,  on  the  western  coast  of  Greece. 
Corcyra  (Corfu)  stood  opposite  that  division  of  Epirus  called  Thesprotia, 
from  which  it  was  separated  by  a  narrow  strait,  named  Corcyrean.  —  It  is 
called  by  Homer  Scheria,  or  Phaacia,  and  he  describes  (in  the  Odyssey)  the 
inhabitants  as  luxurious  and  indolent.  —  The  principal  town  was  Corcyra, 
near  which  were  the  celebrated  gardens  of  Alcinous  and  Cassiope.  Near  the 
promontory  Plialacrum  was  a  remarkable  rock,  said  to  have  been  the  ship 
which  Ulysses  received  from  Alcinous,  to  convey  him  to  his  native  country, 
and  which  Neptune  changed  into  a  rock,  as  a  punishment  to  the  Phseacians 
for  aiding  Ulysses. 

Leucadia  (Santa  Maura)  was  originally  a  peninsula,  and  the  isthmus  was 
cut  through  by  the  Carthaginians  to  facilitate  navigation.  The  chief  town 
was  Leucas,  in  earlier  ages  called  JYericum,  and  the  neighboring  country  Ne- 
ritis;  it  was  founded  by  a  Corinthian  colony,  and  was  joined  to  the  continent 


682  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

by  a  bridge,  as  the  strait  was  here  very  narrow.  —  At  the  south-western  ex- 
tremity of  Leucadia  was  a  high  mountain,  named  Leucate,  and  a  remarkable 
rock,  called  from  its  color  Leucopetra,  from  which  unfortunate  lovers  precipi- 
tated themselves  into  the  sea.  On  the  top  of  this  rock  was  a  temple  of  Apol- 
lo, where  the  victims  offered  sacrifices  previously  to  taking  the  fatal  leap. 

The  Echinades  (Curzolari)  were  a  small  cluster  of  islands  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Achelous,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  was  Dulichium,  part  of  the 
empire  of  Ulysses.  —  Near  Dulichium  was  Ithaca  (Thaki),  the  birth-place  of 
Ulysses  ;  the  capital  was  also  called  Ithaca,  and  stood  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
JNTeritus. 

§  142.  Cephalenia  (Cephalonia)  is  the  largest  of  the  Ionian  islands. — 
Its  chief  town  was  -Same,  from  whence  the  island  was  frequently  called  by 
that  name ;  there  were  three  other  towns  of  little  consequence  in  the  island  ; 
from  which  circumstance  it  is  called  Tetrapolis.  In  this  island  are  some  ruins 
of  Cyclopean  structure. 

South  of  this  was  Zacynthus  (Zante),  with  a  capital  of  the  same  name,  cele- 
brated for  its  fertility  and  beautiful  groves.  Herodotus  declares  that  there 
was  such  an  abundance  of  bitumen  found  here,  that  even  the  neighboring  sea 
assumed  prismatic  hues,  from  the  oily  matter  that  floated  on  its  surface. 

West  of  the  Peloponnesus  were  the  Strophades  (Strivoli),  at  first  called 
Plotai,  the  residence  of  the  Harpies;  and  south  of  them,  the  island  of  Sphac- 
teria  (Sphagice),  taken  by  Cleon  the  Athenian,  in  the  first  Peloponnesian 
war.  —  South  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  Cythera,  or  Porphyrce  (Cerigo),  sacred 
to  Venus  .  It  contained  two  excellent  towns  and  harbors,  Cythera  and  Scan- 
da,  which  the  Lacedaemonians  fortified  with  great  care  ;  but  the  Athenians  de- 
stroyed both  in  the  first  Peloponnesian  war. 

§  143.  We  may  include  among  the  JEgean  Islands  all  that  remain  to  be 
noticed. 

The  T  hraci  an  islands  occupy  the  northern  part  of  the  iEgean,and  were 
named  Thasus,  Samothrace,  and  Imbrus.  —  Thasus  (TasseJ,  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  Nessus,  was  in  the  earlier  ages  of  Grecian  history  named  iEth- 
ria.  It  produced  wine  and  marble,  and  the  inhabitants  were  at  one  time  so 
powerful  as  to  dispute  the  mastery  of  the  sea  with  the  Athenians,  but  after  a 
severe  contest  of  two  years  they  were  compelled  to  surrender  at  discretion. — 
Samothrace  (Samandrachi)  derived  its  name  from  Samos,  by  a  colony  from 
which  it  was  first  peopled.  From  this  place  Dardanus  brought  the  worship  of 
Cybele  to  Troy.  —  Imbrus  (Embro)  lies  to  the  south  of  Samothrace. 

§  144.  Tencdos  stands  at  the  entrance  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite  the  Troad. 
It  contained  but  one  city,  and  a  celebrated  temple  of  Apollo,  here  called  Smin- 
theus,  because  he  delivered  the  inhabitants  from  a  plague  of  mice,  called 
SmintliEe  in  the  Phrygian  language. 

South-west  of  this  was  Lcmnos  (Stalimene),  dedicated  to  Vulcan,  who, 
when  thrown  out  of  heaven  by  Jupiter,  is  said  to  have  fallen  on  this  island. 
It  contained  two  cities,  Hephaestia  or  Vulcatia,  and  Murina.  —  Farther  west, 
on  the  Macedonian  coast,  was  Halonncsus  (Droma),  which  is  said  to  have 
been  at  one  time  defended  by  the  valor  of  the  women  alone,  when  all  the 
males  were  slain.  South  of  these  were  Scidthus  (Sciatia)  ;  Scopelos  (Scope- 
la)  ;  and  Scyros  (Skiro),  where  Achilles  was  concealed  by  his  mother  Thetis, 
to  prevent  his  going  to  the  Trojan  war. 

South  of  Tenedos,  and  opposite  Ephesus,  was  Lesbos  (Metelin),  the  birth- 
place of  the  philosopher  Pittacus,  the  poets  Arion  and  Alcceus,  and  the  poetess 
Sappho;  its  chief  towns  were  Methymna,  celebrated  for  wine,  and  Mitylenc, 
from  whence  the  island  has  derived  its  modern  name.  —  South  of  this  was 
Chios  fScioJ,  celebrated  for  its  wine.  The  slaughter  of  the  inhabitants  of  this 
island  lately  by  the  Turks  excited  great  public  sympathy. 

§  145.  The  largest  island  of  the  /Egean  was  Euboea  (NegroponU,  opposite 
the  coast  of  Bceotia,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  a  narrow  strait,  called  the 
Euripus.  Into  this  strait  Aristotle  (P.  II.  §  115),  according  to  the  accounts  of 
some,  threw  himself,  in  a  fit  of  frenzy,  because  he  was  unable  to  explain  the 
cause  of  its  ebbing  and  flowing.  The  chief  towns  were  Chalcis,  joined  to  Au- 
lis  in  Bceotia,  by  a  bridge  across  the  Euripus ;  Eretria,  an  Athenian  colony, 
founded  before  the  Trojan  war  ;  Oreus,  on  the  Euripus  ;  the  town  and  prom- 


EUROPEAN   ISLANDS.       ASIA.  68$ 

ontory  of  Artemisium,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  where  the  Greeks 

fained  their  first  naval  victory  over  the  Persians  ;  and  Carystus  in  the  south; 
etween  the  promontories  Gersestus  and  Caphareus,  remarkable  for  the  quar- 
ries of  marble  in  the  neighboring  mountain  Ocha.  The  history  of  Eubcea  i§ 
hot  very  important,  as  the  greater  part  was  subjected  to  other  Greek  states. 

In  the  Saronic  gulf  were  iEgina  (Engia),  aficiently  iEnone,  strongly  for- 
tified by  nature,  and  at  one  period  the  rival  of  Athens  at  sea.  (On  the  mar-* 
bles  discovered  here,  see  P.  1.  §  190).  The  ^ginetans  were  the  most  distin- 
guished of  the  Grecian  allies  at  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and  obtained  the  prize 
of  valor.  —  Next  to  this  is  Salamis  CElimU,  the  island  of  Telemon,  father 
of  AjaX  and  Teucer.  Wear  Salamis  the  Greek  fleet,  commanded  by  Euribia- 
des  the  Spartan,  and  Themistocles  the  Athenian,  totally  defeated  the  immense 
navy  of  Persia.  —  On  the  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus  wag  Calauria  (Toro). 
Where  Demosthenes  poisoned  himself  that  he  might  not  fall  into  the  hands  of 
Antipater,  the  successor  ot  Alexander  the  Great. 

§  146.  South-east  of  Euboea  was  the  large  cluster  of  islands  called  the 
Cyclades,  from  their  nearly  forming  a  circle  round  the  island  of  Delos. 
This  island,  also  called  Ortygia,  is  celebrated  by  the  poets  as  the  birth-place  of 
Apollo  and  Diana.  Near  Mount  Cynthhis  stood  the  celebrated  temple  of  the 
Delian  god,  to  which  pilgrimages  were  made  from  all  parts  of  Greece.  A  sa- 
cred galley,  [called  Parcdvs  (i;  7T.uQaP.og),  was  annually  sent  from  Athens  to 
Delos  with  a  solemn  sacrifice,  and  during  its  absence  it  was  unlawful  to  pun- 
ish any  criminal  in  Athens  capitally.  The  other  remarkable  islands  in  this 
group  were  Myconus,  Gyarus,  and  Seriphus,  small  islands  whither  the  Romart 
emperors  used  to  banish  criminals  ;  Andros  and  Tenos,  south-east  of  Eubcea; 
Ceos  (Zea),  and  Helena,  on  the  coast  of  Attica;  Cythus,  SipfmuS)  and  Melos 
(Milo),  south  of  Ceos;  Paros,  celebrated  for  its  white  marble,  the  birth-place 
of  the  statuaries,  Phidias  and  Praxiteles  ;  Kaxos,  sacred  to  Bacchus,  where 
Ariadne  was  ungratefully  deserted  by  TheseUs ;  los,  where  Homer  was  said 
to  have  been  buried  ;   Thcra,  and  Anaphe* 

§  147.  The  islands  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  jiEgean  were  called  the  Spor- 
ades,  and  more  properly  belonged  to  Asia,  but  they  are  enumerated  here 
as  they  were  possessed  by  the  Greeks.  The  chief  of  these  were  Samos,  sa- 
cred to  Juno,  the  birth-place  of  Pythagoras ;  Icaria,  which  gave  name  to  the 
Icarian  sea  ;  Patmos  (Palmossa),  where  Saint  John  wrote  the  Revelations; 
Co*,  the  native  country  of  Harpocrates ;  Carpathus  (Scarpanto),  which  gave 
name  to  the  Carpathian  sea;  and  Rhodus  (RhodesJ.  —  This  latter  island 
Contained  three  cities,  Lindus,  Camyrus,  and  Rhodus;  at  the  harbor  of  Rho- 
dus stood  the  Colossus,  an  enormous  statue,  dedicated  to  the  sun  (P.  III.  §  72). 
It  held  in  one  hand  a  light-house.  This  splendid  statue  was  thrown  down 
by  an  earthquake,  and  having  long  laid  prostrate  was  broken  up  by  the  Sar- 
acens when  they  became  masters  of  the  island,  in  the  seventh  century. 

§  148.  Creta  (Crete  or  Candia),  at  the  entrance  of  the  iEgean,  was  the 
most  celebrated  island  of  ancient  times  ;  it  is  said  to  have  contained  a  hun- 
dred cities,  the  principal  of  which  were  Gnossus,  near  Mount  Ida,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  island  ;  Gortina,  on  the  opposite  side  where  stood  the  cele- 
brated Labyrinth,  built  by  Daedalus ;  and  Cydonia,  by  some  esteemed  the 
capital. 

The  first  inhabitants  of  Crete  were  the  Idsi  Dactyli,  who  lived  near  mount  Ida,  and  exer-^ 
cised  mechanical  arts ;  nearly  contemporary  with  these  were  the  Curetes,  who  directed  their" 
attention  to  agriculture.  —  Minos,  a  descendant  of  Jupiter,  was  the  legislator  of  Crete,  and 
from  his  laws  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  are  said  to  have  been  principally  borrowed.  The 
fabulous  legends  respecting  this  monarch,  his  wife  Pasiphae,  and  his  daughter  Ariadne,  are 
sufficiently  known.  —  Cf.  P.  III.  $  117.  (a). 


II.    Of  Asia. 


§  149.  Asia,  the  largest  and  most  populous  of  the  divisions  of  the  globe,  is* 
celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  the  human  race  ;  the  quarter  where  the  tru3 


684  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

God  Was  worshiped  when  the  rest  of  the  world  was  sunk  in  Superstitious* 
barbarism  ;  the  scene  of  our  Savior's  life  and  sufferings ;  and  for  the  great 
monarchies,  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  and  Persian  ($  211),  which  possessed 
extensive  sway  before  the  commencement  of  authentic  European  history.  — - 
From  Asia,  the  first  principles  of  the  arts  and  sciences  were  imported  into  Eu* 
rope,  and  there  civilization  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  before 
the  western  countries  had  emerged  from  barbarism. 

§  150.  The  countries  of  Asia  may  naturally  be  considered  in  two  divisions, 
the  Eastern  and  Western ;  the  boundary  between  them  being  the  River  Rha 
or  Wolga,  the  Mare  Caspium,  and  the  mountains  extending  thence  towards 
the  Sinus  Persicus. 

The  Eastern  division  includes  Scythia,  Sinarum  Regio,  India,  Persia, 
Media  and  Parthia,  with  the  countries  north  of  the  mountains  called  Paro- 
pamisus.  —  The  Western  includes  Sarmatia  with  the  countries  between  the 
Mare  Caspium  and  Pontus  Euxinus,  Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Ara« 
bia,  and  Mesopotamia  with  the  countries  in  the  Valley  of  the  Tigris. 

(a)     The  Countries  of  the  Eastern  Division  of  Asia. 

§  151.  Scythia  was  the  name  applied  to  all  the  northern  and  north-eastern 
part  of  Asia.  Very  little  was  known  respecting  it.  It  was  divided  into  Scy- 
thia intra  Imaum,  and  Scythia  extra-  lmaum,  separated  by  the  mountains  called 
Imaus,  now  Belur  Tag,  which  unite  with  the  modern  Altai  on  the  north,  and 
Himmaleh  on  the  south.  —  Scythia  extra  ImaUm  included  the  Regio  Casia 
(Kashgar  in  Tartary),  and  the  Regio  Serica  (the  north-west  part  of  China) ;  in 
the  latter  was  the  city  Sera,  the  thoroughfare  of  ancient  commerce  between 
eastern  and  western  Asia. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  respecting  the  real  situation  of  the  ancient  Serica.  —  Cf. 
b'Anville,  §■  Gosselin,  sur  la  SeriqUe  des  Anciens,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxu.  p.  573. 
&  xux.  p.  713.  —  Class.  Journal,  vol.  vi.  p.  204.  vn.  32.  —  Anthon's  Lempriere  article  Seres. 

The  Sinje  occupied  the  most  eastern  portion  of  Asia  known  to  the  ancients  ; 
supposed  to  be  the  country  now  named  Cochin  China.  Their  capital  was  Thy- 
nts,  on  the  Cotiaris,  a  branch  of  the  Senus. 

i  152.  India  included  the  territory  extending  from  the  mountains  called  irt 
their  northern  part  Parueti,  on  the  west  of  the  river  Indus,  to  the  river  Seru3 
or  Menan,  which  empties  into  Magnus  Sinus  (Gulf  of  Siam).  It  was  divided 
by  the  ancients  into  India  intra  Gangem,  and  India  extra  Gangem  :  the  bound- 
ary between  them  being  the  Ganges,  which  discharged  into  the  Sinus  Gan- 
geticus  (Bay  of  BengalJ.  This  country  was  but  little  known  before  the  ex- 
pedition of  Alexander.  The  southern  part  of  India  intra  Gangem,  or  Hindos- 
tan,  was  called  Promontorium  Comaria  (cape  Comorin).  Several  places  oil 
the  coast  were  known.  North  of  the  river  Chabctis  (XaveryJ,  was  the  Regid 
Arcati,  the  modern  Arcot.  —  In  India  extra  Gangem  was  the  Autea  Chersonc- 
sus  (the  peninsula  of  Malaya),  its  southern  point  being  called  Magnum  Prom- 
mitorium  ^now  cape  Romania^. 

§  153.  Persia,  in  its  more  limited  meaning,  was  the  country  lying  east  of 
the  river  Tigris  between  Media  on  the  north  and  the  Persian  gulf  on  the 
south.  But  the  name  is  sometimes,  and  is  here,  employed  to  comprehend  the 
Whole  territory  south  of  the  Paropamisus  chain  of  mountains,  from  the  Zagros 
Montes  and  the  Tigris  on  the  west  to  the  Parueti  and  Arbiti  Montcs  separating 
it  from  India  on  the  east.     Thus  it  includes  several  provinces. 

Sus  iana  was  the  most  western  on  the  Tigris,  containing  the  cities  Ehj^ 
tnais  and  Susa  ;  the  latter,  called  in  the  Bible  Shushan,  was  the  winter  resi- 
dence of  the  Persian  kings;  it  was  situated  upon  the  river  Choaspes,  which 
flowed  from  the  Orontes  mountains  into  the  Tigris.  —  P  e  rsis  was  directly 
east  of  Susiana,  bordering  upon  the  Sinus  Persicus,  and  corresponding  to  Per- 
sia in  its  limited  and  proper  sense.  Its  capital  was  Persepolis,  represented  as 
a  city  of  great  splendor  ;  the  royal  palace  was  set  on  fire  by  the  order  of  Alex- 
ander, when  inflamed  with  wine  and  instigated  by  his  mistress  Thais.  South- 
east from  this  was  Pasargada,  where  Cyrus  is  said  to  have  built  a  tomb  for 
himself. 

A  monument  still  exists,  which  has  been  called  the  tomb  of  Cyrus  5  cf.  P.  IV.  §  187.  4.  — ■■ 
The  ruins  of  Persepolis  still  excite  admiration.    It  was  situated  on  a  beautiful  plain  6  miles 


PLATE    XXXI. 


58 


6»b  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 

wide  and  100  long  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  which  is  now  crowded  with  numerous  village's"*  -» 
Through  this  flowed  the  Araxes,  now  Bendemir  or  Bend  Emir  discharging  into  Lake  Baktegi-' 
an.  The  principal  ruin  is  the  palace  called  by  the  natives  Chchul-Minar,  Chil-Minar,  or  She* 
hel-Minar,  or  palace  of  forty  columns.  —  See  a  description,  with  plates,  in  Rob.  Ker  Porter' f 
Travels.  —  Cf.  Herder,  The  Univ.  History,  4-c.  cited  §  211.  vi. 

The  other  provinces  were  C  arm  an  i  a  (KermanJ,  south-east  of  Persis,  also 
bordering  on  the  Sinus  Persicus ;  Gedrosia  (now  Mekran)  lying  on  the" 
Erythrmum  Mare  and  extending  from  Carmania  to  India;  A  rac  h  osia  and 
Drangiana,  which  include  the  whole  remaining  territory  on  the  north 
and  east  between  Gedrosia  on  the  south  and  the  Paropamisus  on  the  north. — 
This  latter  territory  was  watered  by  the  Elymander,  which,  with  tributaries 
from  the  mountains  on  the  north,  east  and  south,  flowed  into  the  Aria  Palus, 
a  lake  or  sea  on  its  western  limits ;  the  whole  territory  was  often  included 
under  Aria,  which  properly  belongs  to  the  contiguous  country  north  of  the 
Paropamisus. 

§  154.  Media  was  situated  south  of  the  Mare  Caspium;  its  northern  limit 
was  the  river  Araxes  flowing  to  that  sea  from  Armenia.  The  portion  lying  on 
this  river  was  formed  into  an  independent  kingdom,  after  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, by  the  satrap  Atropates  and  thence  called  Atropat ene  ;  having  as  its 
capital  Gaza,  now  Tauris  or  Tebriz.  —  The  capital  of  Media  was  Ecbatana 
(now  Hamadan,  cf.  Rennell,  Geog.  Herod.  Sect.  11.) ;  this  was  made  the  sum- 
mer residenceof  the  Persian  and  afterwards  of  the  Parthian  monarchs;  here 
two  tombs,  with  inscriptions  in  the  Hebrew  character,  are  still  shown  to  trav- 
elers as  those  of  Mordecai  and  Esther.  Ragm  or  Rages  was  another  place  of 
some  importance,  mentioned  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Tobit. 

§  155.  Under  Parthia  we  include  the  region  lying  at  the  south-eastern 
corner  of  the  Caspian  sea;  between  Media  on  the  south  and  the  river  Oxus? 
(Gihon),  flowing  to  the  sea  of  Aral,  on  the  north.  It  was  originally  but  a 
part  of  Hyrcania,  a  province  belonging  to  the  Persian  empire.  By  Arsaces,  af- 
ter the  time  of  Alexander,  it  was  made  the  seat  of  a  new  state,  which  under 
his  successors  called  Arsacida,  grew  into  a  considerable  empire,  and  opposed 
effectual  resistance  to  the  Romans  (§  211.  Tin.).  One  of  its  principal  places  was 
Nisaa  (Nesa),  on  a  northern  branch  of  the  river  Ochus  (Margab),  which  emp- 
ties into  the  Caspian.  Hyrcania  (Corcan)  was  a  considerable  place,  on  the 
small  river  Socanda.  —  But  the  royal  residence  of  the  Arsacidce  was  Hecatom-> 
pylos,  in  the  south-western  part ;  although  the  later  Parthian  monarchs  some- 
times resided  at  Ctesiphon  on  the  Tigris. 

The  remaining  countries,  between  Parthia  and  Scythia,  were  Aria,  Bactri- 
ana,  and  Sogdiana.  —  Aria  was  east  of  Parthia  and  Media,  and  north  of  the 
Paropamisus,  although  the  name  was  often  extended,  so  as  to  include  (§  153) 
a  large  region  south  of  that  chain  of  mountains.  The  principal  place  was  Ar' 
tacoana  (now  Herat) .  —  Bactrianawas  east  of  Aria  and  south  of  the  river 
Oxus;  its  capital  wag  Zariaspa  or  Bactra  (Balk),  on  a  tributary  of  the  Oxus. — 
Sogdiana  includes  the  territory  between  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes  or  Sir, 
corresponding  nearly  to  the  modern  country  Al-Sogd.  Its  chief  place  was 
Maracanda  (Samarcand),  on  the  Polytimetus,  a  branch  of  the  Oxus.  Cyrop- 
olis  was  a  place  founded  by  Cyrus  on  the  Jaxartes.  Various  tribes  occupied 
this  region ;  in  the  north-eastern  part  were  the  Sacai. 

(b)     The  Countries  of  the  Western  Division  of  Asia. 

§  156.  Beginning  on  the  northern  limits  we  notice  first  S  a  r  m  a  t  i  a  ,  called 
Asiatica,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  country  of  the  same  name  in  Europe,  from 
which  it  was  separated  by  the  river  Tanais.  Its  boundary  on  the  south  was 
the  Caucasus.  It  was  inhabited  by  roving  and  uncivilized  tribes  ;  particular- 
ly the  Alani,  and  the  Cimmerii ;  from  the  latter,  the  strait  connecting  the  Palus 
Mceotis  with  the  Euxine  received  its  name  of  Bosphorus  Cimmericus.  —  South 
of  Sarmatia,  and  between  the  Pontus  Euxinus  on  the  west,  and  the  Mare  Cas- 
pium or  Hyrcanium  on  the  east,  were  the  three  countries,  Colchis,  Iberia,  and 
Albania.  Colchis  was  on  the  Euxine ;  one  of  its  chief  places  was  JEa,  on 
the  river  Phasis  (Faz-Reone).  —  Albania  was  on  the  Caspian,  extending 
south  as  far  as  the  river  Cyrus  (or  Kur).  An  important  place  was  one  of  the 
two  celebrated  passes  of  the  Caucasus,  called  Pxjlce  Albania  or  Caucasia,  be-* 


ASIA.      WESTERN   DIVISION.      ARMENIA.  687 

tween  a  northern  spur  of  the  Caucasus  and  the  Caspian,  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed; afterwards  the  strong  city  of  Derbend.  —  Iberia  was  between  Col- 
chis and  Albania,  a  high  valley,  watered  by  the  Cyrus  and  its  numerous  trib- 
utaries. The  other  celebrated  pass  of  the  Caucasus  led  from  this  valley  over 
into  the  declivity  of  the  Euxine  ;  it  was  the  defile  through  which  the  river 
Aragus  (Arakui)  flows  into  the  Cyrus ;  it  is  now  called  Dariel.  —  These 
passes  and  others  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  are  sometimes  termed 
Pylcc  CaspicB)  but  the  pass,  properly  so  termed,  is  supposed  to  be  the  modern 
pass  of  Gurdock,  about  90  miles  from  Teheran. 

On  these  passes,  cf.  Walckenuer,  de  Portes  Caspiennes,  Caucasiennes,  et  Albaniennes,  &c, 
in  the  Mem.  de  I'Institut,  Classe  d'Hist.  et  Lit.  Anc.  vol.  vn.  p.  210,  with  a  map.  —  Bibl.  Repos- 
itory, No.  xxn.  p.  370. 

§  157.  Armenia  was  immediately  south  of  Colchis  and  Iberia,  extending  to 
mount  Masius  and  the  Carduchi  Montes  on  the  south,  and  from  Media  on  the 
east  to  the  northern  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  which  separated  it  from  Asia 
Minor.  It  presents  three  great  valleys,  extending  nearly  east  and  west ;  first, 
that  on  the  north-east,  watered  by  the  Araxes,  also  called  Phasis  (now  Aras), 
flowing  to  the  Caspian ;  second,  the  central,  separated  from  the  first  by  the 
chain  of  mountains  in  which  is  the  summit  called  Ararat,  and  watered  by  the 
southern  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  which  rises  in  its  eastern  part  and  flows 
westerly,  containing  also  the  lake  called  Arsissa  Palus  ;  third,  the  south-west- 
ern, smaller,  separated  from  the  central  by  the  Niphates  Montes,  and  watered 
by  the  Tigris,  which  rises  in  its  western  part  and  flows  through  it  in  an  east- 
terly  course.  —  Some  of  the  principal  places  were  Artaxata,  on  the  Araxes, 
the  ancient  capital;  Arza  (Erze  Roum),  near  the  sources  of  the  northern 
branch  of  the  Euphrates ;  Amida,  on  the  Tigris  near  its  source ;  and  Tigran- 
ocerta,  taken  by  Lucullus  in  the  Mithridatic  war,  and  plundered  of  vast  riches. 

The  summit  called  Ararat  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  that  on  which  Noah's  ark  rested  ; 
this  is  said  to  have  been  ascended,  for  the  first  time,  by  Prof.  Parrot  in  1829.  See  Bibl.  Repos. 
No.  xxii.  p.  390. 

§  158.  Asia  Minor  is  a  term  not  used  by  classical  authors,  but  invented  in 
the  middle  ages.  In  general,  the  Roman  writers  confined  the  term  Asia  to 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Propontis  and  iEgean,  and  divided  it  into  Asia 
intra  Taurum  and  Asia  extra  Taurum.  The  large  peninsula  which  is  known  by 
the  name  of  Asia  Minor,  included  a  great  number  of  petty  states,  whose  boun- 
daries varied  at  different  periods. — The  northern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  be- 
ginning at  the  iEgean  Sea,  were  Phrygia  Minor,  Mysia,  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia, 
and  Pontus.  —  The  middle  provinces  were  Lydia,  Phrygia  Major,  Galatia, 
Lycaonia  and  Isauria,  Cappadocia,  and  Armenia  Minor.  —  The  southern 
provinces  were  Caria,  Lycia,  Pisidia,  and  Pamphylia. 

$  159.  Phrygia  Minor,"  or  T  r  o  a  s,  is  celebrated  for  the  Trojan  plains  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Hellespont.  The  lapse  of  ages  has  produced  such  changes, 
that  modern  travelers  are  not  agreed  about  the  situation  of  the  city  of  Troy, 
called  also  Ilium.  (Cf.  P.  II.  $50  ;  P.  III.  §  132.)  It  was  built  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  sea,  above  the  junction  of  the  Scamander,  or  Xanthus,  and  Si- 
mois,  two  small  streams,  rising  from  mount  Ida,  and  falling  into  the  Helles- 
pont ;  the  citadel  was  called  Pergamus,  and  was  erected  on  a  little  hill  includ- 
ed within  the  walls.  The  plain  between  the  city  and  the  sea  was  intersected 
by  the  rivers  Scamander  and  Simois,  and  there  the  battles  mentioned  in  the 
Iliad  were  fought.  At  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  plain  was  the  mount  Ida, 
the  summit  of  which  was  called  Gargarus ;  the  west  was  bounded  by  the 
Hellespont,  which  here  forms  an  extensive  bay,  between  the  promontory  of 
Rhceteum  on  the  north,  and  Sigeum  on  the  south.  Here  lay  the  Grecian  fleet, 
and  at  a  little  distance  on  the  shore  was  the  camp.  Ajax  was  buried  on  the 
Rhffitean  and  Achilles  on  the  Sigean  promontory. 

Mysia,  divided  into  Minor  and  Major,  extended  from  the  Hellespont  to 
Bithynia.  The  principal  towns  of  the  former  were  Abydos  and  Lampsacus, 
dedicated  to  Priapus,  celebrated  for  its  wealth  and  luxury.  —  The  principal 
city  in  Mysia  Major  was  Cyzicus,  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same  name  in 
the  Proponti^,  and  joined  by  two  bridges  to  the  continent;  celebrated  for  the 
gallant  resistance  it  made  when  besieged  by  Mithridates ;  near  this  is  the  riv- 
er Granicus,  where  Alexander  defeated  the  army  of  Darius,  and  where  Lu- 
cullus obtained  an  equally  important  victory  over  Mithridates. 


000  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

$  160.  B  i  t  h  y  n  i  a,  at  first  called  Bebrycia,  lay  between  the  Thracian  Bos- 
phorus  and  the  river  Parthenias.  Its  chief  towns  were  Apamea,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Rhyndacus ;  Nicomedia,  on  a  gulf  of  the  same  name  ;  Chalcedon 
(Scutari),  called  the  city  of  the  blind,  because  its  founders  neglected  the  more 
eligible  site  Byzantium,  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  Bosphorus  ;  Libijssa,  where 
Hannibal  was  buried  ;  Calpas  and  Heraclea,  on  the  Euxine  ;  Prusa,  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Olympus,  where  Hannibal  for  a  short  time  found  refuge  with  king 
Prusias  j  and  A'icaa  (Nice),  where  the  first  general  council  was  assembled. 

Paphlagonia  lay  between  the  rivers  Parthenias  and  Halys.  The  chief 
towns  were  Sinope  (Sinube),  the  birth-place  of  Diogenes  and  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Mithridates  ;  and  Carambis  (Karempi),  near  a  promontory  of  the 
same  name,  opposite  the  Criu-Metopon,  a  cape  in  the  Tauric  Chersonese. 

Pontus,  the  kingdom  of  the  celebrated  Mithridates,  extended  from  the 
river  Halys  to  Colchis.  The  principal  towns  were  Amisus,  near  the  Halys  -r 
Eupatoria,  on  the  confluence  of  the  Iris  and  Lycus,  named  by  Pompey  Me- 
galopolis; Amasia,  the  birth-place  of  the  geographer  Strabo  ;  Themiscyra,  on 
the  river  Thermodon,  where  the  Amazons  are  supposed  to  have  resided ;  Ce- 
rasus,  whence  Lucullus  brought  the  first  cherry-trees  that  were  seen  ;n  Eu- 
rope ;  and  Trapezus  (Trebisond),  on  the  borders  of  Colchis,  greatly  celebrated 
by  the  Romance-writers  of  the  middle  ages.  Near  the  river  Halys,  the  Lele- 
ges  and  Chalybes,  famous  for  their  skill  in  iron-works,  resided. 

$  161.  Lydia,  called  also  Maeonia,  lay  to  the  south  of  Phrygla  Minor  and 
Mysia,  and  to  the  east  of  the  iEgean  Sea.  The  northern  part  of  the  coast 
was  called  iEolia,  and  the  southern  Ionia,  from  the  number  of  Greek  colonies 
which  settled  there. — .ZEolia  was  colonized  by  the  ./Eolians,  soon  after  the 
termination  of  the  Trojan  war;  its  chief  towns  were  Adramyttium,  founded 
by  an  Athenian  colony  ;  'Pergamus  (Bergamo),  the  capital  of  a  small  territory, 
greatly  enlarged  by  the  Romans  after  the  defeat  of  Mithridates,  and  bequeathed 
to  them  by  Attalus  its  last  king  ;  its  port  was  called  Elea;  between  Llea  and 
Adramyttium  was  Lyrnessus ;  and  Cana,  a  town  built  on  a  nromontory  of  the 
same  name,  near  which  are  the  iEginusan  islands,  where  Conon,  the  Atheni- 
an admiral,  completely  defeated  the  Spartans.  —  Ionia,  contained  several  re- 
markable cities,  of  which  the  principal  were  Smyrna,  on  the  river  Meles,  near 
which  Homer  is  said  to  have  been  born ;  Clazomence,  on  a  peninsula  of  the 
same  name,  celebrated  for  its  wealth  ;  Erythrce,  near  mount  Mimas,  the  resi-. 
dence  of  one  of  the  Sibyls;  Corycus,  near  which  the  fleet  of  Antiochus  was 
defeated  by  the  Romans;  Teos,  the  birth-place  of  Anacreon.  —  South  of  the 
peninsula  ot  Clazomenae,  were  Colophon,  on  the  river  Halesus,  celebrated  for 
the  grove  of  Claros,  sacred  to  Apollo  ;  Ephesus,  on  the  river  Cayster,  the  most 
splendid  of  the  Asiatic  cities,  now  degenerated  into  a  paltry  village,  remark- 
able for  the  splendid  temple  of  Diana ;  Mycale,  opposite  Samos,  where  the 
Persian  fleet  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Greeks ;  Priene,  on  the  Mceander,  a 
river  noted  for  its  winding  course  ;  and  Miletus,  the  birth-place  of  Thales. — 
In  the  interior  of  Lydia  was  Sardis,  the  capital,  situate  at  the  foot  of  mount 
Tmolus,  on  the  river  Pactolus,  a  branch  of  the  Hermus.  Not  far  east  from 
Sardis  was  Thijmbra,  celebrated  for  the  victory  there  gained  by  Cyrus  over 
Croesus.  On  the  Hermus  was  Magnesia,  where  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria, 
was  overthrown  by  the  Romans. 

§  162.  East  of  Lydia  was  P  h  ry  g  i  a  Major,  extending  from  the  river  Ly- 
cus on  the  south  to  the  Sangarius  on  the  north.  Its  chief  towns  v.-ere  Pes- 
sinus  near  the  foot  of  mount  Dindymus,  sacred  to  Cybele,  the  mother  of  the 
gods,  whose  image  was  conveyed  thence  to  Rome,  at  the  end  of  the  second 
Punic  war  (P.  III.  $21);  Gordium,  celebrated  for  the  Gordian  knot  cut  through 
by  Alexander  ;  Apamea,  on  the  river  Marsyas,  where  Apollo  flayed  alive  his 
musical  competitor  Marsyas  ;  Laodicca,  celebrated  in  sacred  history  ;  and  Co- 

iossa,  on  the  river  Lycus. G  a  1  at  i  a  or  Gallo-Graecia,  lay  north  of  Phry- 

gia,  of  which  it  originally  formed  a  part.  The  chief  towns  Were  Ancyra  (An- 
goura),  where  Bajazet  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Tamerlane  ;  Gan- 
gra,  the  residence  of  king  Deiotarus,  a  great  friend  of  Cicero  ;    and  Tavium, 

the  capital  of  the  Trocmi. South-east  of  Phrygia  were  Isauria  and 

Lycaonia.  The  principal  towns  of  the  former  were  Iraurce,  the  capital- 
Lystra  and  Derbe,  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xiv.  6).     The  prm- 


ASIA.       WESTERN    DIVISION.       ASIA   MINOR.  689 

cipai  town  of  the  latter  was  Iconium.  Both  of  these  provinces  were  intersect- 
ed by  the  chain  of  Mount  Taunts. 

§  163.  Cappadocia  lay  between  the  Halys  and  the  Euphrates.  Its  most 
remarkable  towns  were  Comana,  celebrated  for  a  temple  of  Bellona,  plundered 
by  Antony  ;  Tyana,  the  birth-place  of  the  impostor  Apollonius ;  and  Mazaca, 
named  by  Tiberius.  Ccesarea  ad  Argaum,  to  denote  its  situation  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Arg&us.  —The  north-eastern  part  of  Cappadocia  was  known  by  the 
name  of  Lesser  Armenia,  and  contained  Cabira  or  Sebaste,  a  well  fortified  city 
captured  by  Pompey  ;  the  strong  fortress  Kovus,  where  Mithridates  kept  his 
treasure  ;  and  JSicopolis,  built  by  Pompey,  to  commemorate  his  victory  over 
Mithridates.  —  The  Greeks  described  the  Cappadocians  as  the  worst  of  the 
three  bad  Kappas,  or  nations  whose  names  began  with  that  letter ;  the  other 
two  were  the  Cretans  and  Cilicians. 

§  164.  The  south-western  province  of  Asia  Minor  was  Caria.  Its  chief 
towns  were  Halicarnassus,  the  capital,  celebrated  for  having  given  birth  to 
the  historians  Dionysius  and  Herodotus,  and  for  the  Mausoleum,  a  splendid 
monument,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  erected  by  Artemisia, 
queen  of  Caria,  to  the  memory  of  her  husband  Mausolus  ;  Cnidus,  in  the  pen- 
insula of  Doris,  sacred  to  Venus  ;  Alabanda,  on  the  Maeander  ;  and  Stratoni- 

cea,  on  the  southern  coast. Ly  c  i  a  lay  to  the  east  of  Caria.     Its  chief 

towns  were  Telmessus,  on  a  gulf  of  the  same  name ;  Xanthus,  celebrated  for 
its  obstinate  resistance  to  Brutus,  the  inhabitants  having  destroyed  themselves 
by  fire  to  avoid  surrendering  ;  and  Patara,  sacred  to  Apollo. —  Near  the  gulf 
of  Telmessus  ran  the  chain  of  Mount  Cragus,  sacred  to  Diana;  in  this  chain 
was  the  volcano  Chim&ra,  fabled  by  the  poets  to  have  been  a  monster  sub- 
dued by  Bellerophon  (cf.  P.  III.  §  117).  Some  hills  at  the  Promontorium  Sa- 
crum were  usually  esteemed  the  commencement  of  Mount  Taurus,  and  a  little 
beyond  it  is  a  part  of  the  same  ridge  adjoining  the  sea,  round  which  Alexan- 
der's army  were  compelled  to  march  up  to  their  middle  in  water. 

§  165.  Next  to  Lycia  were  P  i  s  i  d  i  a  and  Pamphylia,  two  mountainous 
districts,  whose  boundaries  are  indeterminate.  The  chief  towns  of  Pisidia 
were  Antiochia  ;  Termcssus,  the  capital  of  the  Solymi,  a  people  mentioned  by 
Homer  ;  and  Crernna.  a  Roman  colony.  The  principal  towns  in  Pamphylia 
were  Perga,  the  capital ;  Aspcndus,  on  the  river  Eurymedon,  near  which  Ci- 
mon  defeated  the  Persian  fleet ;  a/id  Coracesium,  where  Pompey  destroyed 
the  nest  of  pirates  who  had  so  long  infested  these  seas. 

C  i  1  i  ci  a  lay  to  the  east  of  Pamphylia,  and  south  of  Isauria,  and  was  di- 
vided into  two  portions,  the  western  called  Tracheotis  or  rough,  and  the  other 
Campestris  or  level.  —  The  chief  towns  of  Tracheotis  were  Selinus,  where 
the  emperor  Trajan  died  ;  Anamurium,  opposite  Cyprus  ;  and  Seleucia  (Selet- 
keh),  on  the  river  Calycadnus.  —  In  Cilicia  Campestris  were  Soli,  a  colony 
of  the  Athenians ;  Tarsus,  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  one  of  the 
wings  of  the  horse  Pegasus  being  dropped  there  ;  the  birth-place  of  the  Apos- 
tle Paul ;  Tssus,  where  Alexander  obtained  his  second  triumph  over  the  Per- 
sians ;  and  Alexandria  (Scanderoon),  erected  by  the  conqueror  to  perpetuate 
the  memory  of  his  victory.  —  On  the  confines  of  Syria  was  the  mountain  Am- 
<anus,  between  which  and  the  sea  were  Pyla  Syria,  a  celebrated  pass.  —  The 
river  Cydnus  is  remarkable  for  the  coldness  of  its  waters,  by  which  Alexan- 
der was  almost  killed,  and  for  the  splendid  festivities  celebrated  on  its  banks 
when  Antony  visited  Cleopatra. 

§  166.  Syria,  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Mount  Amanus  ;  on  the  east  by 
the  Euphrates  ;  on  the  south  by  Arabia;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterra- 
nean. It  was  divided  into  five  provinces,  Comagene,  Seleucis,  Crelo-Syria, 
Phoenicia,  and  Judea,  or  Palestine. 

The  principal  city  of  Comagene  was  Samosata,  on  the  Euphrates,  the 
birth-place  of  Lucian.  —  In  Se  1  e  u  c  i  s,  or  Syria  Propria,  were  Antiochia,  on 
the  Orontes,  where  the  Christians  first  received  that  name  ;  near  it  were  the 
delightful  grove  and  village  of  Daphne,  sacred  to  Apollo  ;  Beraa  (Aleppo)  ; 
Hierapolis,  the  city  of  the  Syrian  goddess  ;  Emesa,  the  city  of  Heliogabalus, 
one  of  the  worst  of  the  Roman  emperors;  and  Heliopolis  (Balbec),  sacred  to 
the  sun,  whose  magnificent  ruins  still  attraet  admiration    (cf.  P.  I.  §243.  3). 

C  ce  1  o-  Sy  r  i  a  was  so  named  because  it  lay  between  two  parallel  chain 

58* 


690  CLASSF€AL    GEOGRAPHY. 

of  mountains,  Libanus-  and  Antilibanus.  Its  chief  towns  were  Damascus,  on; 
the  river  Abana;  Palmyra,  or  Tadmor,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Solomon, 
the  residence  of  queen  Zenobia,  who  so  bravely  defied  the  Roman  emperor 
Aurelian,  and  of  Longinus  ;  it  is  yet  marked'  by  celebrated  architectural  ru- 
ins (cfl  P.  I.  $243.  3).  The  principal  peak  in  the  chain  of  Mount  Libanus 
was  called  Lebanon,  and  in  that  of  Antilibanus,  Hermon.  —  Ph  cen  i  ci  a  con- 
tained the  cities  of  Tyrus  (Tyre)  and  SicIoji,  famous  for  their  extensive  com- 
merce. The  siege  of  Tyre  by  Alexander  is  celebrated  for  the  obstinate  de- 
fence made  by  the  besieged,  and  the  unconquerable  perseverance  of  the  be- 
siegers. 

§  167.  Judaea,  orPalffistina,  is  called  in  Scripture  the  land  of  Canaan, 
of  Israel,  and  of  Judah.  It  was  at  first  divided  among  the  twelve  tribes  ;  it 
was  afterwards  separated  into  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  ;  and  finally 
the  Romans  divided  it  into  four  regions,  Galilaea,  Samaria,  Judaea  Propria,  and 
Peroea  or  Transfluviana,  the  country  beyond  Jordan. 

G  a  1  i  1  83  a  was  again  subdivided  into  Inferior,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Jews  ; 
and  Superior,  which,  from  its  proximity  to  Coslo-Syria,  was  called  Galilee  of' 
the  Gentiles.  —  The  chief  towns  of  Upper  Galilee  were  Cmsarea  Philippi,  so 
called  to  distinguish  it  from  another  town  of  the  same  name  in  this  province; 
its  original  name  was-Laish,  afterwards  changed  to  Paneas,  and  finally  called 
Cassarea  Philippi,  by  Herod's  son  Philip  ;  Gabara  and  Jotopata,  bravely  de- 
fended by  the  historian  Josephus,  when  besieged  by  Vespasian.  The  princi- 
pal cities  in  Lower  Galilee  were  Ace,  or  Ptolemais  (Acre),  memorable  for  its 
siege  by  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades;  Canai ;  Seppho- 
ris,  called  afterwards  Dio  Caesarea ;  JYazareth  and  Jezreel.  —  A  large  lake  in 
Galilee  was  called  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  or  Gennesareth  ;  at  its  northern  ex- 
tremity was  Chorazin  ',  at  the  western  side  were  Capernaum,  Tiberias,  and 
Bethsaida  ;  on  the  opposite  side  was  Gadara.  — The  chief  mountains  of  Gal- 
ilee were  Carmcl,  and  Itabyrius  or  Tabor,  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  transfigu- 
ration.—  Between  Galilee  and  Samaria  stood  Bcthsan,  the  chief  of  the  ten' 
confederate  cities  called  Decapolis,  which,  dreading  the  power  of  the  Jews, 
entered  into  a  confederacy  against  the  Asmonean  princes,  who  then  governed 
Judea. 

§  168.  S  am  ariia  lay  south- of  Galilee.  Its  chief  towns  were  Samaria,  the 
capital,  destroyed  by  the  Asmonean  princes,  but  rebuilt  by  Herod,  who  called: 
it  Sebaste,  in  honor  of  Augustus ;  Ccesarea,  first  called  Turris  Stratonices ,  a 
celebrated  seaport,  the  residence  of  the  Roman  governors ;  Joppa,  a  seaport 
south  of  Caesarea,  where  Andromeda  was  delivered  from  a  sea-monster  by 
Perseus  (P.  III.  %  122);  Sichem,  in  the  interior,  the  ancient  capital,  between 
the  mountains  Ebal  and  Gerizim  ;  it  was  in  later  times  called  JVeapolis ;  Lyd- 
da,  called  by  the  Greeks  Diospolis ;  and  Arimathea. 

J  u  daea  was  situated  south  of  Samaria,  between  the  Lake  Asphaltites,  or 
Dead  Sea,  and  the  Mediterranean.  —  The  capital  was  Hierosolyma,  or  Jeru- 
salem, a  city  originally  belonging  to  the  Jebusites,  from*  whom  it  was  taken 
by  David,  who  made  it  his  residence.  Hence  it  is  called  the  "  City  of  Da- 
vid." The  city  was  built  upon  four  hills,  Sion  at  the  south,  Moriah  at  the 
east,  Acra  at  the  west,  and  Bezetha  at  the  north.  Sion  was  called  the  upper,, 
and  Acra  the  lower  city  ;  near  the  former  was  the  valley  of  Ben-Hinnom,  and 
the  fountain  Siloe  ;  opposite  the  latter  was  the  temple  built  on  Mount  Moriah  ; 
and  farther  to  the  east,  separated  from  the  city  by  the  valley  and  brook  Ke- 
dron,  was  the  mount  of  Olives ;  Bezetha  was  called  Cainopoiis,  or  the  new 
city,  because  it  was  added  in  later  times  ;  and  west  of  it  was  a  district  called 
Golgotha,  in  the  middle  of  which  stood  Mount  Calvary,  where  our  Lord  was 
crucified.  —  North  of  Jerusalem  was  Emmaus,  where  the  Jews  were  defeated 
by  Vespasian;  Bethel,  is  a  mountainous  district  of  the  same  name;  Jericho, 
near  the  Jordan  ;  and  Engaddi,  celebrated  for  its  palm-trees.  South  of  Jeru- 
salem were  Bethlehem,  the  birth-place  of  Christ ;  Hebron,  where  Abraham 
was  buried;  and  Beersheba. 

The  southern  district  of  Judaea  was  called  Idumca,  or  the  land  of  Edom;. 
the  chief  towns  were  Gera,  Zoar,  and  Bozra  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Seir.  But 
this  district,  or  the  principal  part  of  it,  is  included,  perhaps  more  properly,  un- 
der Arabia  Petraa  ($171). — The  sea-coast  was  called  Philistaa,  or  the  land  of" 


ASIA.       WESTERN    DIVISION.       MESOPOTAMIA.  691 

the  Philistines,  from  whom  the  whole   country  is  now  called  Palestine ;    its 
chief  towns  were  Gath,  Ekron,  Azotus  or  Ashdod,  Ascalon,  and  Gaza. 

§  169.  Per  sea  is  separated  from  the  other  provinces  by  the  river  Jordan. 
The  chief  towns  were  Ramoth  Gilead,  in  the  land  of  the  Gileadites ;  Gada- 
ra,  on  the  torrent  Hieromas,  where  the  Christians  were  severely  defeated  by 
the  Saracens ;  Gaulon,  a  fortress  of  remarkable  strength ;  Gamala,  near  the 
Sea  of  Tiberias ;  and  Rabboth-Ammon,  in  the  district  Ammonitis,  afterwards- 
called  Philadelphia. — The  Jordan  rises  in  Mount  Hermon,  and  passing  through 
the  Sea  of  Tiberias  falls  into  the  lake  Asphaltiteg,  whence  there  is  no  exit 
for  its  waters. 

This  lake  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  situation  of  the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  It  has 
been  said  that,  from  its  extreme  saltness  or  other  properties,  it  is  destructive  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  and  that  neither  fish  nor  weeds  are  found  in  its  waters.  Dr.  E.  Robinson,  who 
visited  the  region  in  1838,  states  that  the  water  is  intensely  salf  and  bitter  ;  but  that  trees  and? 
bushes  grow  by  it ;  no  pestiferous  vapor  was  perceived,  and  many  birds  were  singing  among 
the  trees  and  some  flying  over  the  waters.    Bibl.  Repos.,  Apr.  1839.  p.  419. 

§  170.  Mesopotamia  was  south  of  Armenia,  between  the  rivers  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  whence  it  derives  its  name.  Its  chief  towns  were  JYisibis,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Tigris,  the  great  bulwark  of  the  Romans  against  the  Parthians  ;. 
Edcssa,  near  Syria ;  Seleucia,  now  Bagdad,  on  the  confluence  of  the  Tigris- 
with  a  branch  of  the  Euphrates ;  and  Carrhce,  called  in  Scripture  Charran,  for 
a  time  the  residence  of  Abraham,  and  the  scene  of  Crassus's  miserable  over- 
throw. On  the  borders  of  Chaldaea  were  the  plains  of  Cunaxa,  where  Cyrus- 
was  slain  by  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  and  where  the  ten  thousand  Greeks  com- 
menced that  retreat  so  memorable  in  history. 

Babylonia  and  Chaldaja  were  districts  separate  from  Mesopotamia,  lying 
below  it  to  the  south-east.  Their  chief  town  was  Babylon,  the  most  ancient 
and  remarkable  city  of  antiquity. 

Belus,  its  founder,  commenced  his  building  near  the  tower  of  Babel,  which  by  profane  writ- 
ers is  called  after  his  name  ;  but  to  Semjramis,  the  widow  of  his  descendant  Ninas,  the  gran- 
deur of  Babylon  is  attributable.  She  enclosed  the  city  with  a  wall  of  brick  cemented  by  bit- 
umen, of  almost  incredible  dimensions,  and  ornamented  it  with  one  hundred  brazen  gates.. 
The  circuit  of  the  city  was  said  to  have  been  more  than  sixty  miles ;  and  so  great  was  its 
length,  that  when  Cyrus  had  captured  one  extremity  of  the  city,  the  inhabitants  of  the  other 
were  ignorant  of  the  event  until  the  following  morning. —  The  river  Euphrates  flowed  through' 
the  city,  and  Cyrus,  having  diverted  the  river  into  another  channel,  led  his  troops  through  the 
vacant  bed,  and  surprised  the  Babylonians,  who,  with  their  monarch  Belshazzar,  were  at  that 
moment  celebrating  a  feast  in  honor  of  their  gods,  and  consequently  made  but  a  feeble  resist- 
ance. —  The  Chaklaans  were  celebrated  astronomers,  but  they  debased  the  science  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  judicial  astrology,  for  which  perversion  of  intellect  they  were  greatly  celebrated. 

On  the  topoeraphy  and  ruins  of  Babylon  and  Niniveh,  see  Bibl.  Repos.  No.  xxn.  365 ;  No. 

xxiii.  156,  246  ;  No.  xxv.  139. 

East  of  the  Tigris  lay  Assyria,  nor  called  Kurdistan  from  the  Carduchi,  ai 
tribe  that  inhabited  the  northern  part  of  the  country ;  they  are  mentioned  by 
Xenophon  as  having  opposed  the  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand.  Its  chief  towns;. 
JVinus,  or  Niniveh,  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture  ;  the  ruins  of  this  cele- 
brated city  lie  opposite  the  modern  Mosul ;  and  Arbela,  near  which  is  the  village 
Gaugamela,  where  Alexander  overturned  the  Persia  empire,  by  the  defeat  of 
Darius. 

§  171.  The  only  country  of  Asia  remaining  to  be  noticed  is  Arabia,  which 
was  the  large  peninsula  between  the  Sinus  Persicus  (Persian  Gulf)  and  the 
Sinus  Arabicus  (Red  Sea).  It  was  divided  into  three  parts  ;  Desertcu  (desert) r 
Petraia  (stony),  and  Felix  (happy). 

Arabia  Deserta  lay  between  Syria  and  Chaldaea  and  extended  along  the 
Sinus  Persicus.  —  Arabia  Felix,  celebrated  for  its  fertility,  was  in  the  south- 
ern part  bordering  on  the  Sinus  Arabicus  and  the  ocean.  The  most  remarka- 
ble among  its  inhabitants  were  the  Sabmi,  who  cultivated  frankincense.  Ma- 
coraba  was  the  name  by  which  the  Greeks  knew  Mecca,  which  is  illustrious- 
in  the  Mohammedan  history  ;  here  is  the  famous  building  called  Kaba  or  Kaa- 
ba,  with  the  fabulous  stone  of  Gabriel. — Arabia  P  e  t  r  se  a  was  a  smaller  por- 
tion lying  south  of  Judea  and  at  the  head  of  the  Sinus  Arabicus,  or  Red  Sea 
which  here  is  divided  into  two  bays,  the  eastern  called  JElanites  Sinus,  and  the 
western,  Heroopolites  Sinus.  Between  these  bays  or  arms  were  the  mountains- 
Horeb  and  Sinai.  On  the  eastern  was  the  sea-port  Berenice  or  Asiongaberr 
the  Ezion-Geber  of  Scripture.  The  most  remarkable  place  was  Petra,  embo- 
somed in  rocky  mountains  just  so»th  of  Judea,  in  the  district  called  Idumea, 


692  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  ruins  of  Petra  have  been  discovered  recently  and  have  excited  great  interest  from  their 
striking  peculiarities  f  being  entirely  excavations  from  the  solid  rock;,  and  from  the  evidence 
they  furnish  of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy.—  See  Laborde's  Journev  to  Arabia   Petnea,  Lond. 

1836.  2  vols.  8.  with  65  plates.  —  Cf.  Lond.   Quart.  Rev.  No.  ex  vn,- Nortti  Amer.  Rev.  for  Jan, 

1837.  —  Bibb.  Repository,  vol.  ix.  p.  431. 

§  172.  The  Asiatic  Islands  were  not  very  important,  except  those  in  the 
Mare  JEgtsum  already  named  f  §  147).  The  principal  other  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean was  Cyprus,  sacred  to  Venus  ;  the  chief  towns  of  which  were  Paphos, 
where  stood  the  celebrated  temple  of  Venus,  infamous  for  the  debauchery  and 
prostitution  it  sanctioned;  Citium,  the  birth-place  of  Zeno,  the  Stoic,  on  the 
west  coast;  Salamis  (Famagusta),  built  by  Teucer,  on  the  east;  Lapethus, 
Arsinoe,  and  Soli,  in  the  north  ;  and  Tamassus,  celebrated  for  its  copper-mines, 
in  the  interior.  —  The  other  islands  were  Proconnesus  (Marmora),  in  the  Pro- 
pontis;  Taprobanc  (Ceylon),  and  Jabadi  (Sumatra),  in  the  Indian  ocean. 


III.  Of  Africa. 


§  173.  The  name  Africa  was  applied  strictly  and  properly  by  ancient  geo- 
graphers, at  least  until  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  to  a  small  part  of  that  vast  penin- 
sula of  the  eastern  continent  which  it  now  designates  ;  and  by  them  Egypt 
was  reckoned  among  the  Asiatic  kingdoms.  But  we  here  use  term  as  includ- 
ing all  that  was  known  to  the  ancients  of  that  whole  country.  We  shall  con- 
eider  it  under  the  following  divisions  ;  JEgyptus  or  Egypt,  ^Ethiopia,  Libya, 
Africa  Propria,  Numidia,  Mauritania,  and  Africa  Interior. 

§  174.  The  general  boundaries  of  ./Egvptus  were  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
north,  Syria  and  the  Sinus  Arabicus  on  the  east,  Ethiopia  on  the  south,  and 
Libya  on  the  west.  The  limit  between  it  and  Syria  was  the  Torfens  Mgypti, 
or  river  of  Egypt  as  called  in  the  Bible,  which  flowed  into  the  arm  of  the  sea 
called  Palus  Sirbonis.  The  limit  between  Egypt  and  Libya  on  the  west  wag 
the  great  declivity  and  narrow  pass  termed  Catabatkmos  (xutu^u&uoc).  Its 
southern  limit  was  the  smaller  cataract  of  the  Nile. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Egypt  was  its  river,  JYilus.  This  has 
two  principal  sources  ;  the  eastern  rising  in  the  mountains  of  the  country  now 
called  Abyssinia,  and  the  western  in  the  Luna  Montes,  or  mountains  of  the 
moon.  Having  passed  through  the  ancient  Ethiopia  it  flows  through  the 
whole  length  of  Egypt  to  the  Mediterranean ;  not  receiving  a  single  tributary 
for  the  last  1000  miles  of  its  course,  and  at  last  dividing  into  two  great  arms 
and  forming  the  triangular  island  called  Delta  from  its  shape.  It  had  seven 
mouths  ;  the  most  western  was  the  Ostium  Canopicum  ;  the  others  in  their 
order,  proceeding  towards  the  east,  were  the  Balbytinum,  Sebenniticum, 
Phatnicum,  Mendesium,  Taniticum,  andPelusiacum. — Its  annual  inundations 
were  the  great  cause  of  fertility,  and  reservoirs  and  canals  were  formed  in 
great  numbers  to  convey  the  water  over  the  whole  country  ;  where  the  land 
was  too  high  to  allow  canals  to  convey  it,  pumps  were  used  for  raising  the 
water ;  almost  every  village,  it  is  said,  had  its  canal,  although  there  were  in 
the  narrow  valley  of  Egypt  many  thousand  cities  and  villages. 

§  175.  There  were  three  principal  divisions  of  Egypt;  the  northern  part  on 
the  Mediterranean  was  called  JEgyptus  Inferior;  the  southern  part  on  the 
confines  of  Ethiopia  was  JEgyptus  Superior  or  Thebais  ;  and  the  portion  be- 
tween these,  Heptanomis. — The  capital  of  lower  Egypt  was  Alexandria,  the 
great  mart  of  Indian  merchandise  ;  during  the  middle  ages,  caravans  con- 
tinually passed  from  thence  to  Arsinot  (Suez,),  on  the  Red  Sea,  whence 
goods  were  conveyed  by  sea  to  India.  In  front  of  the  harbor  was  an  island 
named  Pharos,  on  which  a  celebrated  light-house  was  built ;  south  of  the  city 
was  the  lake  Marcotis,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  the  best  Egyptian  wTine  was 
made.  In  Alexandria  was  the  celebrated  library,  said  to  have  been  burned  by 
the  Saracens.  (Cf.  P.  1.  §  76). — In  the  interior  of  the  Delta  was  Sais,  the 
ancient  capital,  remarkable  for  its  numerous  temples.     Between   the   Delta 


AFRICA.       jECYPTUS.  693 

and  Sinus  Arabicus  were  Heroopolis,  the  city  of  the  shepherd  kings ;  and 
Onion,  founded  by  a  colony  of  Jews,  who  fled  hither  under  their  high-priest 
Onias,  from  the  cruelties  of  Antiochus,  and,  by  the  permission  of  Ptolemy, 
built  a  city  and  temple. 

In  lower  Egypt,  east  of  the  Delta,  was  the  land  of  Goshen,  according  to  the  views  of  the 
best  modern  authors.  —  Cf.  E.  Robinson,  on  the  Exodus  of  the  Israelites  <fcc.  Bibl.  Repos.  vol. 
ii.  744. 

§  176.  In  the  middle  portion  or  Heptanomis,  one  of  the  chief  places  was 
Memphis,  near  the  spot  where  Grand  Cairo  now  stands ;  it  was  the  ancient 
metropolis  of  all  Egypt ;  in  its  vicinity  are  the  stupendous  pyramids.  Arsinoe 
south-west  of  Memphis  was  an  important  place  ;  near  this  was  the  famous 
lake  Mceris,  said  to  have  been  excavated  by  order  of  an  Egyptian  king  as  a 
reservoir  to  contain  the  waters  of  the  Nile  conveyed  into  it  by  a  great  canal, 
now  the  lake  Birket-el-Kurun,  and  believed  to  have  been  wholly  or  chiefly  a 
work  of  nature  ;  at  the  southern  end  of  this  lake  was  the  still  more  celebrated 
Labvrinth. —  Oxyrynchus  was  a  considerable   place,  said  to  have  derived  its 

name  from  a  sharp  nosed  fish  {b%vq  $vyx°$)  worshiped  by  the  inhabitants. 

In  upper  Egypt,  the  most  important  place  was  Thebes,  which  gave  the  name 
of  Thebais  to  this  division;  called  also  by  the  Greeks  Diospolis,  and  Heca- 
tompylos  ;  although  destroyed  by  Cambyses  500  years  before  Christ,  its  ruins 
still  excite  admiration,  occupying  a  space  of  27  miles  in  circumference,  in- 
cluding the  modern  Karnak,  Luxor,  and  other  villages  ;  near  it  was  the  famous 
statue  of  Memnon  before  noticed  (P.  III.  §  74). —  Tentyra  (Denderah),  was 
north  of  Thebes,  and  also  presents  interesting  ruins ;  especially  the  large  tem- 
ple of  Isis,  from  the  ceiling  of  which  was  taken  the  famous  Zodiac  transport- 
ed to  France  and  made  the  subject  of  much  speculation.  Amer.  Quart.  Rev. 
iv). — Between  Thebes  and  Tentyra,  nearer  the  former  and  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Nile,  was  Coptos  ;  from  this  place  a  road  was  constructed  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  across  the  desert  to  Berenice  on  the  Sinus  Arabicus.  Considera- 
bly to  the  south  of  Thebes  was  Ombi  made  notorious  by  Juvenal  (Sat.  xv.)  for 
its  quarrels  with  Tentyra  respecting  the  worship  of  the  crocodile.  Syene  was  the 
extreme  town  on  the  borders  of  Ethiopia ;  the  place  of  Juvenal's  exile  ;  where 
also  was  the  well  sunk  to  mark  the  summer  solstice,  its  bottom  being  then 
illumined  by  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  directly  perpendicular  over  it.  Not 
far  from  Syene  was  the  island  on  which  Elephantine  stood,  of  which  interest- 
ing ruins  still  remain.  Near  Syene  was  also  the  Mons  Basanites,  mountains 
of  touch-stone,  from  which  the  Egyptians  used  to  make  ornamental  vases.  — 
South  of  Syene  were  the  Cataracts  of  the  Nile  ;  mighty  terraces  of  red  gran- 
ite (Syenite)  cross  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  throw  its  waters  into  an  impet- 
uous and  foaming  torrent.  In  this  region  were  the  quarries  whence  the  vast 
obelisks  and  colossal  statues  and  blocks  of  the  Egyptian  temples  were  taken. 
There  were  three  places  on  the  Sinus  Arabicus,  which  should  be  mentioned  ; 
Berenice,  in  the  southern  extremity  of  Egypt;  Arsinoe  (now  Suez),  at  the 
head  of  the  Sinus  Heroopolites,  the  western  arm  of  the  Red  sea ;  and  Myos- 
hormus,  called  also  Portus  Veneris,  midway  between  them  ;  they  were  com- 
mercial places,  goods  being  transported  from  them  to  the  Nile.  A  canal,  called 
Fossa  Trajana,  connected  Arsinoe  with  that  river. 

In  the  vast  deserts  on  the  western  or  Lybian  side  of  Egypt  were  the  culti- 
vated and  inhabited  spots  called  Oasis  Magna,  and  Oasis  Parva,  the  Great 
and  the  Little  Oasis.  The  latter  was  in  the  division  termed  Heptanomis,  south 
of  lake  Moeris.  The  Great  Oasis  is  in  the  part  that  was  called  Thebais.  It 
was  a  place  of  banishment  in  the  time  of  the  later  Roman  empire  ;  yet  said 
to  have  been  a  delightful  residence,  and  sometimes  called  by  the  Greeks,  the 
isle  of  the  blessed. 

§  177.  The  ruins  and  antiquities  of  Egypt  have  ever  awakened  the  deepest 
interest  in  the  traveler  and  the  scholar.  Besides  the  various  temples  and 
other  edifices,  of  which  splendid  remains  are  found  in  various  places,  the  fol- 
lowing rank  high  among  the  objects  of  curiosity.  1.  Obelisks  and  Pillars; 
several  of  these  were  removed  to  Rome ;  of  the  remaining,  the  most  noted 
are  the  Pillar  of  On  at  Heliopolis,  the  two  obelisks  called  Cleopatra's  Needles- 
at  Alexandria,  and  Pompeys  Pillar,  also  at  Alexandria.  An  obelisk,  nearly 
70  feet  in  length,  was  brought  to  Paris  in  the  year  1836,  to  be  erected  in  that 


CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

> 


city,  by  Louis  Philippe.— 2.  The  Pyramids,  ranked  by  the  Greeks  among  the 
seven  wonders.  They  are  numerous  at  Djiza,  or  Gize,  near  Cairo  and  the  an- 
cient Memphis,  and  at  Sacchara,  18  miles  south  of  Gize.  Those  at  Gize  are 
the  most  celebrated.  One  of  them  has  been  open  from  the  earliest  times  of 
which  we  have  account.  Several  others  have  been  opened  in  recent  times. 
They  all  contain  chambers  evidently  used  for  sepulchral  purposes.  (Cf.  P.  I. 
§  231.  P.  III.  §  96.  3.) — 3.  Catacombs.  These  are  subterranean  burying 
places.  They  are  found  in  several  places ;  but  the  most  remarkable  are  near 
Thebes,  at  a  place  now  called  Gournou,  a  tract  of  rocks  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  west  of  the  Nile.  The  tombs  are  excavated  in  the  rocks  and  ex- 
tend, it  is  said,  over  the  space  of  two  miles.  From  these,  many  mummies 
have  been  taken. — The  labyrinth,  which  Herodotus  considered  more  wonder- 
ful than  the  pyramids,  included  numerous  subterranean  chambers  designed 
as  repositories  for  the  dead;  over  these  was  an  immense  pile  of  splendid 
buildings.  Some  ruins  of  this  structure  near  lake  Mceris  (§  176)  have  been 
discovered. — 4.  Colossal  images  and  statues.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  colossal  images  of  the  sphinx  (cf.  P.  III.  $  117)  is  near  the  great  pyramids. 
A  very  celebrated  colossus  is  that  commonly  called  the  statue  of  Memnon  (cf. 
P.  I.  §  169.  2.  §  231.  1). — The  Egyptian  monuments  are  covered  with  inscrip- 
tions in  Hieroglyphics  (cf.P.  I.  $  16). 

Much  research  has  been  employed  in  modern  times  upon  Egyptian  Antiquities  and  Remains. 
A  new  degree  of  interest  was  awakened  in  the  whole  subject  by  the  celebrated  expedition  of 
Bonaparte  in  1798.  In  this  invasion  of  Egypt,  he  took  with  him  a  detachment  of  no  h?3s  than 
one  hundred  men  who  had  cultivated  the  arts  and  sciences  (savans)  selected  for  the  purpose. 
"  This  body,  the  first  of  the  kind  which  ever  accompanied  an  invading  army,  was  liberally 
supplied  with  books,  philosophical  instruments,  and  all  the  means  of  prosecuting  the  several 
departments  of  knowledge." — The  splendid  work,  published  under  the  emperor's  patronage 
and  styled  Description  dc  V  Egypte,  was  the  result  of  their  labors  (cf.  P.  I.  §  169).— Many 
other  valuable  works  illustrating  the  history  and  monuments  of  Egypt  have  been  publish- 
ed during  the  present  century,  some  from  members  of  the  company  of  savans  above 
named.  That  of  Denon  holds  a  high  rank  ;  entitled  Travels  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  during 
the  Campaigns  of  Bonaparte;  with  folio  plates.— The  following  works  relate  to  this  subject. 

Leigh's  Travels  in  Egypt. — Behoni's  Travels Tomard's  Description  de  '1  Egypte. — Hamilton's 

JEzy -ptiaca. — Letronne,  Recherches  sur  l'Egypte. — Russell's  View  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
Egypt,  in  Harper's  Fam.  Library,  No.  xxxin. — J.  Mwt,  Memoires  del'  Expedition  en  Egypte, 
&c.  Par.  1814. — J.  O.  Wilkinson,  Topography  of  Thebes,  and  general  View  of  Egypt.  Lond. 
1835.  8.— We  may  add,  the  Travels  of  Clarke,  JVorden,  Shaw,  Pococke.  Cf.  Supplement  to 
Encyclop.   Britann.   Article  Egypt. — Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  xiii.  1.  xvi.  1.  xvii.  181.   xix.   178. 

xxiv.  p.  139 timer.  Quart.  Rev.  No.  vii. — For.    Quart.  Rev.  Nos.  xxxii.  and  xxxiii. — Am.  BibL 

Rcpos.  No.  xxiii.— See  also  references  given  P.  I.  §  216.  1.  §  230.  1.  $  238.  3.  $  243.  3.— A  history 
of  Pompey's  Pillar  is  given  in  J.  White's  Egyptiaca,  Part  I.  Oxf.  1821. 

$  178.  ./Ethiopia  was  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  very  indefinitely  to 
the  country  lying  south  of  Egypt;  the  modern  countries  of  Nubia  and  Abys- 
sinia particularly  were  included.  —  Various  uncivilized  tribes  are  represented 
as  dwelling  here  in  ancient  times  ;  on  the  coast  were  the  Troglodytes  said  tc 
inhabit  caves  of  the  earth.  It  seems  also  to  have  contained  inhabitants  equal- 
ly advanced  in  refinement  with  the  Egyptians. 

The  most  important  places  were  Napata,  Meroe,  Auxume,  and  Adulis.  — 
Auxume  fAxumJ  was  on  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Astaboras  (Tacazze),  the  east- 
ern branch  of  the  Nile.  Its  ruins  still  exist.  "  In  one  square,  Bruce  found 
40  obelisks,  each  formed  of  a  single  piece  of  granite,  with  sculptures  and  in- 
scriptions, but  no  hieroglyphics.  One  of  the  obelisks  was  60  feet  high."  — 
Here  was  found  the  monument  usually  called  the  Inscription  of  Azum(cf.  P. 
I.  §  92.  5).  —  Adulis  (Arkiko)  was  on  a  bay  of  the  Sinus  Arabicus  ;  having 
some  celebrity  from  two  inscriptions  there  found  fcf.  P.  I.  $  92.  5J.  —  Meroe 
was  on  or  near  the  Nile  south  of  its  junction  with  the  Astaboras  ;  near  the 
modern  Shendy,  as  is  supposed.  It  was  the  capital  of  a  large  tract  between 
these  rivers  called  by  the  same  name,  and  was  celebrated  in  ancient  times, 
being  the  grand  emporium  of  the  caravan  trade  between  Ethiopia  and  Egypt 
and  the  north  of  Africa.  The  remains  of  temples  and  other  edifices  of  sand- 
stone still  mark  its  site.  —  Xapata  was  farther  north  or  lower  down  on  the 
Nile,  and  was  next  in  rank  to  Meroe. 

These  regions  have  also  been  explored  in  modern  times  and  splendid  ruins  have  been  found 
scattered  along  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  The  following  are  some  of  the  sources  of  information 
on  the  subject.  Bruce's  Travels  in  Abyssinia,  cited  P.  I.  $  118.  1.  —  Travels  of  Salt  and  Lord 
Valcntia;  of  Burckhardt;  Franc.  Gau  (V.  I.  $243.  3),  and  especially  of  Cailliaud.  —  Cf.  LonCL 
Quart.  Rev.  vol.xvi.  13.  xix.  174. 


AFRICA.       ETHIOPIA.    LIBYA.  tWO 

§  179.  Under  Libya  we  include  the  whole  extent  from  JEgyptUs  on  the 
■east  to  the  Syrtis  Minor  (Gulf  of  Cabes),  together  with  an  indefinite  portion 
on  the  south.  The  term  was  used  by  the  ancient  poets  to  signify  Africa  in 
general.  In  its  strict  and  most  limited  sense,  it  included  only  the  region  be- 
tween Egypt  and  the  Syrtis  Major  (Gulf  of  Sidra).  —  In  the  latter  sense,  it 
comprised  on  the  coast  only  the  two  districts,  Marmarica  and  Cyrenaica.  We 
include  under  Lybia  also  the  portion  farther  west  called  Regio  Syrtica,  from 
the  two  Syrtcs  on  the  coast  already  named. 

Marmarica  was  on  the  east  nearest  to  Egypt.  The  inhabitants  were 
said  to  possess  some  secret  charm  against  the  poison  of  serpents  ;  some  of 
them,  named  Psylli,  made  it  their  profession  to  heal  such  as  had  been  bitten, 
by  sucking  the  venom  out  of  the  wound.  In  an  Oasis,  now  El  Wah,  south  of 
Marmarica,  stood  the  celebrated  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  (P.  IV.  §  71),  and 
near  it  the  fountain  of  the  sun,  whose  waters  were  said  to  be  warm  in  the 
morning,  cool  at  noon,  hot  in  the  evening,  and  scalding  at  midnight.  Alex- 
ander, after  having  encountered  great  difficulties,  succeeded  in  visiting  this 
oracle,  and  was  hailed  by  the  priest  as  son  of  Jupiter. 

"  Belzoni,  previously  to  his  leaving  Egypt,  made  a  tour  to  El  Wan  (the  bushes),  the  northern 
Oasis.  He  found,  as  Hornemann  had,  the  tops  of  the  hills  of  the  desert  encrusted  with  salt, 
and  wells  of  sweet  water  rising  out  of  a  surface  overspread  with  masses  of  salt,  as  Herodotus 
related  two-and-twenty  centuries  ago.  He  found  also  the  remains  of  what  has  been  considered 
as  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  ;  but  the  natives  were  as  jealous  and  as  unwilling  to  let  him 
see  this  '  work  of  the  infidels,'  as  Hornemann  had  found  them  to  be.  The  fine  rivulet  of  sweet 
water,  whose  source  this  traveler  describes  as  being  in  a  grove  of  date  trees,  and  which  Brown 
was  told  by  the  people,  was  sometimes  cold  and  sometimes  warm,  was  also  visited  by  Belzoni ; 
Who  says  he  proved  the  truth  of  what  is  stated  by  Herodotus,  that  this  spring  is  warm  in  the 
mornings  and  evenings,  much  more  so  at  midnight,  and  cold  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Had 
Mr.  Belzoni  possessed  a  thermometer,  he  would  have  found  that  it  was  the  temperature  of  the 
air  which  had  changed,  while  that  of  the  fountain  of  the  sun  remained  the  same."  —  Lond. 
Quart.  Rev.  xxni.  95. 

Cyrenaica,or  Pentapolis  (Barca),  lay  between  Marmarica  and  the  Syr- 
tis Major,  or  altars  of  the  Phileni.  It  contained  five  cities  ;  Cyrene,  founded 
by  a  Greek  colony,  the  birth-place  of  the  philosopher  Carneades;  Apollonia^ 
a  celebrated  sea-port ;  Ptolemais,  at  first  called  Barce  ;  Arsino&,  and  Berenice 
or  Hesperis,  near  which  were  the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides,  famous  for  their 
golden  apples,  and  the  residence  of  the  Gorgons,  so  celebrated  in  fable.  (Cf. 
Ed.  Rev.  No.  95.  p.  228).  —  West  of  this  was  Regio  Syrtica,  also  called, 
from  its  three  cities,  Tripolitana  (Tripoli)  ;  its  cities  were  Leptis,  called 
major,  to  distinguish  it  from  a  town  of  the  same  name,  near  Carthage  ;  (Ea, 
the  present  city  of  Tripoli ;  and  Sabrata,  a  Roman  colony^  and  Tysdrus,  now 
Elgem.  A  people  called  by  Homer  the  Lotophagi  dwelt  on  this  coast;  he 
says,  that  they  fed  on  the  lotus,  a  fruit  so  delicious,  that  whoever  tasted  it 
immediately  forgot  his  native  country.  On  the  coast  were  the  Syrtes,  two  dan- 
gerous quicksands,  which  frequently  proved  fatal  to  hapless  mariners;  here, 
also,  was  the  lake  Tritonis  sacred  to  Minerva. 

There  are  interesting  ancient  remains  in  these  regions,  particularly  at  Leptis  and  Cyrene.  — > 
The  situation  of  Cyrene  is  described  as  exceedingly  beautiful.  —  "  It  is  built  on  the  edge  of  a 
range  of  hills,  rising  about  800  feet  above  a  fine  sweep  of  high  table  land,  forming  the  summit 
of  a  lower  chain,  to  which  it  descends  by  a  series  of  terraces.  The  elevation  of  the  lower 
chain  may  be  estimated  at  1000  feet ;  so  that  Cyrene  stands  about  1800  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  of  which  it  commands  an  extensive  view  over  the  table  land,  which,  extending  east 
and  west  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  stretches  about  five  miles  to  the  northward  and  then  de- 
scends abruptly  to  the  coast.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  natural  terraces,  to  shape  the 
ledges  into  roads  leading  along  the  face  of  the  mountain,  and  communicating  in  some  instan- 
ces by  narrow  flights  of  steps  cut  in  the  rock.  These  roads,  which  may  be  supposed  to  have 
been  the  favorite  drives  of  the  citizens  of  Cyrene,  are  very  plainly  indented  with  the  marks  of 
chariot  wheels,  deep  furrowing  the  smooth,  stony  surface.  The  rock,  in  most  instances  rising 
perpendicularly  from  these  galleries,  has  been  excavated  into  innumerable  tombs,  generally 
adorned  with  architectural  facades.  The  outer  sides  of  the  roads,  where  they  descended  from 
one  range  to  another,  Were  ornamented  with  sarcophagi  and  monumental  tombs;  and  the 
whole  sloping  space  between  the  galleries  was  filled  up  with  simular  structures.  These,  as 
well  as  the  excavated  tombs,  exhibit  very  superior  taste  and  execution.  In  two  instances,  a 
simple  sarcophagus  of  white  marble,  ornamented  with  flowers  and  figures  in  relief  of  exquis- 
ite workmanship,  was  found  in  a  large  excavation.  In  several  of  the  excavated  tombs  were 
discovered  remains  of  paintings,  representing  historical,  allegorical,  and  pastoral  subjects,  ex- 
ecuted in  the  manner  of  those  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  (Cf.  P.  I.  §  226).  —  In  the  region 
of  Cyrenaica  are  several  caverns  containing  stalactites,  presenting  of  course  various  fantastic 
shapes.  It  has  been  supposed  that  this  fact,  together  with  the  existence  of  the  ruins  and  ex- 
cavations in  the  vicinity  of  Cyrene,  may  have  given  rise  to  the  story  of  the  petrified  city,  of 
Which,  under  the  name  of  Ras  Sem,  marvelous  accounts  have  been  related  to  travelers  in  Afri- 
ca."   See  Modern  Traveler.— B  eechy's  Travels.  — <—  At  Tysdrus  are  still  found  ruins  of  Ro- 


696  CLASSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

man  structures  )  particularly  of  a  spacious  amphitheatre,  "  consisting  formerly  ef  four  rows  of 
columns  in  tiers  one  above  another,  and  sixty-four  arcades."  The  inner  area  is  said  to  be  300 
feet  in  length  and  200  in  breadth  ;  and  the  whole  circumference  1570  feet ;  the  height  is  estima- 
ted to  have  been  at  least  105  feet.  The  upper  tier  of  columns  is  nearly  fallen  ;  the  three  lower 
are  preserved*.  —  See  Rev.  C.  F.  Ewald's  Diary.  A  drawing  is  given  in  The  Penny  Magazine, 
Jan.  13.  1838. 

§  180.  Next  to  Tripolitana  was  the  province  of  Africa  Propria,  of  which 
the  capital  was  Carthago.  This  city  was  founded  by  a  Tyrian  colony,  led  by 
queen  Dido,  and  by  its  extensive  commerce  became  one  of  the  most  opulent 
cities  of  antiquity.  Its  citadel  was  called  Byrsa,  because  it  was  said,  that  Di- 
do, on  coming  here,  purchased  as  much  ground  as  she  could  encompass  with 
a  Brqaa  or  hide,  and  then,  having  cut  the  hide  into  strips,  took  in  the  space 
originally  covered  by  the  city.  —  The  other  remarkable  towns  in  this  district 
were  Tunes,  or  Tuneta  (Tunis),  where  Regulus  was  defeated  and  taken  prison- 
er ;  Clupea,  near  the  Promontorium  Mercurii  (Cape  Bona) ;  Adrumetum  ;  Thap- 
sus,  where  Ctesar  defeated  Scipio  and  Juba ;  and  Utica,  where  Cato  the 
younger  slew  himself;  near  Utica  was  the  river  Bagradas,  where  Regulus 
slew  an  enormous  serpent,  that  had  destroyed  many  of  his  soldiers. 

§  181.  Numidia  was  at  one  time  divided  into  the  kingdom  of  the  Massyli, 
ruled  by  Massinissa,  and  that  of  the  Massassyli,  under  the  government  of  Sy- 
phax ;  but  after  the  third  Punic  war,  they  were  united  into  one  kingdom  un- 
der Massinissa;  the  capital  was  Certa.  The  principal  towns  on  the  sea-coast 
were  Tabraca,  remarkable  for  its  groves ;  Hippo  Regius,  near  the  small  river 
Rubricatus,  the  episcopal  seat  of  Saint  Augustine  ;  and  Rusicade.  In  the  in- 
terior were  Vaga;  Sicca;  and  Zama,  where  Hannibal  was  defeated  by  Scipio. 
On  the  confines  of  the  desert  were  Thala,  and  Capsa. 

§  182.  Mauritania  was  separated  from  Numidia  by  the  river  Ampsagas. — 
Its  chief  towns  were  Ccesarea,  whence  the  eastern  part  was  called  C  bb  s  a  r  i- 
ensis;  and  Tingis  fTangiersJ,  from  which  the  western  received  the  name 
T  i  n  g  i  t  a  n  a .  This  country  extended  from  the  river  Ampsagas,  separating 
it  from  Numidia,  to  some  distance  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  Romans,  after 
their  conquest  over  these  regions,  planted  in  them  numerous  colonies,  and 
constructed  fortresses  and  roads,  of  which  some  traces  yet  remain.  The  most 
southern  Roman  settlement  was  that  called  Exploratio  ad  Mercurium,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Atlantic.  The  waters  west  of  this  territory  were  named  Oceanus 
Atlanticus,  from  the  chain  of  mountains  called  Atlas,  which  bounded  Maurita- 
nia on  the  south,  and  terminated  at  two  different  points  on  the  coast,  the 
northern  ridge  being  termed  Atlas  Minor,  and  the  southern  Atlas  Major.  — 
Mons  Abyla  was  the  elevated  summit  near  the  strait  connecting  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Atlantic.  This  and  Calpe  on  the  European  side  formed  the 
fabled  pillars  of  Hercules  (Herculis  Columnar). 

§  183.  All  the  remaining  countries  of  the  land  may  be  included  under  Af- 
rica Interior,  to  which  it  is  impossible  to  assign  any  definite  boundaries.  — 
The  Gsetuli,  and  Garamantes,  and  other  tribes,  are  represented  as  dwelling 
■within  it.  The  Nigritae,  were  placed  about  the  river  Niger.  The  Great  Des- 
ert was  called  Deserta  Libyce  Interioris.  — On  the  coast  west  of  this  were 

the  Insulce  Fortunatce ;  called  also  Canaria,  from  the  number  of  large  dogs,  as 
some  suppose,  found  upon  them,  and  thence  their  modern  name,  Canaries.  — 
South  of  these  were  the  Insula  Hesperidurn,  the  modern  Cape  Verd  islands, 
on  which  some  have  placed  the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides  (cf.  §  179). — West  of 
this  coast  the  ancients  also  placed  the  island  Atlantis,  said  to  have  existed 
once,  and  to  have  been  afterwards  submerged  in  the  ocean.  It  was  repre- 
sented as  larger  than  Asia  and  Africa,  and  as  very  fertile  and  powerful. 

Some  have  considered  the  whole  account  of  Atlantis  as  a  mere  fable  ;  others  have  conjec- 
tured that  the  Canaries,  Madeira  Isles  and  Azores,  once  formed  parts  of  a  vast  island  thus  de- 
scribed ;  and  others  have  maintained  that  the  land  referred  to  must  have  been  the  continent  of 
America.  The  latter  opinion  is  maintained  in  an  Essay  entitled  as  follows  ;  An  Attempt  to 
show,  that  America  must  be  known  to  the  Ancients,  <$"c.  by  an  American  Englishman,  Pastor  of  u 
Church  in  Boston.  Boston,  New  England,  MDCCLXXIII.  —  Some  have  imagined  that  this 
island  was  situated  in  the  Northern  regions ;  Bailly,  Lettres  sur  l'Atlantide  de  Platon,  &c.  Pa- 
ris 1779.  8. See  Malte  Bran's  Geography.  —  Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  Essay  sur  l'antique  Atlan- 

lide.  Par.  1804.  4.  —  The  ancient  story  is  given  in  the  Critias  or  Atlanticus  of  Plato. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  CLASSICAL  CHRONOLOGY. 


Preliminary  Remarks. 

<  §  184.  Chronology  treats  of  the  computation  of  time  and  of  the  dates  ot 
events.  It  is  comparatively  a  modern  science.  Among  the  ancients  there 
was  scarcely  any  systematic  attention  to  the  subject.  Yet  it  is  a  highly  im- 
portant science.  Accurate  chronology  is  essential  to  all  reasoning  from  his- 
torical facts;  the  mutual  dependence  and  relations  of  events  cannot  be  traced 
without  it ;  with  the  greatest  propriety  it  has  been  called  one  of  the  eyes  of 
history,  while  geography  with  equal  propriety  has  been  said  to  be  the  other. 
Chronology  is  also  an  important  aid  to  the  memory,  if  properly  considered,  in 
studying  history  and  biography. 

In  treating  this  subject,  although  our  design  requires  a  special  reference  to  Classical  Chronol- 
ogy, yet  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  we  must  introduce  some  things,  which  belong  rather 
to  the  science  in  general.  We  shall  explain  the  Greek  and  Roman  divisions  of  time  and  modes 
of  computing  it ;  and  endeavor  to  present  all  that  the  student  will  need  as  preparatory  to  a  full 
study  of  the  classical  historians  and  of  ancient  history. 

Chronology  maybe  considered  as  consisting  of  two  parts  ;  the  first,  meas- 
uring time  and  adjusting  its  various  divisions;  the  second,  fixing  the  dates  of 
historical  events  and  arranging  them  in  order. 


/.  —  Of  measuring  time  and  adjusting  its  divisions. 

§  185.  The  most  obvious  measures  and  divisions  of  time  are  those  suggested 
lo  all  men  by  the  revolutions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  These  are  three ;  days, 
months,  and  years ;  the  day  from  the  revolution  of  the  earth  on  her  axis,  or 
Ihe  apparent  revolution  of  the  sun  around  her ;  the  month  from  the  periodical 
changes  in  the  moon  ;  the  year  from  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth  in  her  or- 
bit round  the  sun.  —  These  three  divisions  are  not  commensurate,  and  this  has 
caused  the  chief  embarrassment  in  the  science  of  Chronology  ;  it  has,  in  point 
of  fact,  been  difficult  so  to  adjust  them  with  each  other  in  a  system  of  meas- 
uring time  as  to  have  the  computed  time  and  the  actual  time  perfectly  in  agree- 
ment or  coincidence. 

§  186.  The  day.  This  was  undoubtedly  the  earliest  division,  and  originally 
Was  distinguished,  it  is  likely,  from  the  night;  extending  from  sunrise  to  sun- 
set only.  It  was  afterwards  considered  as  including  also  the  night,  or  time 
between  sunset  and  sunrise.  But  the  beginning  of  the  day  has  been  reckoned 
differently  by  different  nations,  for  civil  purposes ;  at  sunrise,  by  the  Babylo- 
nians, Persians,  Syrians  and  inhabitants  of  India;  at  sunset,  by  the  Jews, 
Athenians,  ancient  Gauls,  and  Chinese  ;  at  midnight,  by  the  Egyptians,  Ro- 
mans, and  moderns  generally.  —  Astronomers  in  their  calculations  consider 
the  day  as  beginning  at  noon,  after  the  manner  of  the  Arabians  according  to 

Priestley. There  have  also  been  various  modes  of  subdividing  the  day.  — 

**■  The  division  of  time  into  hours  is  very  ancient :  as  is  shown  by  Kircher 
(QEdip.  iEgypt.  t.  ii.  part  2).  The  most  ancient  hour  is  that  of  the  twelfth 
part  of  a  day.  Herodotus  observes  that  the  Greeks  learnt  from  the  Egyptians 
[Babylonians,  L  ii.  c.  109],  among  other  things,  the  method  of  dividing  the 
day  into  twelve  parts  ;  and  the  astronomers  of  Cathay  a  still  retain  this  meth- 
od. The  division  of  the  day  into  twenty-four  hours  was  not  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans before  the  Punic  war."    (Tegg.j 

§  187.  The  Greeks,  in  the  time  of  Homer,  seem  not  to  have  used  the  di- 
vision into  hours ;  his  poems  present  us  with  the  more  obvious  parts  of  the 
<da,y,  morning  (}](og),  noon  (uioov  ^uao),  and  evening  (81  ilij).  But  before  the 
time  of  Herodotus,  they  were  accustomed  to  the  division  of  the  day,  and  of 
the  night  also  probably,  into  12  parts.     They  were  acquainted  also  with  the 

59 


698  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

division  of  the  day  and  night  into  4  parts  each,  according  to  the  Jewish  and! 
Roman  custom. 

The  Romans  subdivided  the  day  and  the  night  each  into  four  parts,  which 
were  called  vigils  (vigilia)  or  watches.  They  also  considered  the  day  and  the 
night  as  each  divided  into  12  hours ;  three  hours  of  course  were  included  in 
a  vigil.  —  The  day  vigils  were  designated  simply  by  the  numerals  prima,  se- 
cunda,  tertia,  quarta ;  but  as  the  second  vigil  commenced  with  the  third  hour, 
the  third  vigil  with  the  sixth  hour,  and  the  fourth  with  the  ninth  hour,  the 
terms  prima,  tertia,  sexta,  and  nona,  are  also  used  to  signify  the  four  vigils  of 
the  day.  The  night  vigils  were  designated  by  the  names  vespera,  media  nox, 
gallicinium,  conticinium. 

It  is  sometimes  stated,  that  the  first  vigil  and  first  hour  of  the  day  commenced  at  what  we 
call  6  o'clock  A.  M. ;  the  third  vigil  (vigilia  tertia),  and  sixth  hour  (hora  sezta),  at  12  o'clock, 
noon  ;  the  corresponding  vigils  and  hours  of  night,  at  what  we  call  6  o'clock  P.  M.  and  12 
o'clock,  midnight.  This  statement  may  be  sufficiently  accurate  in  general ;  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered, that  the  Roman  hours  and  Watches  were  of  unequal  length  ;  the  first  hour  of  the 
day  began  with  sunrise,  and  the  twelfth  ended  at  sunset,  and  the  first  hour  of  the  night  began 
at  sunset  and  the  twelfth  ended  at  sunrise.  Of  course  the  hours  of  the  day  in  summer  were" 
longer  than  those  of  the  night,  and  in  the  winter  they  were  shorter.    (Cf.  P.  IV.  §  228). 

§  188.  Different  devices  have  been  employed  for  marking  and  making 
known  these  parts  of  the  day.  The  sun-dial  was  used  by  the  Babylonians 
and  Jews;  and  by  the  latter, zcatchmen  were  maintianed  to  announce  the  time. 
The  Greeks  borrowed  the  sun-dial  from  the  Babylonians,  and  called  it  the 
Heliotrope,  iJ.iorQoTciov,  or  Gnomon,  yrwuwv;  but  the  latter  term  properly  de- 
signates the  needle  or  index  which  cast  the  shadow  on  the  dial.  —  The  Ro- 
mans, besides  the  dial,  employed  also  the  Clepsydra  already  described  (P.  IV. 

Several  specimens  of  the  ancient  sun-dial  are  still  preserved  ;  one  is  said  to  be  still  remain- 
ing, nearly  in  its  original  situation,  on  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens.  "  Upon  each  side 
of  the  octagonal  building,  commonly  called  the  tower  of  the  winds,  was  also  placed  a  vertical 
sun-dial  ,•  the  gnomon  or  index  projected  from  the  side,  while  the  lines  indicating  the  hour 
were  cut  upon  the  wall.  The  lines  of  the  dial  upon  the  wall  are  distinctly  extant  at  the  pres- 
ent day;  and  although  the  gnomons  have  disappeared,  the  places  where  they  were  inserted 
are  still  visible."  Besides  stationary  dials,  the  ancients  had  portable  ones  of  metal,  which 
were  termed  Phorematica.  (Cf.  Stuart's  Diet,  of  Architect,  vol.  n).  —  An  instrument  called  a 
water-clock  was  in  considerable  use  in  some  parts  of  Europe  a  few  centuries  ago.  Striking- 
clocks  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  the  Arabians  about  A.  D.  800.  —  Watches  were  first 
made  in  Germany  A.  D.  1477.  —  See  Bcrthoud,  Histoire  de  la  Mesure  du  Temps  par  les  Horlo- 
ges.  Paris,  1802.  2  vols.  4.  —  Emesti,  de  Solariis,  in  his  Opuscula. —  Sallier  and  Falconet,  Sur 
les  horologes  des  Anciens,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.,  vol.  iv.  p.  148 ;  and  vol.  xx.  p.  440* 
Cf.  vol.  in.  p.  174.  on  the  Gnomon.  —  Gough,  on  a  Roman  Horologium  found  in  Italy,  Archce- 
ologia  (as  cited  P.  I.  §  243.  3),  vol.  x.  p.  172,  with  a  plate. 

§  189.  The  month.  This  division,  without  much  doubt,  had  its  origin  in  the 
Various  phases  or  changes  in  the  moon.  It  included  the  time  of  the  moon's 
revolution  round  the  earth,  or  between  two  new  moons,  or  two  successive 
conjunctions  of  the  sun  and  moon.  The  mean  period  is  29  days,  12  hours, 
44  minutes  ;  it  was  considered  to  be  29  1-2  days  ;  and  the  ancients  commonly 
reckoned  the  month  as  consisting  alternately  of  29  and  30  days. 

The  Greeks  thus  reckoned  their  months,  and  termed  those  which  had  30 
days,  7i?.ilQBig  (full),  and  dtxayQtvoL  (ending  on  the  10th  day) ;  those  of  29  days 
they  termed  y.oO.oi  (hollow  or  deficient),  and  hvaif&iroi  (ending  on  the  9th  day). 
Twelve  lunations  thus  computed  formed  the  year;  but  it  fell  short  of  the  true 
solar  year  by  about  11  days  and  a  quarter,  making  in  four  years  about 45  days. 
To  reconcile  this  and  bring  the  computation  by  months  and  years  to  coincide 
more  exactly,  another  month  was  intercalated  every  two  years ;  and  in  the 
first  two  years  a  month  of  22  days ;  and  in  the  next  two,  a  month  of  23  days ; 
thus  after  a  period  of  four  years  the  lunar  and  solar  years  would  begin  togeth- 
er; this  was  called  the  TtTQatTtjQig.  But  the  effect  of  this  system  was  to 
change  the  place  of  the  months  relatively  to  the  seasons ;  and  another  system 
was  adopted.  This  was  based  on  the  supposition  that  the  solar  year  was  365 
days  and  a  quarter,  while  the  lunar  was  354;  which  would  in  a  period  of  8 
years  give  a  difference  of  90  days ,  the  adjustment  was  made  by  intercalating,  in 
the  course  of  the  period,  three  months  of  30  days  each  ;  the  period  was  called 
'OxTasrtiQig.  Its  invention  was  attributed  to  Cleostratus  of  Tenedos ;  it  was 
universally  adopted,  and  was  followed  in  civil  matters,  even  after  the  more 
perfect  cycle  of  Meton  was  known;  one  reason  may  have  been  the  reciprocal 
adaptation  between  the  Octaeteris  and  the  Olympiad,  the  former  including  ex- 
actly two  of  the  latter. 


DIVISION    OF    TIME.       THE    MONTH.  699 

§  190.  "  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  Grecian  months,  together  with 
those  of  the  corresponding  Julian  months,  as  near  as  they  can  be  given.  In 
this  list  Scaliger's  account  has  been  followed,  which,  upon  the  whole,  we  be- 
lieve the  most  correct.  As  the  first  month  of  the  Athenian  year  comprised 
but  a  few  days  of  the  latter  part  of  our  June,  and  the  greater  part  of  July,  the 
latter  month  will  be  given  as  the  corresponding  one.  —  1.  ^ExaroupaKov,  July  ; 
so  called  from  the  great  number  of  Hecatombs,  which  were  usually  sacrificed 
in  this  month.  —  2.  Miraytirvibjv,  August;  so  called  from  the  sacrifices  which 
were  then  offered  to  Apollo  Msraytirviog,  because  on  this  month  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Melite  left  their  island,  and  removed  to  Attica.  —  3.  BorjSQouioiv,  Sep- 
tember; which  was  so  called  from  the  festival  termed  Bor^qouia.  — 4.  Ilva- 
rti/twv,  October ;  so  called,  because  in  this  month,  after  the  fruits  of  the  year 
were  gathered,  feasts  were  served  up,  the  chief  of  which  consisted  in  boiled 
pulse  [eaten  in  memory  of  the  food  of  Theseus  on  the  last  day  of  his  voyage 
from  Crete].  — 5.  MixuiaxTrjQiojv,  November  ;  so  called  from  Jupiter  Mautax- 
tj/c,  the  boisterous ;  because  in  this  month  the  weather  was  very  tempestuous. 
—  6.  Ilootidtcjv,  December  ;  in  which  month  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Ilooti- 
<Jeiv,  Neptune  ;  as  if  it  were  called  Neptune's  month.  —  7.  rauifiuov,  January  ; 
which  was  sacred  to  Juno  rau/^.iog,  the  goddess  of  marriage.  —  8.  'Ar&tori]- 
<uwr,  February  ;  which  took  its  name  from  the  festival  of  the  same  name.  — 
9.  'Er.ayrfio/uior,  March;  so  called  from  the  festival  'E/.cuptjpolia,,  which  was 
sacred  to  Diana  >E?M(pijfi6?.og,  the  huntress,  because  this  was  the  month  for 
hunting  stags.  —  10.  Movwxiojr,  April;  in  which  sacrifices  were  offered  to 
Diana  Movvvx'ia,  from  the  harbor  of  this  name,  in  which  she  had  a  temple. — 
11.  Qaqyijiuov,  May;  in  which  month  sacrifices  were  offered  for  the  ripening 
of  the  earth's  fruits.  —  12.  Sxioooyooiwv,  June  ;  so  called  from  a  festival  of 

the  same  name  celebrated   in  this  month,  in  honor  of  Minerva, Every 

month  was  divided  into  roiu  fo/^^ix,  three  decades  of  days.  The  first  of 
which  was  called  inpog  uo/ouivov  or  [orauivov,  the  decade  of  the  beginning ; 
the  second,  utjvug  usoovvrog,  the  decade  of  the  middle  ;  and  the  third,  fitjvog  yBlv- 
ovrog,  or  mxvouivov,  the  decade  of  the  end.  The  first  day  of  the  first  decade 
was  called  reoutjvtu,  because  it  happened  on  the  new  moon  ;  the  second,  Sevri- 
i>a  ioraiiivov,  and  so  on  to  Ssxurtj  lorauirov,  the  tenth  day  of  the  month.  The 
first  day  of  the  second  decade,  or  the  eleventh  day,  was  called  nqcjTt]  usaovvrog, 
the  first  of  the  middle,  or  tt^wt//  ittl  Sixa,  the  first  after  ten;  the  second  dsv- 
riyu  usoovvTog,  and  so  on  to  the  twentieth  day  (sixug),  or  the  last  day  of  the 
second  decade.  The  first  day  of  the  third  decade  was  called  TiQwrtj  lit*  elxudi, 
or  tiqioti]  (pQhovToc,  and  so  on.  The  last  day  of  the  month  was  denominated 
by  Solon  * vt]  xui  via,  the  old  and  new,  as  one  part  of  the  day  belonged  to  the 
old,  and  the  other  to  the  new  moon.  But  after  the  time  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes,  the  last  day  of  the  month  received  from  him  the  name  of  Jr^airqiagJ" 
(Cleaveland.) 

On  the  Attic  months,  cf.  Classical  Journal,  ix.  324.  559. 

§  191.  The  Romans  are  said  to  have  had  under  Romulus  only  10  months; 
but  Numa  introduced  the  division  into  12,  according  to  that  of  the  Greeks.  — 
But  as  this  formed  only  a  lunar  year,  a  little  more  than  11  days  short  of  the 
solar  year,  an  extraordinary  month  (mensis  intercalaris,  called  also  Macedo- 
nius)  was  to  be  inserted  every  other  year.  The  intercalating  of  this  and  the 
whole  care  of  dividing  the  year  was  entrusted  to  the  Pontifices  (P.  IV.  §  228), 
and  they  managed,  by  inserting  more  or  fewer  days,  to  make  the  current  year 
longer  or  shorter  as  they  for  any  reason  might  choose  ;  and  this  finally  caused 
the  months  to  be  transposed  from  their  stated  seasons,  so  that  the  winter 
months  were  carried  back  into  autumn,  and  the  autumnal  into  summer  {Cic. 
Leg.  ii.  12).  Julius  Caesar  put  an  end  to  this  disorder,  by  abolishing  the  in- 
tercalation of  months,  and  adopting  a  system  which  will  be  explained  in  speak- 
ing of  the  year  (§  192).  —  The  names  of  the  Roman  months  were  the  follow- 
ing ;  Martins,  March,  from  Mars,  the  supposed  father  of  Romulus,  in  whose 
arrangement  of  the  year  this  month  was  the  first ;  Aprilis,  derived  by  some 
from  the  verb  aperio,  the  month  in  which  trees  and  flowers  open  their  buds ; 
Maius,  May,  from  Maia,  mother  of  Mercury ;  Junius,  June,  from  Juno  ;  Quin- 
tilis,  the  fifth  month,  afterwards  named  Julius,  July,  from  Julius  Caesar;  Sex- 
tili.s,  sixth,  afterwards  Augustus,  August,  from  Augustus  Ceesar;  September, 


700 


CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 


seventh  month  ;  October,  eighth  ;  November,  ninth ;  December,  tenth ;  Janua- 
rius,  January,  from  Janus  ;  Februarius,  February,  so  called  from  the  purifi- 
cations Februa  performed  in  this  month  (P.  IV.  §  230),  being  the  last  of  the 
year. 

The  Romans  divided  tbe  month  into  three  parts  by  the  points  termed  Kalen- 
tke,  or  Calendce,  Nonce,  and  Idus.  The  Calends  were  always  the  1st  of  the 
month ;  the  Nones  were  the  5th,  and  the  Ides  the  13th  of  each  month  except- 
ing March,  May,  July  and  October;  in  which  four  months,  the  Nones  fell  on 
the  7th,  and  the  Ides  on  the  15th  day.  In  marking  the  days  of  the  month, 
the  Romans  counted  backwards  from  these  three  fixed  points,  including  al- 
ways the  day  from  which  the  reckoning  began ;  e.  g.  the  last  or  thirty-first 
day  of  December  was  called  the  second  from  the  Calends  of  January ,  pridie 
[ante]  Kalendas  Januarii ;  the  last  day  but  one  or  30th  of  December  was 
called  the  third  from  or  before  the  Calends  of  January,  tertio  [die  ante]  Kal. 
Jan.;  and  so  on  back  to  the  13th  day,  which  was  called  Idus;  the  12th  was 
pridie  Idus,  and  so  on  back  to  the  5th,  which  was  the  Nonce;  the  4th,  by  this 
plan  of  reckoning,  would  be  of  course  Pridie  Nonas. 

Cf.  La  Nauze.  as  cited  P.  IV.  §  229.  2.  —  The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  had  no  division 
properly  answering  to  our  weeks  ;  although  the  former  had  their  decade  of  days  f$  190;  ;  and 
the  latter  their  nundinw,  or  market  days  occurring  every  ninth  day  (P.  IV.  §  229).  But  the 
Egyptians  and  oriental  nations  had  a'week  of  seven  days.  This  division  (hebdomades)  was  in- 
troduced among  the  Romans,  it  is  said,  not  far  from  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century  after 
Christ.  The  days  were  named  after  the  planets  or  pagan  Gods  ;  D  i  e  s  Solis,  Sunday  ;  ~Luntr, 
Monday  ;  Martis,  Tuesday  ;  Mercurii,  Wednesday  ;  Jovis,  Thursday  ;  Veneris,  Friday  ;  Satur- 
ni,  Saturday.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  our  names  for  the  days  had  a  similar  origin  :  as  is  seen 
by  observing  their  Saxon  derivation  ;  Sunnadag,  Sun's  day  ;  Mnnandag,  Moon's  day  ;  Tues- 
dag,  day  of  Tuisco  (i.  e.  Mars) ;  Wodtnsdmg,  day  of  Wodin  or  Odin,  a  northern  deity  ;  Thorsdag, 
day  of  Thor,  a  deity  answering  to  Jupiter  ;  Frigdag,  day  of  Frisrga,  the  Venus  of  the  north  ; 
Saterdag,  day  of  Saeter  or  Seater  (i.  e.  Saturn,  cf.  P.  III.  §  15. J. 

§  192.  The  year.  This  division  was  probably  not  formed  until  some  con- 
siderable advances  had  been  made  in  astronomical  science  ;  and  it  was  long 
after  its  first  adoption,  before  it  attained  to  any  thing  like  an  accurate  form. — 
The  most  ancient  year,  of  which  we  know,  was  that  consisting  of  12  months 
supposed  to  contain  30  days  each,  thus  amounting  to  360  days.  It  has  been 
conjectured,  that  this  gave  rise  to  the  division  of  the  ecliptic  into  360  equal 
parts  or  degrees,  which  is  still  preserved.  But  it  was  soon  found  that  this  fell 
short  of  the  actual  year,  or  the  time  of  a  revolution  of  the  earth  ;  and  an  addi- 
tion of  5  days  was  made,  so  that  the  year  consisted  of  365  days  ;  this  is  as- 
cribed to  the  Thebans.  The  Grecian  year,  however,  as  established  by  Solon 
and  continued  to  the  time  of  Meton  and  even  after,  consisted  of  365  days  and 
a  quarter. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Greeks  made  their  computation  by  the  lunar  months  to  agree  with 

the  solar  year,  has  already  been  explained  ( %  189J. Cf.   Gibert,  L'annee  Grecque,  in  the 

Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  xxxv.  p.  133. 

The  Roman  year  seems  to  have  consisted  of  365  days  until  the  time  of  Jul- 
ius Caesar.  The  method  employed  by  the  Romans  of  previous  ages  to  adjust 
their  computation  by  lunar  months  to  the  solar  year  has  also  been  mentioned 
(§  191),  and  likewise  the  confusion,  which  resulted  from  it.  This  Caesar  at- 
tempted to  remedy  (cf.  P.  II.  §  528.  4).  He  instituted  a  year  of  365  days  6 
hours.  To  remove  the  error  of  80  days,  which  computed  time  had  gained  of 
actual  time,  he  ordered  one  year  of  445  days  (365  plus  80j,  which  was  called 
the  Year  of  confusion.  And  to  secure  a  proper  allowance  for  the  6  hours 
which  had  been  disregarded,  but  which  would  amount  in  4  years  to  a  day,  he 
directed  that  one  additional  day  should  be  intercalated  in  the  reckoning  of 
every  4th  year  ;  thus  each  4th  year  would  have  366  days,  the  others  365.  — 
This  is  called  the  Julian  year.  In  the  Roman  calender  the  intercalated  day 
was  placed  after  the  6th  (sextus)  of  the  Calends  of  March,  and  therefore  called 
bissextus  ;  hence  the  phrase  bissextile  year  still  in  use. 

But  in  this  plan  there  was  still  an  error.  The  day  was  intercalated  too  soon  ;  i.  e.  before  a 
wlwle  day  had  been  gained  ;  because  computed  time,  instead  of  gaining  6  hours  a  year,  gained 
only  5  hours  48  m.  57  sec.  and  in  4  years  would  gain  only  23  h.  15  m.  48  sec. ;  so  the  intercalated 
day  was  inserted  too  soon  by  44  minutes  and  12  seconds  ;  of  course  computed  time,  by  this  plan, 
lost  44  m.  12  sec.  every  four  years,  or  11  m.  3  sec.  every  year.  In  131  years  this  makes  a  loss  of 
computed  time,  of  one  day  ;  i.  e.  computed  time  would  be  one  day  behind  actual  time.  In  A.  D. 
3582  this  loss  had  amounted  to  ten  days,  and  Pope  Gregory  13th  attempted  to  remedy  the  evil 
by  a  new  expedient.  This  was,  to  drop  the  intercalary  day  or  the  bissextile,  every  100th  year 
excepting  each  400th  year.    By  the  Julian  year  computed  time  loses  11  m.  3  sec.  a  year,  whicti 


DIVISION    OF    TIME.       THE   YEAR.       CYCLES.  701 

makes  about  19  hours  in  100  years  ;  dropping  the  intercalary  day  on  the  100th  year  makes  up 
this  loss  of  19  hours,  and  gives  also  a  gain  of  about  5  hours  ;  dropping  it  on  the  next  100th  year 
cives  another  gain  of  5  hours  to  computed  time  ;  so  of  the  third  100th  year ;  in  this  way  com- 
puted time  gains  of  actual  time,  in  300  years,  15  hours ;  if  on  the  next  100th  year,  i.  e.  the  4th, 
the  intercalary  day  be  inserted,  computed  time  loses  for  that  century  19  hours  ;  but  to  meet  this 
loss,  it  had  in  the  three  preceding  centuries  gained  5  hours  in  each  and  in  all  15  hours,  so  that 
the  loss  is  only  H9-15J  4  hours  at  the  end  of  400  years.  By  this  method,  the  difference  be- 
tween computed  and  actual  time  cannot  amount  to  a  day  in  2500  years.  In  this  system,  called 
the  Gregorian  Calendar,  the  years  1600,  2000,  2400  are  intercalary  ;  and  the  years  1700,  1800, 
1900,  2100,  2200,  2300  &c.  not.  —  The  Gregorian  year  was  immediately  adopted  in  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  Italy  ;  and  during  the  same  year  in  France  ;  in  Catholic  Germany,  in  1583  ;  in  Pro- 
testant Germany  and  Denmark,  in  1700 ;  in  Sweden,  1753.  In  England  it  was  adopted  in 
1752,  by  act  of  Parliament  directing  the  3d  of  September  to  be  styled  the  14th,  as  computed  time 
had  los't  11  days.  This  was  called  the  change  from  Old  to  Neio  Style.  —  In  1832,  Russia  was 
said  to  be  the  only  country,  where  the  Julian  year  or  the  Old  Style  wa3  used.  It  is,  however, 
retained  in  the  Greek  and  Armenian  churches.    fJl/ws.  Herald,  for  Dec.  1835.  p.  454J 

Different  nations  have  begun  the  year  at  different  seasons  or  months.  The  Romans  at  one 
time  considered  it  as  beginning  in  March,  but  afterwards  in  January.  The  Greeks  placed  its 
commencement  in  Hecatombsnon,  at  the  summer  solstice.  The  Christian  clergy  used  to  begin 
it  at  the  25th  of  March.  The  same  was  practiced  in  England  and  the  American  colonies  until 
A.  D.  1752,  on  the  change  from  Old  to  New  Style,  when  the  first  of  January  was  adopted. 

§  193.  In  adjusting  the  different  methods  of  computing  time,  or  the  division 
of  time  into  days,  months  and  years,  great  advantage  is  derived  from  the  in- 
vention of  Cycles.  These  are  periods  of  time  so  denominated  from  the  Greek 
yi'yj.og,  a  circle,  because  in  their  compass  a  certain  revolution  is  completed. 
Under  the  term  cycle  we  may  properly  include  the  Grecian  Ohjmpiad,  a  pe- 
riod of  4  years  ;  the  Octacteris,  or  period  of  8  years  ;  and  the  Roman  Lustrum, 
a  period  of  5  years  :  and  also  the  Julian  year,  or  period  of  4  years  as  just  de- 
scribed. The  period  of  400  years,  comprehended  in  the  system  of  Gregory 
already  explained,  may  justly  be  termed  the  cycle  of  Gregory. — Besides  these, 
it  seems  important  to  mention  the  Lunar  Cycle,  the  Solar  Cycle,  the  Cycle  of 
Indiction,  and  the  Julian  Period. 

See  F.  Nolan,  as  cited  below  $  205.  —  H.  Dodwell,  de  veteribus  Graecorum  Romanorumque 
Cvclis  ($"c.  Dissert,  decern.  Lond.  1701.  4.  —  Niebuhr,  on  the  Secular  Cycle,  in  his  Hist,  of  Rome.  . 
vol.  1.  p.  209.  ed.  Phil.  1835. 

§  194.  The  Lunar  Cycle  is  a  period  of  19  years.  Its  object  is  to  accommo- 
date the  computation  of  time  by  the  moon  to  the  computation  by  the  sun,  or 
adjust  the  solar  and  lunar  years.  The  nearest  division  of  the  year  by  months 
is  into  twelve;  but  twelve  lunations  (which  make  the  lunar  year)  fall  short  of 
the  solar  year  by  about  11  days.  Of  course,  every  change  in  the  moon  in  any 
year  will  occur  eleven  days  earlier  than  it  did  on  the  preceding  year;  e.  g.  if 
in  September  of  the  present  year  full  moon  occurs  on  the  16th,  the  corres- 
ponding full  moon  of  the  next  year  will  occur  on  the  5th  of  September.  — 
Hence  every  year  the  various  changes  in  the  moon  fall  back  as  calculated  by 
the  days  of  the  year.  At  the  expiration  of  19  years  they  occur  again  nearly 
at  the  same  time. 

This  Cycle  was  invented  by  Meton,  an  Athenian  astronomer,  who  flourished  about  B.  C. 
430.  Many  attempts  had  before  been  made  to  adjust  the  solar  and  lunar  years  (§  189),  and 
this  improvement  was  at  the  time  received  with  universal  approbation  ;  but  not  being  perfectly 
accurate,  it  was  afterwards  corrected  by  Eudoxus,  and  subsequently  by  Calippus.  The  Cycle 
of  Meton  was  employed  by  the  Greeks  to  settle  the  time  of  their  festivals  ;  and  the  use  of  it 
was  discontinued,  when  these  festivals  ceased  to  be  celebrated.  "  The  Council  of  Nice,  how- 
ever, wishing  to  establish  some  method  for  adjusting  the  new  and  full  moons  to  the  course  of 
the  sun,  with  a  view  of  determining  the  time  of  Easter,  adopted  it  as  the  best  adapted  for  the 
purpose  ;  and  from  its  great  utility,  they  caused  the  numbers  of  it  to  be  written  on  the  calen- 
der in  golden  letters,  which  has  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  the  Golden  Number."  The  name  of 
Golden  Number  is  still  applied  to  the  current  year  of  the  Lunar  Cycle,  and  is  always  given  in 
the  Almanacs. 

§  195,  The  Solar  Cycle  is  a  period  of  28  years.  Its  use  is  to  adjust  the 
days  of  the  week  to  the  days  of  the  month  and  the  year.  As  the  year  consists 
of  52  weeks  and  one  day,  it  is  plain  that  it  must  begin  and  end  on  the  same 
day.  Let  the  seven  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  represent  the  seven  days  of 
the  week,  A  being  always  applied  to  the  first  day  of  the  year.  Let  January 
begin  with  Monday.  Of  course  A  will  stand  for  Monday,  and  Sunday  com- 
ing on  the  7th  day  will  be  represented  by  G,  the  7th  letter.  The  year  will 
end  with  Monday,  as  it  began  with  it ;  and  A,  the  next  year,  will  stand  for 
Tuesday,  and  Sunday  will  be  on  the  6th  day  of  the  year,  and  be  represented 
by  F.  Thus  the  year  will  commence  one  day  later  every  common  year,  and 
Sunday  will  be  represented  successively  by  the  letters  taken  in  their  retro- 

59* 


702  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY, 

grade  order,  G,  F,  E,  &c.  and  if  52  weeks  and  one  day  were  the  exact  year  Of 
there  were  no  leap  year,  the  year  would  after  seven  years,  again  begin  on 
Monday,  the  same  day  with  the  first  year  supposed.  But  the  leap  year,  con- 
sisting of  52  weeks  and  two  days,  interrupts  the  regular  succession  every 
fourth  year,  and  the  return  to  the  same  day  of  the  week  is  not  effected  until 
4  times  seven,  i.  e.  28  years. 

This  Cycle  is  employed  particularly  to  furnish  a  rule  for  finding  Sunday,  or  to  ascertain  the 
Dominical  Letter.  Chronologers  employ  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  to  designate  the 
seven  days  of  the  week  ;  and  the  Dominical  Letter  for  any  year  is  the  letter,  which  represents 
Sunday  for  that  year.  Tables  are  given  for  the  purpose  of  finding  it  in  chronological  and  astro- 
nomical books. 

§  196.  The  Cycle  of  Indiction  is  a  period  of  15  years.  The  origin  and  pri- 
mary use  of  this  has  been  the  subject  of  various  conjectures  and  discussions. 
It  seems  to  have  been  established  by  Constantine  the  Great,  in  the  4th  centu- 
ry, as  a  period  at  the  end  of  which  a  certain  tribute  should  be  paid  by  the  dif- 
ferent provinces  of  the  Empire.  Public  acts  of  the  emperors  were  afterwards 
dated  by  the  years  of  this  cycle. 

The  cycle,  which  has  been  perhaps  most  celebrated,  is  that  which  is  termed 
the  Julian  Period,  and  was  invented  by  Joseph  Scaliger.  Its  object  was  to 
furnish  a  common  language  for  chronologers,  by  forming  a  series  of  years, 
some  term  of  which  should  be  fixed,  and  to  which  the  various  modes  of  reck- 
oning years  might  be  easily  applied.  To  accomplish  this,  he  combined  the 
three  cycles  of  the  moon,  sun,  and  indiction,  multiplying  19,  28  and  15  into 
one  another,  which  produces  7980,  after  which  all  the  three  cycles  will  return 
in  the  same  order,  every  year  taking  again  the  same  number  of  each  cycle 
as  before.  Taking  the  several  cycles  as  settled  in  the  Latin  church,  and  tra- 
cing them  back,  he  found  that  the  year  when  they  would  begin  together  was 
the  year  710  before  the  creation  as  now  dated,  and  that  the  first  year  of  the 
Christian  Era  as  now  computed  was  4714    of  the  Julian  Period. 

This  invention  would  be  of  great  importance  if  we  had  no  acknowledged  epoch,  or  fixed 
year,  from  which  to  compute;  but  since  we  have  such  an  epoch,  it  seems  to  be  unnecessary. 
Its  use  is  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  general  adoption  of  the  Christian  era  as  a  fixed 
standard. 


XI.  —  Of  fixing  the  dates  of  historical  events  and  arranging  them 

in  order. 

§  197.  To  arrange  events  methodically  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence, 
and  assign  the  proper  dates,  is  the  second  part  of  Chronology.  In  the  consid- 
eration of  this  part  we  shall  notice  the  following  topics ;  {A)  The  methods  em- 
ployed to  ascertain  the  dates  of  events,  or  the  time  when  they  occurred ;  (JS) 
The  epochs  and  eras  which  have  been  employed  or  are  still  in  use  ;  (C)  The 
systems  of  arrangement,  and  chronological  tables  and  charts ;  (D)  The  actual 
dates  of  the  most  prominent  events  in  classical  Chronology. 

§  198.  (A)  Methods  employed  to  ascertain  the  dates  of  events.  —  Here  we  ob- 
serve, that  the  principal  helps  or  sources  are  four.  First,  we  will  notice  that- 
furnished  by  observations  on  generations  of  men  or  successions  of  Kings.  — 
It  has  been  supposed  that  the  average  length  of  a  king's  reign,  or  of  a  genera- 
tion of  men,  may  be  estimated  by  comparing  a  sufficient  number  of  facts.  — 
When  this  average  is  taken,  and  we  are  told  by  a  writer  how  many  genera- 
tions lived,  or  how  many  kings  reigned,  between  two  events,  we  can  at  once 
find  the  time  between  them;  and  if  the  date  of  either  event  is  known,  the 
date  of  the  other  will  follow.  This  is  the  only  Chronology  of  the  earliest  wri- 
ters, and  is  used  in  the  Bible.  The  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans  used  \U 
Generally  they  reckoned  a  generation  and  a  reign  as  of  the  same  length ; 
three  of  them  equal  to  100  years.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  employed  this  means  of 
ascertaining  dates,  and  maintained  that  the  average  for  reigns  of  kings  is  only 
20  years ;  and  for  generations,  29  or  30  years,  if  reckoned  by  eldest  sons,  and 
33,  if  reckoned  by  others.  On  these  principles  he  attempted  to  rectify  an- 
cient chronology,  giving  to  many  events  a  date  more  recent  than  other  au- 
thors. 


MEANS    OF    ASCERTAINING   DATES.  703 

It  may  be  desirable  to  give  a  further  explanation  of  this  method  by  two  illustrations,  (a)  The 
tlate  of  the  return  of  the  Heraclidae  to  Peloponnesus  is  disputed;  but  the  date  of  the  Battle  of 
Thermopylae  is  settled,  B.  C.  480.  Now  between  these  two  events  there  reigned  at  Sparta  a 
succession  of  17  kings  ;  17  multiplied  by  20  gives  340  years  between  the  events,  making  the 
return  of  the  Heraclidce  B.  C.  (480  plus  340)  820  ;  a  date  280  years  later  than  as  given  by  other 
chronologers.  —  (b)  The  date  of  the  Argonautic  Expedition  is  disputed  ;  but  the  beginning  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War  settled,  B.  C.  431.  Now  it  is  found,  that  Hippocrates,  living  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  was  descended  the  18th  from  ^Esculapius  by  father's 
side,  and  19th  from  Hercules  by  mother's  side,  and  that  ^Esculapius  and  Hercules  were  both 
Argonauts  ;  that  is,  there  were  17  generations  in  one  line  and  18  in  another,  between  the  two 
events.  Taking  the  medium  17  1-2  and  multiplying  by  29  gives  567  ;  making  the  date  of  the 
Argonautic  Expedition,  B.  C.  [431  plus  567]  938;  326  years  later  than  by  other  chronologers. 
■ There  are  two  grand  objections  to  this  method  of  ascertaining  dates.  First,  the  inaccura- 
cy and  uncertainty  of  the  average  ;  it  cannot  be  very  satisfactorily  or  exactly  determined.  Sec- 
ondly, the  fact  that  ancient  writers,  in  naming  a  succession  of  kings  or  giving  a  genealogy, 
often  omit  several  of  the  series.  This  is  done  in  Matthew,  ch.  i.,  for  the  sake  of  reducing  the 
number  of  generations  between  the  great  epochs  mentioned  in  the  17th  verse,  to  exactly  four- 
teen. 

§  199.  A  second  help  is  found  in  celestial  appearances  and  changes.  This 
method  is  in  general  more  safe  and  certain,  as  it  depends  on  strict  astronomi- 
cal principles  perfectly  settled.  The  appearances  employed  are  eclipses  and 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes. 

(a)  Eclipses.  The  ancients  were  very  superstitious  as  to  eclipses.  Many 
are  recorded,  and  mentioned  as  happening  at  the  same  time  with  important 
•events  in  history,  and  described  so  that  they  may  be  recognized  by  the  astron- 
omer, who  can  calculate  with  perfect  accuracy  the  time  of  every  eclipse  that 
has  happened. 

We  will  give  an  illustration.  Thucydides,  in  relating  the  attempt  of  the  Athenians  on  the 
Syracusans,  says,  that  Nicias,  finding  the  Syracusans  reinforced  and  himself  in  danger,  deter- 
termined  to  sail  out  of  the  harbor  of  Syracuse ;  but  when  everything  was  ready  for  sailing, 
the  moon  was  eclipsed, for  it  was  then  full  moon;  by  this  appearance  the  Athenian  soldier* 
were  filled  with  alarm,  and  besought  Nicias  not  to  proceed  ;  and  in  consequence  they  almost 
to  a  man  perished.  This  event  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  about  B.  C.  413.  —  Now  it 
is  found  by  calculation,  that  the  moon  was  full  at  Syracuse  the  27th  day  of  August,  B.  C.  413, 
and  that  there  must  have  been  a  total  eclipse  there,  visible  from  beginning  to  end,  and  likely 

to  produce  on  the  soldiers  the  effect  which  Thucydides  mentions. The  date  of  the  era  of 

Nabonnassar,  B.  C.  747,  is  also  determined  by  a  record  of  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  in  Ptolemy's 

Almagest  (cf.  P.  II.  §  218). In  Playfair's  System  of  Chronology,  cited  P.  II.  $7.  7.(c),  is  a 

list  of  eclipses  that  wete  observed  before  the  Christian  era. 

(b)  Precession  of  the  Equinoxes.  The  equinoxes,  being  the  points  where 
the  equator  crosses  the  ecliptic,  are  not  precisely  the  same  from  year  to  year ; 
but  they  move  backward  (i.  e.  to  the  west)  50  seconds  every  year,  or  1  degree 
in  72  years.  If,  then,  the  place  of  the  equinox  in  the  ecliptic  at  the  time  of 
any  event  is  stated,  we  may  determine  the  date  of  the  event,  by  noticing  how 
far  the  equinox  has  now  receded  from  the  place  it  then  held,  and  allowing  72 
years  for  a  degree.  The  only  objection  to  this  method  is  the  difficulty,  per- 
haps impossibility,  of  deciding  what  point  the  equinoxes  actually  did  occupy 
at  the  time  of  particular  events  in  ancient  history. 

Sir  I.  Newton  applied  this  principle  also  to  settle  the  time  of  the  Argonautic  Expedition.  — 
A  sphere,  representing  the  heavens  with  the  constellations,  is  said  by  fincient  writers  to  have 
been  formed  for  the  Argonauts,  by  Chiron  ;  on  this  sphere,  it  is  also  said,  the  equinox  was 
placed  in  the  middle  point  of  the  sign  Aries.  In  the  year  1689,  the  equinox  had  gone  back 
from  that  point  36  degrees  44  minutes  ;  this,  allowing  72  years  for  a  degree,  gives  a  period  of 
2645  years  between  the  year  1689  and  the  Expedition  ;  making  it  B.  C.  955  ;  nearly  the  same 

as  by  the  calculation  from  generations  by  the  same  author. If  it  be  stated  how  a  star  rises 

or  sets  in  relation  to  the  sun,  the  place  of  the  equinox  may  be  found,  and  dates  ascertained  in 
the  way  just  mentioned.  —  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  others  have  employed  this  to  ascertain  the 
time  when  Hesiod  lived.  In  a  passage  in  the  Works  and  Darjs  [vs.  564],  Hesiod  says,  that  Arc- 
turus  rose  at  sunset,  60  days  after  the  sun  entered  the  winter  solstice,  a  point  90  degrees  dis- 
tant from  the  equinox.  —  But  the  place  of  the  equinox  cannot  be  settled  with  certainty  in  this 
way  ;  because  it  cannot  be  certainly  known  whether  the  ancient  writer  means  his  own  time 
and  residence  or  not,  whether  he  means  true  or  apparent  rising,  or  even  what  constellation  or 
star  he  means  exactly.    Cf.  Costard,  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  xlviii.  p.  2. 

§  200.  A  third  help  in  the  fixing  of  dates  is  found  in  the  coins ,  medals ,  mon- 
uments, and  inscriptions,  which  are  preserved  for  the  benefit  of  succeeding 
ages.  These  often  throw  great  light  upon  historical  events,  and  afford  impor- 
tant aid  in  ascertaining  the  time  of  their  occurrence.  Interesting  facts  are 
sometimes  first  made  known,  and  the  period  when  they  took  place  is  often  in- 
dicated, by  the  face  of  a  medal,  or  the  representations  on  a  public  monument. 
—  Inscriptions  are  of  still  greater  service.  As  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
these  we  must  mention  the  chronicle  of  Paros,  which  fixes  the  date  of  the 


704  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

chief  events  in  Grecian  history  from  Cecrops  down  to  the  time  of  Alexander. 
(See  P.  1.  $91.4.) 

§  201.  The  fourth  source  is  furnished  by  the  testimony  of  historians,  who 
state  the  distance  between  events,  or  between  events  and  an  epoch.  The  ear- 
ly historians  paid  very  little  attention  to  the  subject  of  chronology  ;  it  was 
not  until  a  comparatively  late  period,  that  they  began  to  think  of  dates  and 
distances  of  time.  The  principal  fragments  of  the  earlier  writers,  Eratosthe- 
nes, Apollodorus,  and  Thrasyllus,  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  Chronicon  of  Eu- 
sebius,  and  the  Stromata  of  Clemens  Mexandrinus.  The  writings  of  the  By- 
zantine Chroniclers  are  also  of  service ;  particularly  the  chronological  work 
('Ex?.oyl;  Xuovoy{ja(flug)  of  Syncellus.  Tt  is  chiefly  from  this  and  the  above- 
mentioned  work  of  Eusebius.  that  the  details  of  the  commonly  received  Chro- 
nology have  been  gathered.    '(Cf.  P.  II.  §  236,  239,  288  ;  and  below,  $205.) 

§  202.  (B)  Epochs  and  Eras  employed  in  Chronology.  —  It  is  essential  to 
correct  and  exact  chronology  that  there  should  be  some  fixed  epoch,  to  which 
all  events  may  be  referred  and  be  measured  by  their  distance  from  it.  But  it 
is  of  comparatively  little  consequence  what  the  epoch  is,  provided  it  is  fixed 
and"  acknowledged,  as  it  is  perfectly  easy  to  compute  in  a  retrograde  manner 
the  time  before  it,  as  well  as  in  a  direct  manner  the  time  after  it.  An  epoch 
is  distinguished  from  an  era.  Epoch  is  the  point  of  time  which  is  taken  as  a 
starting  place  from  which  to  reckon,  and  taken  usually  because  signalized  by 
Bome  important  event.  Era  is  the  space  of  time,  that  follows  the  epoch  ;  the 
series  of  years  computed  from  it.  —  The  two  terms  may  be  interchanged  as 
nearly  synonymous,  because  every  era  has  its  epoch  and  every  epoch  its  era. 

§  203.  The  following  are  the  most  important  eras,  which  are  noticed  in 
Chronology.  —  (a)  Era  of  Olympiads.  The  Greeks  for  a  long  time  had  no 
fixed  epoch  ;  but  afterwards  reckoned  by  Olympiads,  periods  of  4  years. 
They  began  776  B.  C.  —  (b)  Era,  of  Rome.  The  Romans  often  reckoned  by 
lustrums,  often  by  the  year  of  the  consul  or  the  emperor.  The  building  of 
the  city  was  their  grand  epoch.  This  was  752  B.C.  (It  is  placed  by  some 
753  or  754.)  — (c)  Era  of  Nabonassar  (or  Belesis).  Used  by  some  historians  ; 
the  commencement  of  Nabonassar's  reign  at  Babylon,  747  B.  C.  —  (d)  Era  of 
the  Seleucida:.  From  the  reign  of  Seleucus  and  his  descendants  in  Syria.  The 
Jews  chiefly  used  this.  The  Nestorians  still  compute  from  it.  (Researches  of 
Smith  and  Dicight,  vol.  II.  p.  257.)  It  is  usually  dated  312  B.  C.  when  Seleu- 
cus recovered  Babylon,  10  years  before  the  real  commencement  of  the  king- 
dom of  Syria.  —  Cej  Era  of  Diocletian.  This  was  founded  on  the  persecution 
of  Christians  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian.  It  was  used  by  Christians  until  the 
Christian  era  was  adopted.  It  began  284  A.  D.  —  (f)  The  Christian  Era  ; 
Annus  Domini;  the  year  of  our  Lord.  This  era  is  founded  on  the  birth 
of  Christ,  but  chronologers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  year  of  his  birth  ;  some 
placing  it  seven  years  before  the  received  epoch,  others  four  years.  This,  how- 
ever, is  of  no  consequence  as  respects  the  utility  of  the  era  in  chronology, 
because  all,  who  adopt  the  Christian  era,  agree  to  call  the  same  year  by  the 
same  numerical  date;  all  meaning  (e.  g.)  identically  the  same  year  by  A.  D. 
1836.  The  era  began  to  be  used  about  A.  D.  360,  according  to  some  writers  ; 
but  others  state  that  it  was  invented  by  Dionysius,  a  monk,  A.  D.  527.  (Cf. 
Priestley's  Lect.  on  Hist,  xiv.)  — (g)  The  Mahometan  Era  or  Hegira  ;  found- 
ed on  the  flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  A.  D.  622.  — (h)  The 
Persian  Era,  or  Era  of  Yezdejerd;  founded  on  the  reign  of  a  Persian  king, 
named  Yezdejerd,  A.  D.  632. 

Perhaps  we  should  mention  here  the  Era  of  the  French  Republic,  which  the  revolutionists  at- 
tempted to  establish.  This  was  introduced  in  1793,  with  a  formal  rejection  of  the  Sabbath  and 
of  the  hebdominal  week,  and  a  novel  arrangement  and  pedantic  nomenclature  of  the  months. 
The  twenty-second  of  September  was  fixed  as  the  beginning  of  the  year.  The  year  consisted 
of  twelve  "months  of  thirty  days  each;  which  were  divided,  not  by  weeks,  but  into  three  de- 
cades, or  periods  of  ten  days.  As  this  would  comprise  but  360  days,  five  were  added  at  the 
close  of  the  last  month  of  the  year,  called  complementary  days  ;  and  at  the  close  of  every  fourth 
or  bissextile  year,  a  sixth,  called  the  day  of  the  Republic.  The  cycle  of  the  four  years  was 
termed  the  Franciade.  The  three  months  of  A  u  t  u  m  n  were  named  Vindcmiaire,  Brumaire, 
Frimaire  ;  those  of  Winter,  .Mro.se,  Plnviose,  Ventose  ;  those  of  S  p  r  i  n  g,  Germinal,  Florial, 
Prairial ;  those  of  S  u  m  m  e  r,  Me.isidor,  Thenmdor,  Fructidor.  This  infidel  calendar  was  used 
about  twelve  years.    The  Gregorian  was  restored  January  1,  1806. 

§204.    (C)  Systems  of  Arrangement  and  Chronological  Tables.  —  There  is 


SYSTEMS    OF    ARRANGEMENT.  705 

a  great  discrepancy  between  the  various  systems  of  chronology  which  have 
been  advocated  in  different  nations  and  at  different  times.  Among  the  orien- 
tal nations  there  was  a  strong  desire  for  the  honor  of  the  earliest  antiquity, 
and  hence  each  carried  back  its  chronological  dates  into  the  regions  of  mere 
fable  or  absolute  falsehood,  and  the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  Hindoos,  and 
Chinese,  present  a  list  of  events  happening  hundreds  or  thousands  of  years 
before  the  creation.  Such  systems  need  not  be  particularly  noticed  here. 
(Cf.  P.  I.  §  21.) 

§  205.  There  are  two  systems,  one  derived  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
and  the  other  from  the  Septuagint  Version,  which  are  highly  deserving  of  the 
student's  attention.  They  differ  from  each  other  considerably ;  that  drawn 
from  the  Septuagint  assigns  to  many  events  a  date  much  more  ancient  than 
that  which  follows  the  Hebrew  ;  e.  g.  the  former  places  the  flood  some  hun- 
dred years  further  from  the  Christian  era,  and  the  Creation  at  least  600  years 
further  from  the  Flood,  than  the  latter.  There  has  been  much  discussion 
among  the  learned,  concerning  the  respective  claims  of  these  two  systems. 
We  only  remark  here,  that  the  Hebrew  chronology  is  generally  adopted. 

The  system  of  Archbishop  Ushar  is  the  basis  of  the  principal  systems  for 
chronological  tables  and  charts  which  are  commonly  used.  The  system  of 
Usher  is  in  general  accordance  with  the  evidence  drawn  from  the  Hebrew  Bi- 
ble, the  Arundelian  Marbles,  and  the  Chronicon  of  Eusebius. 

The  system  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  already  been  mentioned,  and  some  of  the  methods  em- 
ployed by  him  for  fixing  dates.  This  system  assigns  many  important  events,  particularly  of 
Grecian  history,  to  periods  considerably  later  than  other  systems.  His  chronology  was  at  first 
received  with  some  favor,  but  is  not  usually  regarded,  although  Mitford  adopts  it.  See  Mit- 
ford's  Hist.  Greece,  ch.  iii.  Append.  —  Cf.  'Shuckfurd>s  Prof,  and  Sac.  Hist.  Conn.  bk.  vi.  Pref. 

We  have  already  given  the  titles  of  some  of  the  most  important  helps  on  the  subject  of  Chro- 
nology. Cf.  P.  H.  $  7.  7(c)  j  $  299.  6.  —  For  others  we  refer  to  Home's  Intro,  to  Crit.  Study 
of  Holy  Script,  vol.  n.  p.  730.  —  A  labored  defence  of  the  Septuagint  Chronology  is  made  by 
Rev.  J.  J.  Jackson,  in  his  Chronological  Antiquities.  —  See  also  Fred.  Nolan,  on  the  antiquity 
and  connection  of  the  early  cycles  and  their  utility  in  settling  the  differences  of  chronologists, 
in  Trans,  of  Royal  Soc.  of  Literature,  vol.  III.  Lond.  1837.  —  Loud.  Quart.  Rev.  vol.  v.  p.  4.  —  A. 
B.  Chapin,  Agieement  of  the  true  Biblical,  Egyptian,  and  Chaldean  Chronologies.  N.  Haven. 
1839.  pp.  16.  —  Cf.  Christ.  Spect.,  June  1837,  and  Dec.  1838. 

§  206.  Tables  and  charts  are  among  the  greatest  facilities  in  the  study  of 
history  and  chronology.  They  bring  before  the  eye,  at  a  glance,  what  can  be 
presented  but  gradually  and  slowly  hy  description;  the  locality  of  events  and 
dates  on  the  paper  also  helps  to  fix  them  more  firmly  in  the  memory.  Every 
student  ought  to  avail  himself  of  the  aid  of  a  historical  and  chronological 
chart,  either  by  purchase  or  (which  is  better)  by  actually  forming  one  himself. 

$  207.  A  great  variety  of  plans  for  charts  have  been  adopted,  possessing  greater  or  less  de- 
grees of  utility.  —  (a)  One  of  the  most  simple  and  obvious  plans  is  to  form  two  perpendicu- 
lar columns;  one  for  events  of  every  kind  ranged  promiscuously  in  order  of  occurrence  ;  the  oth- 
er for  their  corresponding  dates.  Sometimes  a  third  column  is  added  to  this  plan,  for  Biogra- 
phy. —  (b)  Another  plan,  of  similar  nature,  but  improved,  is  to  form  several  perpendiculai 
columns  ;  one  for  dates,  and  each  of  the  others  for  a  class  of  events ;  e.  g.  sovereigns  in  one, 
remarkable  events  in  another,  battles  in  another,  &c.  Such  is  the  plan  of  Worcester's  Charts. 
Both  the  plans  mentioned  may  be  marked  for  centuries  by  horizontal  lines.  —  (c)  A  third  plan 
is  the  contrivance  of  a  sort  of  tree,  whose  branches  represent  nations  ;  and  events  are  ranged 
in  them  according  to  their  dates,  the  earliest  at  the  bottom.  Such  is  the  plan  of  Eddy's  Chro- 
nology delineated.  Conquests  by  a  nation  may,  in  devices  of  this  kind,  be  exhibited  by  one 
branch  receiving  others  into  itself,  and  the  origin  of  new  states  by  branches  shooting  out  from 
others.  —  (d)  A  fourth  plan  is  marked  by  the  peculiarity  of  being  divided  into  periods,  limited 
on  each  side  by  prominent  events.  Such  is  Goodrich's  Chart.  —  (e)  A  fifth  plan,  worthy  of 
of  notice,  is  that  devised  by  Emma  Willard,  called  "  Perspective  sketch  of  the  course  of  Em- 
pire." It  is  essentially  the  Chronological  Tree  inverted  ;  the  earliest  events  being  placed  at 
the  top  of  the  chart,  and  diverging  lines  being  substituted  instead  of  the  trunk  and  branches. 
Light  and  shade  are  employed  to  indicate  the  comparative  rank  and  culture  of  different  na- 
tions.   (  Willard' s  At\a.s.   Hartford,  1836.) 

But  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  in  all  these  plans  there  are  two  grand  faults ;  1.  equal  length 
of  time  is  not  represented  by  equal  spaces  on  the  chart ;  2.  duration  is  represented  by  perpen- 
dicular lines,  while  the  horizontal  line  is  altogether  the  most  natural  and  most  satisfactory  rep- 
resentation. —  (f)  A  sixth  plan  adopts  these  two  important  improvements,  with  the  division 
into  periods,  and  the  several  columns  for  different  classes  of  events,  allowing  where  the  scale 
is  large  enough,  each  event  to  be  located  in  its  exact  place  in  the  line  of  time.  The  chief  ob- 
jection to  this  method  is  the  difficulty  of  using  a  scale  sufficiently  large  to  include  all  the  im- 
portant events  of  some  periods  without  increasing  too  much  the  size  of  the  chart  and  render- 
ing it  inconvenient  for  portable  use.  —  (g)  A  seventh  plan  unites  geography  with  the  history 
and  chronology.  This  method  is  exhibited  in  Priestley's  "  Specimen  of  a  New  Chart  of  Histo- 
ry," given  in  his  Lectures  on  History.  —  (h)  The  device  of  a  combination  of  streams  or  rivers 
is  employed  in  a  recent  chart  by  /.  /.  Hitchcock,  called  History  made  visible,  Phil.  1839,  54  inches 
by  27. 


706  *  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

§  206.  (D)  Actual  Dates  of  the  most  'prominent  events.  Nothing  occasions 
more  perplexity  and  discouragement  to  the  student  in  classical  history,  than 
the  difficulty  of  remembering  actual  dates.  Many  have  found  this  so  great 
as  to  give  over  in  despair.  But,  as  has  been  repeatedly  remarked,  accurate 
chronology  is  essential  to  the  utility,  and  it  is  no  less  so  to  the  pleasure,  oi 
reading  history.  And  the  difficulty  complained  of  is  by  no  means  insuperable. 

Various  expedients  to  aid  the  memory  have  been  invented  ($210);  but  on 
the  whole,  the  writer  knows  of  none  better  than  to  take  a  glance  over  the 
whole  field  of  past  time,  select  a  few  grand  events  which  stand  out  as  land- 
marks, associate  these  events  with  their  dates,  and  commit  them  to  memory 
with  perfect  exactness,  making  them  as  familiar  as  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
Any  person  of  common  capacity  can  do  this ;  and  the  student  who  wishes  to 
lay  any  foundation  at  all  for  historical  knowledge  must  do  at  least  as  much  as 
this.  This  being  done,  he  will  find  it  comparatively  easy  to  locate  the  va- 
rious events,  which  he  may  read  about  or  learn  from  time  to  time,  in  their 
proper  place  between  these  grand  events  whose  dates  are  thus  fixed  in  the 
memory. 

§  209.  With  these  views  the  following  outline,  in  which  it  seemed  desira- 
ble to  include  modern  chronology,  is  offered  to  the  student,  to  be  perfectly 
committed  to  memory. 

The  learner  Is  advised  to  draw  it  off  on  a  roll  of  paper  prepared  for  the  purpose  ;  using  a 
horizontal  line  to  represent  the  flowing  or  progress  of  time.  Let  this  Km  be  divided  into  equal 
spaces,  each  representing  an  equal  length  of  time  ;  let  the.  dates  of  the  events  be  distinctly- 
written  exactly  at  the  points  in  the  line  where  they  bclon?  according  to  this  equal  division  ;  and 
let  the  events  also  be  written  directly  above  or  under  the  dates. 

Brief  Outline.  Chronology  is  Ancient  or  Modern.  Ancient  includes 
the  whole  time  before  Christ,  comprehending  4004  years.  Modern  includes 
the  whole  time  since  Christ. 

I.  Ancient  Chronology  is  divided  into  two  portions  by  the  Flood ;  Ante- 
diluvian ages,  the  portion  before  the  flood,  and  Postdiluvian  ages,  the  portion 
after  the  flood. — The  Antediluvian  ages  maybe  considered  as  containing 
only  one  period  ;  the  Postdiluvian  ages  as  containing  eight  periods.  The  grand 
events  and  periods  are  the  following. 

Of  the  Antediluvian  ages, 
The  one  period  is  from  Creation 

to  Deluge 

Of  the  Postdiluvian  ages,  the 
1st  period,  is  from  Deluge  to  Calling  of  Abraham 

2d  period,  from  Calling  of  Abraham  to  Escape  of  Israelites 
3d  period,  from  Escape  of  Israelites  to  Building  of  Temple 
4th  period,  from  Building  of  Temple  to  Founding  of  Rome 
5th  period,  from  Founding  of  Rome    to  Battle  of  Marathon 
6th  period,  from  Battle  of  Marathon    to  Reign  of  Alexander 
7th  period,  from  Reign  of  Alexander  to  Capture  of  Carthage  B 
tith  period,  from  Capture  of  Carthage  to  Coming  of  Christ. 

II.  Modern  Chronology  is  divided  into  three  Idistinct  portions  by  the 
Fall  of  Rome  and  the  Fall  of  Constantinople  ;  Early  Ages,  the  portion  before 
the  Fall  of  Rome  ;  Middle  Ages,  the  portion  between  the  Fall  of  Rome  and 
the  Fall  of  Constantinople  ;  Recent  Ages,  the  portion  since  the  Fall  of  Con- 
stantinople.—  The  early  ages  maybe  considered  as  containing  two  periods ; 
the  middle  ages,  five  periods  ;  and  the  recent  ages  five  periods.  The  grand 
events  and  periods  are  the  following. 

Of  the  Early  ages,  the 

1st  period  is  from  Christ  to  the           Reign  of  Constantine  A.  D.  306  ; 

2d  period,  from  Reign  of  Constan.  to  Fall  of  Rome  A.  D.  476. 

Of  the  Middle  ages,  the 

1st  period  is  from  Fall  of  Rome        to  Flight  of  Mahomet  A.D.  622 
2d  period,  from  Flight  of  Mahomet  to  Crowning  of  CharlemagneA.D.  800 

3d  period,  from  Crown,  of  Charlem.  to  Landing  of  William  A. D.  1066 

4th  period,  from  Landing  of  William  to  Overthrow  of  Saracens  A.D.  1258 

5th  period,  from  Overthr.  of  Sarac.  to  Fall  of  Constantinople  A.D.  1453 


B. 

C, 

4004, 

B. 

C. 

2348. 

B 

c. 

1921 

B. 

c 

1492 

B 

c. 

1004 

B. 

c. 

752 

B. 

c. 

490 

B. 

c. 

336 

B. 

c. 

146 

ARTIFICIAL    MEMORY.  707 

Of  the  Recent  ages,  the 
1st  period  is 

From  Fall  of  Constantinople  to  Abdication  of  Charles  Fifth  A.  D.  1556; 
2d  period, 

from  Abdic.  of  Charles  5th  to  Restoration  of  Charles  Second  A.  D.  1660) 
3d  period^ 

from  Restor.  of  Charles  2d  to  Independence  of  UnitedStates  A.  D.  1776} 
4th  period, 

from  Independ.  of  U.  States  to  Downfall  of  Bonaparte  A.  D.1815} 

5th  period,  from  Downfall  of  Bonaparte  to  the  Present  Time. 

§  210.  But  it  is  perhaps  due  to  the  scholar  to  mention  here  some  of  the  expedients,  above  al- 
luded to  (§208),  which  have  been  devised  to  assist  in  the  recollection  of  dates.  We  will 
briefly  notice  three  different  systems  of  artificial  memory. 

1.  The  first  is  that  of  Dr.  Grey,  whose  Memoria  Technica  has  generally  met  with  the  most 
favorable  reception.  "  As  this  method  "  says  Priestley,  "  is  so  easily  learned  and  may  be  of 
such  use  in  recollecting  dates,  I  think  all  persons  of  a  liberal  education  inexcusable,  who  will 
hot  take  the  small  degree  of  pains  that  is  necessary  to  make  themselves  masters  of  it."  The 
expedient  is  to  substitute  letters  for  figures,  and  form  of  these  letters  a  syllable  or  word,  and 
associate  it  with  the  name  of  the  persons,  the  date  of  whose  birth,  reign,  death  or  the  like  you 
Wish  to  remember,or  with  a  prominent  term  or  word  connected  with  an  event  to  be  remembered. 
The  following  is  Dr.  Grey's  substitution  alphabet,  in  which  each  of  the  ten  numerical  characters 
has  its  consonant  and  its  vowel  or  diphthong ;  1,  a  b ;  2,  e  d ;  3,  t  i  ;  4,  /,  o  ;  5,  I  u  j  6,s  au ;  7,poi) 
8,  k  ei ;  9,  n  ou ;  0,  z  y.  To  remember  the  date  of  the  founding  of  Rome  by  this  system,  substi- 
tute for  752  such  letters  as  will,  according  to  the  above  alphabet,  represent  752  ;  e.  g.pud,  and 
join  the  syllable  thus  formed  to  the  word  Rome  or  a  part  of  the  word,  thus  Rom-pud.  The 
Very  oddness  and  uncouthness  of  this  combination  will  sometimes  impress  it  on  the  memory. 
To  remember  the  date  of  the  Deluge  2348,  we  may  form  the  word  Del-etok  ;  of  the  battle  of 
Marathon  490,  Marath-ony,  or  Mara-/ouz.  Where  a  series  of  dates  of  successive  events  are  to  be 
fixed  in  memory,  this  system  recommends  the  uniting  of  the  barbarous  words  thus  formed  in 
Hexameter  verses  ;  which,  however,  the  student  must  understand,  are  to  be  committed  to 
memory  ;  these  are  called  memorial  lines. — See  R.  Gr  e  y's  Memoria  Technica,  or  Method  of  arti- 
ficial  Memory.    fWith  L  o  w  e's  Mnemonics)  Lond.  1812.  8.     Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  ix.  125. 

2.  The  second  method  is  a  system  of  topical  memory,  including  also  the  substitution  of  let- 
ters for  figures.  The  principle  of  the  topical  method  is  to  conceive  a  certain  number  of  places 
in  a  room,  or  in  some  limited  space  marked  by  sensible  objects  ;  and  conceive  these  places  as 
arranged  in  a  certain  fixed  order  ;  and  then  whatever  successive  events  or  objects  one  wishes 
to  remember,  throw,  in  imagination,  some  pictures  of  or  concerning  them,  in  their  proper  order, 
into  these  conceived  places.  Such  is  the  principle  of  Feinaigle's  Art  of  Memory.  By  this 
a  four-sided  room  is  divided  into  fifty  ideal  squares  ;  those  who  wish  a  more  capacious  memory 
may  take  also  a  second  story  having  50  squares  more,  numbered  up  to  a  hundred  ;  and  one 
may  go  on  so  ascending  through  as  many  stories  as  he  chooses.  JVine  squares  are  to  be  placed 
on  the  floor  of  the  room,  and  nine  on  each  of  the  four  walls,  thus  making/orry-./r»e  ;  the  other 
Jive  on  the  ceiling  above  :  the  squares  on  the  floor  number  from  1  to  9  ;  the  square  numbered 

10  is  put  on  the  ceiling  over  the  wall  supposed  to  be  on  your  left  hand,  and  the  next  nine  squares 
from  11  to  19  are  on  the  left  hand  wall  under  it ;  the  square  20  is  on  the  ceiling  over  the  wall 
opposite  in  front  of  you,  and  the  next  nine  from  21  to  29  on  that  wall  under  it ,-  the  square  30, 
and  the  next  nine  from  31  to  39  are  put  in  like  manner  on  the  right  hand  ;  and  the  square  40, 
and  the  next  nine  from  41  to  49  behind  you  ;  the  remaining  square  50  is  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  ceiling.  In  each  of  these  squares  a  picture  of  some  visible  object  is  located  ;  e.  g.  in  1,  a 
pump  ;  in  2,  a  swan  ;  in  3,  a  man  using  a  spade.  This  scheme  of  squares,  numbers,  and  pictures 
is  first  to  be  committed  to  memory.  Then  if  one  would  remember  by  aid  of  the  system  the  date 
e.  g.  of  the  kings  of  England,  he  would  create- in  his  mind  a  picture  in  connection  with  each 
one  of  them,  throw  these  pictures  in  imagination  into  the  squares  in  the  exact  order  of  the  re- 
gal succession,  and  associate  the  picture  pertaining  to  the  king  with  the  picture  fixed  in  the 
square  to  which  he  falls ;  in  forming  the  new  picture  two  things  are  important ;  it  should  be  so 
conceived  as  to  have  some  casual  or  slight  association  suggesting  the  name  of  the  king,  and  also 
suggesting  at  the  same  time  a  word  or  phrase,  which  is  devised  by  the  person  along  with  the 
ideal  picture,  and  which  expresses  the  date  according  to  an  alphabet  of  letters  substituted  for 
figures.  E.  g.  to  remember  the  date  of  Henry  7th,  it  is  said  the  ideal  picture  of  7  hens  is  a  good 
one  for  the  purpose  ;  the  square  to  which  he  is  assigned  is  29  ;  the  picture  fixed  in  this  square 
fin  the  engraved  illustration  of  the  system^  is  a  woman  spinning  on  a  small  wheel ;  these  two 
pictures  then  are  to  be  somehow  bound  together,  and  it  may  be  thus,  the  woman  spinning  sees 
7  hens  ;  the  next  thihg  is  to  form  a  word  or  phrase  indicative  of  the  date  ;  and  by  the  alphabet 
adopted  in  this  system,  "  The  oa.kr&il"  is  such  a  phrase ;  the  remaining  step  in  this  process 
of  storage  in  the  memory  is  to  bind  the  phrase  to  the  pictures,  which  may  be  done  by  imagining 
that  the  woman  spinning  s  e  e  s  7  hens  on  The  oak  rail.— The  following  is  the  substitution  alpha- 
bet ;  1,  b  c  ;  2,  df;  3,  g  h  f  4,  j  k  z  ,•  5, 1 ;  b,mn;  l,yq;  8,r  s  ;  9,  t  v  ;  0,  w  x  ;  and  100,  St , 
1,000,  Th  :  100,000,  Y.  —  See  The  New  Art  of  Memory,  founded  on  the  principles  of  F  e  i  n  a  i  - 
gle,  illustrated  hy  engravings.    Lond.  1813.  8.  2d  ed.     Cf.  Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  as  above  cited. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  here,  that  the  ancients,  particularly  the  Roman  orators,  made  use 

of  a  system  of  topical  memory.    Quintilian  gives  an  account  of  a  system,  in  which  the  various 

?arts  of  a  spacious  mansion  are  employed  somewhat  as  the  several  squares  in  the  method  of 
'einaigle.  The  things  to  be  remembered  were  connected  by  association  with  certain  types,  and 
these  being  arranged  in  order  were  assigned  to  the  different  parts  of  the  house  ;  "  they  assign  " 
says  he, "  the  first  idea  they  wish  to  remember  to  the  portico,  the  second  to  the  hall ;  then 
they  go  round  the  inner  courts  ;  nor  do  they  only  commit  these  associatons  to  the  bed* 
fcooms  and  antirooms,  but  even  to  the  furniture.    When  they  wish  to  recollect  these  as* 


708  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

sociations  they  recur  mentally  to  those  places  in  order  from  thebeginhihg,  and  regain  ever? 
sensible  type,  which  they  had  entrusted  to  each  particular  spot,  and  this  type  at  once  sug- 
gests the  idea  connected  with  it." 

3.  The  third  system  is  the  Efficacious  Method  of  Mr.  Halhcorth.  In  this  plan  a  substitution  of 
letters  for  figures  is  employed.  Its  peculiarity  consists  in  this,  that  instead  of  forming  mere 
barbarous  and  unmeaning  words,  like  that  of  Grey,  or  words  artificially  associated  with  some 
image  or  picture,  like  that  of  Feinaigle,  a  significant  sentence  is  formed,  which  states  the 
event  to  be  remembered  and  concludes  with  a  word  or  phrase,  that  expresses  something  char- 
acteristic of  the  event,  and  at  the  same  time,  when  interpreted  according  to  the  substitution 
alphabet,  denotes  the  date.  The  alphabet  of  Hall  worth  is  the  following  ,-  1,  b  c  ;  2,  df;  3,  g,  A, 
gh  :  4,  k  1 :  5,  m  n  .•  6,  p,  r  :  7,  s  sk  .•  8,  t,  cht  9,bwj,  Used  as  consonants  ;  0,  th  ph  ich,  and  also 
7  x  y  z.  In  forming  words  the  vowels  are  used,  just  as  may  be  convenient,  without  having  any 
significancy  ;  the  consonants  alone  being  considered  in  expressing  a  date  ;  thus  church 
[chrch]  signifies  868;  troop  [trj>],  866.  To  recollect  by  this  method  the  date  e.g.  of  the 
Flood,  the  following  sentence  is  formed  ;  The  deluge  comes  and  men  die  guilty;  the  phrase 
die  guilty  expresses  the  date,  as  the  consonants  dglt  represent  2348.  —  For  greater  conven- 
ience and  scope  in  forming  the  characteristic  phrases,  the  plan  admits  articles,  prepositions,  and 
conjunctions  to  be  used,  like  the  vowels,  without  significancy  ;  e.  g.  Abel  fell  a  sacrifice  to 
Cain's  hate  and  sin:  htsn,  3875.  Mr.  Hallworth  has  taught  his  system  by  lectures  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country,  and  has  published  several  little  books  in  which  its  principles  are 
explained  and  applied.  —  See  T.  Hallworth,s  Efficacious  Method  of  acquiring,  retaining,  and 
communicating  Historical  and  Chronological  Knowledge,  N.  Y.  1824. — Hallitorth's  method 
applied  to  General  Ancient  History.  —  Also  to  Sacred  History,  &c.  —  History  of  the  United 
States. 

§  211.  We  shall  complete  our  design,  in  reference  to  the  actual  dates  of  events 
in  ancient  and  classical  history,  by  a  rapid  glance  at  the  Chronology  of  the 
principal  states  of  ancient  times. — We  will  mention  first  those  whose  capitals 
-were  in  Asia.  The  principal  Asiatic  states  or  kingdoms  were  eight ;  the 
Assyrian  ;  the  Jeitiish  ;  the  Trojan  ;  the  Lydian  ;  the  Phoenician ;  the  Persian  ', 
the  Syrian;  and  the  Parthian. 


I.  The  Assyrian.  This  is  considered  as  having  commenced  with  the 
building  of  Babylon  by  Nimrod,  B.  C.  2217.  The  1st  period  of  its  history 
may  be  that  from  Nimrod  to  Ninias,  B.  C.  1945. 

In  this  period  reigned  the  celebrated  queen  Semiramis,  mother  of  Ninias.  Under  her  the 
empire  gained  its  greatest  extent ;  reaching  on  the  east  to  the  sources  of  the  Oxus  and  the  In- 
dus, including  Persia,  Media  and  Bactriana  :  comprising  on  the  West  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor  to  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  limited  on  the  north  only  by  mount~Caucasus. 
and  on  the  south  by  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  Generally,  however,  the  Assyrian  empire  included 
only  the  three  countries  in  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  viz.  Mesopotamia,  Assyria, 
and  Babylonia. 

The  2d  period  may  be  that  from  Mnias  to  Sardanapalus.  who  died  B.  C. 
747. 

This  long  period,  of  about  1200  years,  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  During  it  33  kings  are 
said  to  have  reigned.-* On  the  death  of  Sardajiapalus,  three  kingdoms  were  formed  out  of  the 
empire  ;  the  Assyrian,  with  Nineveh  as  its  capital  ;  the  Babylonian,  With  Babylon  for  its  capi- 
tal ;  and  the  Median,  having  Ecbactana  for  its  capital.  It  may  be  proper,  however,  to  consider 
the  Assyrian  monarchy  as  still  continuing;  and 

The  3d  period  may  be  that  from  Sardanapalus  to  Esarhaddon,  B.  C.  681. 

During  this  period  of  66  years  4  kings  reigned  in  Nineveh,  of  whom  Esarhaddon  was  the 
last ;  and  10  kings  reigned  at  Babylon.  During  this  time  the  Assyrian  history  was  intimately 
connected  with  that  of  the  Israelites.  In  the  year  B.  C.  681,  Esarhaddon  united  together  two 
of  the  three  kingdoms,  viz.  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian. 

The  4th  and  last  period  extends  from  Esarhaddon  to  Cyrus  the  Great,  B.  C. 
636. 

At  this  time  the  united  kingdom  was  subjected  to  Persia.  —  At  the  same  time,  also,  Cyrus 
united  to  Persia  the  kingdom  of  Media,  which  had  continued  its  separate  existence  from  the 
death  of  Sardanapalus. 

For  a  general  view  of  the  Assyrian  history  ;  RoUin's  Ancient  History,  bk.  iii.  —  Millot's  Ele- 
ments of  History,  vol.  i.  p.  62.  (Ed.  Edinb.  1823.  5  vols.  8.)  — The  English  Universal  History. 
Lond.  1779-83.  50  Vols.  8.  (18  vols.  Ancient.)  Vol.  in.  —  Prideaux,  Connection  of  the  O.  and  N. 
Testament,  (for  the  time  from  Sardanapalus  to  Cyrus.)— Berosus  &x.  in  Cory,  cited  P.  II.  $  236. 
—  Heeren,  Historical  Researches  into  the  Politics  and  Commerce  of  the  Carthaginians,  Ethio- 
pians, Egyptians,  &c.  Oxf.  1830.  2  vols.  8.  Transl.  from  his  Ideen,  cited  P.  I.  $  171.  —  Saintc 
Croix,  La  ruine  de  Babylon,  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  vol.  ilviii.  p.  1. — ^For  Assyria,  and 
likewise  for  the  several  states  and  empires  to  be  mentioned,  we  also  refer  to  Heereri's  States 
of  Antiquity,  cited  $  215.  6.  —  Cf.  also  Meusel,  cited  P.  II.  £  240. 


II.  The  Jewish.  The  history  of  this  nation  begins  with  Abraham,  B.  C. 
1921.  It  may  be  divided  into  eight  periods.  The  1st  period  extends  from 
Abraham  to  the  entrance  into  Canaan  under  Joshua,  B.  C.  1451. 

During  this  period  they  remained  a  nomadic  nation. 


EIGHT    PRINCIPAL    STATES    OF    ASIA.  709 

The  2d  period  includes  the  time  from  Joshua  to  the  death  of  Samuel,  B.  C. 
1060. 

During  this  period  the  nation  was  under  the  government  of  the  judges  and  priests.  Samuel 
was  the  last  of  the  judges.  Saul,  the  first  king,  was  anointed  as  such  some  time  before  Sam- 
uel's death. 

The  3d  period  is  from  Samuel  to  the  separation  of  the  nation  into  the  two 
kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  by  the  Revolt  under  Jeroboam,  B.  C.  975. 

This  was  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the  Jewish  monarchy,  marked  by  the  reigns  of  Da 
vid  and  Solomon,  and  by  the  building  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  the  capital.  —  Respecting 
these  reigns,  see  Christ.  Spectator,  iv.  131 ;  v.  528. 

The  4th  period  may  include  the  history  from  the  Revolt  until  the  Restora- 
tion from  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  B.  C.  536. 

The  two  kingdoms  continued  separate  until  their  destruction  by  the  Babylonians.  The  ten 
tribes  of  Israel,  whose  capital  was  Samaria,  were  carried  into  captivity  by  Salmanazar,  B.  C. 
721 ;  the  two  tribes  of  Judah,  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  B.  C.  606.  During  this  time  19  kings  reigned 
over  Judah  at  Jerusalem.  The  seventy  years  of  the  captivity  are  dated  from  the  conquest  of 
Judah  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

The  5th  period  reaches  from  the  Restoration  by  Cyrus,  to  the  Submission  of 
the  Jews  to  Alexander,  B.  C.  332. 

During  this  period  the  Jews  had  continued  in  a  state  of  at  least  partial  dependence  on  the 
throne  of  Persia. 

The  6th  period  is  from  Alexander  to  the  Re-establishment  of  an  independ- 
ent monarchy  under  the  Maccabees,  B.  C.  168. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  and  the  division  of  his  empire,  made  B.  C.  301,  the  Jews  were 
claimed  by  Syria  and  by  Egypt,  and  exposed  to  the  invasion  or  oppression  of  both.  —  The  per- 
secution of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  provoked  the  general  revolt  which  led  to  the  reestablishment 
of  independence. 

.  The  7th  period  is  from  the  Maccabees  until  the  time  of  the  Roman  interference 
under  Pompey,  B.  C.  63. 

During  this  period  the  monarchy  was  maintained,  but  with  many  unhappy  dissensions. 

The  8th  and  last  period  is  from  the  first  conquests  of  Pompey  to  the  final 
Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  A.  D.  70. 

For  the  Jewish  history;  the  historical  books  of  the  O.  Testament.  —  Berruyer,  Histoire  dn 
peuple  de  Dieu  &c.  Par.  1742.  10  vols.  Q.—Basnage,  Histoire  des  Juifs  &c.  Haye,  1716.  15  volg. 
12.  —  Prideaux,  Connect,  of  the  O.  and  N.  Testament.  The  French  translation,  said  to  be  bet  - 
ter  than  the  English  original,  is  entitled  Histoire  des  Juifs  et  des  peuples  voisins  depuis  la  de- 
cadence des  Royaumes  d'Israel  et  de  Juda  &c.  Amst.  1725.  5  vols.  8.  —  J.  L.  Bauer,  Handbuci 
-der  Geschichte  der  Hebr.  Nation  &c.  Niirnb.  1800.  2  vols.  8.  valuable.  —  H.  H.  Milman,  Histo- 
ry of  the  Jews.  (Am.  ed.)  N.  Y.  1830.  3  vols.  18.  Cf.  North  Amer.  Rev.  vol.  xxm.  p.  234.  — 
John,  Hebrew  Commonwealth.  Transl.  from  German,  by  C.  E.  Stowe.  And.  1828.  8. 


III.  The  Trojan.  Its  origin  is  involved  in  darkness  and  fables,  but  is 
placed  as  early  at  least  as  B.  C.  1400.  Of  its  chronology  we  can  only  say, 
that  the  state  was  destroyed  by  the  Greeks  in  the  reign  of  Priam,  about 
B.  C.  1184.  y  * 

The  history  of  Troy  consists  of  traditions  preserved  by  the  poets.  Cf.  P.  III.  §  132.  — Mit- 
fords's  Greece,  ch.  i. 


IV.  The  L  y  d  i  a  n.  This  commenced  about  B.  C.  1400.  Three  dynasties 
of  kings  are  said  to  have  reigned,  yet  little  is  known  of  the  history  until  the 
reign  of  Crcesus  ;  and  under  him  the  kingdom  was  destroyed  by  Cyrus,  B. 
C  536. 

The  capital  was  Sardis.  The  kingdom  was  in  the  time  of  Croesus  very  rich  and  powerful ; 
its  fate  was  decided  by  the  battle  of  Thymbra. 

For  the  Lydian  history  ;  The  English  Universal  History,  vol.  iv.  as  above  cited.  —  Freret,  on 
*he  battle  of  Thymbra,  with  a  plate,  in  the  Mem,  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.  vol.  vi.  p.  532. 


V.  The  P  h  03  n  i  c  i  a  n.  This  was  in  existence  in  the  time  of  David,  under 
a  king  named  Abikal,  B.  C.  1050.  The  state  continued  until  the  Capture  oj 
Tyre  by  Alexander,  B.  C.  332. 

Phoenicia  seems  not  to  have  formed  properly  one  state,  but  to  have  contained  several  cities 
tvith  petty  kings  or  princes,  of  which  Tyre  stood  at  the  head. 

On  the  Phoenician  history  ;  Sanconiathon  &.c.  cf.  P.  II.  $238.  —  Rees,  Cyclopaedia,  under  Pha- 

60 


710  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

nice.  —  Mignot,  Sur  les  Pheniciens  (several  dissertations),  in  the  Mem.  Acad.  Instf.  vols,  txxir 
-xjlii.  —  The  English  Univ.  Hist.  —  Also  11th  vol.  of  Hecren's  Works.  Gdtt.  1824. 


VI.  The  Persian.  Its  history  is  obscure  and  its  power  insignificant  un- 
til the  time  of  Cyrus  the  elder,  B.  C.  536.  We  maj>  include  the  whole  his- 
tory after  this  date  in  two  periods. 

The  1st  period  extends  from  Cyrus  to  Xerxes,  who  invaded  Greece,  and 
was  defeated  in  the  famous  Battle  of  Salamis,  B.  C.  480. 

In  this  period,  under  Darius  Hystaspes,  the  father  of  Xerxes,  the  Persian  empire  attained  its 
greatest  extent ;  reaching  to  the  Indus  on  the  east,  to  the  Jaxartes  and  Mt.  Caucasus  on  the? 
north,  and  including  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Libya.  The  capitals  were  Babylon,  Susay 
Ecbatana,  and  Persepolis  (cf.  §  153,  154,  170),  the  royal  court  being  held  sometimes  in  one  and 
sometimes  another  of  these  places. 

The  2d  period  extends  from  Xerxes  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  empire 
by  Alexander  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Codomannus,  B.  C.  331. 

About  the  middle  of  this  period  occurred  the  expedition  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  described  in 
the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon  ;  Cyrus  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  B.  C.  401.  —  Alexander  com- 
pleted the  subjugation  of  Persia  by  the  victory  at  Arbela,  B.  C.  331. 

For  the  Persian  history  ;  Rollings  Anc.  Hist.  bk.  iv.  and  following.  —Millofs  Elements,  voL 
i.  p.  88,  ed.  before  cited.  — The  Universal  History,  before  cited,  vol.  iv,  and  ix.  —  Brissonius, 
de  regno  Persarum.  1591.8.  —  Hyde,  Rliode,  $c.  cited  P.  II.  $  183.  3.  —  Herder's  Persepolis  in 
his  Works.  —  Heeren,  as  above  cited.  —  Grotefend,  &c.  cited  P.  I.  §  18.  4.  —J.  B.  Fraier,  Hist/ 
of  Persia,  in  Harper's  Fam.  Library,  No.  lxx.  —  Sir  J.  Malcolm,  Hist,  of  Persia  from  the  earli- 
est period  &c.  Lond.  1829.  2  vols.  8.  2d  ed. 


VII.  The  Syrian;  or  the  Kingdom  of  the  Seleucida.  This  was  one  of 
the  four  monarchies  formed  out  of  the  empire  of  Alexander.  It  was  com- 
menced after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  B.  C.  301.  We  may 
include  its  history  in  two  periods. 

The  1st  period  is  from  Seleucus  Nicator  to  the  time  of  the  collision  with  the 
Romans  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  B.  C.  190. 

The  capital  of  this  kingdom  was  Antioch.  The  territory  under  its  sway  included  the  north- 
ern part  of  Syria  ;  all  Asia  Minor,  except  Bithynia  ;  Armenia,  Media,  Parthia,  Bactriana,  In- 
dia, Persia,  and  the  vjJley  of  the  Euphrates.— Antiochus  was  brought  into  a  war  with  the  Ro- 
mans especially  by  protecting  Hannibal.  His  defeat,  in  the  battle  of  Magnesia,  B.  C.  190,  de- 
prived him  of  part  of  his  territories  and  greatly  weakened  the  kingdom. 

The  2d  period  extends  from  Antiochus  the  Great  to  the  complete  conquest 
of  Syria  by  the  Romans  under  Pompey,  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Asiati- 
cus,  B.  C.  69. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  period  occurred  the  revolt  of  the  Jews  under  the  Maccabees,  B.  C. 
168,  in  consequence  of  the  persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  —  The  throne  of  this  king- 
dom, on  its  overthrow  by  the  Romans,  had  been  held  by  23  successive  kings,  most  of  them 
lawful  heirs  of  the  house  of  the  Seleucidae. 

For  the  Syrian  history  ;  Vaillant,  Imperium  Seleucidarum,  cited  P.  L  §  93.  1.  —  Frolich,  An- 
nates rerum  Syriee.   Vienn.  1754.  —  The  Universal  Hist,  above  cited,  vol.  8th  of  the  Ancient. 


VIII.  The  Parthian;  or  the  Arsacidcc.  The  Parthians  occupying  the 
country  on  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Caspian,  were  subject  to  Persia  when 
conquered  by  Alexander.  On  the  division  of  his  empire,  they  fell  to  the  share 
of  Seleucus  JVicator.  But  under  the  3d  king  of  Syria  they  revolted  and  estab- 
lished an  independent  kingdom  under  Arsaces,  B.  C.  256. 

The  Parthians  were  constantly  at  war  with  the  Syrians,  and  afterwards  with  the  Romans  ; 
hut  could  not  be  conquered.  They  obtained  dominion  from  Armenia  to  the  Indian  ocean, 
and  from  Syria  to  the  river  Indus  ;  including  Bactriana,  Persia,  the  coantries  in  the  valley  of 
the  Euphrates,  and  Armenia.     Their  capital  was  Hecatompylos. 

The  Parthian  kingdom  continued  until  the  revolt  of  the  Persians,  who  de- 
throned the  Arsacidae,  and  established  the  kingdom  of  Modern  Persia,  A/ 
D.  223. 

For  the  Parthian  history  ;  Vaillant,  as  cited  P.  I.  $  93.  —  C.  F.  Richter,  Historisch-kritischetf 
Versuch  iiber  die  Arsaciden-und-Sassaniden-Dynastie  &c.  Lpz.  1804. 


§  212.  We  will  notice  next  the  states,  whose  capitals  were  in  Africa.     Of 
these  we  have  but  two  of  importance ;   the  Egyptian  and  the  Carthaginian. 


TWO  STATES  OF  AFRICA.   EGYPT  AND  CARTHAGE.       711 

I.  The  Egyptian.  The  first  king  named  in  the  Egyptian  dynasty  is 
Menes,  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Mizraim,  son  of  Ham  and 
grandson  of  Noah  ;  he  settled  in  Egypt  about  B.  C.  2200.  With  this  date  the 
real  chronology  of  Egypt  commences. 

A  most  absurd  and  ridiculous  antiquity  was  assigned  to  this  kingdom  by  two  Egyptian  works 
now  lost ;  one  was  the  Old  Chronicle,  cited  by  Syncellus  (§  201) ;  the  other  the  work  of  Man«- 
tho,  cited  by  Eusebius  (cf.  P.  EL  $  236). 

The  1st  period  in  the  Egyptian  history  may  be  that  extending  from  Menes 
to  the  Escape  of  the  Israelites,  B.  C.  1492. 

Of  this  period  profane  history  gives  us  no  connected  or  satisfactory  account.  Most  that  can 
be  relied  on  is  to  be  drawn  from  the  incidental  notices  found  in  the  Bible.  Some  chronologera 
place  the  celebrated  Sesostris  at  the  close  of  this  period  ;  some  consider  him  to  be  the  Pharaoh 
that  was  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea. 

The  2d  period  includes  the  time  from  the  Exodus  to  the  reign  of  Psammet- 
icus,  B.  C.  670,  when  the  history  begins  to  be  authentic. 

No  connected  history  has  been  preserved  of  this  period,  and  we  are  here  also  much  indebted 
for  what  we  know,  to  the  accounts  in  the  Scriptures.  —Twelve  different  governments  under 
12  different  chiefs  are  said  to  have  been  united  under  Psammeticus. 

The  3d  period  extends  from  the  time  of  Psammeticus  to  the  conquest  of 
Egypt  by  the  Persian  king  Cambyses,  son  and  successor  of  Cyrus,  B.  C.525. 

The  Egyptian  history  now  becomes  more  luminous.  Herodotus  is  the  principal  authority. 
The  art  of  writing  and  the  use  of  the  papyrus  as  a  material  were  now  common. 

The  4th  period  includes  the  portion  of  time  from  Cambyses  to  the  conquest 
of  Egypt  by  Alexander,  B.  C.  332. 

After  the  time  of  Cambyses  Egypt  had  been  made  a  Persian  satrapy,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  instances  of  revolt,  in  one  of  which  the  throne  was  partially  re-established,  had  con- 
tinued subject  to  Persia  until  it  now  changed  masters. 

The  5th  period  is  from  Alexander  to  the  subjection  of  the  country  to  the 
Romans,  resulting  from  the  victory  of  Augustus  in  the  battle  of  Actium, 
B.  C.  31. 

Alexander  appointed  Ptolemy,  one  of  his  generals,  governor  of  Egypt ;  and  Ptolemy,  after 
the  death  of  Alexander,  became  king  of  the  country  B.  C.  323,  and  commenced  the  dynasty  of 
the  Ptolemies,  who  retained  the  throne  until  Cleopatra,  associating  her  fortunes  with  Antony, 
lost  it  by  the  success  of  her  lover's  rival.  —  Thebes  and  Memphis  had  been  the  capitals  in  the 
previous  periods.  In  this,  Alexandria,  founded  by  Alexander,  was  made  the  seat  of  the  new 
court.  —  Egypt  remained  a  part  of  the  Roman  empire,  until  it  was  wrested  away  by  the  Sara- 
pens,  A.  D.  640. 

For  the  Egyptian  history  ;  Rollin's  Anc.  Hist.  bk.  i.—Marsham,  as  cited  P.  II.  $  236.— CAanj- 
pollion  le  jeune,  L'Egypte  sous  les  Pharaons  &x.  Par.  1814.  2  vols.  8.  (for  period  before  Camby- 
ses.) —For  the  period  after  Alexander,  Vaillant,  Historia  Ptolemaeorum,  cited  P.  I.  §  93.  1.  — 

Champollion  Figeac,  Annales   des  Lagides  &c.  Par.  1819.  2  vols.  8. Cf.  Mavors,  Universal 

History,  vol.  i.  (ed.  N.  Y.  1804.  25  vols.  12.)  —  Also  the  Universal  History  before  cited,  vol.  |. 
and  vin.  —  M.  Russel,  View  of  Egypt.—  Cf.  $  177. 


II.  The  Carthaginian.  The  chronology  of  Carthage  may  be  naturally 
divided  into  three  periods. 

The  1st  period  is  from  its  Foundation  by  Dido,  B.  C.  880,  to  the  beginning 
of  the  wars  of  Syracuse  in  the  time  of  the  Syracusan  king  Gelon,  B.  C.  480. 

In  this  period  the  following  points  are  worthy  of  notice;  (a)  the  origin  of  the  city  Carthage,  by  a 
Tyrian  colony  under  Dido,  in  whose  story  much  fable  is  mingled  ;  (b)  the  pursuits  of  the  people; 
commercial,  like  those  of  the  Phoenicians ;  they  had  intercourse  by  sea  with  Britain  and  Guin- 
ea, by  caravans  with  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  through  Egypt  with  the  eastern  world  ;  (c) 
their  conquests ;  their  commercial  pursuits  led  them  to  seek  possession  of  the  islands  and  coasts 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  they  gained  Sardinia,  Corsica,  the  Baleares,  also  the  Canary  Isles 
and  Madeira  in  the  Atlantic,  and  many  places  in  Spain,  and  the  northern  coast  of  Africa;  the 
Chief  conquests  were  effected  by  Mago,  and  his  sons  and  grandsons  ;  (d)  the  form  of  govern- 
ment ;  it  was  a  republic,  but  of  a  strongly  aristocractic  character  ;  the  executive  consisting  of 
two  chief  magistrates  called  Suffetes,  and  the  legislative  consisting  of  a  Senate  of  select  grand- 
ees, and  an  Assembly  of  the  people  ;  as  at  Rome,  there  was  a  continual  strife  between  a  popu- 
lar and  an  aristocratic  party  ;  (e)  the  revenue  ;  its  sources  were  1.  tributes  from  the  subject 
cities  and  states  or  tribes  ;  2.  customs  paid  on  goods  at  Carthage  and  all  the  ports  ;  3.  proceeds 
of  the  mines  in  Spain. 

The  2d  period  extends  from  the  beginning  of  the  wars  with  Gelon  of  Syra- 
cuse to  the  beginning  of  the  contests  with  Rome  in  the  First  Punic  War, 
B.C.  264. 

The  principal  thing  whieh  marks  the  history  of  this  period,  is  the  long  continued  struggle  to 
obtain  complete  possession  of  Sicily.  The  Carthaginians  and  Syracusans  were  involved  in  al- 
j#pst  constant  wars. 


712  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGT. 

The  3d  period  is  from  the  first  war  with  the  Romans  to  the  final  Destruc- 
tion of  Carthage,  B.  C.  146. 

The  contests  between  Rome  and  Carthage  grew  out  of  mutual  ambition.  Sicily,  which  botfa 
desired  to  own,  furnished  the  occasion. — There  were  three  wars  called  Punic  ;  each  disastrous 
to  Carthage.  The  first  lasted  23  years.  The  second  was  marked  by  the  bold  invasion  and 
splendid  victories  of  Hannibal  ;  ended  by  the  battle  of  Zama,  B.  C.  232.  The  third  lasted  only 
about  three  years,  and  terminated  in  the  entire  destruction  of  the  state  and  city.  Carthage  had 
existed  about  700  years. 

For  the  Carthaginian  history  ;  Rollin's  Anc.  Hist.  bk.  ii.  — Hendrich,  De  Republics  Carthagi- 
niensium.  1664.  —  Heeren,  as  cited  above.  — The  Universal  History,  vol.  xv.  of  the  Ancient. — 
Bottiger's  Hist,  of  Carthage.  Lond.  1837.  with  a  map. 


§  213.  The  ancient  states  which  were  seated  in  Europe  remain  to  be  men- 
tioned. Without  naming  singly  the  various  minor  states,  our  object  in  this 
sketch  will  be  accomplished  by  a  glance  at  the  Chronology  of  Greece  and 
Rome. 

I.  Of  Greece.  The  whole  extent  of  time  to  be  considered  is  1500  or  1600 
years,  from  the  permanent  settlements  in  Greece  to  her  final  reduction  to  a 
Roman  province.  This  whole  space  may  be  very  conveniently  and  happily 
presented  by  a  division  into  six  successive  periods,  each  limited  by  distin- 
guished events,  and  characterized  by  prominent  circumstances. 

1.  The  1st  period  comprehends  the  whole  history  from  the  Dawn  of  civili- 
zation to  the  Trojan  War,  1184  B.  C,  and  from  its  peculiar  characteristic 
may  be  denominated  fabulous. 

Much  which  is  related  in  the  accounts  of  this  period  must  be  rejected  as 
idle  fiction  ;  yet  a  few  important  events  may  be  selected  and  authenticated. — 
Civilization  had  its  first  impulse  in  the  arrival  of  colonists  from  Egypt  and 
Phoenicia,  who  laid  the  foundations  of  some  of  the  principal  cities,  as  Argos 
and  Sicyon  about  1800  years  B.  C.  Little  advancement  was  made,  however, 
until,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  two  centuries,  other  colonies  were  plantedr 
at  Athens  by  Cecrops  and  at  Thebes  by  Cadmus,  about  the  time  of  Moses  (P. 
I.  §  34).  Between  this  time  and  the  Trojan  war  considerable  progress  must 
have  been  made  in  cultivation. 

We  find  some  of  the  peculiar  institutions  of  the  Greeks  originating  in  this 
period  ;  particularly  the  oracles  at  Delphi  and  Dodona,  the  mtjsteries  at  Eleu- 
sis,  and  the  four  sacred  games,  the  court  of  Areopagus  at  Athens,  and  the 
celebrated  Amphictyonic  Council.  —  The  arts  and  sciences  likewise  received 
considerable  attention.  Letters  had  been  introduced  by  Cadmus.  Astronomy 
was  sufficiently  studied  to  enable  Chiron  to  furnish  the  Argonauts  with  an 
artificial  sphere  exhibiting  the  constellations.  The  accounts  of  the  siege  of 
Thebes  and  that  of  Troy  show  that  progress  had  been  made  in  the  various 
arts  pertaining  to  war.  —  But  the  whole  history  of  the  period  exhibits  that 
singular  mixture  of  barbarism  with  cultivation,  of  savage  customs  with  chiv- 
alrous adventures,  which  marks  what  is  called  an  heroic  age. 

2.  The  2d  period  includes  a  much  shorter  space  of  time,  extending  from 
the  Trojan  war  to  the  time  when  the  regal  jorm  of  government  was  abol- 
ished, about  1050  B.  C.  From  the  most  important  and  characteristic  circum- 
stances it  may  be  called  the  period  of  colonization. 

The  first  governments  of  Greece  were  small  monarchies,  and  they  contin- 
ued such  without  encountering  peculiar  difficulties  until  after  the  Trojan  war. 
Soon  after  this  we  find  the  country  involved  in  fatal  civil  wars,  in  which  the 
people,  under  a  number  of  petty  chieftains  hostile  to  each  other,  suffered  ex- 
tremely from  calamity  and  oppression.  These  evils  seem  to  have  led  to  the 
change  in  the  form  of  government,  and  the  substitution  of  the  popular  in- 
stead of  the  regal  system.  The  same  evils  also  probably  contributed  to  the 
spirit  of  emigration,  which  so  strikingly  marks  the  period.  The  emigrants 
who  sought  foreign  settlements  are  distinguished  as  of  three  separate  classes. 
The  earliest  were  the  JEolians,  who  removed  from  the  Peloponnesus  to  the 
north-western  shores  of  Asia  Minor  and  founded  several  cities,  of  which 
Smyrna  was  the  principal.     The  second  were  the  Ianians,  who  went  from  At- 


STATES  OF  EUROPE.   GREECE.  713 

tica  (originally  called  Ionia),  and  planted  themselves  in  Asia  Minor,  south  of 
the  ./Eolians,  where  Ephesus  was  one  of  their  chief  cities.  The  third  were 
the  Dorians,  who  migrated  to  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  founded  numerous  flour- 
ishing settlements.  Syracuse  in  Sicily  became  the  most  important.  —  In  the 
period  of  colonization  we  notice  the  origin  of  the  four  principal  dialects  in  the 
Greek  language.  (Cf.  P.  II.  §  4.) 

3.  The  3d  period  comprehends  the  space  (of  five  hundred  and  fifty  years) 
from  the  abolition  of  monarchy  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Persian  War,  about 
500  B.  C. 

In  this  period  two  of  the  Grecian  states  are  chiefly  conspicuous,  Athens 
and  Sparta ;  and  from  the  special  attention  of  these  states  to  provide  them- 
selves with  a  suitable  political  constitution  and  civil  code,  this  portion  of  the 
history  may  be  designated  as  the  period  of  laws.  « 

Sparta  found  in  JLycurgus  her  lawgiver.  His  institutions  gave  a  permanent' 
cast  to  her  character,  and  were  not  abolished  until  the  last  ages  of  Greece. — 
Many  years  later,  Athens  received  her  constitution  from  the  hands  of  Solon, 
who  executed  the  task  unsuccessfully  attempted  by  Draco.  (Cf.  P.  II.  §  167; 
P.  IV.  §  8,  9.)  —  The  other  principal  incidents  in  the  history  of  this  period 
are  the  repeated  wars  of  Sparta  with  her  neighbors  the  Messenians,  and  the 
usurpation  of  Pisistratus  and  the  fate  of  his  sons  at  Athens. — In  the  war 
Sparta  at  last  was  completely  triumphant,  but  suffered  much  from  the  devot- 
ed skill  and  patriotism  of  Aristomenes  the  Messenian  general.  It  was  in  this 
struggle  that  the  Spartans  were  so  much  indebted  to  the  lame  poet  of  Athens, 
Tyrtseus.  (Cf.  P.  II.  §  53.) 

In  the  very  time  of  Solon,  Pisistratus  contrived  to  obtain  at  Athens  a  sort 
of  regal  authority,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  two  sons.  The  father  used  his 
power  to  promote  the  glory  and  welfare  of  the  state.  Of  the  sons  one  was 
assassinated  at  a  public  festival,  and  the  other,  being  subsequently  expelled, 
fled  to  Asia,  and  sought  revenge  by  instigating  the  Persians  to  invade  his  na- 
tive country. 

4.  The  4th  period  extends  from  the  beginning  to  the  Close  of  the  Persian 
War,  460  B.  C.  a  space  of  almost  50  years.  To  this  age  the  Greeks  ever  af- 
ter looked  back  with  pride,  and  from  its  history  orators  of  every  nation  have 
drawn  their  favorite  examples  of  valor  and  patriotism.  The  Persian  invasion 
called  forth  the  highest  energies  of  the  people  and  gave  an  astonishing  im- 
pulse to  Grecian  mind.  It  may  properly  be  called  the  period  of  military 
glory. 

The  design  of  subjugating  Greece  originated  in  the  ambition  of  Darius  the 
Persian  king,  the  second  in  succession  from  Cyrus  the  Great.     He  found  a 
pretext  and  occasion  for  the  attempt  in  a  revolt  of  his  Greek  subjects  in  Asia 
Minor,  in  which  Sardis  the  capital  of  Lydia  was  pillaged  and  burnt.    The  war 
was  carried  on  by  three  successive  kings,  Darius,  Xerxes,  and  Artaxerxes, 
but  on  neither  of  them  did  it  confer  any  glory  ;  while  the  battles  of  Marathon, 
Thermopylae,  Salamis,  Mycale,  and  Plataea  secured  immortal  honor  to  the 
Greeks.  —  A   succession  of  splendid  names  adorns  the  history  of  Athens  du- 
ring this  period.     Miltiades,  Themistocles,  Aristides,  Cimon,  and  Pericles, 
acted  distinguished  parts  in  the  brilliant  scene.     Sparta  also  justly  gloried  in 
the  self-sacrifice  of  Leonidas  and  his  three  hundred  brave  companions.  —  The 
period  of  the  Persian  war  was  the  age  of  the  highest  elevation  of  the  national 
character  of   the  Greeks.     Before  it,  there  existed  little  union  comparatively 
between  the  different  states,  and  it  was  not  till  Athens  had  alone  and  success- 
fully resisted  the  strength  of  Persia  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  that  other  states 
were  aroused  to  effort  against  the  common   enemy.     In  the   confederation 
which  followed,  Sparta  was  the  nominal  head,  but  the  talents,  which  actually 
controlled  the   public  affairs,  were  found  in  the  statesmen  of  Athens.     To 
Athens,  therefore,  the  supremacy  was  necessarily  transferred  and  before  the 
close  of  the  war  she  stood,  as  it  were,  the  mistress  of  Greece. 

5.  The  5th  period  includes  the  portion  from  the  close  of  the  Persian  war  to 
60* 


714  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

the  Supremacy  of  Philip,  B.  C.  337.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period  the 
general  affairs  of  Greece  were  in  a  highly  prosperous  condition,  and  Athens 
was  unrivaled  in  wealth  and  magnificence  under  the  influence  of  Pericles. — 
But  a  spirit  of  luxurious  refinement  soon  took  the  place  of  the  disinterested 
patriotism  of  the  preceding  age,  and  the  manners  of  all  classes  became  signal- 
ly marked  by  corruption  and  licentiousness.  This  may  be  designated  as  the 
period  of  luxury. 

The  history  of  the  period  presents  several  subjects  of  prominent  interest. — 
One  of  these  is  the  protracted  war  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  termed  the 
Peloponnesian.  Pericles  was  still  in  power  when  it  commenced,  but  he  soon 
fell  a  victim  to  the  terrible  plague  which  desolated  Athens.  The  unprinci- 
pled Cleon  and  the  rash  Alcibiades  successively  gained  the  predominant  in- 
fluence. The  war  was  continued  with  slight  intermissions  and  various  suc- 
cess, for  nearly  thirty  years,  and  was  ended  by  the  battle  of  ^Egos  Potamos 
B.  C.  405,  in  which  Lysander,  the  Spartan  king  and  general,  gained  a  final  vic- 
tory over  the  Athenians.  By  this  event  Athens  lost  her  supremacy  in  Greece 
and  was  deprived  even  of  her  own  liberties.  Her  walls  were  thrown  down, 
and  a  government  of  thirty  tyrants  imposed  upon  her  citizens.  To  this,  how- 
ever, the  Athenians  submitted  but  a  few  years.  In  401  B.  C.  the  Thirty  were 
expelled. 

The  same  year  was  remarkable  for  Uco  other  events.  The  first  was  the  ac- 
cusation of  Socrates,  one  of  the  greatest  and  the  best  men  of  which  paganism 
can  boast.  The  trial  for  some  reason  was  delayed  several  years,  but  the  re- 
sult was  utterly  disgraceful  to  the  city  and  to  all  concerned  (cf.  P.  II.  §  171). 
The  other  memorable  event  was  the  expedition  of  Cyrus  the  younger,  the  sa- 
trap of  Lydia,  against  his  brother  the  king  of  Persia.  Ten  thousand  Greeks 
accompanied  him  in  this  enterprise.  The  march  from  Sardis  to  the  Euphra- 
tes, the  fatal  battle  of  Cunaxa,  and  the  labors  and  dangers  of  the  10.000  in  re- 
turning to  their  homes,  are  recorded  by  Zenophon  with  beautiful  simplicity. 
—  The  assistance,  which  the  Greeks  gave  in  this  revolt  of  Cyrus,  involved 
them  in  another  war  with  Persia.  Sparta  had,  by  the  result  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war,  gained  the  supremacy  in  Greece,  and  the  other  states,  especially 
Athens,  Thebes,  Argos  and  Corinth,  refused  to  aid  her  in  the  struggle  which 
followed.  They  even  united  in  a  league  against  her,  and  Athens  furnished 
the  commander,  to  whom  the  Persians  were  indebted  for  the  almost  entire  de- 
struction of  the  Spartan  fleet.  This  war  was  terminated  by  a  treaty,  B.  C. 
387,  which  weakened  and  humbled  Sparta,  and  was  alike  dishonorable  to  all 
the  Greeks. 

The  two  states  which  had  for  ages  been  pre-eminent  in  Greece,  Athens 
and  Sparta,  were  now  both  depressed,  and  opportunity  was  afforded  for  a  third, 
to  seek  the  ascendancy.  This  for  a  short  time  was  secured  to  Thebes,  chiefly 
by  the  talents  of  two  distinguished  citizens,  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas.  — 
But  a  war  with  Sparta  shortly  consummated  her  glory,  and  exhausted  her 
■strength  ;  she  gained  a  brilliant  victory  in  the  final  battle  of  Mantinea,  363 
B.  C.  but  was  in  the  same  instant  ruined  by  the  death  of  her  general  Epami- 
nondns.  —  The  successive  downfall  of  three  principal  states,  Athens,  Sparta, 
and  Thebes,  and  the  jealousies  and  dissensions  connected  therewith,  reduced 
Greece  to  a  miserable  condition.  The  general  corruption  and  licentiousness, 
already  mentioned,  increased  the  degradation.  In  a  few  years  we  find  the 
Grecian  states  embroiled  in  the  Phocian  or  Sacred  war,  B.  C.  357.  (Cf.  P. 
IV.  §  12.)  This  commenced  in  the  jealousies  between  the  Thebans  and  the 
Phocians.  The  Spartans  and  the  Athenians,  and  ere  long  the  Macedonians, 
became  involved  in  it.  Shortly  after  this  contest  was  terminated,  a  new  Sa- 
cred war  arose,  called  the  Amphissian ;  in  which  the  council  of  Amphicty- 
ons  appointed  Philip  king  of  Macedon  as  general  and  leader  of  their  confede- 
racy. Amid  such  dissensions,  the  ambitious  Philip  eagerly  seized  a  favorable 
moment  for  entering  the  Grecian  territories.  At  Athens  the  single  voice  of 
Demosthenes  was  lifted  to  warn  the  Greeks  of  his  ultimate  intentions,  and 
to  rouse  them  to  united  resistance.  A  feeble  alliance  with  Thebes  was  ef- 
fected, but  in  vain.  The  battle  of  Chceronea,  B.  C.  337,  made  Philip  the  mas- 
ter of  Greece. 


STATES  OP  EUROPE.   GREECE.   ROME.  715 

6.  The  6th  period  extends  from  the  supremacy  of  Philip,  gained  by  the  bat- 
tle of  Chaeronea,  to  the  Capture  of  Corinth,  146  B.  C.  By  the  disastrous 
defeat  at  Chaeronea  the  genuine  fire  of  the  Grecian  spirit  was  extinguished, 
and  the  subsequent  history  exhibits  little  else  than  the  steps  by  which  the 
country  was  reduced  to  a  dependent  province.  We  may  therefore  denomi- 
nate this  the  period  of  decline  and  fall. 

Alexander,  who  succeeded  his  father  Philip  as  king  of  Macedon,  and  auto- 
crator  of  Greece,  cast  a  sort  of  glory  on  the  first  years  of  this  period  by  his  ex- 
tensive conquests.  Those,  who  love  to  trace  the  course  of  conquerors,  will 
follow  with  interest  his  march  from  the  Hellespont  to  the  Granicus,  to  Issus, 
to  Tyre,  to  the  Nile,  to  the  desert  of  Libya,  to  the  Euphrates,  and  the  Indus  ; 
but  every  reader  will  regret  his  follies  at  Persepolis  and  be  disgusted  by  his- 
beastly  life  and  death  at  Babylon.  —  For  twenty  years  after  Alexander's  death 
the  vast  empire  he  had  formed  was  agitated  by  the  quarrels  among  his  gener- 
als. By  the  battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia  B.  C.  301,  these  contests  were  termi- 
nated, and  the  empire  was  then  divided  into  four  kingdoms,  one  comprising 
Macedonia  and  Greece  ;  a  second  Thrace  and  Bithynia;  a  third  Egypt,  Lib- 
ya, Arabia,  Palestine,  and  Coelosyria ;  and  a  fourth  called  the  kingdom  of 
Syria,  including  all  the  rest  of  Asia  even  to  the  Indus. 

To  the  first  of  these  the  Grecian  states  belonged.  Patriotic  individuals 
sought  to  arouse  their  countrymen  to  cast  off  the  Macedonian  yoke  ;  but  jeal- 
ousy between  the  states  and  the  universal  corruption  of  morals  rendered  their 
exertions  fruitless.  All  that  is  really  honorable  and  memorable  in  the  proper 
affairs  of  the  Greeks  at  this  period,  is  found  in  the  history  of  the  Achaean 
league,  —  The  Achaean  league  was  originally  a  confederacy  between  12 small 
cities  of  Achaia,  established  very  early,  when  the  Grecian  states  first  assumed 
the  popular  instead  of  the  regal  form.  It  took  scarcely  any  part  in  the  per- 
petual conflicts  between  the  other  republics,  and  was  neutral  even  in  the  Pel- 
oponnesian  war. 

The  Macedonian  kings  had  dissolved  it,  but  it  was  revived  about  280  B.  C. 
Subsequently  it  wras  enlarged,  and  Corinth  became  the  head  and  capital.  Un- 
der the  presidency  of  Philopcemen,  B.  C.  200  to  180,  it  rose  so  high  in  power 
and  reputation,  that  its  alliance  was  sought  by  some  of  the  governments  of 
Asia.  Had  the  other  states  at  this  time  risen  above  the  foul  and  mean  spirit 
of  envy,  the  independence  of  Greece  might  probably  have  been  restored.  But 
unhappily  the  Romans  were  requested  by  one  of  the  states  to  aid  them  against 
the  Macedonians.  The  Romans  gladly  embraced  the  opportunity,  and  shortly 
after  this  a  Roman  general  led  as  a  captive  to  grace  his  triumph  the  last  king 
of  Macedon,  167  B.  C. 

Nothing  but  the  Achaean  league  now  preserved  southern  Greece  from  falling 
an  instant  prey  to  Roman  ambition.  The  remaining  vigor  of  the  confederacy 
averted  this  destiny  for  twenty  years  ;  then  it  came,  under  the  pretext  of  just 
punishment  for  insult  upon  Roman  ambassadors.  The  legions  of  Rome  poured 
upon  Achaia,  Corinth  was  taken,  and  with  all  its  wealth  and  splendor  com- 
mitted to  the  flames  and  consumed  to  ashes.  This  completed  the  subjugation 
of  the  country,  which  became  of  course  a  province  of  Rome. 

The  principal  helps  in  the  study  of  the  Grecian  history  have  been  mentioned,  P.  II.  §  7. 7.  (rf). 
—  A  L'ood  elementary  work  is  Pinuoek's  improved  edition  of  Goldsmith's  Histonj  of  Greece 
&c.  Philad.  1836.  12.  —  A  valuable  text-book  and  guide  to  deeper  research  ;  A.  H.  L.  Heeren, 
States  of  Antiquity,  translated  from  German  by  G.  Bancroft,  Northampt.  18*28.  8.  —  For  the  later 
periods  of  Grecian  history  ;  J.  Gast.  Hist,  of  Greece  from  accession  of  Alexander  tiil  the  final 
subjection  to  the  Romans.  Loud.  1782.  4.  —  Brcitcrbauch,  Geschichte  der  AchAer  und  ihres 
Bundes.  Lpz.  1782. 


§  214.  II.  Rome.  The  history  of  Rome  extends  through  a  space  of  more 
than  1200  years ;  which  may  be  divided,  like  the  Grecian  history,  into  six 
periods. 

1.  The  1st  period  includes  the  time  from  the  Building  of  the  City,  B.  C. 
752,  to  the  Expulsion  of  Tarquin,  B.  C.  509.  It  may  be  called  the  Period  of 
the  Kings,  or  of  Regal  Power. 


716  CLASSICAL     CHRONOLOGY. 

The  Roman  historians  have  left  a  particular  account  of  this  period,  begin- 
ning with  the  very  founders  of  the  city,  Romulus  and  Remus,  whose  de- 
scent is  traced  from  iEneas  the  hero  of  Virgil.  But  many  have  doubted 
whether  this  portion  of  the  Roman  history  is  entitled  to  much  credit,  and 
some  have  even  contended  that  it  is  altogether  fabulous.  (P.  II.  §  510. ) — Seven 
kings  are  said  to  have  reigned  (P.  IV.  $  193,  579).  One  of  the  most  important 
events  of  this  period,  was  a  change  in  the  constitution  effected  by  the  sixth 
king,  Servius  Tullius,  introducing  the  Comitia  Centuriata.  He  divided  the 
citizens  into  classes,  and  subdivided  the  classes  into  centuries,  making  a 
much  larger  number  of  centuries  in  the  richer  classes  than  in  the  poorer.  ( P.  IV. 
§  252.)  —  The  reign  of  the  second  king,  Numa,  is  remembered,  on  account  of 
his  influence  on  the  affairs  of  religion  ;  as  he  instituted  many  of  the  religious 
ceremonies  and  several  classes  of  priests.  —  During  the  period  of  the  kings, 
244  years,  the  Roman  territory  was  of  very  limited  extent,  and  the  people 
were  often  involved  in  war  with  the  several  states  in  their  immediate  vicinity. 
Tarquin  the  Proud,  the  last  king,  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  an  enemy's  city 
only  sixteen  miles  from  Rome,  when  his  son  committed  the  outrage  upon  the 
person  of  Lucretia,  which  led  to  the  banishment  of  the  family  and  the  over- 
throw of  the  regal  government. 

2.  The  2d  period  extends  from  the  expulsion  of  the  Kings  to  the  time  when 
the  Plebeians  were  admitted  to  the  Offices  of  state,  about  300  B.  C.  At  the 
beginning  of  this  period  the  government  was  a  thorough  aristocracy,  but  at 
the  close  of  it  had  become  a  full  democracy.  It  included  over  200  years,  and 
may  be  designated  as  the  period  of  the  Plebeian  and  Patrician  contests,  or  of 
Party  strife. 

Two  consuls,  chosen  annually,  first  took  the  place  of  the  king,  and  exer- 
cised almost  precisely  the  same  power.  All  offices  of  state  were  forbidden  to 
the  Plebeians  or  common  people,  and  filled  exclusively  by  Patricians  or  de- 
scendants from  the  Senators  or  Patres.  —  The  first  step  in  the  undermining 
of  the  aristocracy  was  the  Valerian  Law,  which  allowed  a  citizen  condemned 
to  a  disgraceful  punishment  to  appeal  from  the  magistrate  to  the  people.  Un- 
der the  protection  of  this  law,  the  people,  discontented  with  their  poverty  and 
hardships,  ere  long  refused  to  enrol  their  names  in  the  levies,  which  the  wars 
with  neighboring  states  demanded.  This  difficulty  led  the  Patricians  to  in- 
vent a  new  office ;  that  of  Dictator  (P.  IV.  §  248).  But  the  dissatisfaction  of 
the  Plebeians  was  not  to  be  thus  removed.  They  united  with  the  army  and 
withdrew  to  Mt.  Sacer,  B.  C.  493.  Reconciliation  was  effected  by  creating 
the  office  of  Tribunes,  who  were  to  be  chosen  annually,  from  the  Plebeians, 
and  to  possess  the  power  of  a  negative  upon  the  decrees  of  the  Consuls  and 
even  the  Senate.  (P.  IV.  §  245. )  —  This  arrangement  only  led  to  new  dis- 
sensions, the  Tribunes  generally  making  it  their  object  to  oppose  the  Consuls 
and  the  Senate,  and  the  Plebeian  interest  gradually  encroaching  upon  the  Pa- 
trician. —  In  a  few  years  another  fundamental  change  was  effected.  The 
important  business  of  state  had,  from  the  time  of  king  Servius  Tullius,  been  - 
transacted  at  the  Comitia  Centuriata,  or  assemblies  voting  by  centuries.  It 
was  now,  B.  C.  471,  decided  that  such  business  might  be  transacted  in  the 
Comitia  Tributa,ox  assemblies  voting  by  Tribes,  in  which  the  Plebeians  held 
the  control. 

The  next  office  created  at  Rome  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  jealousy 
between  the  two  parties,  the  Patricians  opposing,  and  the  Plebeians  favoring 
it.  This  was  the  Decemvirate,  B.  C.  451,  which  superseded. 4)oth  consuls 
and  tribunes,  but  continued  only  three  years,  and  then  the  two  ether  offices 
were  restored.  —  In  a  few  years  the  people  made  another  advance,  the  Sen- 
ate conceding,  that  six  military  tribunes,  three  Patrician  and  three  Plebeian, 
might  be  substituted  instead  of  the  two  consuls.  —  Another  office  was  created 
during  this  period,  the  censorship  ;  two  Censors  being  appointed  to  take  the 
census  of  the  people  every  five  years,  and  to  watch  over  the  public  morals. — 
But  this  office  does  not  appear  to  have  originated  in  party  animosity  ;  nor  had 
it  any  influence  in  healing  the  dissensions  between  the  higher  and  lower  or- 
ders (cf.  P.  IV.  §  247,259). 


STATES  OP  EUROPE.   ROME.  717 

One  grand  object  with  the  Plebeians  yet  remained  unaccomplished.  They 
were  not  eligible  to  the  more  important  offices  of  the  state,  and  to  remove 
this  disability  they  now  bent  all  their  energies.  The  struggle  continued  for 
many  years,  and  occasioned  much  unhappy  disturbance,  but  terminated  in 
their  complete  success;  as  they  gained  admission  to  the  consulship,  the  cen- 
sorship, and  finally  to  the  priesthood,  and  thus  obtained  a  virtual  equality 
with  the  Patricians  about  B.  C.  300. 

During  this  period,  so  harassed  by  internal  contests,  Rome  was  engaged  in 
frequent  wars.  Three  of  them  are  most  noticeable.  The  first  was  with  the 
Etrurians,  under  king  Porsena,  shortly  after  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin,  "  a 
war  fertile  in  exploits  of  romantic  heroism." — The  second  was  with  the  city 
Veii,  a  proud  rival  of  Rome.  It  was  at  last  taken  by  Camillus  B.  C.  390, 
after  a  siege  of  ten  years. — The  last  was  with  the  Gauls,  who  invaded  Italy 
under  Brennus,  and  are  said  to  have  taken  Rome  and  burned  it  to  the  ground 
B.  C.  385.  Camillus,  who  had  been  forced  by  the  clamors  of  the  populace  to 
go  into  retirement,  unexpectedly  returned,  and  put  to  speedy  flight  the  barba- 
ian  conquerors. 

3.  The  3d  period  in  the  Roman  history  extends  from  the  final  triumph  of 
the  Plebeians  to  the  Capture  of  Carthage,  B.  C.  146. 

Rome  had  hitherto  been  distracted  with  intestine  feuds  and  dissensions, 
and  had  extended  her  dominion  over  but  a  small  extent  of  territory.  The  ad- 
mission of  Plebeians  to  all  the  high  offices  of  trust  and  distinction  promoted 
the  consolidation  and  strength  of  the  republic,  and  the  career  of  conquest 
was  soon  commenced.  This  may  be  remembered  as  the  period  of  the  Punic 
Wars,  or  of  Foreign  Conquests. 

The  first  important  conquest  was  that  of  the  southern  part  of  Italy,  which 
resulted  from  the  war  with  the  Samnites.  Southern  Italy  was  settled  by 
Grecian  colonies  (§  50),  and  contained  at  this  time  several  cities  flourishing, 
wealthy,  and  refined  by  letters  and  the  arts.  On  their  invitation,  Pyrrhus 
the  king  of  Epirus  passed  over  from  Greece  with  a  large  army  and  a  train  of 
elephants  to  aid  them  against  the  Romans,  and  was  for  a  time  successful,  but 
finally,  being  totally  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Beneventum  B.  C.  274,  fled  pre- 
cipitately to  his  own  dominions.  The  allied  states  and  cities  immediately 
submitted  to  Rome,  who  thus  became  mistress  of  Italy. 

She  now  began  to  look  abroad  for  acquisitions,  and  the  island  Sicily  be- 
came an  object  of  desire.  The  pursuit  of  this  object  brought  Rome  into  con* 
tact  with  Carthage,  which  was  now  flourishing  and  powerful.  The  Cartha- 
ginians had  settlements  in  Sicily,  and  desired  as  well  as  the  Romans  the  do- 
minion of  the  whole  island.  Hence  sprang  the  first  of  the  three  Punic  Wars. 
Sicily  was  chiefly  settled  by  Greek  colonies.  These  colonies  preferred  inde- 
pendence, but,  situated  between  Rome  on  one  side  and  Carthage  on  the  other, 
were  in  no  condition  to  resist  both,  and  had  only  the  alternative  of  joining 
one  against  the  other.  They  chose  the  side  of  the  Romans  in  the  first  Punio 
War,  which  began  B.  C.  264,  and  was  ended  B.  C.  241,  by  a  treaty  exceeding- 
ly humiliating  to  Carthage.  Sicily  was  made  a  Roman  province,  yet  Syra- 
cuse, the  principal  city,  was  allowed  to  retain  an  independent  government. — 
The  tragic  story  of  Regulus  belongs  to  the  first  Punic  War. 

After  a  peace  of  twenty-three  years,  the  second  Punic  War  began  in  the 
siege  of  Saguntum  in  Spain,  by  Hannibal,  B.  C.  218.  Having  taken  this 
city,  Hannibal  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Alps,  and  marched  down  upon 
Italy  with  a  victorious  army.  The  Romans  were  defeated  in  three  engage- 
ments before  the  memorable  battle  of  Cannae,  in  which  they  were  completely 
conquered,  and  40,000  of  their  troops  left  dead  on  the  field.  But  after  the 
battle  of  Cannae  the  Carthaginians  gained  no  advantages.  A  king  of  Mace- 
don  came  to  their  aid  in  vain. — Scipio,  a  Roman  general,  having  conquered 
Spain,  passed  over  to  Africa  and  carried  the  war  to  the  very  walls  of  Car- 
thage. Hannibal  was  recalled  from  Italy  to  defend  the  city,  but  was  utterly 
defeated  by  Scipio  in  the  battle  of  Zama,  B.  C.  202,  by  which  the  second 
Punic  War  ended  even  more  disastrously  than  the  first.  In  this  war,  Syra- 
cuse in  Sicily  took  part  with  the  Carthaginians,  and  was  on  that  account  be- 


718  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

sieged  by  the  Romans.  It  was  ably  defended  by  the  scientific  genius  of  Ar- 
chimedes, but  at  length  taken  by  Mareellus,  and  made  a  part  of  the  province 
of  Sicily,  B.  C.  212. 

The  result  of  the  second  Punic  War  may  be  considered  as  the  occasion, 
which  carried  the  Roman  arms  into  Asia.  Hannibal,  after  the  battle  of  Zama, 
fled  to  the  protection  of  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria.  This  led  to  a  war  which 
compelled  the  king  to  cede  to  the  Romans  nearly  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor, 
B.  C.  190. — The  interference  of  the  king  of  Macedon,  in  the  second  Punic 
War,  also  furnished  the  ground  for  a  war  with  him,  which  was  the  first  step 
towards  the  conquest  of  Greece.  A  few  years  after,  the  Romans  on  the  pre- 
tence of  aiding  the  iEtolians,  subjected  Macedonia,  B.  C.  167.  The  Achaean 
league  preserved  the  southern  portions  of  the  country  a  little  longer ;  but  in 
twenty  years  these  likewise  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Rome  by  the  capture 
of  Corinth,  B.  C.  146. 

Carthage  fell  the  same  year  with  Corinth.  The  Romans  had  waged  a  third 
Punic  War,  when  the  Carthaginians  were  greatly  weakened  by  an  unfortunate 
struggle  with  the  Numidians.  The  third  Punic  War  continued  but  about 
three  years,  and  terminated  in  the  entire  destruction  of  Carthage,  under  cir- 
cumstances of  aggravated  cruelty  and  faithlessness  on  the  part  of  the  Ro- 
mans. 

4.  The  4th  period  extends  from  the  Capture  of  Carthage  and  Corinth,  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Imperial  Government  by  the  battle  of  Actium,  B.  C. 
31.  During  this  whole  time  the  Roman  history  is  a  continued  tale  of  domes- 
tic disturbances.  This  may  justly,  therefore,  be  termed  the  period  ot  the  Civil 
Wars. 

The  very  commencement  of  the  period  is  marked  by  the  disturbances,  which 
grew  out  of  the  attempts  of  the  two  Gracchi.  They  successively  endeavored 
to  check  the  growing  corruption  of  the  Senate,  and  to  relieve  the  circumstan- 
ces of  the  people,  but  both  fell  victims  to  their  own  zeal  and  the  hatred  of 
their  enemies,  Tiberius  133,  and  Caius  121  B.  C.  Some  have  ascribed  their 
efforts  to  ardent  patriotism  ;  others  to  mere  ambition.  (Cf.  Niebuhr's  Rome, 
cited  P.  II.  $  299.  7.)  Not  long  after  the  fall  of  Gracchus  arose  the  Social  War, 
by  which  the  states  of  Italy  demanded  and  obtained  of  Rome  the  rights  of  cit- 
izenship, B.  C.  90.  —  Scarcely  was  this  ended,  when  the  Romans  began  again 
to  imbrue  their  hands  in  each  other's  blood  in  the  fierce  war  of  Sylla  and  Ma- 
rius,  rival  leaders  in  the  republic.  Two  horrible  massacres  signalized  this 
contention.  Sylla  finally  triumphed,  and  was  made  perpetual  dictator,  yet 
resigned  his  power  at  the  end  of  four  years,  B.  C.  78.  The  death  of  Sylla  is 
soon  followed  by  the  famous  conspiracy  of  Cataline,  detected  and  subdued  by 
the  vigilance  of  Cicero,  B.  C.  62. 

Still  Rome  was  distracted  by  parties,  headed  by  ambitious  men.  —  The  first 
triumvirate,  a  temporary  coalition  between  Pompey,  Crassus  and  Caesar,  re- 
pressed the  flames  of  discord  for  a  few  years.  Pompey  had  already  added 
Syria  to  the  Roman  possessions  ;  Caesar  soon  added  Gaul.  Crassus  lost  his 
life  in  an  attempt  to  conquer  Parthia,  B.  C.  53.  The  death  of  Crassus  broke 
the  bond  which  held  Caesar  and  Pompey  together,  and  they  hastened  to  deter- 
mine in  the  field  of  battle,  who  should  be  master  of  Rome.  The  contest  was 
decided  in  the  plains  of  Pharsalus  in  Thessaly,  by  the  entire  defeat  of  Pom- 
pey, B.  C.  48.  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  but  was  beheaded  the  instant  he  landed 
on  the  shore.  For  five  years  Caesar  held  the  supreme  power  at  Rome,  but  was 
assassinated  in  the  Senate,  by  a  company  of  conspirators  headed  by  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  B.  C.  43. 

A  second  triumvirate  was  now  formed  on  the  pretext  of  avenging  this  mur- 
der, between  Antony,  Lepidus,  and  Octavius,  each  aspiring  to  the  power  of 
Caesar.  A  horrid  proscription  sealed  in  blood  this  compact.  A  war  with  the 
party  of  the  conspirators  necessarily  followed,  and  the  battle  of  Philippi,  B.  C. 
42,  put  an  end  to  the  hopes  of  Brutus  and  Cassiua,  at  the  head  of  this  party. 
Octavius,  who  was  the  nephew  of  Caesar,  easily  effected  the  removal  of  one 
member  of  the  triumvirate,  Lepidus,  a  man  of  feeble  talents  and  insignifi- 
cant character.  His  other  colleague,  Antony,  infatuated  by  love  for  Cleopa* 
tra  the  queen  of  Egypt,  soon  furnished  a  pretext  for  open  hostility,  and  th© 


STATES    OF    EtjROPE.       ROME.  710 

Sate  of  battle  again  decided  who  Should  be  the  master  of  Rome.  The  arma- 
Jnent  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra  was  wholly  defeated  by  Octavius,  at  Actium, 
fi.  C.  31.  This  battle  subjected  Egypt  to  Rome,  and  Rome,  with  all  her  pos- 
sessions,  to  the  power  of  Octavius,  by  whom  the  Imperial  government  was 
finally  established. 

The  Roman  history,  from  the  fall  of  Carthage  to  the  battle  of  Actium,  pre- 
sents but  a  melancholy  picture,  a  blood-stained  record  of  sedition,  conspiracy, 
and  civil  war. 

5.  We  may  include  in  a  5th  period  the  time  from  the  establishment  of  the 
Imperial  Government  to  the  reign  of  Constantine,  A.  D.  306.  As  Christiani- 
ty was  introduced  into  the  world  in  this  period,  and  was  opposed  until  the  end 
of  it  by  the  Roman  government,  we  may  designate  it  as  the  period  of  the 
Pagan.  Emperors. 

The  reign  of  Augustus,  the  name  taken  by  the  first  Emperor  Octavius,  has 
become  proverbial  for  an  age  flourishing  in  peace,  literature,  and  the  arts.  It 
is  distinguished,  also,  for  the  birth  of  our  Savior  ;  as  the  next  reign,  that  of 
Tiberius,  is,  for  his  crucifixion  and  death.  —  The  four  reigns  succeeding,  viz. 
those  of  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius  and  Nero,  are  chiefly  memorable  for  the 
tyranny  of  the  emperors,  and  the  profligacy  of  their  families  artd  favorites. 

On  the  death  of  Nero,  A.  D.  69,  follows  a  year  of  dissension  and  bloodshed 
in  which  Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius  successively  gained  the  Empire  and  lost 
their  lives. — The  Flavian  family,  Vespasian  and  his  two  sons,  Titus  and  Do- 
mitian,  next  in  order  receive  the  supreme  power.  Titus  is  celebrated  as  the 
final  conqueror  of  the  Jews,  whose  obstinacy  provoked  him  to  rase  their  city 
to  the  ground,  an  event  exactly  fulfilling  the  predictions  of  Christ.  His 
reign  is  memorable  for  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which  buried  the  cities  Her- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii  in  ruins.  Domitian,  the  last  emperor  of  the  family, 
provokes  his  own  assassintion,  A.D.  96. 

Passing  the  reigns  of  the  feeble  Nerva,  the  martial  Trajan,  and  the  peaceful 
Adrian,  we  arrive  at  a  brilliant  age  in  the  imperial  history,  the  age  of  the 
Antonines,  extending  from  A.  D.  138  to  180,  a  space  of  about  forty  years. 
Their  reigns  appear  in  the  midst  of  the  general  sterility  and  desolation  of  the 
imperial  history  like  the  verdant  oasis  in  the  desert.  Literature  and  the  arts 
of  peace  revived  under  their  benign  influence. 

After  the  death  of  Marcus,  A.  D.  180,  there  follows  a  whole  century  of  dis- 
order, profligacy,  conspiracy  and  assassination.  The  army  assumes  the  abso- 
lute disposal  of  the  imperial  crown,  which  is  even  sold  at  public  auction  to 
the  highest  bidder.  Within  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  time,  nearly  fifty  em- 
perors  are  successively  proclaimed,  and  deposed  or  murdered. — In  the  year" 
284,  Diocletian  commenced  his  reign,  and  attempted  a  new  system  of  admin- 
istration. The  empire  was  divided  into  four  departments  or  provinces,  and 
three  princes  were  associated  with  him,  in  the  government.  This  system  only 
laid  the  foundation  for  rivalship  and  contention  in  a  new  form,  and  in  a  fe\V 
years  Maxentius  and  Constantine,  sons  of  two  of  the  princes  associated  with 
Diocletian,  appealed  to  the  sword  to  decide  upon  their  respective  claims  to  the 
imperial  purple.  The  former  fell  in  the  battle,  and  Constantine  secured  the 
throne. 

This  period  is  memorable  in  the  history  of  Christianity.  Under  the  Pagan 
Emperors,  those  who  embraced  the  gospel  were  constantly  exposed  to  perse- 
cution  and  suffering.  Ten  special  persecutions  are  recorded  and  described,  the 
Jirst  under  Nero  A.  D.  64,  and  the  last  under  Diocletian,  commencing  A.  D< 
303,  and  continuing  ten  years,  unto  A.  D.  313.  But,  notwithstanding  these 
repeated  efforts  to  hinder  the  progress  of  the  gospel,  it  was  spread  during" 
this  period  throughout  the  whole  Roman  Empire. 

6.  The  6th  period  includes  the  remainder  of  the  Roman  history,  extending: 
from  the  reign  of  Constantine  to  the  Fall  of  Rome,  when  captured  by  the 
Heruli,  A.  D.  476.  The  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  imparts  splendor  to 
the  commencement  of  this  period.  He  embraced  the  Christian  faith  himself, 
and  patronized  it  in  the  empire,  as  did  also  most  of  his  successors  ;  on  which 
account  this  may  be  called  the  period  of  the  Christian  Emperors. 


720  CLASSICAL    CHRONOLOGY. 

One  of  the  most  important  events  of  his  reign,  and  one  which  had  a  great 
influence  on  the  subsequent  affairs  of  Rome,  was  the  removal  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  a  new  seat.  He  selected  Byzantium  for  his  capital,  and  thither  re- 
moved with  his  court,  giving  it  the  name  of  Constantinople,  which  it  still 
bears.  He  left  his  empire  to  five  princes,  three  sons  and  two  nephews;  the 
youngest  son,  Constantius,  soon  grasps  the  whole,  A.  D.  360.  By  the  death 
of  Constantius,  his  cousin  Julian  received  the  purple,  which  he  was  already 
on  his  march  from  Gaul  to  seize  by  force.  The  reign  of  Julian,  styled  the 
Apostate,  is  memorable  for  his  artful  and  persevering  attempts  to  destroy  the 
Christian  religion,  and  his  unsuccessful  efforts  to  rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jeru- 
salem, with  the  express  purpose  of  casting  discredit  on  the  predictions  of  the 
Bible. 

From  the  death  of  Julian,  A.  D.  363,  to  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great, 
A.  D.  379,  the  history  presents  little  that  is  important  to  be  noticed,  except  the 
jealousies  between  the  eastern  and  western  portions  of  the  Empire,  which  grew 
out  of  the  removal  of  the  court  to  Constantinople.  Theodosius  was  the  last 
emperor  who  ruled  over  both.  In  395  he  died,  leaving  to  his  sons  Arcadiue 
and  Honorius  separately  the  east  and  the  west. — From  this  time  the  Eastern 
portion  remained  distinct,  and  its  history  no  longer  belongs  to  that  of  Rome. 

The  Western  portion  languishes  under  ten  successive  emperors,  who  are 
scarcely  able  to  defend  themselves  against  the  repeated  attacks  of  barbarian 
invaders.  At  length,  under  Augustulus,  the  11th  from  Theodosius,  Rome  is 
taken  by  Odoacer,  leader  of  the  Heruli,  and  the  history  of  ancient  Rome  is 
terminated,  A.  D.  476. 

The  whole  of  the  period  from  Constantine  to  Augustulus  is  marked  by  the 
continued  inroads  of  barbarous  hordes  from  the  north  and  the  east.  But  the 
greatest  annoyance  was  suffered  in  the  latter  part  of  the  time,  from  three 
tribes,  under  three  celebrated  leaders ;  the  Goths,  under  Alaric  ;  the  Vandals, 
under  Genseric  ;  and  the  Huns,  under  Attila;  the  two  former  of  which  actual- 
ly carried  their  victorious  arms  to  Rome  itself  (A.  D.  410  and  455),  and  laid 
prostrate  at  their  feet  the  haughty  mistress  of  the  world ;  and  the  latter  was 
persuaded  to  turn  back  his  forces  (A.  D.  453)  only  by  ignoble  concessions  and 
immense  gifts. 

§  215.  It  may  be  proper  to  add  here,  that  the  Eastern  Empire,  called  also 
the  Greek  Empire  was  sustained  under  various  fortunes,  for  a  period  of  al- 
most 1000  years  after  the  overthow  of  the  Western.  After  the  fall  of  Rome 
nearly  sixty  different  emperors  had  occupied  the  throne  at  Constantinople, 
when,  A.  D.  1202,  that  city  was  taken  by  the  crusaders  from  France  and  Ven- 
ice. By  this  event  the  Greek  emperors  were  forced  to  establish  their  court  at 
Nicaea  in  Asia  Minor.  After  the  lapse  of  sixty  years,  their  former  capital  was 
recovered  :  and,  subsequently  to  this,  eight  different  emperors  held  the  scep- 
tre there  ;  although  the  empire  was  gradually  reduced  in  strength  and  extent, 
until  it  consisted  of  but  a  little  corner  of  Europe.  Its  existence  was  prolong- 
ed to  A.  D.  1453,  when  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  who 
have  retained  it  to  the  present  day. 

For  the  principal  works  on  the  Roman  history,  see  P.  II.  $299. 7.  — We  mention  here  ag 
valuable,  Alex.  Tras.  Tytler's  Universal  History.  Bost.  1835.  2  vols.  8.  —  The  student  in  an- 
cient history  will  derive  advantage  also  from  B  i  g  1  a  n  d  's  Letters  on  the  study  and  use  of  His- 
torn,  and  Priestley's  Lectures  on  History  ;  also  Rilk's  Prop'adeutik  des  historischen  Studium*. 
Berl,  1811.  8. 


INDEX  OF  GREEK  WORDS. 


A 

yApaxioxo$,  94 
3 ApaufiuxivoTa,  518 
Apqa^ug,  113 
A(iqaoada(lqa,  113 
yAyu7.uuTa,  92,  466,  552 
yAyi7.ai,  516 
*  Ayxvqa,  530 
yAy7.aia,  446 
'Ayvicuol,  466 
J^yo^,  503,  509,  674 

yAyqiu>via,  491 
'Ayxiuaxoi,  476 
yAyatyi;,  516 
3^4y<wv  iniracpibg,  499 
'-/fywyf^  uovoixoi,  38 

[tool,  498 
^Ayuiviarai,  500 
J^4yu»-0(h>fat,  38 

^yiovo^rai,  38,  495,  500 

yAdanag,  110 
yASauavTivog,  274 
w^<%,  416,  550 
'AMrarot,  508,  528 
"-^i/tov,  484 
>AMvia,  491,  492 
'Asia it oi,  514 
'Adtiva,  420 
J-4%at,  671 
yA6tjrtj,  671 
*^^ijTot,  500 
v^;.or,  496 
~Aix?.ov,  518 
>^to;.o?,  429,433 
f  AtQtroi,  506 
'AioQtioig,  89 
'AtOvuvijxai,  38 
'AirtjTixlc,  486 
'-iir/a,  512 
'^i/iKiAeoTos,  482,  528 

'jit&ii, 474 

yAiuqai,  500 
y  AxkoTqa,  548 
y  Axnaxitg,  524 
*Anomovi  474 
yAxovricig,  497 
y  Axqurtiaua,  534 
'AxQoaaig,  324,  329 
'Axoopo/.iOTai,  523 
yAxqo6iviu,  468,  528 
yAxoou(pu7.ia,  34 
'Axqoviu,  530,  533 

yAxq6no7.ig,  671 
yAxooar6?.ta,  463 
*AxqoOTix*i$i  158 

61 


yAxQo)T)'tQia,  533 
^xr^,  670 
yA7.apuOTqog,  112 
yA?.a?.ctyubg,  526 
y  A7.tiuu.aTu,  540 
FAJEIOI,  48 
yA7.iinT}jQiov,  133,  539 
*.^P.e£jjT»;()ia,  474 
yA7.ii-i(paQuaxa,  168 
y A7.ivoouavTiia,  490 
yA7.tj6itg  loToqia,  220 
a^;.,«a,  496 
".4*$  tfefos,  537 
'wdfa^cf,  497 
yA7.vTaQ%tig,  498 
r^;.<5a,  428,  491 
*af/iaCo»«c,  450 
yAuidvoTog,  110 
5  Auiutov  paoikiwg,  56 

*  Aiinvs,  538 

5 Auipiyvtiitg,  424 

*  AipiTZTCOl,    523 

y  Au<piTiquOTv7.og,  132 
3 Auifootvg,  545 
yAva(ia6ubg,  540 
y Ava$aT*\g,  496 
'Avaylvipa,  90,  93 
'-^jayvcuOTat,  39 
yAru8vouivij,  422      t; 
*Ava&)]uaTa,  468 
3-4ra:x*iov,  673 
'.^vax/tivoTruib/,  497 
y  AvuxoiOic,  506 
VANAKTEI,48 
y  Avavua.%01,  533 
y Av8qa7io$oxvc7iy]7.oi,  504 
'-.'ir^uTrocW,  482 
'Ardqsia,  519 
yAv$Qo7.tj\pia,  513 
'AvSQvjviTig,  540 
'Av&iOT^Qia,  491 
'^r^tfT^iwv,  699 

"^*^«§,  111 

'^vraros,  132 
yAvTiou,g,  110,  423 

'AvTiyqucptig,  508 
'ArrXl*,  529 
" Avtqu,  484 
^frf,  524 
"-4co*«s,  32 

-4o»dot,  27,  158,  159 

Anaywyt!,  513 

AnuTovqia,  491 
"^7rt?,  442 

dTto^uOqai,  530 


yA7toSixTai,  508 
yA7io$vTt'loiov,  133,  539 
y  AnobiTui,  516 
y Anoxlrytoi,  521 
y  Artoxqvipa,  267 
'-^TToAoyo?,  165 
y  AnolvTixa,  165 
y A7iouvt;uovivuaTa,  227 
yA7voqqtjTa,  41 
yAnoTnxiau'og,  527 
3 Atcotqotioi,  455 
yA7io(pfjTai,  488 
'.^aioOTt^.os,  132 
yAqytnp6vTt]g,  425 
yAqyvqta,  84 
5^4§<Javio>',  550 
yAqti07tayiTui,  510 
'-^(moTrayos,  510 
"^ijS,  421 
"AqufTov,  534 
5 Aqy.Ttia,  550 
cAquuTiiu,  161 
"J(ii(a,  496,  550 
'AquiviOTai,  532 
rAquooTai,  517 
' AquoOvvoi,  517 
*  AqoTqov,  542 
"'Aqovqa,  545 
"  Aqiraysg,  532 
"Aqnviai,  447 
*-4&a,  548 
'AqTipig,  418,  432 
"AqTvvoi,  520 
y  AqxaytTui,  516 
yAqx*ia,  517 
y Aqx&?ov,  484 

Aqxnqwovvi],  485 
5  Aqxibiwqog,  496 
yAqxiy-v^iqv)]Ti]g,  533 
yAqxiTqix7.ivog,  536 
*AqxovTtg,   506 
5^4auv^or,  530 
yAoi(iiia,  513 
"Aaxaqov,  546 
"Aaxav7.og,  547 
>Aax7.tiTciu8oiv,  Sec.  262 
"Aoxwua,  530 
yAonig,  474,  524 

'AoTquTiVTOl,  528 

3 AoTqaXioxog,  34 
yA0vu(Jo7.oi,  536 
yAo(pd7.iog,  414 
^rtti«j  504,  514 
yAT&Ldtg,  250 
yATipia,  513,  519,  533 


722 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


"AxQoirog,  446 
*AvV,ly  540 
*Avlo$,  496>  546 
>Avxln  526 
!'Avxoxu(i$a?.oi,  174 

>AvX0XQuX(x)Q,,5l7 

iAvTou6Zoi,  528 
*Avr6x6orsg,  21 
^AyauHoTuu,  520 

*A<pBO,g,  496> 
*A(f.?.aora,  530 
'AtpqoSittta,  492 
iA(f{iodirrl,  422 

^urijs,  110 

JBaiVij,.  538 
£«*/«/,  485 
JBax/sia,  492- 
Buxxog,  425 
Bit). pig,  496- 
Barcxicfx^Qiov,  538 
JBupa^oj',  514 
Buourixov  (?A&ov),  53' 
jBuffui-og,  504 
.Buaulefs,  470 
JS«0t*it;s,  494,  506,  536 
JBuaxavia,  491,  570 
-B<rr/>,  496 
jBuv,  30,  544 
Bifiilloi,  486 
BeiStaioi,  517 
BtiiZontg,  519- 

^;.r;,  474 

i       BiXouuvrz'ux,  491' 

JB»>a,  675 

jB/^lvUo?,  110 
Bip.'iu  taTQixa,  165 
Btp.iov,  34,263. 

Bi(Ht07Ctjyot,  70 

«(/?;. 05,  32,  34v  263 

B0>j$Q0lltU)V,  699 

■Bonos',  469 
■Boiorap/cu,  520 
Bo2ts,  530 
Boupog,  491 
Boupx%\  634 

Bouftvx'ia,  32: 
Bovai,  516 
■Bowdrrm,  48$ 
BovJ.tiov,  510 
Bov/.ivTiy.hv,  133l 
2?oW.5ut«i,  502 
Bovltvxt'^iu,  674 
.Bou^,  502,  510 
£oi)?,  543 

Bovaxgoipiidbv,.  30,  4& 
Bqupiiov,  496 
BfJupsvrui,  38 
BquvQioria,  492: 
JBoorTffor,  500 
Uyarr^Toc,  490, 
BtJi>xog,  514 


Bvoiog,  488 
J?w^oi,  467,  484 
Bwfibg,  Tc5f  dwiJexa,  404 


J'a^.axToffTrovJa,  467 
T'aiui'l?.iu,  161 
TvtufjPAu,  413 
rawUuv,  699 
rauip.ioi  -&BOI,  550- 
,ra,uo5,  536,  550 
/^(TT^tf,  529 
raOTQOiiavTtict,  491 
riyavog,  500 
Z^ouxrai,  515 
T^ovaltf,  517,  520 
r^o»-,524,  527 
JTtcoy^aytxu,  242 
JTiuiuoqoi,  520 
r»b)Ttovix'a,  264 

i^S   7T*^tO(Jo5,    165 

riyyQa,  546 
rtyyQaauog,  492 
JUat/S,  542 
Z,Aavxw7i«5,  420- 
rivtpsiov,  33 

ZV-woaui,  215 
.TV»,'aiot,  550 
JTvJjQi  atavrbv,  488 
JTvoiiiai,  165 
JTvaitLiuVf  698 
.Tovv7r£T«i*\  467 
-TV^yoreS,  449 
JToyyonov,  450 
rqaiKol,  459 
JT^ui/uara    ^otytxefot,   28, 

'  49 
T'quufiura  ovinia,  369 
JT^aitfiarivg,  170,  506,507; 

508,  521 
TQocunaTixoL,  41,  215,  332 
rQuutuxTiaT^g,  41,73 
ryeccpttov,  33 
ryayii,  513 
rgacptxr,,  120 
/>u</>{c:,  33,  123. 
.Tt%,  542 
Tv?.iov,  476 
rvuvuota,  37' 
rvfivaari'^iov^  183  > 
rvuvuaT'^g,  500 
rvuvocoiaQx'101'  507 
jTvuvixoi  ayrovtg,  38 
/"iivaixtfov,  481 
rvvaixotv,  481,  540 


Jadovxog,  494 
daiuong,  447 
dutuoro%ij7iToi,  490 
JixiXQog,    536 
Jutxxv).ioy7.vyictt  108 


JaxxvXtoyXvqtoi,  116 
//uxTvAtodijxai,  116 
^uxTtdov  af(J«,  497. 
daxxvl.og,  244 
davaxi],  550 
Juipvrj,  486 
Jacprt^poQia,  492 x 
JaipvtjyoQixa,  161* 
^•Uq,  697 
..i/tiAii'ov,  534 
Jtinvov,  534,  536 
jjetnvoffotpioxal,  40" 
Jtxadovxoi,  502 
*/«*«5,  518 
^ftxao^ibg,  513 
Jsxuip&ivol,  698 
Jikxoi,  34 
JtX(f)lv,  532 
^«Sto$,  490 
JiTcuxit,  537 
Jiqua,  529 
Jtaubg,  513 
JexfaitQu,  699 
/^taj  492 

JtluiXQXOl,  506 

^?/*>;t^,  427,428 

Jtjim'jTQta,  492 
Jtj/nionQuxa,  507 
JtluiovQyoi,  521 

^uoi,  171,  501,  503: 
Jitfiooioi,  507 
//»/«,  428 
^/iiiyP.i/qja,   90 
jdiayqaiptig,  508 
Jiu8rtua,   470 
Jiadootif,   508 
Jtatw^iaxa,  133 
JiaQi'txt],  550 
Jiaixtjx'ui,  512 
4/«U«$i$,  208 
Jia?.?.uxn'tQtoi,  512-' 
JiuuaaxiywOig,  42 
/Jiavouut,  508 
JiaQxiif  517 
Jtaoxtvixax'ui,  170,  1811 
//icioruP.og,  132 
Aiavlog,  496 
JtSdoxBiv  tyaua,  175 
Jtdaoxul.iat,  175 
JLSquxuoc,  543 
Jdvqaupof,  161,  425 
•dtinoltla,  492 
^x«i,  512,  504 
Jixuia,  550 
Jtxavixbi  l.oyot,  204  J 
Jtxuoxai,  512: 
Jtxaaxt'^iov,  511 
//«'*>;,  363,  504  ; 
J i xn ox a,   476  . 
d  11,1.0  xut>  ^23 
Jiovvota,  39,  492J 
Jiorvaog,  425 
Jiontxij,  484  i 


INDEX    OF    GREEK   WORDS. 


723 


Jioq&watig,  215 
Aiooxoi'qia,  455 
Aioaxovqoi,  455 
AinXaoiaouoc,  525 
4i7iTtqog,   132 
Ainrvxa,  34 
AinvXov,  671 
Jiaxog,  497 
Jitp&iQui,  32,  71 
J'upqog,  410,  474 
4iia(ioXia,  508 

jdlbiXOiV,    512 

Aiumooia,  510,  512 
Jiw^ig,  512 
Aoxiuaoia,  506 
JuXiyog,  496 
^/<iru|,  33 
AuQUTCt,    532 

AoQarocpuQoi,  523 
doqnog,  534 
Aoqv,  474 

AoQvdXwTOl,  528 

JovXtia,  513 

^otJ;.ot,482,503,504,  537 

AovyoSoxtj,  474 

Aqaua,   168 

jQaxPHi  510,  543,  544 

AiisTiuvtjtpoQoi,  523 

Aqinavov,  532 

jQvuog,  496 

JioOtxu  ^tol,  404 

dtodwvaiov  jruP.xtrov,  488 
^a,  468, '537 
dwqodox'ux,  513 

J? 

'-EyxctvtfTor,  33 
'EyxoiAtrt,  529 
1 Eyxoufioua,  538 
>£yxti)««aOTtxot,  204 
'Eyxajtiiov,   161 
'fy^s^i^ov,  524 
*Eyxog,  474 
iEyx<oQtct,  62 
f£(Jw;.««,  132,530 
'.EjJriUiov,  164 
'E.xu?,  699 
>Eixovix'u,  92 
J£<x<i>v,  123,  514 
1 Ei?.u7ilvt),  534 
'JBiAiWwia,  419 
iEi2.)]uaT<t,   34 
*  EiXoxrtg,    516 
"jfrews,  516 
'EiQtoituvai,  164 
?£<?i>7<  435,446 
>£tfraj'y*/.«a,  513 
>Etoo/t'i,  115 
'Eioipoqal,  507,  508 
'■ExitTvupaia,  492 
r Exaroiipatcjr,  699 
c£x«Toi«|Sij,  467 


'Exaroufloia,  413 
rExtfTuuntdov,  672 
'Exdvo'ia,  435 
'jftptayriai,  509,  517 
iExx?.tiaiaanxii  iaroola, 
272 
^ExxoimSij,  550 

5j5:x;.oyjr?,  508 

'ExCFTUTlXOl,    490 

"Exrvna,  93 
'Excpoqlx,  551 
'EXui^g  critpavog,  519 
'-EP.uioflttfiop,  133 
3 EXaioonovSa,  467 
'EXcHptifioliafV,   699 
3£A*y£ta,  163 
'Jttiyo;,   163,   164 
'EXinoXig,  525 
5£/.«i;a£vtu,  492,  493 
"£;.(*«<;,  538 
r£/.;.u>'o<Jixai,  498,  500 
'.EAAi/vodtxafov,  498 
"EXvua,  542 
"'EXv^iog,  546 
'Euplcg,  501 
'Ef.t(iaT>\Qiov,  526 
'EupoX^,  527 
'ErfoXov,  525,  529 
'EuiuiXtta,  169 
*Eumtqia,  262 
'Eu7ciXu)Qoi,  517 
'Eunvsvara,  546 
'Evdytouu,  469 
"Eruotf,  528 
"fv^tt^tj,  513 
"£rthx«,  506,  512 

'ErfloVfflUffTUl,    490 
'JErroyfltroi,   698 
'.Erred reuiloy,  671 
'iivtmrviov,  490 
'Erva,,  422,438 
'.Erco/uoTta,   525 
"£^«5(jat,   133 
'.Ei-e/.tyiuoc,  525 
>.E|«TaOTui,   506 
"Estjfioi,  516 
'£c>/y »/<*'?,  215 
'E^iyijXtx^,  41 
'-Et-ojfj^,   115 
'EndixXov,  518 
'Enaivog,   161 
J-E/T£  tflochov,  168 
^£7r«i'iuxT0t,  516 
'Emfiti&Qai,  527,  530 
'EnificcTai,  532 
'ii7r«yo»oi,  456 
'EnifQixuuaTct,  47,  166, 

528 
'Eniyqayal,   552 
'Emyqvufiig,   508 
'EnidtixTixbg,   324 
'E/ictftiijtiS,  39 


Enidsinva,  536 
'EniBaXdnia,  161 
'EmdtxXdfitov,  550 
fEnlxomoi,  529,  532 

EniXaQx'ia,  525 

Ercu.o'iuia,  161 
'Ejvtfiu/'iu,  526 
'EniiitXtjTaL,  550 

Ercivixiov,   161 
'Emoqxia,  487 
'Eni^Qtifia,  172 
'EjiiOeiwv,  530 
'ErciaijUa,   30 
'ErctOTdrtig,  509,  510 
'EniaxoXai  iqwrixai,  220 
'EniOTo7.ivg,  533 
'ETCio-zoXoyqd  <pog,  381 
'EtcitqottI,,  530 
'Enlrqonog,  548 
'EnoRtX'nt  or  'EntoptXta, 

512 
'Enimrat,  493 
'£7ro?,   163 

EnovQanoi,  404 
cEnra  aoytbv  ovunvOiQv, 
40 

En  cow  uoi,  515 

J?7rtoTt^6c,  530 
"£earo5,   479,  53 

'Eqydxig,  420 
'Eoirat,   530 
'Eqixuoi,   530 
'Eqitqiu,  674 
>E(px6*lt,  672 

'Epf/deior,  672 
Mfyim/ff,   446 

"jE^is,   433 
'EotOXtxlj,    41 

"Eqxog,  552 
r'Equa,   530 
r  Egua&ilrtj,  93 
r'Eqtuata,  492 
r Enuatog  Xi&og,  93 
rEoutl()axXtLjg,   93 
r%«,;?,  93,  424 
*&?•*,  423 
'Eqortixlx  uiXi;,   166 
'EontQioua,  534 
fE<m'a,  428 
f£(TT«'aai?,  507 

fIsflTlttT0£l0>\    540 

r Eaxtdxaq,  536 
'Ea^uQivg,  533 
'  Eg  yitxoxoXXov ,  34 
'Extx'inui,  548 
rErtQoiovuira,   165 
'ErtooudoxuXoi,  504 
'ErvuoXoyixiv,  219 
'■EvuyytAtx/y  ar7r<j<J«i£t?,  272 
"JEffluroi,   506 
'JBvxtjxu,  161 


724 


INDEX    OF   GREEK    WORDS. 


'EvusvISsq,  446,  491 
rEvvij,S3Q 
'Evvo^tia,  435,  446 
'Evarvlog,  132 
^EvriQTctj,  445 
iEv/al,  466 

KEv(pQOOVVt],  446 

"EysdQog,  497 
'Ecpioia,  492 
^HyeOiaxa,  221 
^EytTat,  511 
3 Ecfrfiitov ,  133 
>E(p>j(iiy.bv,  133 
3'E(pij(ioi,  516 
fE(f)'lytjOig,  513 
'Ecptjutqlg,  261 
>E(piu?.rtig,  490    ^ 
^Eipinniov,  597 
'Eipodtia    556 
>E(pOQtlOV,  517  f 

"EyoQoi,  493,  517 
^E/tThj,  542 


Z«uyfTo«,  502 
Znfe,  410,  411 

Z«i;$  a-rryios  416 

Z^u'a,  513,  519 
Z^nluara,  215 
Zvya,  530 
Zi;y/u,  413 
Zuyrrai,  532 

Zvyi?,  524,  525 

Zo)yQtx(pixin  120 
Zou'oq  uD.ag,  518 
Zwv;],  469,  474 
ZojorrQsg,  529 
ZcJOTqov,  538 

'HSonxoi,  227 
"HQuog,  48 
'maxurtj,  530 
fH?.ialu,  511 
cH?.iaOTui,  506,  511 
f'77/<oc,  417,  430 

' H/.lOTQOTllOV,   698 

"7/i/ao,  697 
rHuina,  432 
rHui(Jug  uonayyj,  432 
r HitiQodouiiOL,  528 
'HuiQwouxior,  523 
* Hvio/og,  474 
' Hnarooxonia,  490 
"7^«,  412 
f7/?u/«,  413,  492 
rH(pu'torsia,  492 
"HipaiOToc,  423 
"H/iia,  500 
>77cis,  432,  697 

0aP.aiuTai,  532 


0a?.aiuog,  550 
QdUict,  445,  446 
©uP./oi,  467 
0a/.Xo(p6qoi,  495 
0a  varog,  448,  514 
0u^y>/;.twv,  699 
0avAcoW<Jai,  485 
Oiarqov,  132 
0*at  Ofitvai,  511 
Qiuihog,  530 
0/u«$,  435 
0soi  ot  utya'^ot,  404 
0eo2oy£ior,  500 
QeouavTsia,  490 
©eoStVia,  673 

O&071OUTC01,   487 

OsovQyoi,  485 

0eouo6iT<xi,  506,  511 
QtouocpoQEiov,  494 
0touo(p6oia,  428,  492,  494 

0iOuocp6Qog,  428 
0erol,  550 
0*coot*a,  501,  508 
0su)Qoi,  487 
0  >;*>?,  552 
0j;^ta^a,  165 
0»;T«?,  482,  502 
0£avfrai,  532 
0Qa  vog,  532 
0^»;'vwy:"«ca5^oi,  551 
0()iyxbg,  552 

0?(JroS,  39,  479,  542 
0i;'«/;.«t,  447 
0v,ui?.ri,  169 
0vf.iiaua,  486 
0i^a,'54O 
0v<isbg,  524 
0VQ£O(p6()Ol,  523 

0voiai,  0vog,  467. 
0vtui,  485 

0o)f)ccxior,   527 

©wo«£,  474,  523 


Id?.tuoi,  551 
lauflog,  161 
Iaonig,  111 
Iixtqoc,  37 
Jaw,  113 
Jtfafoc,  411 

7*»a,  482,  671 
JcQEfor,  486 
Itfjtvg,  158 
IsquSovXoi,  485 
IiQouavrtia,  490 
ItQov,  436 
2*{)07roiot,  494 
ItQooxon'ta,  490 
/f^ot^yoi,  485 
JiQoqxxrrai,  485,494 
ly.tticfiog,  412 
7xo<a,  530 


'IXctO/nbg,  486 
r D.aanxa,  486 
"i;.*/,  525 
f7,u«?,  529, 542 
r Iudnov,  538 
"Joe,  474 

'IovP.oi,  161 
f  Innay^irai,  517 
r Innayojyot,  523 
r iTtTcdQ/tjg,  523 
e  l7TTVaQXia>  525 

"  Innaqx01!  524 
tlnnstg,  473,  502 
r  Inn  lag  fisitiov,  92 
r InnodQouog,  678 
' InnolvTEia,  672 
<,J7r7roroSorai,  523 
"7^?,  433 

'iGOlliTQtjTCC,    92 

'ItfoTt/Qarros,  517 
f7<rr/a,  530 
'IOTofioevg,  542 
f7<7To?,  530 
5 lra7.bg,  65 
'Ixfrvouavria,  490 
*  ltn(iuxxoi,  161 
*J»r«$,  24 

7if  a<Wai,  28 
XcMoi,  510 
TCacJo?,  545 
KaQaQuol,  466 
TfatucW,  518 
JCaiiifltov,  494 
KuXecuog,  33 
7faPJ.iyoti(pot,  35 
Kvdlionrj,  445 
JfcUot,  530 
Kalvnryu,  538,  548 
XaP.axW,  497 
Kuutj?.oi,  530 
KavtjipoQoi,  496 
JTamvy,  497 
Kanvouavrtla,  490 
Kuqapog,   113 
A^orfia,  492 
KarccpaQubg,  692 
JtaTa/Si  Jjrtxij ,  497 
KaTafio/.l^  536 
KaTayoaipln  521 
Karccnilrai,  527 
Karanovxtaubg,  514 
^C«T(ioT«ai$,  521 
KaTOKfQityuaTa,  530 
KaTuqiQuxToi,  523 
7fuT>;yo()tat,  206,  513 
TCaTOTrT^a,  539,  542 
Karoirux*},  538 
KavT>',Qia,  123 
JCiisvar^,  533,616 
tf^/T*?,  476,  496 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


725 


Kerala,  552 
KtvoTuyia,  519,  552 
JUvrijOig,  519 
KivTQov,  597 
Keqaia,  530 
Ksqausixbg,  40 
Xsquuiov,  545 
Ktqag,  547 
Kiqara,  34,  524,  530 

KeQCLTLVt],  547 

Kequtiov,  544 
JCeQavr ooy.071  stov,  500 
Ksqxidtg,  133 
KiQua,  543 

Kiornwoig,  JCbotqov,  123 
Kecpak}/  dsinvov,  536 
JCiproi  ^flwviaos,  492 
JC»7e«S,  449 
KrtQoiiavTBia,  491 
KHPON02,  31 
jr»Jdtf£,  jtiftvttac,  468,471, 
485,  507,  525,  537 
KriqvxBiov,  525,  526 
JTtyxaUec  512 
Xiduga  546 
Kutdiviov  Tti%og,  671 
Kiovtjdbv,  30 
Kivvqa,  546 
/n<m/,  542 
KiaTo<puQot,  494 
KXuSol  IxTtjQioi,  467 
jastdi,  445 
KXsxPv8qu,  512,  570 
KhiQixoi,  205 
K?.yjqouavrsicc,  490 
KXtjOwroi,  506 
JUtitao,  512 
KUtiaxig,  133,  527,  540 
KXLvat,  536 
JCW,,  542 
JOtotS,  525 
XliOfibg,  479 
X;.ot6ff,  513,  519 
XAw&S,  446 

Krrjui8eg,  474 
Kviaot],  468 
Ko&oqvog,  501 
KoiXtupoXov,  525 
XaUif,  529 
KoCXov,  132 

KoiUTjTt'tQLOV,   552 

Xotej,  542 

/(CotTwv,  540 
Xo^oaffoi,  92 
/Coficr-r^/ov,  133 
Kovrol,  530 
KovroipoQoi,  523 
Xott »  524 
XottH,  30,  69,  544 
Xo^aS,  169 
Xdgq,  543 
Xo^euvttfuaTa,  161 


Jfojn'xaiov,  133 
KoQvvt],  524 
Koqvg,  474 
Koqvipaiog,  169 
K&ouoi,  519 
Kunvog,  498 
KuTTafiog,  537 
KoTv/.yj,  545 
Kovqoi,  537 
X^oi,  526 
Ko/liuQiov,  545 
X^uvog,  474 
Kqarijqsg,  537 
Kqar^q,  48,  534 
Kq^Szuvov,  538 
Kqrjjuvog,  514 
KqtjnLg,  552 
X^ios,  527 
KqoxonsnXog,  433 
K(jot<x?.ov,  547 
Kqorog,  39 
Kqvizreta,  516 
KovoraXXog,  111 
Kr'iaxy\g,  52 
Xifa/tot,  506,  510 
Kvavbg,  110 
Kvpeia,  534 
Kv(isqvijrrjg,  533 
£i/*ia$,  160,167,674 
KvXXojcodtjg,  424 
Kx'upaXa,  547 
Kwhi,  474 
Kvvoaovqa,  515 
Kvqfcig,  32 
XuVoff,  529 
Xi/gxuv,  513,  519 
XcWwr,  547 
XcfyiiJ,  171 
Kdjveiov,  514 
KuiTiai,  530 
KamifiuTcu,  530 
Koji,'^],  529 
if w<)  t;'/:£  tov,  133 


Aaxxog,  469 
^ci^vu^sg,  551 
Juoijiov,  524 
Aaqtvqa,  528 
J-u/eOig,  446 
-dsiTtovavTui,  533 

jtsiTCOOTQtxTlOV,   513 

^fi7roTu^rai,  528 
Asirovqyiai,  507 
Aixrqov,  469,  550 
.iJgue,  215 

J.E71TOV,   543 
Aio/rj,  516 
J.svxavQi\g,  407 
Asvxwua,  506 
^*^og',  542,  550 
^i)jfu0os,  123 


At]iiaq/oi,  506 
i^,  4*34 
jftytf^tov,  111 

MBopoXia,  514 
MBopiXoi,  527 
AidoyXvipia,  108 

_^o>ro;.;.a,  92 

jf/dot,  524,  92, 112, 108 

^ii3og  7tqaT>\q,  504 
^oyutfeg,  519 
Joyefov,  500,  576 
Aoyia,  487 
AoyiOTai,  506 
Aoyioritg,  533 
Aoyoyqaipiai,  230 
Abyoi  OXvumxoi,  39 

£|wT£^t^Oi,    £(7a)T8Q- 

i*ot,  41 
Aoifial,  467 
^oS/«s,  418,  489 
Aovxiog  -tY'Ovog,  220 
AovTi'iQiov,  542 
Aovrqbv,  539 
Aoipstov,  542 
Aocpog,  474 
Aoxayoi,  524 
^o/o?,  524,  525 
Avxaia,  434,492 
Jvaeig,  215 
^fwcfiLcavog,  673 

Mayu&g,  546 
ikZuyava,  527 
Mayvijxig  ?A6og,  386 
JViuyot,  491 
MatTat,  518 
Madi-para,  37,  240 
Maiuaxrr^iojv,  699 
Miarufog,  485 
Maxqa  oxiXyj,  672 
Maxqal  Ttirqai,  673 
Mavrtia,  487 
MavrBiaara,  487 
Mavrixt),  490 
MdtvTig,  158 
ilia<m'()£S,  512 
Macrr/ycoffis,  519 
Mu/aiqa,  524 
MiSiuvog,  545 
MsQodixij,  41 
MiXav  yqaipixbv,  33 
MsXirti,  208 
M»2ij|,  474 
MtXianovSa,  467 
MUuttfcti,  485 
MsXiTTovra,  550 
MiXog  fu$aTi'tQiov,  182 
31s?.7touivtj,  445 
Mtufiqava,  34 
MiQixQ/ia,  525 
Mtoodut),  530 


62 


726 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


Mtooxodog,  529 
Msooucpu/.iov,  524 
JMtoovavrai,  532 
MsooxoQog,  ]69 
Merapo?.}j,  525 
MtraytiTviwv,  699 
filsTadoQTiia,  536 
Mersuxfiv^tDOic,  226 
2UeTo*xoi,'204,  495,  503, 

504,  508 
Merolxior,  504 
MsTQtjT^s,  545 
JKOTtthw,  524,  529 

Mr/xaval,  527 
M^jfori/,  500 

31y]vbg  lorauivov  &c.  699 
MijQoi,  468 
M1JA1,  48 

JMlP.TOTTuQt^Ol,  529 

-Maroc,  33 
itf<W,  287 
.Micros  (iovZiVTixog,  &C. 

508 
JUir^,  524,  538 
Jl/ru,  543 
Mvtjutiov,  552 
Mvoia,  519 
.Moffat,  446 
Molnih  537 
MolvpSvvai,  474 
Movaviog,  547 
Movt'^eig,  476 
JMovoyquiiuara,  31 
JMLovoxqora,  476 
iHojoTTTf^oc:,  132 
3/ovoTi'aaaoov,  271 
J\lovoxQ(ouaT<x,  122 
Moqcci,  516,  525 
MoqLcu,  495 
JMoQtptj,  449 
Jtfovvvxia,  675 
Movvixjor,  672 
Movoai,  445 
Mouaefov,  94,  673 
Movant,,  37,  545 
Movoixij  ipi7.ii,  546 
Movoixoi  aycoveg,  38 
.MtJdot,  399 
Jlfi/GoAoyfa,  399 
JftUaw**,  504 
MvQi6(iip?.ov,  218 
MvoT^om,  493 


iV«'^;.a,  546 
iVaoi,  482 
NaoipvJ.axeg,  485 
Navaqxog,  532,  533 
Navrai,  532 
jtfavipis.axsg,  530 
Ntaqal  Siard^stg,  393 

ilTtXQdfclTTTOV,  469 


NsxQouaiTtia,  491 
Ntodauwdstg,  516 
NeoiiyrLa,  692 
Nsvqodtra,  546 
Nsvqov,  474 

Ns(pa?.tjyaqtrt]g}  412 
Necjxoqoi,  485 
JV/Js?  au(pi7iovuvoi,  530 
Ntjareia,  494 

UN**,  672 

#60oi,  550 
Noueig,  529 
No u iu a,  550 
Nouioua,  543 
NouoGirai,  507 
#ou<u,  158,  545 
Nouog,  515 
Nouoipv7.axsc,   496,   506, 

517 
Nv u (pat a,  444 
Ni'uwij,  542 


Jztvia,  537 
^*vto?,  480 
,Htvo«,  504 
Jziortjg,  545 
Jzicpog,  474,  514 
^v?.oxdQTior,  32 
^vora,  134 
SvOTcrQXHSi  500 
JBVtfroi,  134,  497 

JzvoToifuqoi)  523 


'Opo7.bg,  543,  544,550 
"Oyxos,  500 
'OJPYZHZ     NYM- 
&AIZ,  427 

'Odorai,  530 
'OixiTai,  504 
"Oixoc,  540 
'OixoviiBrtxol,  216 
' OixovqoV oipeic,  672 
'OiroiiuvTtia,  490 
'OlVOfitZi,  536 
'Oivoxooi,  537 
'Oiro:  /a ■'.){>  iriTijc,  534 
>0<or«,  474 
'Oxqipag,  123 
'OxTaerijQig,  698 
}07.iyo(f6qot,  534 
fo;.*a'<J*s,  529 
'O/.oipvquol,  550 
-'O7.vu7ieiov,  673 
'  Ouoioi,  515, 
' OuonuTQiovg,  548 
"0«7rac,  494 
■Ouqu7.bg,  34,  524 
'Oinpa7.bg  yttg,  488 
'OvtlQOXqiTlxd,  264 
>0V£  1^0710^.01,  490 


'Ovsioog,  448,  449,490 
JOvaiooo"xo7rot,  490 
'Orouaonxbv,  217 
'Owl,  111 
'Ovvxiov,  111 
'Ogvpeleig,  527 
'Ond7.7.iog,  110 
'OTrio^ockiuoc,  672 
'Oniodoyqafpot,  34 
'  0/t;.a,  530 
'OTcitrai,  521 
c  07i7.iToSq6iioi,  496 
c'  OttAov,  523 
"Oqaua,  490 
'Oqyag,  485 
"O^yra,  492 
'Oqyvid,  544 
'Oqeixulxog,  92 
"OqQiog,  545 
>Oq6ond?.ti,  497 
° Oqxia  Ttuvsiv,  487 
"O^o?,  412J 
" Oqxog  (iov).tvTixbg,  510 
"Ooxog  uiyag,  486 
"  Oquoi,  675 
°  Oouog,  538 
'Ojmdoua'rreis,  490 
'Ooot,  390 
" ' Oqvyua,  514 
"'OqxtjOig,  37 

"<to<TTo«,  132,  169 
'Oqxnorvg,  537 
"Oaia,  550 

f OQlloTtO,    489 

'Ooro&t^xai,  551 
'Ooro7.6yiov,  551 
'Oorqaxioubg,  513 
~'  Oorqaxov,  514 
'Ooxocpoqia,  492 
}Ooxo(poqix'u,  161 
'OvZai,  467 
'Ov7.oxyia,  468 
"Ovo/.xoi,  97 
"Ovmyyoi,  161 
'O^a,  524,529 
'Ot'oayoi,  609 
»  Ov<Jay  6  s,|525 
'Ovqavla,  445 
'Oi^aros,  430 
'Ot^/oc,  50 
'OyBaluhs,  529,  530 
'OipQaZuovg  ovyx?.titiv, 

469 
''Oxavov,  524 
'O^aug,  474 


ITayxqdriov,  497       jf 
Hai«w,  161  526 
Haiyvta,  161 
TTaideia,  37,  ?;  *7tt  VV' 
40 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


727 


ZlaidtQU)?,  110 
Uaidixa,  161 
JlaiSixt/  tiovoa,  167 
JJaidovouog,  516,  517 
Ualaioxqa,  133 
Hali],  37,  497 
Holla* Ida g,  548 
Halluc,  420 
JTa'/.uoi,  491 
TTalxbr,  474 
IIau(}aoi?.ela,  517 
Haufid z109}  497 
Ilduusxqov,  167 
JTai-,'  434 

nara&t\vaia,  492,  495 
IlavaQtjvaixbv,  495 
JTardaoiat,  536 
Udvdrtuog,  673 
Jldvdoooog,  672 
Udr&eov,  673 
IlavilyVQig,  498 
Uavixbv  deiua,  434 
JlavToSanij  [oxoqia,  252 
Ilaqa^daig,  172 
HaociYQCKpi,,  512 
IIaqai(id xrtg,  474 
Ilaqair triy.bg,  205 
Hdqalog,  683 
Ilaqdvvuipog,  550 
JTaQuzt cf  idiov,  524 
tlaQaOijuov,  529 
JIaqdoixoi,  485 
JJanaordoig,  512 
UaQaavv&)'tuara,  526 
JTdotdqoi,  506 
Haqnai,  529 
JIaq&iria,  161,  166 
JIaq&hoi,   672 
JZa^evwv,  503,  547 
JIdqoyog,  550 
mdila,  538 
Ilstixbv,  521 
Ilsiqaiei'g,  675 
JTtioiardxxiog,  673 
Iliiouaxa,  530 
JlilaOy ixbr ,  671 
Ileld rat,  482 
Jlilnai,  488 
Hilexvg,  524 
JTslxaoxai,    23 
MlTti,  523,  524 
IIslajQia,  492,409 
Heundg,  524 
JTsvrdSia,  34 
Jlivxadlov,  496 
JltvTctxooiouidturoi,  502 
Jlsvxtjxooxvg,  525 
Hsvxtjqsig,  532 
mrtloi,  479 
JltTtlov  cei-ioi,    495 
Heqixsipalaia,  474 
JJsQYQaMvh}  33 


Jlsql  oro/wv,  273 
Ilsoipolog,  132 
IIsqidsiTivov,  469 
llsqisqya,  491 
TZe^i  E^cuTi/fwv  TtaQqud- 

TW,  221 
Usqu'iytjOig,   165 
Iliqnjytjxd  t,  489 
IZsqioixoi,  516 

IlEQlTCaTOg,  42 

IIsqiTrsxdouaxa,  468 
nsQiTtoloi,  526 
nsQiTTTsoog,  132 
Ilsqiqqavxtjqiov,  484,  486 
UsQiTtijriaiibg,  527 
IlfniTovsia,  530 
HiQitpctvrj,  90 
Ileqicpqdyuaxa,  530 
JltqovtluaTa,  468,  548 
JJtqaiCfbvy],  414 
ITsxaliOubg,  514 
niraaog,  538 
Ilixqai  uaxqai  &C.  673 
IltTQopoloi,  527 
Hirqwiia,  493 
27*TT£/a,534 
Hrjyoicavxeia,  490 
JIrtddliov,  530 
Htjxrig,  546 
TlijXvg,  544 
IZtf.oc,  538 
nivaxsg,  123 
Iltvdxta,  506 
Tl'ivaxi  71TVXT0),  35 
Hivag,  ayvqxixbg,  491 
Tl'iong  Arnxij,  487 
Tlixxdxiov,  34 
Illayiavloq,  546 
Illaioiov,  525 
Ulauls,  495 
Ulaarixij,  90 
niardrioxa,  517,  678 
Ulaxsiaoubg,  146 
nu&oov,  545 
HUvqai,  530 
Ulijxrqov,  546 
Illlvdiov,  525 
niovrog,  172,  436 

m.OVTOiV,  416 

ZZw'S,  509,  675 
27<J<fcffj  530 

HoirjT^g,  159 
noixilti,  42,  673 
Iloliuaqxog,    506,  517, 

520,  524 
Helta*,  420,  672 
JJolioqxrjXixd,  242 
Tlolixai,  503 
IlolvdrSqiov,  552 
Ilolvxtaxa,  548 
IToP.vuvia,  445 
IIolv(p6qoi}  534 


noiiTtai,  508 

IIoilTlilOV,  673 

nbnava,  367,  486 
IIoqQuiov,  550 
noonaxsg,  524 
Ilooeideiv,  628,  414 
TTbt;?,  544,  545 
nqdxxoqsg,  508,  512 
Ilqaopug,  507,  526 
nqiofivg,  517 
JHqoavliov,  540 
Ilqopliluaxa,  474 
nqopovlevpa,  509,  515 
Ilqoyviivdauaxa,  498 
JTIqbSouog,  540 
Uqodoaia,  513 
Ilqbxomoi,  522 
IlqbxvTta,  91 
Ilqodixoi,  517 
nqoedqia,  514,  519,  528 
Ilqosdqoi,  509,  510 
nqonqboia,  428 
Ilqoixtoa,  548 
i7^ot|,'548 
Ilqovaog,  131 
ITqbUvoi,517,  537 
Ilqogsvia,  537 
Ilqooiuia,  160 
JJqoTcldo^iaxa,  91 


TFqoTioloi 


485 


IIq6Ttoiua,  536 
nqoTTi'laia,  484,  503,  671 
IIqoox3(pdlaia}  536 
nqoabSia,  161,  485 
nqoordxyg,  504 
nqboxvlog,  132 
nqbaxvna,  90 

ITqOOOlTCElQV,  500 

Hqoxi&so&ai,  550 
Ilqoxoiial,  93 
Hqbxovoi,  530 
Hqotftjxai,  489 
Hqoffvlaxdi,  526 
Hqo/oog,  542 
Ilqvpra,  529 
IlqvuvijOta,  530 
Hqvxaviia,  507, 512 
Jlqvxavsia,  510 
Ilqvxavtiov,  429,510,675 
J/ovT<iv£(?,  509,  510,515, 

520 
//^a,  529 
Ilqoqsvg,  533 
Jlqioxoxollov,  34 
IIxaqtuoi,  491 
7/T£§«,  529 
Ilxvylg,  529 
Ilvaveipiejv,  699 
Ilvyuij,  497 
Hvdixbg  roiiog,  499 
TIv&ioi,  517 
7/^tor,  488 


728 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


IIv6io?,  418,  483,  517 
JIvy.v6orvP.og,  132 
Jlvxxtjg,  497 
IlvZayoqat,  509 
JIvlaia,  509 
Ilvkrj,  540 
IIvq,  514 
IIvqcc,  469 

Ilvqyog,  525,  527 

IIvq6po?.oi,  524 
JIvqouarxsia,  490 
JIvqipoqoi,  526 
Hvqumbg,  110 
JlojZijxai,  508 
Il&ua,  474 


'PapdouavTeia,  491 
'Pupdovxot,  498 
'Paylg,  548 
'Payjwtoi,  27,  159 
cP}jTOQeg,  507 
'f/jr^t,  519  » 

'Pitoxbuog,  264 
ri>t^«a7r^f?,528 
cPtyi?,  497 
r?o<!oa<izTi;;.o?,  430 
rP6<W,  536 
ePvuaxa,  530 
cPvpog,  544         • 


^ayua,  524 
Z&srtyrtf',  526,  547 
.2a;t7riyx"r?,c,  524 
2<xu(iijxti,  546 
.SauTd,  30,  544 
^iiv5uAa,  538 
,2aWs,  513 
■5"a7r</m§0£,   110 
^ti^^ioe,  ■S'uod'uoe,  111 
.2a@<$ovi/£;,  111 
^a^iaaa,  524 
.S'a^xofptiyos,  551 
.2«tv()o$,  295 

^eiai/dcoj',  343 

.Jfeurryov,  547 

2t2^,  418,  432 

^f;.;.oi,  488 

^»;x6?,  484,  552 

2ijua,  552 

Zqjufe,  31,  526 

2tjutioyquipoi,  35 

2rltusioip6qoi,  524 

if/tea,  158 

2iyXai,  31 

^i^tJroi,  516 

2fe«toe,  169,  173 

JfcrXtft,  84 

Xa2o»,  174 

-S"iT«()tov,  544 

Sirtjoig  lv  nqvxccrsKo,  514 


Zir&,  428 
ZxalpoL,  530 

2x.ui.iua,  496 
2y.aiprlipbqoi,  495 
2xi?.t}  /uaqxu,  672 
2y.iizi\,  552 
2«ip4;  132,  500 
2y.fjnxqov,  470 
-S^tayjJaf/u'a,  123 
2y.ihcg,  518 
2f  (22e,  436 
2y.iouavX£ia,  491 
2y.iqt)Q(poqi<ov,  699 

Z*&U<ms  163,  537 

2"*o7f6g,  496 
.Sxvia,  528 
Jxtflal,  486 
2*vtu2»,  528 
JtevraAut,  524 
2xvrog,  32 
2uuqay$og,  110 
^iloj,  497 
.5"o()oi,  551 
J"a)^o$,  441 
J^o^irrrai,  35 
27ii'i).aiov,  552 
Zni&apti,  544 
2n).ayxvoaxoTtia,  486 
27iodiog,  484 
2tvouSul,  467 
2novdth  486,  526 
2nvqi$bv,  30 
Zt&iov-,  133,  496 
2raT(a,  57,  543 
2'Cavqbg,  514 
St*^,  529 
2riftfiara,  467,  486 
2rscpavij(poQog,  494 
Sri(pavot,  514,  452 
JSrtyavos,  167,  468,  519 
2ri(poc,   468 
£*#Um,  134,  552 
2t#;*iz,  469,  513,  552 
JSrtyjua,  534,  513 
2riyu\j,  32 
Sxtj^ijQag,  32 
2rixoi,  525 
2xixouavxsla,  490 
2to«/',  133,  134,  673 
2"to«  uaxqa,  675 
7ioiy.i?.in  42 
^"ro/lwo/o?,  530 
2xol.lt,  538 
^-nUo?,  529 
^To«T»/yoc,  517,  520,  521 

524 
2xnaxia,  524 
-S'T^aTox^n^,  524 
J"r^oyyi'A>/,  434 
2xq6(piov,  538 
2xQ(Duaxa,  536 

^ti;';.os.  33,  134 


2vxo(puvxai,  512 

^j;.;.a(?oc,  34 

Zt4u/te2a,  491,  526,  537 
2vu(io?.}h  534 
2vu(iov?.svTtxol,  204 

2vu(iv>uoi,  484 
2vuuax'iot,,  526 
2viiuiy.xa,  215 
2vuuoqiui  507 
2vuTC?.iyuaxu,  93 
2vun6oia,  40,  537 

2\>(i7tOOii)CQx09i  536 
JSt/vdixoi,  507 
^f^'yo^,  507,512 
2t/vd»;xtf,  526 
^tyfi^tara,  526 
2yv+w>i,  484 
JSfi/Vrayim,  525 
JMfetyS,  546,  547 
Svooitia,  518,  536 
^t/tfraff«g,  208 
2tW!;;.og,   132 
^"(/laysTov,  468 
■5"</)ayt£,   468 
2ipaiqioxi'jqiov,  133 
2(p£vo6v)],  474 
SxiHaOfta,  208 
J>JS2taf;S15 

2 yoLVopUxai,  534 
^><mu,   530 
2toxeiQa,  2u>xitq,  672 


Taiv'ia,  538 
Taxxiy.oi,  525 
Tov.arro?',  543 
Tauiai  xmv  isqoir,  485 
Tau lag,  533 
Tauiag,  nqooodov,   508, 

Twf  $£u>(nx&h',  501 
Ta'iiaqxoi,  524 
SVItff,  524 
Ta  tme^  0oi';.//r,  220 
Tdipog,  552 
Taxvyoclipoi,  35 
Tiyeoi,  540 
TiSqinnoi,  496 
Tii/og  vljxiov,  &c.  672 
Tf/.aKw?',  524 
77;.*/,  507 

ru<>$,  525 

T£;i<3i>a«,  508 
Tiusvog,  484 
TsqUnxoQi],  445 

Tt^a,  496 

Ttooaqdxovxa,  512 
TsxQi'iQsig,  532 
T£Xq<d(16?.ov  (iiog,  521 
Tirxiysc,  538 
TtTfaywi'o?,  93 
TsxqdSia,   34 
Tsxqasxijqlg,  693 


INDEX    OF    GREEK    WORDS. 


729 


TtTQcc?.oyia,  39,  495 
Tiiu\uara,  507,  513 
Toi/o^/oc,  533 
Toijroi,  530 
T6vo$,  147 
T6$ov,  474 
ToSorca,  507 

TOTCULIOV,  111 

Toqsvrixin  90 

T^U7TSC«  <?£VT5(>a,    536 

Tqantionoibg,  536 
Tqa<pijk,  530 
Tqijiiara,  530 
T(»iaxu^s,  501 
Tqi(?cdviov,  538 
T()iywvoj',  546 
TqiyQaox'ia,  508 
Tqi^quq/oi,  533 
TfJtiiQavXijc,  533 
TQn&tg,  476,  529,  532 
T(>iy.Uviov,  536,  540 
TqUoyia,  39 
TQinodsg,  468 
TqinodrjCpoQixu,''  161 
Tq'movg  XQtjOT>'tQiog,  489 
TQiroyivna,  420 
Tqi/OQdog,  546 
TQiwdLrig,  419 
T^Traiov,  469,  528 
TyoTtig,   529 
Tqonoi,  530 
TqoX6g,  513 
TQi'mava,  527 
Tv^pog,  552 
Tvunara,  514 
Tvunuvov ,  547 
IWii  436 

r 

'.T&xntfo*,  110 

"rfyauJUg,  547 
cYdQicupoQoi,  469 
cY$(Jouavrsia,  490 
crtf()6rT7roK?a,  467 
cYdqo(puQoi,  537 

rrutvatoi,  161,  550 
*r/**os,  158,  160 
fr^;/?  542 

"rTrat^og,   132 

CYtC)'jXOQI,    529 

cTTftjQirtjg,  525 
c'l"7rrog,  448 
c1^7royata,  552 
rY7zoyQacplg,  123 
rl"7ro5//'u«Ta,  538 
cY7ioLa>uara,  530 
rl"7ro>;af(JTov,  539 
'Ytzoxqccti'iQiov,  48 
'YrcoxQiTaL,  500 
'I'VrouEtoras,  515 


'YTto^ivt^iara,  215 
eYnouooia,  512 
cY7roQ/rjua,   161 
'YjioOTiyui'j,   32 
'Ytcutchx,  497 

dW<j;.»/s,  538 
fT>a?.ayYOiQXi<x,  525 
tf^.aycj,  525 
*«;.«()«,  523 
<I>a?.}]Qor,  675 
<&u?.xig,  529 
&a?.?.ixa,   171 
*(i;.o?,  474 
<t>avraaua,  490 
<t>txQuaxsi<x,  491 
<f>%<axoj',  123,  514 
teaniTQa,  474 
<f)«;jo?,  479,  538 
*ueri?,  513 
<P<xTvo>uaTa,  137 
tfrtyyirug,  625 
<t>stdiTia,   518 

<PtQsTQov,  469,  550 
*•?*}',  548 

<£>siya>r,  512 
*»;,"'/>  436 
<f>0ofg,  494 

t^i^Aiutfai,  161 
<£>t;.iTta,  513 
<I>i?.ouetditg,  422 
<&i?.oo6(pojv  ovunooiov,  40 
<t>?.oibg>  32 
ffropi'jTWQ,  449 
<t>ot(iog,  417 
(froivixi'jicc,  49 

<f>OVlXtoV,  ITCI  Twr,  511 
<fr6quiy$,   546 

<t>6Qoi,  507 
<£>oQTi]yol,  529 
<i>(Juroiai,  501 
<t>QccTQixlx,  536 
<I>Q£aTToi,  iv,  443 
<t>()vyLovvyv  syyor,  548 
#i/y$,  513,  519 
<Mt»,  501,  502,  503 
it>v?.axai,  526 
<£>t;;.ti£;^S,   523 

tfrvluqxoi,  506,  624 
<f><j)vixu,  526 


XaAxsra,  424,  495 
_Xa/.>ff/<$«r,   111 
Xa?.xioixog,  678 
XaAxotfs,  543 
Xaqior/jQia,  486 

Xu(JtT€£,  446 

XtioT>/?)  32 


Xti^riov  (iou(iuxlag,  32 

JX£t(50TOV/jTOl,  506 

JCE/^oTovta,  508,  510 
.XstjJ  oiStiQa,  532 
JXsWcuura,  529 
XrtcMwa,   161 
Xtlwvif,  527 
XtQviip,  468 
JEyrfoxpf,  529 
Xi/.tctQzia,  525 
Xiriv,  "479,  538 
Xitwvjj,  419 
Xla&a,  479,  538 
Xoai,  467,  469 
Xo£Vt£,  513,  545 

Xoqsvtou,  169 
XoQTjyia,   507 
Xo<ii?yoJ,   39,  169,  507 
Xoq6?,  501 
XotI?,  545 
XQtjiia,  543 
XQtituaTioubg,  490 
XQtjouol,  .158,  487 
XQtjOuoloyoi,  487 
XorjOiKHpoQoi,  487 
XQyjortiQia,  487 
XQiuara,  540 
Xgiorbg  nuayjav,  288 
X£<m*«,   165 
X^ovo?,    407 
X^waoy^agiot,  35 
X^ao;.  t£o?,  Ill 
XQvOonfiacog,   110 
Xqvobg  tTciajjuog,  57 
XQvoovg,  543 
XQu)iuaTix,  123 
XtoUappog,  174 
X«,u«,  469,  527,  552 

IP 

WcdrijQiov,  546 
mUiov,  538 
VevdodiTCTeQog,  132 
l^cpiofia,  509,  515 
«F#7g>oi,  510 
Vi&vQa,  546 
iPuUt-  473,  523 
WvxouavTila,  491 
Wv/oOTaoicc,  417 

'42/*ai,  515 
'Sidstov,  133,  673 
542c?o?,  163 
5'i2ta,  540 

3SitUo6tTSlV,    468 

cS2oaxo7ria,  490 
"fl^at,  435,  446 
^afa,  492 


INDEX  OF  LATIN  WORDS. 


Ablecti,  610,  612 

Abraxas,  113 

Accensi,  583,  608 

Accipe  libens,  563 

Accusator,  592 

Acerra,  560 

Acetabulum,  601 

Acidalia,  422 

Acies,  607,  611,  616 

Aclides,  614 

Acta  senatus,  369, 
publica,  &.c.  369 

Actia,  668 

Actiones  in  person- 
am, in  rem,  592 

Actor,  592 

Actuarial,  617 

Actuarii,  569,  583 

Actus  quadratus,  601 

Adamas,  110 

Ad  bestias  &c.  594 

Adjudicatio,  600 

Admovere,  567 

Adonia,  422 

Adoptio,  623 

Adoratio,  567 

Adrastia,  435 

Adscriptitii,  404,  608 

Adulterii  crimen,  593 

Adversaria,  71 

Advocatus,  592 

Adytum,  559 

iEcastor,  455 

iEdepol,  455 

JEdes  sacrse,  436,  559 

^Ediles,  575,  580 

JSditui,  101,  566 

iEgeon,443 

JEgis,  420 

Aello,  447 

^Eneatores,  606 

/Eolus,  433 

yErarium,588,  594 

Agaso,  610 

Agelae,  516 

Agger,  612,  614,  656 

Agmen  quadratum, 
pilatum  &c.  611 

Agmine,  uno  conti- 
nente,  608 

Agnomen,  620 

Agone,  568 

Agonalia,  571 

Agrimensores,  358, 
596 

Alae,  609,  610 

Alba  linea,  573 

Alba  Longa,  553 

Alecto,  447 

Aliptas,  140 

Alites,  562 

Altaria,  559 

Alveus,  616,  631 

Amanuensis,  71 

Amaracus,  423 

Ambarvalia,  428,  566, 
571 

Ambitus  crimen,  592 

Ambrosia,  426 

Ambulacrum,  139 

Amiculum,  634 


Amor,  423 
Amph'itrite,  414,  443 
Amphora,  601,  632 
Amtruare,  565 
Amussis,  129 
Anchora,  616 
Ancile,  565 
Ancilia,  421 
Anclabris,  559 
Anculas,  440 
Ancyranum  Monu- 

mentum,  80 
Andabatas,  574,  575 
Angusticlavia,  586, 

634 
Anima  mundi,434 
Annales,  366,  562 
Annuli,  116,  b37 
Annulus  aureus,  588 
Annus  Magnus,  366 
Antennas,  616 
Antesignani,  609 
Antestatio,  592 
Antistites,  507 
Anubis,  442 
Apaturia,  426 
Apes,  596 
Apex,  54,  562,  565 
Apis,  441 
Apodyterium,  139 
Apotheca,  632 
Aplustria,  616 
Apparitores,  583 
Arse,  559 
Aratrum,  596 
Arbiter  bibendi,  630 
Arbitri  causarum,  592 
Arbori  suspendere,593 
Afca,  639 

Atchigallus,  410,  566 
Archimagira,  630 
Arcliimimus,  638 
Arcula,  71 
Arcula  thuraria,  560 
Arcus  triumphales, 

660 
Area,  597 
Arena,  578 
Areopagus,  510 
Argentarii,  595 
Aries,  614 
Armamenta,  616 
Armamentum  Chirur- 

gicum,  629 
Armaria,  75,  626 
Armiger,  624 
Armillas,  60,7,637 
Armilustrium,  572 
Arrha  hospitalis,  630 
Arrogatio,  623 
Artes  liberales,  72 
Arundo,  70 
Arx,  562,  658 
As,  598 
Ascia,  129 
Ascolia,  426 
Aspergillum,  560 
Asseres  falcati,  614 
Assertor  libertatis,625 
Assessores,  591 
Astraea,  435 
Astrologi,  570 


Astronomicon,  310 

365 
Asyla,  485 
Asvlum,  658 
Atellanas,  282,  286 
Atlantes,  137 
Atramentum,  70,  122 
Atria,  586 
Atrium,  626 
Atropos,  446 
Atticum,  122 
Auctio,  600 
Augurale,  612 
Augures,  560,  562 
Augurium,  562,  569 
Augustales,  566 
Augustalia,  572 
Aula,  626 
Aulasum,  576 
Aureus,  598 
Aurora,  432 
Auspices,  562 
Autographus,  71 
A vena, 596 
Aviarium,  627 
Avigerium,  562 


Bacchas,  427 
Bacchus,  425 
Bacilli,  70 
Balista,  614 
Balistarii,  609 
Balnea,  628,  660 
Balneatores,  140,  624 
Barritus,  606 
Basilicas,  592,  658,  659 
Batiolas,  633 
Bellaria,  630 
Bellona,  422,  438,  669 
Berecynthia,  410 
Beryllus,  110 
Bes,  598 

Bestiarii,  574,  594 
Bibendi  arbiter,  630 
Bibliopola,  71 
Bibliotheca,  71,  75 
Biblus,  70 
Bidens,  597 
Bibrons,  409,  598 
Bi  gas,  597 
Bigati,8l 
Bimater,  426 
Bipennis,  560 
Bisellium,  586 
Bis  millies,  600 
Boias,592 
Bombycina,  634 
Bombyx,  634 
Bona  Dea,  410,  572 
Boreas,  433 
Brachia,  616 
Brontes,  423 
Bubo,  562 
Bubona,  438 
Buccinas,  604 
Bulla,  636 
Buris,  596 


C. 

Caballi,  597 
Cabiri,  455 


Caduceus,  54,  425 
Cadus,  632 
Caelum,  129 
Casrites,  651 
Cassarum  acta,  369 
Cassia,  420 
Calamus,  33,  70 
Calcar,  597 
Calceus,  116,  636 
Calcei  nigri  coloris, 

588 
Calculi,  631 
Caldarium,  139 
Calendarium,  Pras- 

nestinum,  80 
Calices,633 
Caligas,  636 
Calliope,  445 
Calones,  611 
Calumnia,  592 
Camarae,  617 
Camilli  &  Camillas, 

566 
Campidoctores,  C13 
Campus  Martius,  569, 

589,  592,  657 
Campus  sceleratus,  566 
Candelabra,  560,  627 
Candidati,  579 
Canistra,  560 
Cantharus,  441 
Canticum,  283 
Can  us,  407 
Capedo,  560 
Capeduncula,  560 
Capillamentum,  636 
Capillitia  vota,  568 
Capis,  560 
Capita  jugata,  adversa 

&  aversa,  112 
Capite  censi,  602 
Capite  velato,  567 
Capitium,  634 
Capitolium,  658 
Capsa,  71,  75 
Capsarii,  140 
Capsum,  597 
Caput,  598 
Caput  coenas,  630 
Carbunculus,  110 
Carceres,  573 
Cardines,  626 
Carenum,  631 
Carmen  seculare,  574 

Saliare,  68 
Carmentalia,  571 
Carmine  certo  evocare, 

569 
Carnifex,  583 
Carpentum,  597 
Carptor,  630 
Carruca,  597 
Caryatides,  137 
Casae,  625 
Cassis,  606 
Cassita,  293 
Castalia,  445 
Castra  stativa,hibernat 

&c.  611,  613 
Catastas,  624 
Catalecta  Virgilii,  305 
Catapulta,  614 


INDEX    OP    LATIN    WORDS. 


7  31 


Catena;,  607 
Catena;,  593 
Catervus,  285 
Cathedra,  586 
Catomidiare,  565 
Causa,  592 

Causae  fidei  bonae,  592 
Cauteria,  123 
Cavaedium,  626 
Cavea, 132,  576 
Celaeno,  447 
Celeres,  602,  609 
Cella,  132 
Cellarii,  626 
Cella  sanctior,  559 
Cella  vinaria  &c.  626, 

632 
Cenotaphia,  639 
Censores,  582 
Census  equester,  586 
Centauri,  450 
Centesima  usura,  598 

centies  &c.  690 
Centum  virale  judici- 
um, 592 
Centuriae,  603 
Centuriata  Comitia, 

589,592 
Centurio,  604 
Cerae,  70 
Ceraunia,  6 
Cerberus,  451 
Cereales,  575,  580 
Cerealia,  428,  572 
Ceres,  427 
Ceriti,  570 
Cerussa,  creta,  637 
Cessio  in  jure,  600 
Cestus,  423 
Chaldaei,  570 
Charta,  71 
Charta  bombycina,  32 ; 

lintea,  32 
Charybdis,  379 
Chimaera,  378 
Chirographum,  71 
Chironomi,  287 
Chirurgi,  610 
Chlamydatae,  93 
Chlamys,  634 
Chloris,  437,  572 
Chorodidascalus,  106 
Cibum,  629 
Cinerarium,  639 
Cingulum  laneum,  621 
Cippi,  639,  49 
Circinus,  129 
Circuitio  vigilum,  613 
Circulus  auri,  637 
Circus  Maximus,  573, 

660 
Circus  Flaminius  &c. 

573 
Cisium,  597 
Cista,  590 
Cives, 590 

Civitates  fcederatae,591 
Claves,  626 
Claviger,  409 
Clarigatio,  564 
Classiarii,  616 
Classici,  585 
Classicum,  606, 616 
Clavus,  616,  634 
Clavus  figendus,  572 
Clepsydra,  355,  570 
Clima,  601 
Clio,  445 
Clitellarii,  597 
Clotho,  446 
Clypeats,  93 
Clusius,  409 


Coccus,  70 

Codex  Justin ianus,393 
Codices,  59, 70 
Codicilli,  71 
Ccelus,  430 
Coemptio,  621 
Ccenacula,  629 
Coena  nuptialis,  622 
Ccena  recta,  631 
Coenationes,  629 
Cceus,  442 
Cognomen,  620 
Cohors,  604 
Chortes  vigitum,  619 
Coliseum,  576 
Collegia  fabrorum  &c. 

595 
Collegium,  562 
Collina,  438 
Collis  hortulorum,  657 
Collocatio,  637 
Coloniae,  591 
Colum,  631 
Columbar,  593 
Columbaria,  639 
Columella,  627 
Columnae,  660 
Columna  lactaria,  622 
Columna  rostrata,  79 
Colus,  622 

Comes  dicecessps,  619 
Comites,  619 
Comitia,  589,  592,  685 
Commentarii,  71 ; 

Pontificum,  366, 

Censorum,  367 
Commissiones,  73 
Compitalia,  572 
Compluvium,  626 
Concilia,  589 
Conciones,  589 
Conclamatio,  637 
Concordia,  440,  572 
Condere  lustrum,  569 
Conditorium,  639 
Confarreatio,  621,622 
Congius,  601 
Conisterium,  140 
Conjectores,  570 
Connubium,  621 
Conquisitio,  603 
Conquisitores,  584 
Conscriptio,  603 
Consecratio,  568,  640 
Gonsentes,  404 
Consivius,  409 
Constitutiones,  594 
Constratum  navis,  616 
Consuales,  575 
Consualia,576,414,572 
Consulares,  619 
Consul  designatus,  579 
Consules,  579 
Contubernales,  612 
Contubernium,612, 621 
Conventio  in  manum, 

621 
Coqui,  630 
Corbes,  631 
Gorium,  71 
Corneum  speculare, 

625 
Cornicines,  606 
Comix,  562 
Cornua,  70,604,  616 
Cornucopia,  54 
Corona,  613 
Corona  castrensis,  mu- 

ralis,  civica,  &c. 

607 
Corona,  emptio  sub, 


Correctores,  619 
Corrigia,  636 
Cortina,  576 
Corvus,  562,  614,  616 
Corybantes,  410 
Coryphaeus,  175 
Cosmi,  519 
Cothurni,  636 
Covinus,  523 
Crates,  613 
Crepidae,  636 
Crepundia,  622 
Creta,  71,  637 
Crimen  majestatis, 

peculatus,  584, 592 
Crista,  606 
Crius,  442 
Cruci  affigere,  593 
Grystallus,  111 
Cubicula,  626 
Cucullus,  634 
Gudo,  606 
Guleus,  593,  601 
Culina,  626 
Cultrarius,  567,  560, 

568 
Culter,  596 
Cultri,  560 
Culullus,  560 
Cumerum,  622 
Cunei,  133,  576,  578 
Cuneus,  608 
Curias,  584,  658,  659 
Curia  Saliorum,  565 
Curiones,  560,  566 
Currus,  597 
Cursus,  573 
Cutis,  71 
Cyanus,  110 
Cyathus,  601 
Cybele,  409 
Cyclas,  634 
Cylindri,  70 
Cyllenius,  425 
Cymbia,  633 
Cyegetica,  309 
Cynthia,  419 


Dactyl  iothecae,  116 
Damnum,  593 
Decennalia,  568 
Decemviri,  583 
Decreta,  594 
Decumffi,  595 
Decunx,  598 
Decuria;,  591,  604,  609, 

624 
Decuriones,  101,  591, 

596,  604,  609,  623 
Dedicatio  templi,  568 
Definitiones,  388 
Defrutum,  631 
Delectus,  603 
Deliberationes,  323 
Delubrum,  559 
Denarius,  84,  598 
Dentale,  596 
Dentata  charta,  71 
Deportatio,  593 
Designatores,  578 
Detestatio  sacrorum, 

623 
Devotio,    569 
Devovere,  569 
Dexter,  563 
Dianus,  409 
Diaria,  71 

Dicere  diem,  592,  602 
Dictator,  582 
Dies  comitiales,  589, 

festi,  fasti  &c.  571 


Diespiter,  412 
Diffarreatio,  622 
Digesta,  388 
Digitus,  600 
Dii  majorum  et  mino- 

rum  gentium,  403 
Diis  Manibus,  560 
Dimensum,  6O7 
Dionysia,  426 
Dioscuri,  455 
Dioscuria,  455 
Diosemeia,  3l0 
Diota,  632 
Diphthera,  71 
Diploma,  34,  71 
Dira,563 
Disci,  560 
Diribitores,  590 
Disci jactus, 573 
Diverbia,  283 
Diurna,  369 
Divortia,  622 
Divus,  640 
Dodrans,  598 
Dolabra,  597 
Dolia,  631 
Dominus,  623 
Domus,  625 
Dona,  638 
Dona  militaria,  607 
Donaria,  559  | 
Donatio,  600 
Donativa,  607 
Dryades,  444 
Duces,  619 

Duodena  scripta,  631 
Duplicarii,  607 
Duumviri,  568,  583, 

591,594,616 
Dux,  611 
Dyndymena,  410 

E. 

Edicta,  594 

Edictum,  391,  580,  588 

Editiones  Principes, 
394 

Editor,  574 

Egeria,  559 

Elatio,  637 

Eleusinia,  428 

Elysium,  416 

Emporetica  charta,  71 

Emptio  sub  corona,  600 

Enceladus,  443 

Encaustum,  33 

Enyalius,  421 

Ephemerides,  71 

Ephebium,  140 

Ephialtes,  443 

Ephippia,  597 

Epibatse,  616 

Epilaenia,  426 

Epistola,  71 

Epitaphium,  639 

Epithalamia,  622 

Epulae,  563 

Epulares,  564 

Epulones,  560,563 

Epulum  Jovis,  572 

Equites,  612,  634 

Equo  publico  merere, 
588 

Erato,  445 

Erigone,  435 

Erycina,  422 

Essedae,  523 

Essedarii,  574 

Etymologicum  mag- 
num, 219 

Euripus,  578 

Euryale,  449 


732 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


Eurus,  433 

Foedera  Regum,  367 

Hades,  416 

Intercisi  dies,  571 

Euterpe,  445 

Foederatae  civitates, 

Halcyoneus,  443 

Intercolumnia,  134 

Evocati,  612 

591 

Hamadryades,  444 

Interdictus,  593 

Excubiaa,  612 

Foenum,  596 

Harioli,  570 

Interrex,  583 

Exercitus,  613 

Folium,  71 

Harpagones,  616 

Invidia,  440 

Exilium,  593 

Fontinaliif,  572 

Harpocrates,  442 

Iris,  433 

Exodia,  286 

Fora,  658 

Haruspices,  560,  563 

Irpex,  597 

Exostra,  576 

Foramina,  616 

568 

Isia,  441 

Expediti,  609 

Fordicidia,  572 

Hasta  pura,  607 

Isis,  441 

Exponere  infantem, 

Fordo,  572 

Hasta  sanguinea,  564 

Itineraria  picta,  &,c. 

622 

Forfex,  608 

Hastati,  603,  606,  608 

361 

Exsculptae  gemmae,  112 

Fori,  573 

612 

Itio  in  partes,  588 

Exsequiae,  637 

Fortuna,  436 

Hasta  velitaris,  606 

Exta  muta,  563 

Fortuna  virilis,  572 

Hasta,  venire  sub,  600 

J 

Extispices,  563 

Foruli,  75 

Hebe,  413 

Jactus  Veneris,  631 

Extraordinarii,  582,610 

Forum,  592,  638,  658 

Hecate,  418 

Jaculatores,  609 

Forus,  631 

Heliotropia,  111 

Janua,  409,  626 

F. 

Fossa,  612 

Helius,  430 

Janus,  409,  598 

Fabiani,565 

Fraenum,  597 

Hemina,  601 

Janus  bifrons,  598 

Fabri,  610 

Fratres  Arvales,  68, 

Hercules,  453 

Judices  assessores,  591 

Fabricae,  610 

566 

Hermae,  437 

Judicia,  323,  591 

Fabrtun,  584 

Fraus,  440 

Hermanubis,  442 

Jugarii,  624 

Factiones,  573 

Frigidarium,  139 

Hermeracles,  113 

Jugerum,  601 

Falarica,  614 

Fritillus,  631 

Hermes,  93,  113 

Jugum,  596,  597 

Falces  murales,  614 

Frontes,  70 

Hexapla,  271 

Julii,  565 

Falcifer,  407 

Frumentarii,  611 

Hilaria,  410,  566,  571 

Juno,  412,  571,572 

Falsi  crimen,  593 

Fucus,  637 

Hippodromi,  660 

Junonalia,  413 

Falx,  597 

Fulcra,  629 

Hippona, 438 

Jupiter,  410,  Termina- 

Fama,  436 

Fulguratores,  563 

Hippocrene,  445 

lis,  437,  Latiaris, 

Familia,  620,  623,  624 

Fumarium,  632 

Histriones,  282,  638 

618 

Fanatici,  570 

Funambuli,  574 

Hocage,  568 

Juramentum,  569 

Fanum,  570,  559 

Funditores,  609 

Holocaustum,  568 

Jurare  conceptis  ver- 

Far, Farina,  596 

Funes,  616 

Homeromastrix,  215 

bis,  569 

Fasces,  579 

Funus  indictivum  pub- 

Honor, 440 

Jura  provinciarum, 

Fasciae,  636 

licum,  638 

Honorati,  580 

praefecturarum, 

Fascinatio,  570 

Furiae,  447 

Horae,  446,  570,  435 

690 

Fascinum,  437,  570 

Furinalia,  447,  572 

Hora  hiberna,  brevi3- 

Juris  interpretes,  581 

Fascinus,  282,  437 

Fustuarium,  607 

sima,  570 

Jus  honorarium,  580, 

Fasti  Capitolini,  80 

Hordeum,  596 

594 

Fasti  dies,  571 

G 

Hortator,  616 

Jushospitii,  630 

Fasti  Magistratuum, 

Gaia,  409 

Hortus,  627 

Jus  militiae,  602 

366 

Galea,  606 

Horus,  441 

Jus  imaginum,  585 

Fastigium,  626 

Galericulum,  636 

Hospes,  630 

Jusjurandum,  569 

Fauna,  449 

Galerus,  562,  606 

Hostiae,  557 

Jus  Papirianum,  389 

Faunalia,  571,  572 

Galli,  410,  565 

Humanitatis  studia, 

Flavianum,  389 

Faunus,  449 

Gallinarii,  624 

18,73 

^Elianum,  389 

Febris,  440 

Gallinarium,  627 

Hydra,  450 

Pontincium,  571 

Februa,  416 

G  alius,  562 

Hygeia,  435 

auiritium,  590,621 

Februatio,  571 

Gausape,  140 

Hyperion,  442 

Latii  or  Latinita- 

Feciales,  560,  564 

Gemmae,  108 

Hypocaustum,  139 

tis,  590 

Femoralia,  636 

Gemmae  diaglyphicae, 

Hypoga3a,  639 

Civitatis  &c.  590 

Fenestra;,  625 

insculptae,  112 

Juturna,  438,  440 

Feralia,  571 

Gemma  Veneris,  110 

I 

Juvenales,  755 

Ferentarii,  608 

Gemonise,  593 

Iapetus,  442 

K            V 

Feretrius,  412 

Genethliaci,  570 

Iaspis,  111 

Feriae,  571,  653 

Genii,  447 

Idalia,  422 

Kalendarium,  571 

Feronia,  438 

Genio  indulgere,  447 

Ignigena,  426 

Ferreae  manus,  616 

Gens,  620 

Ignis,  429 

L 

Ferrum  vivum,  386 

Gens  togata,  633 

Ignominia,  582,  593 

Labarum,  604 

Ferula,  593 

Gladiatores,  574 

Ilithyia,  419 

Labrum,  140 

Festi  dies,  571 

Gladius,  606 

Imagines,  93,  638 

Lacerna, 634 

Festum  mercatorum, 

Gladius  et  liasta,  580 

Imagines  clypeatae,  93 

Lachesis,  446 

572,  425 

Globus,  608 

Immolare,  568 

Lachrymae,  639 

Fibula;,  607 

Glossae  Sacra;,  218 

Impedimenta,  611 

Laconicum,  140 

Fides,  440 

Glutinatores,  70 

Imperator,  589 

Lacunae,  212 

Fides  Graeca,  487 

Grammaticus,  332 

Imperium,  617 

Lacunaria,  137 

Fidicines,  567 

Gradivus  Mars,  421 

Impluvium,  626 

Lacus,  631 

Figlina,  90 

Graphium,  70 

Inanes  tumuli,  639 

Lama,  562,  565,  634 

Fiscinie,  631 

Gratiae,  445 

Inaures,  637 

Lanceae,  606 

Fiscus,  595 

Greges,  573 

Indigete.-,  404 

Lances,  560, 629 

Flagellis,  593 

Grex,  285 

Inducula,  575 

Lanista,  574 

Flagellum,  593,  597 

Gromatice,  358 

Indusium,  633 

Lapis  specularis,  625 

Flaminire,  566 

Grus,  614 

Infamia,  593 

Laquearia,  626 

Flaminica,  565 

Gubernaculum,  616 

Inferiae,  640 

Lararium,  448 

Flamines,560,564,634 

Gubernator,  616 

Ingenui,  620 

Lares,  443,  626 

Flaminii,  566 

Gustus,  Gustatio,  630 

Inscriptio,  47 

Lares  Praestites,  572 

Flammeum  luteum, 

Guttus,  560 

Insigne,  616 

Larix,  123 

621 

Gymnasia,  37,  45,  73 

Instita,  634 

Larvae,  447 

Flora,  437 

Institutiones,  388,  393 

Laterculus,  611 

Floralia,  438, 572,  575 

H 

lnsulae,  626 

Lateres  coctiles,  596 

Focus,  626 

Habenae,  597 

Intercedere,  581 

Lacticlavia,  632 

INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


733 


tatettft,  681 

J*atona,  434 
Latus  clavus,  588 
Laudatio,  323,325,638 
Laudationes  funebres, 

367 
Lavacrum,  140 
Lavatio    Ma.tris    Deo- 

ruin,  571 
Laverna,  438 
Lecti,  627 
JLectica,  638 
Lectisternia,  563 
Lectus  feral  is,  637 
Lectus   summus,   me- 

dius,  iraus,  629 
Legati,  584,  611 
Legem  accipere,  jube- 
re,    abregare,  <&x» 
594 
Leges  agrariae  &c.  594 

regia:,  367,  389 
Legis  actioiies,  389 
Legitimus,  623 
Lemures,  447 
Lenturia,  572 
Lethum,  449 
Leucantlies,  407 
Lex  annalis,  579 
Atinia,  594 
Furia,594 
Poppsea,  621 
Porcia,  617 
Julia  621 
Liber,  426 
Liberalia,  571 
Liber,  Libellus,  71 
Liberti,  Libertini,  620 
Libitinarius,  637 
Libra,  597,  601 
Libra,  598 
Libraria,  71 
Librarii,  71,  611 
Libri  fataies,  158 
Linfei,  366 
Elephantini,  659 
Lihurnicae,  617 
Lictores,  579,  583 
Ligo,  597 

Ligula,  560,  601,  636 
Limbus,  634 
Linguis  favete,  568 
Lino  obligare,  71 
Linum,  596 
Litare,  563 
Litera,  71 
Litera,  minute,  69 

i    majusculas,  30 
unciales,  60 
Literati  &  Literatores, 

73,  332 
Litui,  604 
Lituus,  54,  116,  560, 

562,  606 
Lixae,  610 
Loculamenta,  75 
lioculus,  71 
Locus  consularis,  629 
Lora  subjugia,  597 
Lorica,  93,  606 
Lucaria,  571 
Lucerme,  627 
Luci,  559,  659 
Lvcina,  413,419 
Lucta,  573 
Luctus  publicus,  640 
Ludii,  638 
Ludi,  ApolIinares,418, 

572,  575 
Ludi   circenses,  342, 

572,  573 
ljudi  scenici,  67 


Ludi  osci,  283 

seculares,  418,  573 
magni,  572,  573 
plebeii,  572,  575 
gladiatorii.  574 
rlorales,  575 
megalenses,  575 
capitolini,  575 
votivi,  575 
funebres,  G40 

Ludus,  574 

Ludus  Magnus  <fcc.  660 

Ludus  Trojae,573 

Luna,  432 

Lunatici,  570 

Luna  patricia,  636 

Lunata  acies,  616 
pellis,  636 

Lupercalia,  434,  565, 
571 

Luperci,  560,  565 

Lustrationes,  569 

Lustrum,  569 

Lychnis,  110 

Lychnuchus,  627 

Lydius  lapis,  597 

Lymphati,  570 


M 

Maccus,  286 

Mactare,  568 

Magi,  343 

Magi-ster  collegii,  562 
auctionum,  600 
convivii,  630 
equitum,  582,  619 
militia?,  619 
navis,  616 
publicanorum,  595 
peditum,  619 
officiorum,  581,618 
publicus,  563 
libellorum,  391 

Magistratus,  582 

Maimactes,  572 

Majestatis  crimen,584, 
592 

Mala,  630 

Malleoli,  614 

Malleus,  129,  560 

Malus,  616 

IMamurius,  563 
Manceps  portuum,  595 
MancipatiO,  600 
Mancipia,  620 
Man  data,  594 
Manes,  447,  640 
Mangones,  624 
Mania,  447 
Maniae,  593 
Manicula,  596 
Manipulus,  fi03,  604 
Mansio,  611 
Mantilia,  629 
Maimmissio,  623,  65; 
Manns  ferreee,  616 
Mappa,  629 
Marculi,  626 
Margines,  656 
Marra,  597 
Mars,  421 
Martiales,  575 
Mathematici,  570 
Matralia,  572 
Medecina,  334 
Medicamina,  637 
Meditrinalia,  572 
Medusa,  449 
Megtera,  4 17 
Megalenses,  575 
Megalesia,  410,  572 
Melinum,  122 

63 


Mellona,  438 
Melpomene,  445 
Membrana,  71 

bicolor,  33 
Mensa3,  627,  629 
Mensarii,  595 
Mensa  sacra,  559 
Mephitis,  440,  654 
Mercatores,  595 
Mercatorum  festum, 

425 
Mercurius,  424 
Metae,  573 
Metatores,  610 
Militiae  jus,  590,  602 
Milliare,  601 
Milliarium  aureum, 

656 
Millies  &c.  600 
Mimographi,  287 
Minerva,  420 
Minimi,  82 
Minium,  33,  70,  637 
Ministri,  566,  567 
Mirmillones,  574 
Miscellanei  dei,  404 
Mis3ilia,  81 
Modius,  601,  616 
Mola  salsa,  568 
Molybdis,  616 
Moneta,  413,  572,  598 
Monilia,  637 
Monopodium,  629 
Mons  Palatinus  &.c. 

657 
Monumenta,  639 
Morbus  articularis,  297 
Morpheus,  449 
Mors,  449,  593 
Motoric,  286 
Mulciber,  424 
Mulcta,  593J 
Mullei,  636 
Munera,  574,  638 
Munia  pacis  &  belli, 

585 
Municipia,  590 
Murex,  633 
Murrha,    or    Murrhi- 
num,  111,  596,  633 
Musculi,  613 
Mnsivum  opus,  94 
Mustum,  631 
Mystaaogi,  343,  567 
Mythi,^"  399 


Nrenia,  291,  638 
Naiades,  444 
Natalitia  vota,  568 
Naturalis,  623 
Naumachia,  573,  660 
Nautea,  616 
Naves  onerarire,  lon- 

gae,  rostratae  &c. 

617 
Navis  praetoria,  616 
Necessitatis  inventa,  4 
Nefasti,  571 
Negotiators,  595 
Nemesis,  435 
Neptunalia,  414,  572 
Nereides,  414,  444 
Nervus,  593 
Nidi,  75 

Nobi'litas  Romana,  586 
Nomen,  620 
Norma,  129 
Nota  censoria,  532 
Nota3,  389 
Nots  Tironiante,  70 
Nota  interior,  632 


Notarii,  35,  71,  583 

Notus,  433 

Novelle,  383 

Novi  homines,  586 

Nox,  433 

Nubentis  utensilia,622 

Numerus  legitimus, 

588 
Numismata  maximi 

moduli,  81 
Nummi  contorniati,81 
Nummularii,  598 
Nummus,  598 
Nundinae,  571 
Nuptialis  ccena,  622 
Nymphaea,  660 
Nymphaaum,  444 

O 

Obolus,  417 
Obsecrationes,  567 
Obsidianum,  117 
Obsignare,  71 
Occa,  597 
Occator,  438 
Occatores,  624 
Oceanus,  414,  442 
Ocrese,  575,  606 
Ocvpeta,  447 
Odea,  133,  660 
Odrysius,  421 
OUaj  extares,  560 
Onager,  614 
Onyx,  111 
Opalia,  572 
Opalus,  111 
Opeconsiva,  572 
Opera  committere,  73 
Opigena,  413 
Opiliones,  624 
Opisthographus,  71 
Ops,  409 
Oppidum,  553 
Optio,  604 
Optiones,  608 
Opus  incflrtum,  578 
Orbis,  6H 
Orchestra,  132,  576 
Orcus,  416 
Ordines,  132 
Ordinibus  compressis, 

608 
Ordo  equester,  586 
Ordo  plebeius,  585 
Oreades,  444 
Osci  ludi,  283 
Oscines,  562 
Oscophoria,  426 
Osiris,  441 
Ossilegium,  639 
Ostiarius,  fi24 
Otus,  443 
Ova,  630 
Ovatio,  618 
Ovile,  590 


Pabulum,  438 
P;edagogi,  623 
Pamula,  634 
Paging,  70,  71 
Palaestra,  133 
Palassius,  110 
Pales,  438 
Pal  ilia,  438,472 
Palimpsesti,  59,  71 
Palla,  634 
Palladium,  420,  429 
Palliate,  93,  283,  285 
Palliati,  633 
Palmus,  6)1 
Paludamentum,  634 


'34 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


Paludats,  93 

Pan,  434 

Panstoliuin,  520 

Panathensa,  420 

Pancratium,  497 

Pandects,  393 

Panes,  449 

Pantheon,  658 

Pantomimi,  287 

Pappus,  286 

Papyri,  62 

Paralus,  683 

Pares,  446 

Pares,  impares,  tibia, 
576 

Parma,  575,  606 

Parricidii,  593 

Passes,  601 

Patera,  637 

Patera,  97,  413,  560 

Pater  fiduciarius,  623 
"      patratus,  564 

Patres  minorum  genti- 
um, 535 

Patres  coiscripti,  588 

Patricii,  5e!5 

Patrins,  629 

Patronus,  592 

Pavimenta  tessalata, 
625 

Pax, 440,  571 

Pecudes,  598 

Peculatus,  592 

Peculium  castrense  607 

Pecunia,  598 

Pecus  turpe,  7 

Pedes,  616 

Pedics,  593 

Pedites,  612 

Pegasus,  451 

Pelops,  456,  452 

Peloria,  409 

Penates,  448 

Penicillus,  33,  123 

Penna,  33 

Eerduellionis,  592 

Peregrini,  590 

Peregrin)  dii,  404 

Pergamena,  71 

Perguls,  73 

Periceci,  516 

Peristylium,  133 

Perones,  636 

Perpendiculum,  129 

Perpetuae  qusstiones, 
591 

Perseus,  452 

Perticae,  597 

Pervigilationes,  290 

Pes,  601 

Pessinuntia,  410 

Petasus,  425,  636 

Petaurista,  574 

Petitio,  592 

Pet  i  tor,  522 

Phalars,  607 

Phaseli,  617 

Phengites,6J25 

Phials,  633 

Philvrs,  70 

Phoebe,  419 

Piaculum,  509 

Pierus,  445 

Pietas,  440 

Pila,  606 

Pilentum,  597 

P ileus,  625,  636 

Pilumnus,  438 

Pilus  primus,  604 

Pinarii,  566 

Piscina  mirabilis,  627 

Plagii,  593 


Plaguls,  70 

Plaustra,  597 

Plebiscita,5Sl,589,594 

Plebs,  585 

Pleiades,  424 

Plutei,  613 

Pluto,  416 

Plutus,  436 

Pocula  fagina,  vitrea, 

&c.  633 
Podium,  578 
Pcecile,  134,  673,  678 
Poetarium,  366 
Polias  Minerva,  420 

672 
Policem  premebant, 

vertebant,  575 
Pollinctores,  637 
Polyhymnia,  445 
Pomona,  437 
Pompa  circensis,  573 
Pons  Milvius,  637 
Pontes,  590 
Fonticuli,  590 
Pontifex  Maximus,562 
Pontifices,  562 
Popae,  560,  567 
Popularia,  578 
Populum  calare,  564 
Populus,  585 
Porta  praetoria,  decu- 

mana,  &c.  612 
Porta  Carmentalis, 

&c.  656 
Porta  salutaris,  436 
Portenta,  562 
Porticus,  134;  millia- 

rias,  660 
Portisculus,  616 
Portorium,  595 
Portumnalia,  572 
Portumnus,  444 
Postcenium,  576 
Postridiani,  571 
Potamides,  444 
Potitii,  566 
Praecinctiones,  133, 

578 
Praecones,  583 
Praedes,592,  595 
Praefecti,  610 
Praefecturae,  591 
Praefectus  ;Egypti,619 

"  annonae, 

583,  594 

"  morum,  582 

"  classis,  614 

"  praetorii, 

618,  619 
Praefectus  urbis,  583, 

619 
Praeficae,  633 
Praefericula,  560 
Praemia  minora,  607 
Praenoinen,  620 
Praesides,  619 
Praestigiatores,  574 
Praesul,  565 
Praetextatae,  283 
Praetor,  580,  592 
Praetorium,  612 
Praiulium,  629 
Prata,  596 
Precationes,  567 
Precum  arbitri,  581 
Prelum,  631 
Priapus,  437 
Principes,603,606,608, 

612 
Principia,  612 
Proconsul,  583,  619 
Procurator,  574 


Procurator  Caesaris, 

584 
Prodigia,  562 

Prodigiatores,  563 
Professores,  73 
Profesti,  571 
Proficere  in  profluen- 

tum,  593 
Propraetor,  584 
Proquaestor,  584 
Prora,  616 
Proreta,  616 
Proscriptio,  600 
Proscenium,  576 
Provinciae,  591 
Prytaneum,  510 
Psylli,  695 
Publicani,  595 
Publicum,  595 
Pugilatus,  573 
Pugillares,  71 
Pusrnae  simulacra,  640 
Pulli,  563 
Pulpitum,  576 
Pulvinaria,  567,  597 
Pulvinus,  139 
Punctum  (omne  tulit), 

590 
Puppis,616 
Purpura,  70 
Puteal,658 
Puticulae,  639 
P.ylae  Caspiae,  687 
Pyra,  638 
Pyrakmon,  423 

a. 

Quadrans,  83,  139,  598 
Quadrantal,  632 
Quadratae  litetae,  30 
Quadrigae,  597 
Quadrigati,  81 
Quadriremes,  617 
Quaesitores,  591 
Quaestiones,  591 
Quaestores,  531 
Quaestorium,  612 
Quaestor  sacri  palatii, 

581,  619 
Quartarius,  601 
auaternio,  34,  631 
Quinarius,  84,  598 
Quincunx,  598,  608 
Quindecemviri,  566, 

569 
Quingenaria,  604 
Quinquatria,  420,  495, 

571,  572 
Quinquernia,  568 
Quinqueviri,  583 
Quintiliani,  565 
Quintana  via,  612 
Quirinalia,  571 
Quirinus  Mars,  421 
Quiritium  jus,  590 

R. 

Rallum,  596 
Ramentum,  71 
Rastrum,  597 
Rectae  viae,  608 
Rector,  616 
Recuperatores,  592 
Regia,  562,  564 
Regina  Sacrorum,  564 
Regula,  129 
Relegattts.  593 
Religio,  557 
Religione  solvere,  569 
Religiosi  dies,  571 
Remancipatio,  622 
Remi,  Remiges,  616 


Repetundarum  cri- 
men, 592 

Repositoria,  630 

Repotia,  622 

Repudium,  622 

Rescripta,594,  391 

Rescriptus  Codex,  61 

Responsa,  388 

Res  privats,  600 

Respublica,  ne  quid 
detrimenti  capiat, 
583,  589 

Retiarii,  574 

Reus,  592 

Rex  sacrorum,  560,  564 
"    sacrificulns,  564 

Rhamnensis,  584 

Rhea,  409 

Rheda,  597 

Rica,  Ricinium,  634 

Robigalia,  572 

Rogatio,  592 

Rosus,  638 

Rorarii,  608 

Rosa,  sub,  536 

Rostra,  616, 638,  658 

Rubacellus,  110 

Rubescens,  95 

Rubrica,  33,  70 

Rudentes,  616 

Rudera,  656 

Runcatores,  624 

Runcina,  438 

Rusticanus  (sermo)  68 


Saburra,  616 
Sacella,  559 
Sacerdotes,  567 
Sac  ramentum  602 
Sacrificia,  567 
Sagittarii,  609 
Saguin,  634 
Saligenita,  423 
Salii,  421,  560,  565 
Saltus,  573 
Sal  us,  434 
Sandapila,  638 
Sapa,  631 
Sapphirus,  110 
Sarcinae,  611 
Sarcophagus,  639 
Sarculum,  597 
Sarda,  111 
Satisdare,  592 
Sator,  407 
Satura,  295 
Saturnalia,  336,  403, 

572 
Saturnia,  407 
Saturnus,  407 
Satvrus,  295 
Scabella,  626 
Saxo  Tarpeio  dejice- 

re,  593 
Seals,  578,  593,  613 
Scalmus,  616 
Scalper,  129 
Scalpium,  129 
Scapus,  70 
Scarabsi,  113 
Scena,  570 
Scenici,  67,282 
Scheds,  70 
Schola  Romana,  73 
Schols,  73, 139,  618 
Scorpio,  614 
Scriba,  533,  611 
Scrinium,  71 
Scriptores  historic  An* 

gusts,  382 
Scriptorium,  35 


INDEX   OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


735 


Scriptura,  595 

Scrupulum,  84 

Sculptura,  90 

Scutica,  593 

Scutum,  575,  606 

Scyphi,  633 

Secespitae,  560 

Sectio,  600 

Securi  percutere,  593 

Securis,  560,  579,  597 

Secutores,  574 

Sedilia,  616 

Segetia,  Seia,  438 

Selecti,  404 

Sella,  579,  627 

Sella  curulis,565,  581, 
586 

Sella  portatoria,  586 

Serabella,  598 

Sementina,  571 

Semis,  598 

Sememes,  404 

Senatus    auctoritas, 
588 
"        consultum, 

588,  594 
M        de  Baccha- 
ualibus,  80 

Sentential  Receptae, 
388 

Sentina,  616 

Sepia,  70 

Septa,  590 

Septunx,  598 

Serae,  626 

Serapea,  442 

Serapis,  442 

Septemviri,  563 

Septicollis,  553,  657 

Sepulchrum,  639 

Seres,  634 

Sermo  urbanus,  68 

Serra,  129,  608 

Serrati,81 

SerTitus,  593 

Servus  admissionalis, 
cubicularius  &c.  624 

Sestertius,  84,  598 

Sestertium,  598 

Sextans,  83,  598 

Sextarius,  601 

Sicarios,  crimen  in- 
ter, 593 

Siclus,  84 

Sigilla,  93,  116 

Sigma,  629 

Signa,  562,  604 

Signatorii,  116 

Signiieri,  604 

Sileni,  449 

Simpulum,  560 

Sinister,  563 

Siuopis  pontica,  122 

Sirennusae,  444 

Sitella,  590, 

Smaragdus,  110 

Smegmata,  637 

Smintheus,  418 

Socci,  636 

Socii,  610 

Sodales  Titii,  566 

Sodalitates,  565 

Sol,  430 

Solaria,  570 

Solarium,  626 

Soleae,  636 

Solennia,  567 

Solidus,  598 

Solvere  epist0]as,  71 

Somnus,  448 

Soracte,  438 

Soranus,  416 


Sors,  598 
Sortes,  570 
Sortilegi,  570 
Sortitio,  590 
Spathae,  606 
Spectabiles,  333 
Spectacula,  573 
Speculal625, 637 
Specularia,  625 
Spes,  440 
Spliaeristerium,  133, 

140 
Spina  circi,  573 
Spinellus,  110 
Spoliarium,  578 
Spondae,  629 
Sponsalia,  621 
Sponsio,  621 
Sportula,  631 
Spurius,  623 
Stadium,  133, 601,  660 
Stapiae,  597 
Stata,  567 
Statariae,  286 
Statio,  612 
Stator,  412 
Statuae  iconicae,  93 
Statuaria,  90 
Statumen,  656 
Statumina,  616 
Stega,  616 
Sterculinus,  Stercu- 

tius,  407,  438 
Stheno,  449 
Stibadium,  629 
Stipendium,  606 
Stipulatio,  621 
Stiva,  596 
Stola,  634 
Stragula,  629 
Strangulare,  593 
Strategematlca,  359 
Strenae,  571 
Strenua,  440 
Strigiles,  140,  639 
Stroppi,  616 
Slructor,  630 
Studia  humanitatis, 

18,73 
Stylus,  70 
Subcenturio,  604 
Subdivale,  626 
Subitarii,  603 
Subligaculum,  575 
Subscriptio,  71 
Subsignani,  604 
Subucula,  634 
Succina,  633 
Sudatorium,  140 
Sudes,  612,  614 
Suggestus,  658 
Suile,  627 
Summanus,  416,  447, 

572 
Suovetaurilia,  569 
Supplicationes,  567, 

617 
Supplicia,  567 
Surculi,  70 
Sylvae,  315 
Symbola,  612,  637 
Syngrapha,  71 

T 

Tabellae,  590 

"      legitimae,  621 
Tabellarius,  71 
Tabernariae,  285 
Tabula  auctionaria, 
600 

"      lusoria,  631 
Tabulae,  123 


Tabulae  ceratae,  70 
"       votivae,  568 

'     "       Eugubinae,80 

Tabulariae,  658 

Tabularium,  588,  658 

Taenia,  616 

Talaria,  71,  425 

Talentum,  598 

Tali,  570,  631 

Talio,  593 

Tantalides,  456 

Tartarus,  416 

Tatiensis,  584 

Tecta  laqueata,  137 

Tegulae,  626 

Teiorum  Dirae,  49 

Tellus,  409 

Temo,  596,  597 

Templa,  559,  562 

Tepidarium,  139 

Terebra,  129,  614 

Termiualia,  437,  571 

Terminus,  93,  437 

Ternio,  631 

Teruncius,  598 

Tesselatum,  94,  625 

Tessera,  612,  630 

Tesserae,  631 

Tesserarii,  613 

Testa,  632 

Testamenta,  600 

Testudo,  527,  611, 
613 

Thalia,  445 

Theatra,  660 

Theca  calamaria,  71 

Themis,  435 

Thensa,  597 

Theriotrophium,  627 

Thermae,  628,  660 

Theseus,  454,  699 

Thoraces,  93 

Thorax  606, 

Thraces,  574 

Thuribulum  560 

Thyrsiger,  426 

Thyrsus,  426 

Tibiae,  dextrae,  sin- 
istrae,  576 

Tibialia,  636 

Tibicines,  567,  606 

Tintinnabula,  626 

Tisiphone,  447, 

Titaea,  407 

Titanides,  407, 442 

Tituli,  392 

Titalus,  47,  639 

Toga,  579,  633 

"      praetexta,  562, 

564,   565,  580, 

581,   618,   633 

"      pulla,  633 

M      virilis,  633,  636 

Togatae,  93,  283, 285 

Togati,  633 

Tollere  infantem,  622 

Tomentum,  629 

Topiarii,  627 

Torcular,  631 

Torcularium,  631 

Toreumata,  633 

Torques  aureae,  637, 
607 

Trabea,  562,  618 

Trabeatae,  285 

Tragularii,  609 

Traha,  597 

Tralatitia,  580 

Transtra,  616 

Transvectio,  588 

Triarii,  603,606,  608, 
612 


Tribula,  597 

Tribunal,  580,   590, 

*       612,  658 

Tribuni  militum,583 
"        plebis,  581 

Tribus,  urbanae,  rus- 
ticae,  584 

Tributa,  595 

Tributa  comitia,  599 

Triclinium,  626,  623 

Tridens,  574 

Triens,  83,  598 

Trieterica,  426 

Triga,  597 

Trinundinum,  594 

Tripes,  629 

Triplex  acies,  611 

Tripodes,  560 

Tripudium,  116,  563 

Triremes,  617 

Triticum,  596 

Tritonia,  420 

Triumphalis  lex,  617 

Triumphus,  617,  618 

Triumviri,  583,  598 

Trivia,  419 

Tropaea,  661 

TrutinsR,  598 

Tubaj,  560,  604 

Tubilustriuna,571,572 

Tudes,  129 

Tullianum,  593 

Tunica,  633 

"      laticlavia,  583 
"      angusticlavia, 
588 

Tumultuarii,  603 

Tumulus,  639 

Tunicatffi,  285 

Turinae,  604,  609 

Turricula,  631 

Turris,  611,  614 

Tutela,  616 

Tutelarii,  101 

Tympana,  597 

Typhon,  443 

U 
Udones,  636 
Ultimum,  589 
Umbilici,  70 
Unciae.  598 
Unctuarium,  140 
U  n  i  o,631 
Uragus,  604,  609 
Urania,  445 
Uranus,  407,  430 
Urbs,  553 
Urceus,  560 
Urius  Jupiter,  50 
Urna,  601 

"      feralis,  639 
Urnse  lachrymales,  640 
Ustrina,  Ustrinum,  639 
Usucapio,  600,  621 
Usura,  598 
Usurpatio,  622 
Usus,  621 
Utensilia,  622 
Utres,  632 
Uxor,  622 


Vacatio  honorata,  603 
Vacuna,  440 
Vades,  592 
Valetudinarium,  613 
Vallonia,  438 
Vallum,  U12 
Vara  murrhina,  596 
Vasa  sacra,  560 
Vasa  sculpta,  633 


736 


INDEX    OF    LATIN    WORDS. 


Vaticinatores,  570 
Vectigalia,  595 
Veils,  597 
Vejovis,  412 
Vela,  616 
Velatte,  93 
Velites,  603,  606,  608 
Vellum,  71 
Venalitiarii,  624 
Venatio,  573 
Veneficii  crimen,  593 
Ventus  textilis,  634 
Venus,  422,  631 
Veneralia,  572 
Verbera,  593 
Vermiculatum,  94 
Vernffi,  620 
Versus  Fescennini, 

282 
Vertumnus,  437 
Veruculum,  123 
Vespillones,  633 


Vesta,  428,  572,  559 
Vestales,  429,  560,566 
Vestal ia,  571,  572 
Vestes  Core,  Series, 

634 
Vestis  stragula,  597 
Vestibulum,  626,  637 
Veto,  531 
Vexillarii,  604 
Vexillationes,  619 
Vexillum,604,  607 
Vexillum  purpureum, 

616 
Via  Sacra,  Appia,  etc. 

656 
Viatores,  581 
Vicarii,  333,  619 
Vicennalia,  568 
Vicesima,  595 
Victima:,  567 
Victimarii,  567 
Victoria,  440 


Vicus  albus,  &c.  657 
Vigiles,  613 
Vigil  ia?,  570,  612 
Villa  urbana,  rustica, 

&.c.  627 
Villicus,  627 
Villicus  amphitheatri, 

578 
Vinalia,  572 
Vinaria  cella,  632 
Viucula,  593 
Vindicatio,  592 
Vindicta,  625 
Vinete,  613 
Vinum  Falernum,  C33- 

cubum,  &.c.  632 
Virgo,  435 

"      maxima,  566 
Virgis,  593 
Viri  epulares,  564 
Virtus,  440 
Visceratio,  640 


Vis  publics?,  593 
Vitisator,  407 
Vitrea,  596 
Vitrea  specularia,62, 
Vitrum   Obsidianum 

J17 
Vitta,  560,  636 
Viva  voce,  600 
Vivarium,  627 
Volones,  603 
Volumina,  70 
Volusia,  438 
Vomer,  596 
Vota,  568 
Voti  reus,  568 
Vottvi  ludi,  575 
Vulcanalia,  424,  57$ 
Fulcanus,  423 
Fiilpium  combustio, 

428 

Z 
Zepbyrus,  433 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Abana 

690 

AgathyrsI 

645 

Abdera 

'62 

Agrigentum 

'81 

Absynthi 

'62 

Alabanda 

<89 

Abydos             662, 

687 

Alani 

'86 

Abyla               « 49, 

'96 

Alba  Longa 

'52 

Abyssinia 

'94 

Albania 

'86 

Acarnania       ■  66, 

'86 

Albania:  Pylae  686 

,'87 

Ace,  or  Aco 

'90 

Albanus  Lacus 

'53 

Achaia 

'76 

Alb  is 

'46 

Acharme 

'70 

Albulus  Lacus 

♦53 

Aclielous          668 

682 

Alburnus 

'55 

Acheroa 

'67 

Aleria 

'80 

Aciris 

'55 

Alesia 

'47 

Acradina 

'81 

Alexandria      689 

'92 

Acritas,  Prom. 

'76 

Alfenias 

'54 

Acro-Ceraunia, 

'66 

Algidum 

'52 

Aero  Ceraunii, 

Allia 

'53 

Monies,  6G3,  666 

Allobroges 

'47 

Acte 

670 

Alos 

'66 

Actium 

'68 

Alpes,  Graiae  &c. 

'47 

Actium,  Prom., 

'67 

Alpheus 

'77 

Adramyttium 

'88 

Alti3 

'77 

Adrianopolis 

'62 

Amanita 

'89 

Adrumetum 

69 

Amasia 

♦88 

Adulis 

694 

Ambracia 

'67 

JEa 

'86 

Ambracius  Sinus 

'66 

JEdai 

'47 

'67 

^Egades  or  iEgates 

'81 

Amida 

'87 

^Ege 

'76 

Arnisus 

'88 

^Eiiieum  Mare  663, 

'66 

Amiternum 

'52 

JSgina               676, 

'83 

Amphipolis 

'64 

iEgissa 

'49 

Amphissa 

'69 

^Egium 

'76 

Ampsagus 

'96 

-<Egos  Potamos 

'62 

Amsanctus 

'54 

^Egyptus 

'92 

A  my  else 

«77 

^Egusa 

'81 

Anactorium 

'68 

^Elanites  Sinus 

'91 

Anaphe 

'83 

^Enos 

'62 

Anapus 

<-81 

^Enus 

'48 

Anas 

'50 

vEolia;  Insula? 

'81 

Anchesrrms     666, 

'71 

^Eolis  or^Eolia 

'86 

Ancona 

'52 

iEstuarium  Ilunae 

'80 

Ancyra 

*88 

-^Ethiopia 

'94 

Andros 

'83 

^Ethria 

'82 

Angli 

'46 

./Etna 

'81 

Anio                 651, 

'53 

^Etolia 

'68 

Anthela 

'69 

Africa 

'92 

Anticyra 

'69 

Interior 

'96 

Antilibanus 

'90 

Propria 

'96 

Afltiochia, 

In  Pisidia  639 

in  Syria  '89 

Antirrhium  '  67 

Antium  '  52 

Anxur  '52 
Apamea 

on  Rhyndacus ' 88 

on  Marsyas  '  88 

Aplietie  '  66 

Apia  '  76 
Apollonia  662, 663, '  95 

Apulia  '54 

Aquae  Sextia*  '  47 

Aquileia  '  51 

Aquinum  '52 

Aquitani  '47 

Aquitania  '  47 

Arabia  '  91 

Arabicus  Sinus  '  91 

Arachosia  '  86 

Aracthus  '  67 

Aracynthus  '  86 

Aragus  '  87 

Arar  '  47 

Ararat  '  87 
Araxes  or  Phasis 

686, '87 

Arbela  '  91 

Arbiti  Montes  '  84 

Arcadia  '  77 

Arcati  Regio  '84 

Ardea  '  52 

Arduenna  Sylva  '  47 

Arethon  '  67 

Argaeus  Mons  '  89 

Argia  '  76 

Argos,  in  Argolis  '  76 
Amphilocliius '  68 

Aria  '  86 

AriaPalug  '86 

Arimatliea  '  90 

Ariminum  '51 

Armenia  '  87 

Armorica  '  47 

Arnus  *  51 

Arpi  '  54 

Arpinum  '  52 
Arsinoii     692,693, '95 

ArsissaPalu*  *87i 


Artabrum  Prom.     653 
Artacoana  '  86 

Artaxata  •  87 

Artemisium  '  83 

Arze  '  87 

Ascanius  '  54 

Ascra  '  70 

Asia  •  83 

Asia  Minor  687 

Aspendus  ' 80 

Asphaltites  Lacus 

690,  '  91 
Assyria  '  91 

Astaboras  •  94 

Atalanta  '  6D 

Atemum  '  55 

Athenaeum  Prom.  '  53 
Athesis  '  51 

Athos  ' 63 

Atinum  '  55 

Atlanticus  Oceanus'  96 
Atlantis  '  96 

Atlas  '  9(5 

Atropatene  '  86 

Attica  '  70 

Aundus  •  54 

Augusta  Emerita    '  50 
Taurinorum      '  50 
Vindelicorum  '  48 
Augustodunum       '  47 
Aulis  '70 

Aurea  Chersonesus 

644,  684 
Ausonia  '50 

Auxume  '  94 

Aventinus,  &x.  '57 
Avernus  Lacus  '  53 
Axius  '  63 


Babylonia  691 

Bactriana  '  86 

Btetica  '  49 

Btetis  649, '  50 

Bagdat  '  91 

Bagradas  '  91 

Baiaj  '  53 
Baleares  Insul®      '8ft 

Barium  '  34 


GEOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


737 


Basanitea  693 

Bastuli  '50 

Batavi  « 47 

Belgae  '  47 

Belgica  '47 

Benacus  '  51 

Beneventum  '  54 

Beraea  '  89 
Berenice  690,  693,  '  95 

Berytus  391 

Bethsaida  690 

Bethsan  '  90 

Bibracte  47 

Bilbilis  *  49 

Bithynia  '  88 

Boeotia  '  69 

Boii  '  51 

Boium  *  68 

Bononia  '  51 
Borysthenes     645, '  46 

Bosphorus  '  62 

Bradanus  ' 55 

Brauron  *  70 

Brigantes  '  79 
Brigantinus  Lacus  '  47 

Britannia  '  79 
Brivates  Portus       '  47 

Brixia  '  50 

Brundusium  '  54 

Bruttii  *  55 

Bruttium  '  55 

Buthrotum  *  66 

Buxantum  '  55 

Byrsa  '  96 

Byzantium  ?  62 


Cabira  689 

Cadmea  ♦  70 

Ciere  « 51 

Cassar  Augusta  '  49 
Caesarea    647,689, '90 

Caesarea  Philippi  '  90 

Caieta  '  52 
Calabria           654, '  55 

Calagurris  '  49 

Calaris  « 80 

Calauria  '  83 

Calor(fl.)  '54 

Calle  '  49 

Callipolia         654,  '  62 

Calpas,  '  88 

Calpe  '49 

Calycadnua  '  89 

Calydon  '  68 
Cambunii  Montea 

663,  '  66 

Camerinum  '  51 

Camicua  *  81 

Campania  '  53 

Cana  '  88 

Canae  '  90 

Canaria  '  96 

Cannae  '  54 
Canopicum  Ostium, 

&c.  692 

Cantabri  '  49 

Cantii  «  79 

Canusium  '  54 

Capernaum  '  90 

Caphareus  '83 

Capitolinus  &c.  ♦  57 

Cappadocia  '  89 

Capreae  '80 

Capsa  '  96 

Capua  '  53 

Carambis  '  88 

Carambucia  '  43 

Cardia  '  62 
Carduchi          687, '  91 

Caria  '  «9 


Carmania 

686 

Colchis 

686 

Derbe 

688 

Carmel 

'90 

Colophon 

♦88 

Deserta  Liby 

le 

'96 

Carni 

'51 

Comagene 

♦89 

Dindymus 

'88 

Carpathua 

'83 

Comana 

♦88 

Diospolis 

690, 

'93 

Carrheb 

'91 

Comaria 

♦84 

Dirce  Mona 

'70 

Carteia 

'49 

Complutum 

♦49 

Dodona 

♦67 

Carthago 

'96 

Comum 

♦51 

Dolonei 

'62 

Carthago  Nova 

'49 

Consentia 

♦55 

Dorion 

♦66 

Carystus 

'83 

Constantinopolia 

♦62 

Doris 

663 

Casia  Regio     643 

'84 

Copais  Lacua 

'70 

Doriscus 

♦62 

Casilinum 

'53 

Coptos, 

♦93 

Drangiana 

♦86 

Caspian  Pylae 

'86 

Coracesium 

♦89 

Drepanum 

♦81 

Caspium  Mare  646 

686 

Coras 

♦68 

Drilo 

'63 

Cassandria 

'64 

Corcyra 

♦81 

Dromus  Achillei 

'46 

Cassiterides     679, 

'80 

Corduba 

♦49 

Dryops 

'68 

Castalia 

'69 

Corfinium 

♦52 

Dulichium 

'82 

Castrum  Minerva? 

'54 

Corinthia 

♦76 

Duranius 

'47 

Catabathmus 

'92 

Corinthiacus  Sinus 

Durius 

'50 

Catti 

'46 

667 

,  '76 

Dyme 

♦76 

Caucasus 

'86 

Corinthus 

♦76 

Dyrrachium 

♦63 

Caudium 

'54 

Corioli 

♦52 

CaudinaeFurculse 

'54 

Coronea 

♦70 

E. 

Caulon 

'55 

Corsica 

♦80 

Ebal 

690 

Cayster 

'88 

Corycua 

♦88 

Eboracum 

♦79 

Cebenna 

'47 

Cos 

♦83 

Ebusus 

♦80 

Celtae 

'47 

Cosetanl 

♦49 

Ecbatana 

'86 

Celtiberi 

♦49 

Cotiaria           643 

♦84 

Echinacea 

'82 

Celtica 

'47 

Crag u a 

'89 

Edessa 

664 

'91 

Cenchreae 

'76 

Crathea 

'55 

Edetani 

'49 

Cenomanni 

«50 

Cremaste 

'60 

Edonia 

'64 

Centum  Cellae 

'51 

Cremera 

'53 

Egnatia 

'54 

Ceos 

'83 

Cremna 

♦89 

Eion 

'62 

Cephalenia 

'82 

Cremona 

'50 

Elataea 

'69 

Cephissu8        669, 

'71 

Creta 

<83 

Elaver 

'47 

Ceramicus 

'74 

Crimiaus 

♦81 

Elea 

655, 

'88 

Cerasua 

'88 

Crissa 

♦69 

Elephantine 

'93 

Cerbalus 

'54 

Crissaeus  Sinua 

♦67 

Eleusis 

'70 

Chaberi8 

'84 

Cria  Metophon 

♦45 

Elis 

'77 

Chalcedon 

'88 

Croton 

♦55 

Elymai8 

«84 

Chalcis     664, 668, 

'82 

Crustumerium 

♦52 

Elymander 

'86 

Chalcidice 

'63 

Ctesiphon 

'86 

Emathia 

'64 

Chaldaea, 

'91 

Cumae 

♦53 

Emesar 

♦89 

Chalybes 

«88 

Cunaxa 

'91 

Emmaua 

•90 

Chaonia 

♦66 

Cures 

♦52 

Ephesua 

'88 

Charran 

'91 

Curetea 

♦83 

Ephyra 

'67 

Charybdia 

♦55 

Curia 

♦48 

Epidamnua 

♦63 

Chelonitea 

♦76 

Custulo 

♦50 

Epidaurus 

648, 

'67 

Chaeronea 

'70 

Cycladea 

♦83 

E  pi  poise 

'81 

Ch^sonesua  Cim- 

Cydnua 

♦89 

Epiru3 

♦64, 

'66 

brica 

'45 

Cydonia 

♦83 

Equotuticum 

'54 

Taurica 

'45 

Cyllene  Mon9 

♦77 

Eretria 

'82 

Aurea        644, 

'84 

Cynoa 

♦69 

Eridanus 

♦51 

Thraciae 

'62 

Cynos  Cephale 

'66 

Erigon 

♦63 

Cherusci 

'46 

Cyprus 

'92 

Erineum 

♦68 

Chios 

'82 

Cyrenaica 

'95 

Erymanthua  Mona 

♦77 

Choaspea 

'84 

Cyrene 

'95 

Erythrae 

♦88 

Chrysocera8 

'62 

Cyrnos 

'80 

Erythraeum  Mare 

♦86 

Ciconea 

*62 

Cyropolis 

♦86 

Erytopolia 

♦77 

Cilicia 

'89 

Cyrus 

♦86 

Etruria 

♦51 

Cimbri 

'45 

Cythera 

♦82 

Eubcea 

♦82 

Cimmerii 

♦86 

Cythius  Mona 

♦83 

Evenus 

♦68 

Cimmericua  Bos- 

Cythus 

♦83 

Euganei 

♦50 

phorua      646, 

'86 

Cytinium 

'69 

Euphrates 

♦91 

Circeii 

'52 

Cyzicus 

♦87 

Euripus 

667, 

'82 

Cirrha 

'69 

Europa 

'44 

Cisalpina  Gallia 

D 

Eurotaa 

677, 

'78 

646, 

'50 

Daci 

♦649 

Eurymedon 

'89 

Gispadana 

'50 

Dacia 

'49 

Euxinus 

'62 

Cissa 

'62 

Dactyli 

'83 

Exploratio  ad  Mer- 

Cithaeron        668, 

'70 

Dalmatia 

'48 

rium 

'96 

Citium 

'92 

Damascus 

'90 

Ezion-Geber 

♦91 

Clanius 

'53 

Daphne 

♦89 

Clazomenae 

'88 

Dardania 

'48 

F. 

Clusium 

♦51 

Daunia 

♦54 

Falisci 

651 

Clypea 

'96 

Decapolia 

♦90 

Fidenas 

'52 

Cnemis 

'69 

Decelia 

♦70 

Flanaticus  Sinus 

'47 

Cnidua 

♦89 

Delos 

♦83 

FlaviaCaesariensis 

'79 

Cocytua 

'67 

Delphi 

♦69 

Florentia 

'51 

Codanus  Sinua 

♦46 

Delphinum 

'70 

Form  ice 

♦52 

Caele-Syria,  or 

Delta 

'92 

Fortunatce  Insula" 

Caelo-Syria 

'89 

Deraetriaa 

'66 

643, 

'96 

64 


738 


GEOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


Forum  Julii  *  47 

Fossa  Trajani  '  93 

Fretum  Fossae         '  80 

Gaditanum  or 

Herculeum  650 

Siculum       '  80 

Frisii  '  46 

Fucinus  Lacus        '52 


690, 


G. 

Gabara 

Gahii 

Gadara 

Gades 

Gaetulia 

Galatia 

Galesus 

Galilcea 

Gallia 

Gallorum  Portus 

Ganges 

Gangeticus  Sinus 

Gangra 

Garamantes 

Garganus 

Gargarus 

Garumna 

Gaulon 

Gaulos 

Gaza 

Gedrosia 

Geloni 

Genua 

Gerastus 

Geranii  Montes 

Gerizim 

Germania 

Superior 

Inferior 
Germanicus  Ocean 

icus 
Getae 

Glycys  Limen 
Gnossus 
Gobaeum  Prom. 
Gomphi 
Gonnus 
Gordium 
Gortyna 
Goshen 
Graecia 
Granicus 
Gruinentum 
Gyarus 
Gyrtona 
Gytheum 


661, 


H. 

Hadrumentum  or 

Adrumetum      696 
Rasmus  662,  '  63 

Halcyoneum  Mare  '  67 
Halesus  (river)  •  88 
Haliactnon  •  63 

Halicarnassug  '  89 

Halonnesus  '  82 

Halys  '  88 

Hamaxobii  '  45 

Hebrus  '  62 

Hebrides,  or  Ebu- 

dae  '80 

Hecatompylos  686,  '  93 
Helicon  '70 

Hellas  '  67 

Hellespontus  '  62 

Heliopolis  689,  '  93 
Helorus  '  81 

Helos  '  77 

Helvetii  <  47 

Heptanomis  692,  '  93 
Heptapylos  '  70 

Heraclea  655,  662  '88 


Herculaneum  653 

Herculis  Prom.  '  55 
Herculis  Monceci 

Portus  51 

Herculis  Leburni 

Portus  « 51 

Hercynia  Sylva  645'  49 
Herdonia  '  54 

Hermiones  '  46 

Hermon  '  90 

Hermunduri  '  46 

Hermus  '  88 

Heroopolis  '  93 

Heroopolites  Sin.  '  91 
Heruli  '  45 

Hesperia  649,  '  50 

Hesperides  '  95,  '  96 
Hesperidum,  Insu- 
la: *  44,  '  96 
Hesperis  '  95 
Hierapolis  '  89 
Hierosolyma  '  90 
Himera  (town)  '  81 
Himera  (river)  *  81 
Hippo  *  55 
Hippo  Regius  '  96 
Hirpini  '54 
Hispalis  '  50 
Hispania  '49 
Histria  '  51 
Horeb  '  91 
Hydruntum  '54 
Hymethus  668,  '  71 
Hypanis  '  46 
Hypata  '  66 
Hyperborei  « 43 
Hyrcania                 '  86 

I. 

Iberia 
Iberus 
Icaria 
Iceni 

lchnusa  '80 

Iconium  '  88 
Ida                    683,  ' 87 

Idumea  '  90 
Ierne  or  Hibernia,  '  80 

Ilerda  49 

Ilergetes-  '  49 

Ilissus  '71 

Ilium  '87 

IUvricum  '48 

Ilva  '80 

Imaus  Mons  '  43 

Imbrus  '  82 

Inachus  '  76 

India  '  84 

Indus  '84 

Insubres  '  50 
Insulae  ante  Tapro- 

banam  644 
Hesperidum      '  44 

Iolchos  '  66 

Ionia  '88 

Ionium  Mare  '  67 

los  '  83 

Isaurae  '  88 

Isauria  ' eg 

Ismenus  '  70 

Issus  '  89 
Ister  (Danube)  <  48 
Istria                648,  '  51 

Isurium  '  79 

Itabyrius  '  90 

Italia  '  50 

Italica  '50 

Ithaca  '  82 

Ithome  '  77 


Jabadii  Insula  644,  692 


649,  687 
'50 
'83 
'79 


Japygia 

654 

I                  M. 

Japygium  Prom. 

'86 

Macedonia 

663 

Jaxartes 

'86 

Macoraba,or  Mecca  '91 

Joppa 

'90 

Macra 

'51 

Jordan 

'90 

Madytos 

'62 

Jotapata 

'90 

Maeander 

'88 

Judosa 

'90 

Maenalus  Mons 

'77 

Junonis  Promont. 

'49 

Maeonia 

'88 

Maeotis  Palus 

'43 

K. 

Magna  Graecia 

'53 

Kibora 

649 

Magnesia          660, 

'88 

Magnum  Promonto- 

L. 

rium 

'84 

Lacinium 

655 

Magnus  Sinus 

'84 

Laconia 

'77 

Makrinoros 

'68 

Laconicus  Sin. 

'77 

Malea               676, 

'77 

Lagaria 

'55 

Malia 

'66 

Lamia 

'66 

Maliacus  Sinus 

Lampsacus 

'87 

664,  666, 

'67 

Laodicea 

'88 

Mandubii 

'47 

Larissa             666, 

'64 

Mantinea 

'.77 

Larius 

'51 

Mantua 

'50 

Latium 

'52 

Maracanda 

'86 

Latomae 

'81 

Marathon 

'70 

Laurentum 

'52 

Marcianopolis 

«49 

Laurius  Mons 

'68 

Marcomanni 

'46 

Laus 

'55 

Mareotis 

'92 

Laus  Sinus 

•55 

Mariana 

'80 

Lavinium 

'52 

Marmarica 

'95 

Lebedaea 

'70 

Marrubium 

'52 

Lechaeum 

'76 

Marsi 

«52 

Leleges 

'88 

Masius  Mons 

'87 

Lemanus  Lacus 

'47 

Massaesili 

'96 

Lemanis  Portus 

'79 

Massilia 

'47 

Lemnos 

'82 

Massyli 

'96 

Lemnovices 

<  47 

Matinorum  oppi- 

Leontium 

'81 

dum 

'80 

Leptis  Magna 

'95 

Mauritania 

'96 

Lesbos 

'82 

Maxima  Caesarien 

- 

Leucadia          668, 

'81 

sis 

'99 

Leucas      667,  ' 68, 

'81 

Mazaca 

'89 

Leucate             '  68 

'82 

Meatae 

•  79 

Leucopetra      f  55, 

'82 

Media 

'86 

Leuctra 

'70 

Mediolanum    647, 

'50 

Libanus 

'90 

Megalopolis 

'77 

Liburnia 

«48 

Me  gar  a 

'70 

Libya 

'95 

Megaris 

'70 

Libyssa 

'88 

Melanis  Sinus 

'62 

Liger 

'47 

Melas 

'62 

Ligures 

«51 

Meliboea 

«66 

Ligusticus  Sinus 

'47 

Melite 

'81 

Ligustides 

'47 

Me  los 

'83 

Lilybaeum         680, 

'81 

Melpus 

'55 

Lingones 

'51 
'81 

Memphis 

'93 

Li  para 

Menapii 

'47 

Liris                  552, 

'53 

Menuthias        m 

'44 

Liternum 

'53 

Mercurii  Promon- 

Locris 

'69 

torium 

'96 

Locri  Epicnemidii 

'69 

Meroe 

'94 

Opuntii,  Ozo- 

Mesopotamia 

'91 

lae 

'69 

Messana 

'81 

Londinum 

'79 

Messapia 

'54 

Longobardi      646, 

'51 

Messembria 

'62 

Lotophagi 

'95 

Messene 

'77 

Lucania 

'54 

Messenia, 

'77 

Luceria 

'55 

Metapontum 

'55 

Lucrinus  Lacus 

'53 

Metaurus 

'51 

Lugdnuensis 

'47 

Methone           664, 

'77 

Lugdunum 

'47 

Methymna 

'82 

Luna 

'51 

Miletus 

'88 

Lunae  Montes   64-; 

'92 

Mimas 

'88 

Lusitania 

'50 

Mincius 

'51 

Lycaonia 

'88 

Minturnae 

'52 

Lycaeus  Mons 

«77 

Misenum 

'53 

Lychnidus 

'  63 

Mitylene 

'82 

Lycia 

'89 

Mceris 

'93 

Lycus 

'88 

Mossia 

'48 

Lydda 

*90 

Molossis 

'67 

Lydia 

'88 

Mona  Caesaris 

'80 

Lyrnessus 

'88 

Mona  Taciti 

'80 

Lysimachia 

'62 

Munda 

'49 

Lystra 

'88 

Munychia 

'75 

GEOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


'39 


Muri  Veteres 

649 

Oxyrynchus 

693 

Musaeus 

'71 

Mutina 

'51 

P 

Mycale 

'88 

Pachynum,  or 

Mycenae 

'76 

Pachynus   ■ 

680 

Myconus 

'83 

Pactolus 

'88 

Myoshormus 

'93 

Padus 

'51 

Myrtoum  Mare 

'67 

Paedum 

'52 

Mysia 

'87 

Paeonia 

'64 

N 

Paestura 

'55 

Naissus 

'49 

Pajrasae 

'66 

Napata 

'94 

Palaestina 

'90 

Nar 

'51 

Palmyra 

'90 

Narbo  Martius 

'47 

Pamphylia 

'89 

Narbonensis 

'47 

Fandosia 

'55 

Narisci 

'46 

Pangsus  Mons 

'62 

Naulochus 

'81 

Pannonia 

'48 

Naupactoa 

'68 

Panormus 

'81 

Nauplia 

'77 

Panticapseum 

'45 

Naxos 

'83 

Paphlagonia 

'88 

Nazareth 

'90 

Paphos 

'92 

Neaethes 

'55 

Pansii 

'47 

Neapolis  653, 
Nemea 

681, 

'90 

Parma 

'51 

'77 

Parnassus 

668, 

'69 

Neritus 

'82 

Parnes, 

'68, 

'71 

Nervii 

'47 

Paropamisus 

'84, 

'86 

Neryx 

'55 

Paros 

'83 

Nessus 

'62 

Parrhasius 

'77 

Nicaea 

651, 

'88 

Parthenius 

677, 

'88 

Nicomedia 

'85 

Parthenope 

'53 

Nicopolis  649, 

688, 

'89 

Parthia 

'86 

Niger 

'96 

Parueti  Montes 

'84 

Nigritae 

'96 

Pasargada 

'84 

Nilus 

'92 

Passaro 

'67 

Ninus 

'91 

Patara 

'89 

Niphates 

'87 

Patavium 

'51 

Nisaea 

670, 

'86 

Patmos 

'83 

Nisibis 

'91 

Patrce 

'76 

Nola 

'53 

Pausilypus 

'53 

Nonacris  Mons 

'77 

Pelasgia 

'76 

Noricum 

'48 

Pelasgicus  Sinus 

Noti  Cornu 

'44 

664, 

'66 

Novus 

'89 

Pelasgiotis 

'64 

Nubia 

'94 

Pelion 

'64 

Numantia 

'49 

Pellene 

663, 

'76 

Nuraidia 

'96 

Peloponnesus 

'76 

Nymphaeum 

'63 

Pelorum,  or  Pelorus ' 

Peneus 

666, 

'77 

O 

Pentapolis 

'95 

Oasis 

693, 

694 

Pentelicus 

668, 

'71 

Oclia 

'83 

Percea 

'91 

Ochus 

'86 

Perga 

'89 

Odessus 

'49 

Pergamus 

687, 

'88 

CEa 

'95 

Perinthus 

'62 

(Echalia 

'77 

Persepolis 

'84 

O3notria 

'50 

Persia 

'84 

CEt.a 

663, 

'67 

Persicus  Sinus 

Olisippo 

'50 

6S4 

686, 

'91 

Olympia 

'77 

Persis 

'84 

Olympus  405, 

411, 

'.61 

Perusia 

'51 

688 

Pesaurum 

'51 

•         Olynthus 

'64 

Pessinus 

'88 

Ombi 

'93 

Petilia 

'55 

Oncius  Mons 

l68 

Petra 

691, 

'92 

Onion 

'93 

Plueacia 

'81 

Opuntii 

'69 

Phalacrum  Prom. 

'81 

Opuntius  Sinus 

'67 

Phalerum 

'75 

OpU3 

'69 

Pharos 

'92 

Orbelus  Mons 

'63 

Pliarsalia 

'66 

Orcades 

'80 

Pharsalus 

'66 

Orcornenus 

670, 

'77 

Phasis 

686, 

'87 

Orestis 

'66 

Pherae 

'66 

Ore  us 

'82 

Phihenorum  Araj 

'95 

Oricum 

'66 

Philippi 

'64 

Orontes 

684, 

'89 

Philistcea 

'90 

Oropus 

'70 

Phlegethon 

'67 

Ortygia 

681, 

'83 

Phlegra 

«63 

Ossa 

'  64 

Phlegraei 

'53 

Ostia 

'52 

Phocis 

'69 

Othrys  Mons 

664 

'66 

Phoenicia 

'90 

Qxuz 

'86 

Phrygia  Major 

'88 

Phrygia  Minor  687 

Phylace  '66 

Phyle,  orPhule  '70 

Picenum  '52 

Pictones  '47 

Pieria  '64 

Pimpla  '70 

Pindus  663,  '  67 

668  j  '  69 

Piraeus  '  75 
Pisa                   651, '77 

Pisidia  '89 

Pistoria  '  51 

Placentia  '  51 

Plataea  '  70 

Platan ins  '  69 

Plemmyrium  '  81 

Plistus  « 69 

Plotae  '  82 

Pompeii  '  53 

PonsiElii  '80 

Pontus  648,  '  88 

Porphyrae  '82 

Potidaea  '  64 

Praeneste  '  52 

PrasumProm.  '44 

Priene  '  88 

Prochyta  '  88 

Proconnesus  '  92 

Propontis,         662,  '  87 

Prusa  '  88 

Psylli  '95 

Ptolemais  Aco  '  90 

Ptolemais  Hermii,  '  95 

Puteolanus  Sinus  '  53 

Puteoli  '  53 

Pydna  ' 64 

Pylos  '  77 


auadi  640 
Uuirinalis  Mons     '  57 

R 

Rugae  686 

Ragusa  '  48 

Ravenna  '  51 

Reate  '  52 
Regillus  Lacus        '  53 

Rha  '  46 

Rhaeteum  '  87 

Rhaetia  '  48 

Rharnnus  '  70 

Rhedones  ' 47 

Rhegium  '  55 
Rhenus             646,  '  47 

Rhium  '  67 

Rhium  Prom.  '  76 

Rhodanus  ' 47 
Rhodope           662,  '  63 

Rhodus  ' 83 

Rhyndacns  ' 88 

Riduna  '  47 

Rubeas  '  43 

Rubico  '  51 

Rubricatus  '  96 

Rutuli  '  52 

Rutupiae  '  79 


S 


Sabaei 

691 

Sabatas 

'54 

Sabini 

'52 

Sabrata 

'95 

Sacae 

'86 

Sacer  Mons 

'52 

Sacrum  Prom.  650 

:  '89 

Saguntum 

'49 

Sais 

'92 

Salamis 

'83 

Salapia 

♦54 

Salernum  653 

Sal  ice  '44 

Salmydessus  '62 

Salona  '  48 

Salyes  '  47 

Samaria  '  90 

Same  '  82 

Samnis  '  54 

Samnium  '  54 

Samos  '  83 

Samosata  '  89 

Samothracia  '  82 

Sangarius  '  88 

Santones  '  47 
Santonum  Portus    '  47 

Saphrae  '  45 

Sardinia  '  80 

Sardis  '  88 
Sarmatia           645,  '  86 

Sarnia  '  47 

Sarnus  '  53 
Saronicus  Sinus 

667, 670, '  76 

Saturnia  '  50 
Satyrorum  Insulae  '  44 
Bat]     ram  Promon- 

ontorium  '  43 

Sauromatae  '  45 

Saxones  ' 46 

Scamander  '  87 

Scanda  ' 82 

Scandinavia  '  45 

Scheria  '  81 

Sciathos  '  82 

Scopelos  '  82 

Scordisci  '  48 

Scotussa  '  64 

Scylacium  '  55 

Scylla  '  55 
Scyllaeum        655,  '  76 

Scyros  '  82 

Scythia  '  84 

Sebaste  '  89 

Sebethus  '  53 

Segedunum  '  80 

Segusiani  '  47 

Seir  '  90 
Seleucia          689  ;  '  91 

Seleucis  '  89 

Selinus  '  89 

Sellasia  '  77 

Selymbria  '  62 
Senna  Gallica         '  51 

Senus  '84 

Sepias  '  66 

Sephoris  '  90 

Sequana  '  47 

Sequani  *  47 
Sera                  643,  '  84 

Serica  '  84 

Seriphus  '  83 

Serus  «  84 

Sestos  '  62 

Sicambri  '  46 

Sicilia  '  80 

Sicyon  ' 76 

Sicyonia  ' 76 

Sidon  ' 90 

Sigaeum  '  87 

Silarus  '  55 

Silures  '  79 

Simaethus  '  81 

Simois  '  87 
Sinae                643, '  84 

Sinai  '  91 
Singeticus  Sinus     '63 

Singidunum  '  49 

Sinope  '88 

Sinuessa  '  52 

Sion  « 90 

Siphnus  *  83 


740 


GEOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


Sipontum  '  54 
Sirbonis  Palua  '  92 
Sirmium  '  48 
Smyrna  '  88 
Socanda  '  86 
Sogdiana  '  86 
Soli  '  89 
Solymi  '  89 
Soracte  Mons  '  51 
Sparta  '  77 
Sparti  '  78 
Sphacteria  •  82 
Spoletium  { 51 
Sporades  '  83 
Stabiae  '  53 
Stoechades  '  47 
Stratus  ' 08 
Stratonicea  '  89 
Strongyle  '  81 
Strophades  '  82 
Strymon  662,  « 63 
Strymonicus  Si- 
nus 662, '  63 
Stymphaei  '  63 
Stymphalus  '  77 
Styx  667, '77 
Suessa  Pometia  '  52 
Suevi  '46 
Sulmo  '  52 
Sunium  667,  '  70 
Surrentinum  Prom. '  53 
Surrentum  '  53 
Susa  '  84 
Susiana  '  84 
Sybaris  '  55 
Syene  ' 93 
Syracusae  '  81 
Syria  « 89 
Syriae  Pylae  '  89 
Syrtica  Regio  '  95 
Syrtis  *  95 


Tabor  690 

Tabraca  « 96 

Taenarum  676,  '  77 

Tagus  '  50 

Tanagra  '  70 


Tanais  645,  '  46 
Tanais  Emporium  *  46 

Tamassus  <  92 

Taphiassus  *  68 

Taprobane  644,  '  92 

Tarbelli  '  47 

Tarentum  '  54 

Tarraco  '  49 
Tarraconensis         '  49 

Tarsus  '  89 

Tartessus  '  49 

Tauri  '  45 

Taurini  '  50 

Taurus  Mons  687,  '  89 

Tavium  '  88 

Taygetus  *  '  78 

Teanum  653,  '  54 

Tegea  '  77 

Telmessus  '89 

Tempe  '64 

Tenedos  '82 

Teno  <  83 

Tentyra  '  93 

Teos  '  88 

Tergeste  '  51 

Termessus  c  89 

Terina  '  55 
Terinaeus  Sinus      '  55 

Tetrapolis  669, '82 

Teutones  '  45 

Thapsus  '  96 

Thasus  662,  '  82 

Thebais  '  92,  '  93 

Thebae     670,  '  93,  <  66 

Themiscyra  '  $8 

Theodosia  '  45 

Thera  \  83 

Therapne  '  'h 
Thermaicus  Sinus  '  63 

Thermodon  '  °8 

Thermopylae  '  65 

Thermus  '  69 

Thespiae  '70 

Thesprotia  '  66 

Thessalia  '  64 

Thessalonica  '  64 

Thracia  '  61 


Thracius  Bospho- 

Tyrrheni 

'51 

rus 

661 

Tyrus 

6  90 

Thrasymene  Lacus 

'51 

Tysdrus 

'95 

Thronium 

'69 

Thule               643, 

'80 

U 

Thurium 

'55 

Ubii 

647 

Thymbra 

'88 

Uliarus 

'47 

Thynae            643, 

'84 

Umbria 

'51 

Thyni 

'62 

Uria 

'54 

Tiberias 

'90 

Urius  Sinus 

'54 

Tiberis 

'90 

Utica 

'96 

Tibur 

'52 

Uxantis  Insula 

'47 

Ticinum 

'50 

Uxellodunum 

'47 

Tlcinus 

'51 

Tigranocerta 

'87 

V 

Tigris        684,  687, 

'91 

Valentia           655 

,679 

Timolus 

'88 

Vascones 

'49 

Tirynthus 

'77 

Vectis 

'80 

Toletum 

'49 

Veii 

'51 

Tomi 

'49 

Vejentes 

'53 

Toronaicus  Sinus 

'63 

Velia 

'55 

Torrens  Egypti 

'92 

Venafrum 

'53 

Trachis 

'66 

Veneris  Portus 

'9£ 

Trajanopolis 

'62 

Veneti 

'51 

Transalpina  Callia 

'46 

Venusia 

'54 

Transpadana 

'50 

Verbanus  Lacus 

'51 

Trapezus 

'88 

Vergellus 

'54 

Treveri 

'47 

Verona 

'50 

Trichonis  Lacus 

'68 

Vesuvius 

'53 

Tricola 

'81 

Viadrus 

'46 

Tridentum       648, 

'50 

Vindelicia 

'48 

Trinacria 

'80 

Vindobona 

'48 

Trinobantes 

'79 

Vistula 

'46 

Tripolitana 

'95 

Vogesus 

'47 

Triquetra 

'80 

Volcae 

'47 

Tritaea 

',76 

Volsci 

'52 

Tritonis  Lacus 

'95 

Volsinii 

'51 

Trixicum 

'54 

Vulturnus        653 

'54 

Troas 

'87 

Trocmi 

'88 

X 

Trcezene 

'77 

Xanthus  666,687, 

689 

Troglodytae 

'94 

Troja  or  Ilium 

'87 

Z 

Tuneta  or  Tunes 

'96 

Zacynthus 

682 

Tusculum 

'52 

Zagros 

'84 

Tyana 

'88 

Zama 

'96 

Tycha 

'81 

Zariaspa 

'86 

Tyras 

'46 

Zephyrium 

'55 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


Abacus,  136 

Abbreviations,  Greek,  31,  48, 
60;  Roman,  69,78,  82 

Abracadabra,  113 

Abraxas,  113,  442 

Absalom's  Pillar,  552 

Academic  sect,  228,  344 

Academy,  of  Fine  Arts,  107 ; 
of  Inscriptions,  20 

Accents,  31,  148  ;  discriminat- 
ed from  stress,  147,  148 

Accius,  or  Attius,  299 

Achams,  170,  173 

Achaia,  constitution  and 
league  of,  521 

Achilles  Tatius,  223 

Acron,  334 

Acrostics,  158 

Actions  or  suits  at  law,  510 

Actors,  theatrical,  500 

Acusilaus,  250 

Adam,  state  in  which  created, 
3 

Adonai,  113 

Adonis,  story  of,  422 ;  festival 
of,  492 

Adoption  among  Romans,  623 

Adoration,  origin  of  the  word, 
567 

Adrastia,  435 

Adultery,  punished  by  Greeks, 
548 ;    by  Romans,  593 

^Eacus,  417 

^Ecastor,  455 

./Edepol,  455 

iEdiles  Roman,  580 

.(Egina,  school  of,  99  ;  marbles 
discovered  at,  107 

JEgis  of  Minerva,  420 

^:iian  Claudius,  252,  258,  266 

^Elius,  Aristides,  211  ;  Hero- 
dianus,  217;  Mceris,  217 ; 
Donatus,  336 ;  Spartianus, 
383 

JEmilius  Macer,  310 

iEneas,  in  Italy,  65 

^Eolus,  432 

^Eschines,  orator,  207  ;  philos- 
opher, 234 

iEschylus,  170,  186,  189 

^Esculapius,  262,  435 

iEsop,  Fabnlist,  165,232;  Ro- 
man Actor,  286 

Esthetics,  89 

^Etius,  263 

yEtolia,  confederacy  of,  520 

Agate,  vessels  made  of,  111 ; 
of  Tiberius,  119 

Agathias,  167,  261 

Agatho,  170 

Age,  respect  paid  to,  482 

Ages,  four  of  Roman  litera- 
ture, 277 

Agriculture,  antiquity  of,  6  ; 
Roman  writers  on,  357; 
among  the  Greeks,  542 ; 
among  the  Romans,  357, 
596 

Agrippa,  M.Vipsanius,  356,368 

Alabaster,  112 

Alanus,  author  of  the  Jlnti- 
Claudianus,  319 


Alaric,  master  of  Rome,  553 
breviary  of,  392 

Albricus,  365 

Alcaeus,  162,  166 

Alchemy,  Greeks  works  on, 
264 

Alcibiades,  200 

Alciphron,  222 

Alcman,  162,  166 

Aldine  Classics,  394 

Aldobrandine  festival,  a  paint- 
ing, 126 

Alexander,  on  a  cameo,  118  ; 
his  coffin,  551 

Alexander,  physician,  263 

Alexandria,  seat  of  letters,  44 

Alexis,  172 

Algebra,  whence  so  named, 
244 

Alhambra,  142 

Allegory,  in  the  arts  of  design, 
88,94 

Almagest,  origin  of  the  title, 
246 

Alphabet,  Cherokee,  14  ;  Per- 
sepolitan,  14;  Siamese, 
14;  Greek,  28:  Roman, 
69,66 

Alphabetical  writing,  origin 
of,  15 

Altars,  Grecian,  467,  484;  Ro- 
man, 559 

Amateur,  distinguished  from 
connoisseur,  88 

Amazons,  450 

Ambrose,  290,  346 

America,  whether  known  to 
the  ancients,  696;  lan- 
guages of,  25 

Amethyst,  110,  113 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  382 

Amnion,  488 

Ammonius,  grammarian,  218  ; 
philosopher,  231 

Amor,  or  Cupid,  423 

Amor  and  Psyche,  fable  of,  352 

Amphictyon,  452 

Amphyictyonic  Council,27,509 

Amphitheatres,  Roman,  576 

Amulets,  113 

Amusements,  of  Greeks,  481, 
545,  537  ;  of  Romans,  572, 
575,  628 

Amyntas,  his  coins,  56 

Anacharsis,  221 

Anacreon,  162,  166,  184 

Analytical    and    synthetical 
study  of  languages,  148 

Ancients  and  moderns,  com- 
parative merits  of,  18 

Andocides,  201,  203 

Andronicus  Livius,  296 

Androtion,  250 

Angels,  ministry  of,  a  source 
of  ancient  fable,  401 

Annalists  of  Rome,  367 

Annual  Register,  or  Calendar 
at  Rome,  571 

Anteros,  423 

Anthemius,  architect  and 
mathematician,  241 

Anthologies,  167,  204 

Antias,  368 


Antigonus,  of  Carystus,  266 

Antimachus,  Greek  poet,  159, 
164,  456 

Antinous,  statue  of,  103 

Antioch,  Greek  letters  at,  44 

Antiphanes,  172 

Antiphon,  203,  208 

Antiquaries,  Society  of,  20 

Antiques,  89  ;  temple  of,  107 ; 
in  mosaic,  106 

Antiquities,  classical,  utility 
of,  462,  553 

Antisthenes,  227 

Antoninus,  Marcus,  105,  238; 
Liberalis,  249 

Aphthonius,  Greek  sophist,212 

Anubis,  442 

Anyta,  162 

Apicius,  364,  358 

Apis,  supposed  a  symbol  of  Jo- 
seph, 441 

Apocrypha,  Old  Testament, 
267  ;  New  Testament,  270 

Apollo,  417;  Belvidere,  103, 
417  ;  temples  of,  132,  408  ; 
oracle  of,  488 

Apollinaris,  288 

Apollodorus,  248,  165, 173, 175 

Apollonia,  school  at,  44 

Apollonius,  Rhodius,  160, 195, 
313;  Dyscolus,  216,267; 
Pergaeus,  244  ;  Sophistes, 
217  ;  Tyanensis,  259 

Apologies  of  the  early  Fath- 
ers, 271 

Apostles'  Creed,  270 

Apostolic  Fathers,  269 

Apotheosis,  of  heroes,  452;  Ro- 
man emperors,  440,456,640 

Appian,  258 

Apuleius,  352 

Aquamarine,  110,  113 

Aqueducts,  Roman,  359,  661 

Aquila  Romanus,  330 

Arabesque,  142 

Ararat,  Mt.,  ascended  by  Par- 
rot, 687 

Aratus,  165,  194 

Arbitrators,  at  Athens,  512  ;  at 
Rome,  592 

Arborius,  291 

Archaestratus,  165 

Archagathus,  262,  384 

Arches,  remains  of  ancient, 
105,  135,  142  ;  triumphal, 
651,  660 

ArCias,  166 

Archiater,  384,  385 

Archilochus,  162,  165,  181 
Archimedes,  243 
Architects,   Greek,  137;    Ro- 
man, 138 
Architecture,  ancient,  127,140; 
Asiatic,  129  ;  three 
branches  of,  129  ;  five 
orders  of,  134  ;  different 
styles,  142  ;  of  Greek 
houses,  480,  540;    Tulte- 
can  and  Cyclopean,  130 
Architrave,  134 
Archons,  472,  501,  506 
Areopagus,  510,675 
AretEus,  265 


742 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Argonauts,  454 

Argos,  oracular  shrine  at,  dis- 
covered by  Clarke,  487 ; 
constitution  of,  520 

Aristasnetus,  222 

Aristarchus,  critic,  215  ;  math- 
ematician, 241 

Aristides,  statue  of,  104 

Aristophanes,  poet,  172,  190; 
grammarian,  31 

Aristotle,  209,  229,  235,  266 

Arithmetic,  very  ancient,  16 

Armies,  Grecian,  473  ;  Roman, 
602 ;  attendants  of  Ro- 
man, 610 

Armor,  ancient,  474,  523,  606 

Arnobius,  346 

Arrian,  237,  257 

Arrow-headed  letters,  14 

Art,  distinguished  from 
science,  87 

Artemidorus,  264 

Artisans,  Roman,  595 

Artists,  the  three  employed  by 
Alexander,  115 ;  eminent 
Greek,  100  ;  Phoenician, 
models  for  Greeks,  26 

Arts,  their  origin,  6  j  imita- 
tive, 7;  mechanical  and 
fine,87:  time  of  their  high- 
est excellence  in  Greece, 
100 ;  the  mechanic,  at 
Rome,  595,  596;  schools 
of,  97 

Arundelian  marbles,  50 

Asclepiades,  262,  384 

Asconius  Pedianus,  335 

Asia,  early  residence  of  man, 
8,9 

Assemblies,  of  the  Romans  or 
Comitia,  589 ;  Greeks,  509, 
517 

Assyrian  empire,  708 

Astraea,  435 

Astrologers,  570 

Astronomy,  origin  of,  17  ; 
Greek,  240,  246 

Asylum,  privileges  of,  485 

Athanasius,  character  of,  by 
Villemain,  273 

Athenagoras,  272 

Atheneum,  orschola  Romana, 
73  ;  Boston,  83,  107,  119 

Athenaeus,  212 

Athens,  suppression  of  her 
schools,  45 ;  origin  of 
name,  420  ;  system  of  ed- 
ucation, 37  ;  citizens  of, 
503  ;  government  of,  470, 
501;  political  history,  461, 
472,  503;  topography  of, 
503,  670 ;  magistrates  of, 
506  ;  revenues  and  expen- 
ditures, 507  ;  senate  and 
assemblies,  509,  510 

Athletics,  Greek  svstem  of, 499 

jiUHs  and  £tists,  147 

Atlantides,  430 

Atridse,  456 

Attica,ancient  treatises  on ,250 

Atys,  410 

Augurs,  Roman,  562 

Auction,  600 

Augustine,  334,  346 

Augustus,  patron  of  letters,  76; 
head  of  on  a  gem,  118 ; 
author,  368 

Aulus  Gellius,  334 

Aulus  Sabinus,  308 

Aurelian,  213 

Aurelius, Marcus,  statue  of,104 

Aurelius  Victor,  381 


Aurora,  432 

Ausonius  Magnus,  294,  318 
Auspices,  562 
Auto-biographv,  Roman,  368, 

371 
Autolycus,  246 
Auxiliary'   troops   of  Romans, 

610  * 
Avatars    or    incarnations    of 

Vishnu,  412 
Avienus,   Flavius,   293,  316  ; 

Festus,  194,  317 


Babel,  confusion  of  tongues  at, 
23 

Babrius,  165,  293 

Babylon,  walls  of,  432,  691, 
708  ;  commerce  of,  542 

Bacchanalian  decree,  80 

Bacchus,  425  ;  festival  of.  39, 
492 ;  theatre  of,  132 ;  cave 
of,  675 

Bacchvlides,  162 

Balbec,  ruins  of,  689 

Balbi,  statue  of  the,  104 

Ball,  ornament  worn  by  Ro- 
man youth,  636  ;  playing 
with,  545 

Ballads  of  the  Romans,  283, 
288 

Ballets,  287 

Banishment,  513,  519,  593 

Bankers  at  Rome,  595,  658 

Banquets,  literary,  40,  73  ;  eve- 
ning, 630  ;  of  Greeks,  479 

Barberini  Vase,  97 

Bards,  Grecian,  27 

Bark,  material  for  writing,  32 

Barnabas,  269 

Bartlow  Hills,  remains  at,  97 

Basil  the  Great,  45,  274 

Basilides,  113 

Bas-reliefs,  distinguished  from 
statues,  90  ;  materials  and 
subjects  of,  93 ;  remains 
of,  104 

Bassus,  Cassianus,  264 ;  Cas- 
sius,  292 

Bathing,  among  Greeks,  479, 
539  ;  among  Romans,  628 

Baths,  construction  of,  139,  539 

Bathyllus,  287 

Battering-ram,  613 

Battle,  Greek  order  of,  477, 
525 ;  manner  of  commen- 
cing, 526  ;  Roman  order 
of,  607,  611 ;  at  sea,  61b  ; 
Hesiod's  of  the  Titans, 
Homer's  of  the  Gods,  443 

Beaks  of  ships,  530 

Beatification  of  saints,  origin 
of,  456 

Beer,  Greek  treatise  on,  264 

Beetle,  gems  in  form  of,  113 

Belisarius,  393 

Bellerophon,  452 

Bellona,  421,438;  temple  of, 
689 

Belvidere,  102 

Belzona,  his  entrance  of  a  pyr- 
amid, 442 

Bentlev's  vases  and  gems,  96, 
117 

Berosus,  251 

Berytus,  school  of,  44,  73,  391 

Besieging,  art  of,  526;  among 
Romans,  613 

Betrothing  before  nuptials,  548 

Biblical  studies  and  writings 
of  early  Christians,  271 


Bibliographical  works,  155 
Biography  among  the  Greeks, 

252  :  Romans,  371 
Bion,  164,  193 
Bipontine  editions,  395 
Birth-day  celebrations,  40 
Body  of  "Roman  law,  393 
Boethius,  354 
Boeotian  intellect,  670 
Bonaparte,  his  column,  105; 

medals,  118 
Books,  ancient,  rorm  of,  70, 34; 

earliest  knc  >vn,  15 
Borghese  Gladia'or,  103 
Boston  Latin  School,  279 
Botany,  father  oi  ancient,  263 
Boundaries  of  land,  Roman, 

94,  437,  358 
Boxing,  497,  573 
Brachma,  Hindoo  deity,  409, 

412 
Bread,  inventor  and   god  of 

kneading,  438 
Breast-pin  found  at  Pompeii, 

637 
Breathings,  31 
Breviary  of  Alaric,  392 
Briareus,  443 

Bricks,  Roman,  596 ;    Babylo- 
nian, 14 
Bride,  Roman,  621 
Bridges  over  the  Tiber,  657 
British  Museum,  107 
Brokers,  Roman.  595,  653 
Bronze  of  the  ancients,  92  ; 
bronze  vessels  with  ena- 
mels, 97 
Broth,  Spartan  Hack,  518 
Bruchion,  43 
Bucolic  poetrv,  Greek,  164, 

290;  Roman 
Bularchus,  his  painting,  122 
Bull,  Farnese,  statue  of,  102 
Burial-places,  469,  551,  638 
Burial-rites,  importance  of 

among  the  ancients,  552 
Burning  of  corpses,  551 
Burning-glasses  of  Archime- 
des, 243 
Busts,  93  ;  of  distinguished 

ancients,  104 
Butterfly,  ancient  emblem  of 

the  soul,  11? 
Byzantine  historians,  252 

C. 

Cabiri,  mvsteries  of,  455 
Cadmus,  22,  27,  30,  452 
Caduceus  of  Mercury,  425 
Ca;sar,  Julius,  372  ;   Germani- 

cus,  310 
Calendar  Roman,  371 
Calends,  571,  700 
Callimachus,  162,  164,  166, 194 
Callinus,  163 
Calliope,  445 
Caliphs  Arabian,  patrons  of 

learning,  44 
Callisthenes,  251 
Calpurnius,  Titus  Julius,  290, 

318  :  Flaccus,  324 
Cambridge  University,  studies 

in,  152 
Cameo,  111,  112,  118 
Camp,  Grecian,  526  ;  Roman, 

612;  discipline  of,  613 
Campauian  vases,  96 
Capella,  296,  353 
Canal  of  Claudius,  652 
Caper,  334 
Capital,  134,  137 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


743 


Capital  trials,  Roman,  592 

Capitol,  Roman,  101,  653 

Capitolinus,  383,  657 

Captives,  treatment  of,  477, 
482,  527 

Carmen  Saliare,  68 

Carneades,  342,  229 

Carriages,  Roman,  597 

Carthaginians,  History,  711  ; 
language  of,  299 

Caryatides,  137 

Caspian  gate  or  pass,  687 

Castalia,  445 

Castanets,  547 

Casting,  how  differing  from 
sculpture,  90 

Castor  and  Pollux,  445 

Catacombs,  694 

Cato,  M.  Forcius,  362;  oppos- 
ed to  Greek  philosophy,  67 
384 ;  Dionysius,  317 

Catullus,  239,  290,  302 

Cavaceppi  as  restorer  of  an- 
tiques, 102 

Cavalry,  Greek,  523,  664  J  Ro- 
man, 609 

Cebes,  234 

Cecrops,  22,  452 

Celsus,  Aulus  Cornelius,  386, 
384 1  rejecter  of  Christian- 
ity, 272 

Celtae,  65 

Cement,  used  in  Grecian 
sculpture,  92 

Cenotaphs,  552 

Censorinus,  335 

Census  Roman,  569 

Censors,  Roman,  582 

Centaurs,  450,  664,  666 

Centimani,  430 

Cento,  302,  319 

Centumvirate,  592 

Centurial  games,  573 

Centuries,  division  of  Romans 
into,  584  ;  voting  by,  590 

Cephalas,  167 

Ceraunia  or  thunder-stones,  6 

Cerberus,  417,  451,  550,  677 

Ceremonies  of  ancient  wor- 
ship, 466,  468 ;  nuptial,481 

Ceres,  427  ;  temple  and  statue 
of,  found  by  Dr.  Clarke, 
428  ;  festivals  of,  493,  494 

Cester  or  Chester,  towns 
whose  names  end  in,  613 

Cestius,  pyramid  of,  126,  552 

Cestus,  girdle  of  Venus,  423 

Chairs,  542 ;  of  state,  586 

Champollion,  interpreter  of 
hieroglyphics,  51 

Chariots, race  in ,496  ;  Grecian, 
474 ;  Roman,  597 

Charisius,  337 

Chariton,  romancer,  224 

Charming  or  fascinating,  the 
power  of,  570 

Charon,  417,  550 

Charybdis,  451 

Chase,  480 

Cherry-trees,  whence  brought, 
688 

Children,  treatment  of  among 
Greeks,  481  ;  at  Sparta, 
516  ;  legitimate  &c.  550  ; 
among  Romans,  622, 623 

Chil  Minar,  or  palace  of  forty 
columns,  686 

Chimasra,  450 

Chimneys,  626 

Chinese,  system  of  writing,  13 
architecture,  142 

Chion,222 


Chloris,  437 

Choerilus,  159,  170 

Choragic  tripods,  39 

Choragium,  in  mosaic,  106 

Chorus,of  Greek  tragedy,  169, 
501 ;  of  comedy,  172  ;  part 
of  the  Spartan  Forum,  678 

Chrestomathies,  or  reading- 
books  in  study  of  languag- 
es, 150,  152,  279 

Chrestus,  380 

Christ,  year  of  his  birth,  704 ; 
his  head  on  a  gem,  118  ; 
life  of  in  Greek  hexame- 
ters, 198 

Christian  poets,  early  271,290 

Christian  writings,  in  Greek, 
268  ;  in  Latin,  394 

Christianity,  influence  of  on 
literature  and  society,  45, 
■  76 ;  attacks  of  early  pa- 
gans upon,  and  answers 
to  them,  272  ;  allusions  to 
in  classics,  380 

Christians,  how  put  to  death 
by  Romans,  594 ;  philoso- 
phy of,  270 

Chronicum  Parium,  50 

Chronology,  classical  &c.  155, 
697  j  systems  of,  705 

Chrysoloras,  219 

Chrysostom,  John,  45,  274 

Chrysippus,  228 

Churches  called  Basilicas,  659 

Cicero,  323,  325,  330,  339,  346, 
368,  600 

Giceronianus,  327 

Circensian  games,  573 

Cities  principal  Greek,  459 

Citizenship,  Roman,  596 

Civil  affairs  of  Greeks,  470, 
501 ;  of  Romans,  578 

Civil  law,  body  of  Roman,  393 

Civilization,  the  natural  state 
of  man,  8  j  original  seats 
of,  9,  17 

Classes  of  citizens  at  Athens, 
502  ;  Sparta,  515  ;  Rome, 
584,  620 

Classic  authors,  origin  of  the 
phrase,  585 

Classics,  excellence  of,  19  ; 
utility  of  studying,  18,  19  ; 
uniform    editions  or  sets 
of,  394 

Classical  Journal,  20 

Classical  study,  history  of,  396 

Claudian,  Roman  poet,  289, 
290,  319 

Claudius  Mamertinus,  328 

Cleanthes,  195,228 

Clemens,  Romanus,  269;  Al- 
exandrinus,  272 

CI eon, 200 

Clermont,  Bishop  of,  342 

Client  and  patron,  586 

Climate  and  materials  as  af- 
fecting arcitecture,  127 

Clio,  445 

Glitagorus,  163 

Clitodemus,  250 

Clocks,  570,  693 

Codex  Alexandrinus,  Vatica- 
nus,  &c.  61;  Gregorianus, 
&c.  392 

Code  of  Theodoric,  392 

Ccelus,  430  ;  Coelus,  Apicius, 
358, 364  ;  Aurelianus,  385 

Coffins,  639 

Cohorts,  604 

Coins,  Greek,  54,  57,  181,  543  ; 
Roman,  80,  598 ;  their  use 


in  chronology,  703:  num- 
ber of  different  ancient 
coins  preserved,  57  ;  col- 
lections of,  83 

Cointus  or  Q,uintus,  197 

Coliseum,  140 

Collections,  of  manuscripts, 
62,  85  ;  medals  and  coins, 
83 ;     statuary,    106 ;     en- 
graved gems,  116,  119  j  of 
Greek  poets,  173 

Colleges  or  orders  of  Roman 
priests,  560 ;  of  artisans, 
596 

Colonies,  planted  in  Greece, 
21  ;  planted  in  Italy,  65, 
66  ;  from  Greece,  461,  688; 
of  Rome,  591 

Colors  used  by  Greek  painters 
122 

Colossal  statues,  92,  95 

Columella,  363 

Commentaries,  or  auto-biogra- 
phies, 368  ;  on  the  N.  Tes- 
tament, early,  271 

Column,  of  Duillius,  79,  618; 
of  Trajan,  &c.  105 

Coluthus,  191 

Comedy,  Greek,  171 ;  Roman, 
285 

Commerce,of  Phoenicians,  26  j 
Greeks,  472,  542  ;  of  Ro- 
mans, 595;  of  Babylon, 
542 

Composite  order,  136 

Concubinage  among  the 
Greeks,  548 

Conic  sections,  244 

Conon,  mythographer,  248 

Consecration,  of  Roman  em- 
perors, 640,  456  ;  of  tem- 
ples &.c.  568 

Constantine,  Greek  physician, 
263  ;  arch  of,  105 ;  Manas- 
ses,  166  ;  of  Carthage,  663  j 
the  Great,  his  military 
system,  619 

Constantinople,  university  of, 
44, 316  ;  situation  and  to- 
pography, 662 ;  capture  by 
the  Turks,  46  ;  tripod  in 
its  Hippodrome,  488 

Consular  army,  602,  610 

Consuls,  Roman,  579 

Controversial  works  of  early 
Christians,  271 

Conversation,  means  of  learn- 
ing language,  278 

Convivial  songs,  161,  163 

Copper,  used  before  iron,  476  ; 

Copyists,  or  Calligraphi,  34 

Corinna,  162 

Corinth,  constitution  of,  520 

Corinthian  order,  136 

Cornelius  Gallus,  291,  302 

Cornelius  Severus,  308 

Corn,  distribution  of  at  Rome, 
594 

Cornice,  134 

Cornutus,  248 

Corpses,  burning  of,  551,  638 

Cosmas,  geographer,  53,  242 

Cosmogony  of  the  Greeks,  465 

Costume,  Grecian,  479,  537 ; 
Roman,  633 

Cottage  of  Romulus,  658 

Cotton,  material  for  writing, 
32 ;  other  use  of,  539 

Couches,  for  reclining  at  table, 
536,  629 

Courts,  at  Athens,  471,  510, 
511,518;  at  Rome,  591 


744 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Country-seats  of  Romans,  627 

Cow,  symbol  of  Isis,  441 

Cousin,  on  the  first  seats  of 
civilization,  9 

Covenants  or  leagues,  487 

Crassus,  wealth  of,  600 

Crete,  early  constitution  &.c. 
471,510 

Crimes  at  Rome,  599 

Crishna,  Hindoo  deity,  412,418 

Critias,  200 

Crowns,  470,  607 

Ctesias,  250,  257 

Culture  of  the  Greeks,  sources 
of,  26;  causes  aiding  its 
advancement,  36  5  of  the 
Romans  ;  66 

Cunaxa,  battle  of,  233 

Cupid,  113,  423 

Cursive  letters,  30 

Curtain,  of  the  ancient  thea- 
tre, 576,  468,  548 

Curtius,  Rufus,  379 

Curule,  officers,  586  ;  chairs, 
586 

Cushites,  443 

Cybele  or  Rhea,  409,  52,  91 ; 
priests  of,  565 

Cycles  of  the  ancients,  701 

Cyclic  poets,  160,  161 

Cyclopean  architecture,  130, 
682 

Cyclops,  174,  423,  442 

Cymbals,  547 

Cynic  philosophers,  227,  345 

Cynosarges,  42 

Cyrenaic  sect,  227 

Cyrene,  remains  of,  695 

Cyrus  the  younger,  233  ;  pal- 
ace of,  432  ;  tomb  of,  552 

Cytheris,  287 

D 

Daedalus,  sculptor,  98,  113 ; 
labyrinth  built  by,  683 

Daemons,  447 

Dagon,  house  of,  129 

Damasus,  290 

Danaus,  22,  452 

Dancing,  at  feasts,  157,  481, 
537,  545 

Daphnis,  164 

Dares  Phrygius,  261 

Dates  of  ancient  events,  how 
ascertained,  702 

Days,  reckoning  and  division 
of  &c.  570,  697  ;  origin  of 
the  names  of,  700  ;  Roman 
manner  of  spending  day, 
628 

Death,  as  a  god,  448  ;  punish- 
ment of,  how  inflicted  bv 
Greeks,  514,  518  ;  by  Ro- 
mans, 593 

Decemvirs,  583 

Declamation  by  Roman  ora- 
tors, 74,  322 

Dedication  of  Roman  temples, 
568 

Deification ,  of  heroes,  452 ;  of 
emperors,  640 

Deities,  classes  of  ancient, 
403  5  peculiar  to  Romans, 
437 

Deliberative  Oratory,  202,  204, 
206,  323 

Delphi,  Apollo's  temple  at, 
418  ;  oracle  of,  488 

Delphin  Classics,  395 

Deluge,  of  Deucalion,666  ;  tra- 
ditions of  universal,  401 

Demetrius  Phalereus.  202,  209 


Demi-gods,  403,  451 

Demo,  250 

Demonstrative  Oratory,  202, 
204,  206,  324 

Demosthenes,  201,  206,  326 

Dentels,  136 

Departments,  Greek  authors 
classified  under,  157  :  Ro- 
man, 282 

Deucalion,  452 

Dexter,  F.  Lucius,  371 

Dialfe,  570,698 

Dialectic  Sect,  227 

Dialects,  Greek,  146,  147,  154 

Dialogistic  method  of  instruc- 
tion, 41 

Diana,  418  ;  temple  of,  at  Eph- 
esus,  132,  432 

Diastole,  32 

Dicaearchus,  165 

Dice,  playing  with,  631 

Dictator,  Roman,  582 

Dictionaries,     Latin,    280; 
Greek,  153,  217  ;  Classical, 
154 ;  Mythological,  406 
I  Dictys  Cretensis,  261 

Dicuil,  357 

Didactic  poetry,  Greek,  164 ; 
Roman,  291 

Digamma,  69 

Dinarchus,  201,  207 

Diodes,  262 

Diocletian,  his  persecution 
and  massacre  of  Chris- 
tians, 139, 719 

Diodorus  Siculus,  251,  256 

Diodotus,  251 

Diogenes,  Laertius,  sold  as  a 
slave,  504 ;  his  writings, 
160,  252,  259 ;  the  Cynic, 
227 

Diomedes,  337 

Dion,  Chrysostomus,  210 ; 
Cassius,  258 

Dionysia,  492 

Dionysius,    Halicarnasseus, 
209,  210,  251,  256  ;  Perie- 
getes,  165,  246  ;  Cato,  317 

Dionysius  the  tyrant,  prison 
of,  681 

Diophantus,  244 

Dioscorides,265;  curious  man- 
uscript of,  61 

Dioscuri,  455 

Diphilus,  173,  298 

Diploma,  71 

Dirges,  at  funerals,  551 

Disa,  goddess  of  Germans,  441 

Discipline,  Lacedeemonian,42; 
military,  528 ;  of  Roman 
camps,  613 

Diseases  deified,  440 

Dishes  at  a  Roman  supper,  630 

Dispersion,  of  men  by  confu- 
sion of  tongues,  5 

Divination,  art  of,  among 
Greeks,  469,  490 ;  Ro- 
mans, 570 

Divinity,  Greek  and  Roman 
idea  of,  404 

Divorces,  Roman,  622 

Doctrinal  treatise  of  early 
Christians,  272 

Dodona,  oracle  of,  487 

Dogmatic,  school  in  medicine, 
262 

Doss  of  Molossis,  667 

Domestic  affairs,  of  Greeks, 
479,  533  ;  of  Romans,  620 

Dominical  letter,  702 

Donatus,  yElius,  304,  336 

Door-way,  Egyptian,  130 


Doric  order  136 

Dorotheus,  165 

Dowry  in  marriage,  548 

Draco,  his  laws,  earliest  writ- 
ten in  Greece,  35,  501 

Dramatic  contests,  39 ;  poe- 
try, 168,  282 

Dramatic  exhibitions,  among. 
Greeks,  500,  168  ss  ;  Ro- 
mans, 282  ss, 576  j  modern 
origin  of,  287 

Dreams,  on  interpretation  of. 
264,  490,  570  ;  god   of,  448 

Dress  of  Greeks,  479.537  ;  Ro- 
mans, 633 

Drinking  cups,  534,  537,  633 

Druidical  temple,  468 

Drum,  547 

Dryads,  444 

Dwellings,  Roman  625;  Gre- 
cian, 540 


Ear-rings,  Roman,  637 

Eating,  Roman  customs  in, 629 

Echinus,  136 

Eclectic,  sect  in  philosophy, 
231,  346  ;  school  in  medi- 
cine, 262 

Eclipses  in  ancient  times,  526, 
703 

Economists,  Roman,  357 

Edessa,  school  at,  44 

Edessan  epistles,  270 

Edifices,  remains  of  ancient, 
140 

Editions  of  classics,  works  on, 
155 ;  sets  of,  394 

Education  among  the  Greeks, 
37,41,145,  481;  Romans, 
72,  623 

Egeria  and  Numa,  558 

Egypt,  cradle  of  the  sciences, 
18  ;  productiveness  of, 
594 ;  deities  of,  441  ;  Ge- 
ography of,  692  ;  Chronol- 
ogy of,  705,  711 ;  works 
on,  694 

Egyptian  inscriptions,  51,  52  ; 
sculpture,  95;  Gem-engra- 
ving, 113,  114;  painting, 
122;  architecture,  130, 
137 ;  gods,  441 

El  Wah,  site  of  temple  of  Ju- 
piter, 695 

Eleatic  sect,  230 

Elections  at  Rome,  590 

Elegiac  poetry,  168,  290 

Elephanta,  care  of,  136, 137 

Elephants  used  in  war,  523 

Eleusinian  mysteries,  428,  493 

Eleven,  the  Athenian  magis- 
trates, 506 

Eliac  sect,  227 

Elian  inscription,  47 

Eloquence,  of  Themistocles, 
Pericles,  and  Demosthe- 
nes, 200,  201 ;  school  of, 
at  Rhodes,  202;  Roman, 
323 

Elysium,  416 

Elzevir  editions,  395 

Emancipation,  of  sons,  623; 
of  slaves,  625 

Emerald,  gi*en  by  Ptolemy  to 
LuculluY,  111 

Empedoclcs,  190 

Emperors  deified,  440,  456,  640 

Empire  Roman,  power  of,  580  ; 
military  system  of,  618, 
619;  extent  of,  554;  di- 
vision of,  619 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


745 


Empiric  school  in  medicine, 
262 

Eftipiricus  Sextus,  238 

Employments,  under  guardian 
deities,  438  ;  of  Greeks, 
480  ;  of  Romans,  628 

Encaustic,  a  method  of  paint- 
ing, 123 

Enchorial,  letters  Egyptian,  51 

Encomiastic  orations,  20 1 

Engines,  military,  527,  613 

Engraved  gems,  devices  on, 
112 

Enniui  Quintus,  288,  291,  297 

En.jch,  book  of,  5,268 

Entablature,  134 

Entrails  of  victims,  as  prog- 
nostics, 563 

Epaminondas,  199 

Ephesus,  Diana's  temple  at, 
419 

Ephori,  517 

Ephorus,  259 

Epic  poetry,  159,  160,  288 

Epicharmus,  171,  298 

Epictetus,  237 

Epicurean  sect  230,  345 

Epigenes,  168 

Epigrams,  Greek,  166,  Ro- 
man, 293 

Epiphanius,  264,  271 

Epistles  and  Romances,  220, 
338 

Epistles  or  letters,  form  of  Ro- 
man, 76 

Equites  or  knights  of  Rome, 
586 

Eras  and  Epochs,  704 

Erato,  445 

Eratosthenes,  245 

Erigone,  435 

Erinna,  162 

Eristic  sect,  227 

Erotian,  217 

Erotic  poetry,  166 ;  tales,  221 

Escurial,  ancient  paintings  in, 
126 

Esoteric  and  exoteric   doc- 
trines, 41 

Etpocles  and  Polynices,  455 

Etistas,  147 

Etruscans,  65  ;  plays  of,  at 
Rome,  67, 282 ;  their  sculp- 
ture and  vases,  96  j  their 
architecture,  137 

Etymologicum  Magnum,  219 

Etymology,  attention  to,  278 

Eucharis,  118 

Euclid,  243 

Eudocia,  author  of  the  Homer- 
ocentra,  198 ;  of  the  Viola- 
rium,  219 

Eugubian  tables,  80 

Euhemerus,  247 

Eulogies  over  the  dead,  551, 
638 

Eumathius,  224 

Eumenius,  328 

Eumolpus,  157 

Eunapius,  260 

Euphorion,  160,170,303 

Eupolis,  172 

Euripides,  164,  170,  188 

Euryale,  449 

Eusebius,  252,  272 

Eustathius,  219, 224 

Eutecnius,  196 

Euterpe,  445 

Eutropius,  351 

Evil  eye,  superstition  respect- 
ing, 570 


Evolutions  military,  525  v" 

Exercises  of  Roman  camp,  613 

Exergue,  57 

Exhalations  of  Pontine  marsh- 
es, 652 

Expenses  of  religion  at  Ath- 
ens, 508  ;  at  Rome,  567 

Expiation  among  the  Romans, 
569 

Exposing    of    children,    by 
Greeks,  190  ;  by  Romans, 
622 

Exsuperantius,  371 


Fabius  Pictor,  368 

Fables,  Mythological,  sources 

of,     400 ;    in    Greek    and 

Roman     literature,     165, 

292  ;  Atellane,  282,  286 
Fabulists  Roman,  293 
Falconer,  shipwreck  described 

by,  670 
Falconius,  324 
Fame,  goddess  of,  436 
Families,  Roman,  620 
Family  memoirs,  371 
Fanatic,  origin  of  the  term,570 
Farces,  Greek,   174:  Roman, 

286 
Farnese  bull,  102 
Farnesian  columns,  53 
Fasti,  Capitolini,  80 
Fasting  among  ancients,  495 
Fate  controling  the  gods,  405 
Fates,  446 
Father,  power  of  the  Roman, 

over  his  children,  622 
Fathers,  early  Christian,  269 
Fauns,  449 
Faunus,  grove  and  oracle  of, 

653 
Feast  of  the  gods,  563 
Feasts,  social,  of  Greeks,  480, 

534;  literary,  40;  of  Ro- 
mans, 629 
Feet,  covering  for,  636 
Females,  state  of  in  Greece, 

481,  547 
Feronia,  438 
Fescennine  verses,  282 
Festivals,  Greek,  491 ;  Roman, 

571 
Festus,    S.   Pomponius,  336 ; 

S.  Rufus,  382 
Financial  inscriptions,  49 
Fire,    use    of    unknown,  5; 

the    Greek  Fire,  264;  the 

vestal,  429 
Firmicus,  360 

Fish-pond  of  Hortensius,  627 
Fleece,  Golden,  of  Golchis,455 
Fleet,  Grecian,  532  ;  Roman 

616 
Flesh-brushes,  or  strigiles,  140 
Flight  of  birds,  ominous,  401 
Flood  state  of  knowledge  and 

arts  before,  4 
Flora,  437  :  statue  of,  104 
Florus  L.  Annaeus,  379 
Flowers,  goddess  of,  437 
Folio,  71 
Food,    in    early    ages,    6 ;  of 

Greeks,  479,  534;  Romans 

630 
Foot,  means  of  determining 

the  Roman,  601 
Fortunatianus,  330 
Fortune,  goddess  of,  436 
Forums,  at  Rome,  6583  Ath 

ens,  674 


Fountain  of  the  sun,  695 
Fourmont  inscriptions,  47,  49, 

205 
Franciade.  704 

Fratres  Ar'vales,  hymn  of,  68 
Free  men  and  freed  men,  at 

Rome,  620 
French  Republic,  era  of,  704 
Fresco-painting,  123 
Fret-Work,  626 
Frieze,  136 

Frontinus  Sextus  Julius,  359 
Fronto,  324,  341 
Fulgentius,  365 
Funeral    ceremonies,    Greek, 

469,    550;    Roman,    637; 

Songs,  291 ;  eulogies,  371, 

551,638;  pile,  469,  638 
Funeral  orations,  of   Pericles 

and  Demosthenes,  551 
Furies,  446 
Furnaces  in  Roman  houses, 

626 
Furniture  of  houses,  627 


Gabriel,  stone  of,  691 

Gaetulius,  293 

Galley,  the  Athenian,  sacred, 
683 

Galen,  263,  265 

Galleys,  or  war  ships,  529,  616 

Gallus  Cornelius,  291,  302 

Gamblers  of  Pompeii,  630 

Games  of  the  Greeks,  27,  37, 
496;  Olympic  &c.  498,499 
social,  537  ;  Romans,  572  5 
in  honor  of  the  dead,  551  j 
640 

Gardening,  how  ranked  by  the 
Greeks,  87,  90  ;  god  and 
goddess  of,  437;  of  the 
Romans,  627 

Gardens  of  Sallust,  374 

Gargilius,  364 

Gate  of  Lions,  131 

Gates  of  Rome,  656 

Gauls,  Rome  burnt  by,  553 

Gazette,  Roman,  369 

Geber,  from  whom  Algebra 
took  its  name,  244 

Gem  engraving  108ss 

Gems,  names  of  principal, 109 ; 
in  Aaron's  breastplate, 111, 
113 ;  genuine  and  ficti- 
tious, 116;  largest  of  an- 
cient sculptured,  118, 119 ; 
illustrative  of  Mythology, 
112,  403;  appropriate  to 
certain  gods,  113  ;  suppo- 
sed virtues  of,  114 

Geographers,  Greek,  240  ss  ; 
Roman,  356  ss 

Geographus  Ravennas,  357 

Geography, commencement  of, 
17  ;  works  on  ancient, 154, 
242,  280,  358  ;  knowledge 
of  Greeks  in,  242,  356  ♦ 
epitome  of  classical,  643 

Geometry,  origin  of,  17 

Geoponics,  357 

Germanicus,  310 

Geryon,  450 

Giants,  442 ;  temple  of,  132 

Gladiator,  Borghese,  1U3;  dy- 
ing, 103 

Gladiators,  Roman,  574,  640 

Glass,  imitations  of  gems,  117  j 
painting  of,  124  ,•  how  far 
used  by  Romans,  596,  625 

Glossaries,  Greek,  217, 218, 219 


65 


746 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Gnomic  poets,  165 

Gods,  Greek  and  Roman,mim- 
ber  of,  401  ;  classes  of,403, 
404 ;  Egyptian  admitted 
#mong  the  Romans,  441 

Golden  age,  409  ;  number,  701 

Gordian  knot,  48 

Gorgias,  207,  209 

Gorgons,  449 

Gothic  Architecture,  142 

Goths,  Rome  taken  by,  553,720 

Government,  changes  in  form 
of  Grecian,  459,  472,  501, 
503,  519,  712  |  of  Roman, 
579,  715  ;  by  Romans  over 
conquered  nations,  591 

Graces,  446 

Graici,  and  other  names  of  an- 
cient Greeks,  459 

Grain,  kinds  of,  596  ;  distribu- 
tion of  at  Rome,  594 

Grammar,  as  taught  among 
the  Greeks,  40 

Grammars,  Greek,  153  5  Lat- 
in, 279 

Grammar  schools,  73 

Grammarians,  Greek,  215; 
Roman,  332 

Grapes,  varieties  of,  631 

Gratius  Faliscus,  309 

Gravers  on  gems,  ancient,  115 

Grecian  sculpture,  four  periods 
of,  99 

Greece,  first  inhabitants,  bar- 
barous, 21,  460,  470  ;  colo- 
nies in,  21,  460;  origin 
and  perfection  of  lan- 
guage, 23,  25  ;  causes  of 
culture  and  improvement, 
145,  157,  461  ;  periods  in 
the  progress  of  iefinement, 
464;  extent  of,  459,  661, 
663;  outline  of  the  chro- 
nology of,  712;  form  of 
government  in,  459,  460, 
470  ;  climate  of,  145  ;  mod- 
ern travelers  in,  141 ;  re- 
mains of  ancient  Archi- 
tecture in,  140 

Grecian  cities,  459 

Greek  antiquities,  utility  of, 
462  ;  writers  on,  463 

Greek  language,  study  of  in 
Europe,  46  ;  importance  of 
studying,  146 ;  pronuncia- 
tion of,  147 

Greeks,  modern,47  ;  education 
among  the  ancients,  145 

Gregorian  calender,  700 

Gregorianus,  391 

Gregorius  Pardus  or  Corinthi- 
us,  219 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  45,  167, 
274,  287 

Grinding,  method  of,  481 

Gromatic  writings,  358 

Groups,  in  statuary,  93 

Groves  sacred,  484,  559 

Guest-chambers,  629 

Gymnasia,  Greek,  37,  42  ;  Ro- 
man, 73  ;  structure  of  the 
buildings,  133 

Gymnastic  art,  157,  500 

H 

Habits  domestic,  of  Romans, 

628 
Hades,  416,  552 
Hadrian,  patron  of  letters,  76 
Hair,  modes  of  dressing,  636 
Hallirrhotius,  421 


Hamilton's  vases,  96 

Hannibal,  his  passage  of  the 
Alps,  376 

Hanno,  244 

Harmodius  and  Aristogiton, 
502 

Harmonies  of  the  Gospels,  ear- 
ly, 271 

Harpies,  447 

Harpocrates,  113,  442 

Harpocration,  217 

Harps,  546 

Harrowing,  god  of,  438 

Head,  coverings  for,  538,  636  ; 
of  Antinous,  103 

Health,  drinking  of,  630 ;  god- 
dess of,  436 

Heathenism,  moral  influence 
of  among  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, 403 

Hebe,  413 

Hebrew,  Grecian  writings,  267 

Hecatseus  geographer  241 ;  his- 
torian, 251 

Hecate,  411 

Hecatombs,  467 

Hegemon,  173 

Helicon,  157,  445 

Heliodorus,  165, 223 

Heliotrope,  111,118 

Helius,  430 

Hell,  rivers  of,  416 

Hellanicus,  250 

Hellenes,  22 

Helmet,  474,  606 ;  of  Pluto, 
416 

Helots,  516 

Helps,  in  studying  Latin,  279; 
Greek,  152,  156 

Hephoestion,  216,  249;  friend 
of  Alexander,  551 

Heraclitean  sect,  230 

Heraclitus,  248 

Heralds,  471,  564 

Herculanean  tablets,  150  ; 
rolls,  62  ;  paintings,  126 

Hercules,  453  ;  statue  of,  Far- 
nese,  103  ;  title  of  a  piece 
written  by  Prodicus,  237  ; 
story  of  explained,  454 

Herennius,  330 

Hermanubis,  442 

Hermas,  269 

Hermes,  busts  so  called,  93, 
425,  437 ;  Trismegistus, 
424, 159 

Hermesianax,  164 

Hermogenes,  212 

Hermogenianus,  392 

Hero  and  Leander,  176 

Herodes  Atticus,  inscriptions 
of,  53  ;  fragments  of,  211, 

Herod ian us,  historian,  259 

Herodotus,  39,  250,  253 

Hermolaus,  247 

Heroes,  worship  of,  &c.  451, 
458,  468 

Heroic  age,  451 ;  manners  of, 
481 

Hesiod,  164, 180 

Hesychius,  217 

Hexapla  of  Origen,  271 

Hiero,  ship  built  for  him,  94 

Hierocles,  opposer  of  Chris- 
tianity, 259 

Hieroglyphics,  28  51,  12 

Hieromancy,  490 

Hieronymus,  251,  371 

Hilarion,  198 

Hihaius,  290 

Hills  of  Rome,  657 


Himerius,  213 

Hindoo  pillar,  136 

Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  502 

Hippocrates,  202,  262 

Hippocrene,  445,  451 

Hipponax,  174 

Historians,  Greek,  249 ;  Ro- 
man, 366  ;  plan  for  read- 
ing ancient,  253 

Historical  paintings  among 
the  Greeks,  125 

Historical  records  of  nations, 
comparative  antiquity  of, 
15,16 

History,  of  principal  ancient 
states,  708  ;  illustrated  by 
coins,  54 

Homer,  his  allusions  to  state 
of  society,  25  ;  his  works, 
&c.  159, 166, 174,  176 

Homeridae,  160 

Homerocentra,  198 

Homilies,  of  early  Greek  fath- 
ers, 273 

Honorius,  362 

Horace,  289,  295,  306  ;  com- 
pared with  Persius  and 
Juvenal,  316 

Horsemanship,  477,  527 

Horsemen  or  knights,  602 

Horse-race,  496 

Horses,  for  chariots  and  for 
carrying  burdens,  597 

Hortensius,  322,  368,  627 

Horus,  159,  417,  441 

Hosidius  Geta,  285 

Hospitality,  Grecian,  537  ;  Ro- 
man, 630 

Hours,  goddesses  of,  446 ;  of 
the  day,  570 

Household  gods,  448 

Household,  Roman,  623,  624 

Houses,  Grecian,  480,  540 ; 
Roman,  625 

Humanists,  18 

Hunting,  fishing,  &c,  480 

Hurdles,  613 

Husbandry,  Roman  writers  on, 
357 

Hybrias,  163 

Hydra,  435 

Hydraulic  organ,  547, 576 

Hydrophobia,  384 

Hygeia,  435 

Hyginus,  356,  358,  365 

Hymenaeus,  423 

Hymn  of  the  Fratres  Arvales, 
68 

Hymns,  ancient,  158 

Hypatia,  female  mathemati- 
cian, 241 

Hyperides,  207,  201 

Hyperion,  430 

Hypodiastole,  32 


Ibycus,  162 

Ides,  570,  700 

Idolatry,  origin  of,  400 

Idyl,  290 

Ignatius,  269 

Iliac  table,  161 

Ilithyia,  413,  419 

Ilium  or  Troy,  687 

Images  in  temples,  559 

Image-work,  90 

Imperial  history, writers  of,382 

Imperial  government,  Roman, 

580 
Imposture,  literary,  of  Heer* 

kens,  284  5  Higuera^  371 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


747 


Implements  of  agriculture, 
Roman,  596 

Imprisonment,  at  Rome,  593 

Inachus,  452 

Indian  mythology,  its  resem- 
blance to  Greek,  403 

Induction,  cycle  of,  702 

Indo-Germanic  languages,  23 

Industry,  arts  of,  542 

Inferior  gods,  429 

Infernal  regions,  entrance  to, 
653,  677 

Inheritances  at  Athens,  205 

Ink,  used  by  Greeks,  33  ;  Ro- 
mans, 70 

Inns,  537,  480 

Inscriptions,  Greek,  47,  53  ; 
Roman,  77;  on  statues, 
94  ;  on  gems,  112  ;  on  the 
pillar  called  Pompey's,  53; 
in  ancient  ^Ethiopia,  53 ; 
use  of  in  chronology,  703 

Institute,  Royal  of  France,  20 

Instruction,  oral  among 

Greeks,  35  ;  of  Greek  phi- 
losophers, 41 ;  in  London 
university,  151 ;  Cam- 
bridge University,  152; 
Halle  Orphan-house,  152 

Instruments,  agricultural,  596; 
mechanical,  129  ;  sacrifi- 
cial, 560 ;  musical,  546,604 

Intaglio,  112 

Intelligence,  means  of  con- 
veying among  Greeks,528; 
Romans,  656 

Interest,  rate  of  at  Rome,  598 

Intermarriages  at  Rome,  585 

Interlinear  translations,  149 

Ion  of  Chios,  170 

Ionians,whence  their  name,24 

Ionic  order,  136 

Ionic,  school  of  philosophy  ,225 

Iotistae,  147 

Irenaeus,  272 

Iris,  goddess  of  the  rainbow, 
413,  433 

Irnerius,  his  law-school  at  Bo- 
logna, 393 

Iron  not  used  as  early  as  cop- 
per, 6 

Isa,  Hindoo  deity,  441 

Iseeus,  201,  205 

Iscanius,  Joseph,  261 

Isidorus  Hispalensis,  337 

Isis,  Egyptian  goddess,  419, 
441 ;  her  head  on  Egyp- 
tian pillars,  137 ;  table  of, 
441  ;  temple  of,  discovered 
at  Pompeii,  441 

Isocrates,  201,  204 

Istmian  games,  499 

Italic  school,  226 

Italica,  mosaic  of,  106 

Italy,  original  population  of, 
65  ;  geography  of,  650  ;  re- 
mains of  ancient  archi- 
tecture in,  141 

Itineraries,  Roman,  357,  361 

Ivory ,use  of  by  the  ancients, 91 

Ixion,  413,  417 


Jamblichus,    romancer,    221 ; 

philosopher,  239 
Jannelli,  on  hieroglyphics,  12, 

51 
Janus,  a  Roman  god,  409 
Japhet,  similar  to  Japetus,  443 
Jason  and  Medea,  454 
Jerome,  of  Cardia,  251 


Jerome,  St.,  371 

Jesus,  letter  describing  his 
person,  382 

Jewish  chronology,  outline  of, 
709 

Job,  book  of,  its  antiquity,  15 

John  of  Stobi,  239 

Joseph  Iscanius,  261 

Joseph,  son  of  Jacob,  442 

Josephus,  251,  256 

Journals  at  Rome,  360 

Journals  and  Periodicals  illus- 
trating classical  literature, 
20,  146 

Juba,  the  younger,  356 

Judas,  sum  for  which  he  be- 
trayed the  Savior,  84 

Judea,  symbol  of  her  captivi- 
ty, 83 

Judicial  proceedings,  Greek, 
511 ;  Roman,  591 

Judicial  oratory,  Roman,  323 ; 
Greek,  202,  204,  206 

Jugglers  and  rope-dancers,  574 

Julian  the  Apostate,  76,  214 

Julian  period,  702 

Julius  Pollux,  217;  Capitoli- 
nus,  383  ;  Caesar,  372  jFir- 
micus,  360 ;  Paulus,  391 

Juno,  412 

Jupiter,  410 ;  Ammon,  488  ; 
temples  of,  132,  658  ;  stat- 
ue of  in  Olympia,  432 

Jurisprudence,  Roman,  388 

Justice,  courts  of,  471,  511, 
591 ;  goddess  of,  435 

Justinian's  code,  43,  393 

Justinus,  Roman  historian,  381 

Justin  Martyr,  272 

Juvenal,  295,  316 

K 

Kaaba  at  Mecca,  691 

Kalends,  see  Calends. 

Keys,  ancient,  542 

King,  Roman  priest  so  called, 
564 

Kings,  power  of  the  early  Gre- 
cian, 470,  516  ;  the  Spar- 
tan, 517  ;  the  Roman,  555, 
564,  578  ;  ensigns  of,  579 ; 
kissing  the  feet,  540 

Knapp,  theory  of  origin  of 
words,  10 

Knights,  Roman,  586 


Laberius,  287,  310 

Labyrinth,  Egyptian,  130,  693, 
694  ;  Cretan,  454 

Lactantius,  346,  366 

Lacedaemon,  see  Sparta. 

Lacedaemonian  discipline,  42 

Lachrymatories,  640 

Ladrone  isles,  5 

Lampridius,  383 

Lamps,  ancient,  627 

Language,  origin  of,  7,  10  ;  of 
Adam  and  Noah,  23 ; 
Greek,  22,  44  ;  pronuncia- 
tion of  Greek,  147  ;  abo- 
riginal of  American,  25 ; 
origin  of  Latin,  67  ;  Latin, 
how  vitiated,  77;  utility 
of  studying,  277  ;  how  pro- 
nounced, 278;  Latin  and 
Roman  discriminated,  67; 
similar  to  Latin  now  used 
in  Wallachia,  649 

Languages,  families  of  Asiat- 
ic, 23  ;  modes  of  teaching, 
148, 278 


Lanti  vase,  105 

Laocoon,  statue  of,  102 

Lapithae,  450,  666 

Lares  and  Penates,  448 

Latona,  434 

Lava-glass,  117 

Law-schools,  77,  391,  393 

Laws  of  Greece,  early,  471 ; 
of  Athens,  515  ;  Sparta 
and  Crete,  519 ;  Rome,  594 

Lawsuits,  Athenian,  512  ; 
Spartan,  518 

Lawyers,  Roman,  388 

Leaden  tablets,  for  writing, 
34,  49 

Leaping,  game  of  Greeks,  496, 
573 

Legal  or  judicial  oratory  of 
j    Greeks,  202 

Legend,  of  a  coin,  57,  82 

Legion,  the  Roman,  602 

Legitimation,  Roman,  623 

Lenses,  whether  used  by  an- 
cients, 116 

Lentulus  Publius,  letter  of,382 

Leocrates,  205 

Leon,  mathematician,  241 

Leonidas,  his  tomb,  678 ;  of 
Tarentum,  166 

Letters,  earliest  use  of,  15; 
form  of  Greek,  30  ;  uncial 
and  cursive,  30  ;  on  Greek 
coins,  58 ;  resemblance  of 
Greek  and  Roman,  66 ;  on 
Roman  coins,  82  ;  Roman 
in  manuscripts,  84  ;  used 
to  represent  numbers,  544, 
600;  or  epistles,  Roman, 
71 ;  or  epistles,  amatory, 
220 ;  Socratic,  222 

Levying,Roman  system  of,603 

Lexicons,  Greek,  153,  216 

Libanius,  214 

Libations,  467,  486,  568 

Libraries,Greek,42 ;  Roman,75 

Licentiousness  of  the  Greeks, 
548 

Life,  private,  of  Greeks,  533  ; 
Romans,  620 

Light  troops,  523,  608 

Linus,  157 

Lipogrammatic  Odessey,  198 

Lippert's  impressions  of  gems, 
117 

Literature,  Greek,  circum- 
stances favorable  to,  145  ; 
its  most  brilliant  period, 
36  ;  its  decline,  43  ;  places 
where  cultivated,  43  ;  val- 
ue of,  146 ;  introductions 
to,  155  ;  periods  of,  156 : 
Roman,  when  it  began  to 
flourish,  71 ;  its  decline, 
76,  277  ;  periods  of,  277, 
281 ;  where  cultivated,  77; 
introductions  to,  281 ;  of 
modern  Greeks,  47 

Lithoglyphy,  108  ;  earliest  no- 
tice of  the  art,  113 ;  among 
the  Greeks,  115 

Livius  Andronicus,  296  ;  Ti- 
tus, 375 

Logographies,  250 

London  University,  study  of 
Greek  and  Latin  in,  151 

Longinus,  213 

Longus,  223 

Lots,  used  for  learning  the  fa- 
ture,  490,  537  ;  in  choos- 
ing magistrates,  506 

Lucan,  289,  313 


748 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Lucian,  211 

Lucilius,  167  ;  Junior,  292  ; 
Caius,  301 

Lucretius,  301 

Lucullus,  patron  of  philoso- 
phy, 343 

Luna,  432 

Lupercus,  434 

Lustrations,  466,  569 

Luxury  of  Romans,  555,  598 

Lycffium,  38,  42 

Lycophron,  162, 192 

Lycurgus,  Attic  orator,  201, 
205 ;  Spartan  lawgiver, 
225,461 

Lydian  coins,  56 

Lydian  history,  709 

Lydus,  252 

Lyre,  546  ;  invention  of,  425 

Lyric  poetry,  161,289 

Lysander,  502 

Lysias,  201,  204 

M 

Macedonian  coins,  56 

Macrobius,  336 

Magical  arts,  491,  570 

Magistrates  at  Athens,  506 ; 
Sparta,  517  ;  Rome,  582 

Magna  Graecia,  colonies  in,  66 

Makrinoros,  pass  of,  668 

Mallius  Theodorus,  334 

Mamertine  prison,  593 

Mamertinus,  328 

Man,  his  original  state,  3,  8 

Manetho,  251 

Maniples  in  Roman  army,  604 

Manilius  Marcus,  310 

Manners,  general  of  Romans, 
628 

Mantlets,  613 

Manuel  Philes,  165 

Manumission  of  slave3,  625 

Manii3  Manilius,  389 

Manuscripts,  classical,  how 
lost,  46  ;  forms  of  ancient, 
34 ;  Greek,  58,  63  ;  num- 
ber of  in  European  libra- 
ries, 63  ;  Roman,  84  ss  ; 
discovery  of  on  revival  of 
letters,  85  ;  of  Coluthus, 
facsimile  of,  197;  of  Cluin- 
tus,  197  ;  the  most  ancient 
existing,  61,  62,  85 

Mantuan  vase,  119 

Marble,  material  for  sculpture, 
92  ;  celebrated  kinds,  92 

Marbles,  Arundelian,  50  ;  of 
Cyzicus,  52  ;  of  CoIbert,52 

Marcella,wife  of  Porphyry ,239 

Marcellinus,  382 

Marcellus,  Nonius,  335  ;  Em- 
piricus,  388 ;    Sidetes,  165 

Marching,  Roman  order  of,611 

Marcianus  Capella,  353 

Marcus  Aurelius,  statue  of,104 

Marines,  616 

Market  days  at  Rome,  571 

Markets,  658 

Marriages,  Greek,  481,  548 ; 
Roman,  621 

Mars,  421 

Marseilles,  schools  at,  44 

Martial  293,  315 

Martialis  Cargilius,  364 

Martial  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, 607 

Masks,  ancient,  501 

Maternus  Julius  Firmicus,  360 

Mathematicians,  Greek,  240; 
Roman,  355 

Mattius  or  Matius,  287,  310 


Mausoleum,  sepulchre  of  Mau- 

solus,  432,  552 
Meals,   Spartan,  public,  518; 

Grecian    generally,    534  ; 

Roman,  629 
Measures  and  Weights,   Gre- 
cian, 544  ;  Roman,  600 
Mechanical  trades  at   Rome, 

595 
Medallions,  57,  81 
Medals,  utility  of  studying,54, 

81 
Medea,  455 
Medicine,   origin  and  history 

of,  16 ;    Greek  writers  on, 

262  ;  Roman,  383 
Medusa,  449 
Megaric  sect,  227 
Mela  Pomponius,  360 
Melampus,  157,  264 
Meleager,  167,  293 
Melpomene,  445 
Memnon,  sounding  statue  of, 

432;  historian,  fragments 

of,  251 
Memory,    system  of  artificial, 

707 
Menander,  172, 191,  300 
Mendes,  434 
Merchants,  festival  of,    572  j 

Roman,  595 
Mercury,  424  ,•   peculiar  busts 

called  by  his  name,  93 
Messala  Corvinus,  369 
Metals,  early  use  of,  6  ;  as  ma- 
terials for  writing,  32,  34, 

49 
Metemphyschosis,  226 
Methodic  school  in  medicine, 

262 
Metics,  or  resident  aliens  at 

Athens,  204,  504 
Metis,  wife  of  Jupiter,  411 
Meton,  his  Cycle,  240,  701 
Metopes,  136 
Metres,  154,  162 
Metrical  inscriptions,  49,  53 
Michael  Angelo,  seal  of,  118 
Midas,  tomb  and  inscription 

of,  48  ,•  gift  of  Bacchus  to, 

426 
Milesian  tales,  220,  339,  352 
Military    Affairs,  of  Greeks, 

473,  521 ;   of  Romans,  601 
Milk  in  libations,  467 
Mimes,  Greek, 174,-  Roman,286 
Mimnermus,  164 
Minaret,  142. 
Mineralogy,  Theophrastus  the 

father  of,  263 
Minerva,  420  ;  festival  of,  495; 

temples  of,  132,  672,  678 
Mines,  595,  664,  668,  679 
Minos,  417,  452 
Minotaur,  450,  454 
Minstrels,  in  Greece,  27,  160 
Mint,  at  Rome,  598 
Minuscule  writing,  69,  84 
Mirrors,  ancient,  117,  539 
Mithras,  417,  453 
Moderatus,  363 
Modestus,  356 
Modillions,  136 
Mceris,  lake  of,  693 
Mcero,  162 
Molding,  art  of,  90 
Molds,  for  casting  coins,  82 
Moloch,  409 
Money,  by  whom  first  coined, 

54 ;    of  the   Greeks,   542, 

543  ;  the  Romans,  598 
Monograms,  abbreviations,  31 


Monolithal  temples,  130 
Months  of  Greeks  and  Romans 

698,  699 
Monument  of  Adulis  and  Ax- 

um,  53 
Monuments  to  the  dead,  551, 

639 
Monumentum  Ancyranum, 

80,  368 
Moon,  prognostics  from,  264 
Morals  and  manners  in  Rome, 

555 
Morpheus,  449 
Mosaic,  94  ;  remains  of,  106, 

124 
Moschion,  263 
Moschopulus,  219 
Moschus,  164,  193 
Moses,  his  account  of  creation 

3  ;  comparative  antiquity 

of  his  writings,  15 
Mosque  at  Cordova,  649 
Mother  of  gods,  410 
Mourning  for  the  dead,  637, 

638,  640 
Mules,  use  of  by  Romans,  597 
Mummies,  694 

Municipal  towns,  Roman,  591 
Murra  or  Murrhinum,  vases 

of,  111,596 
Murray,  on  origin  of  language, 

Mussa,  384 

Musaeus,  160,  176 

Museo  Borboniro,  102 

Museum  at  Alexandria,  42 

Museum  at  Berlin,  118 

Muses,  445  ;  on  the  ring  of 
Pyrrhus,  446 

Music,  in  Greek  education ,345r 
37,  481 :  connected  with 
poetry,  157,  169  ,•  accom- 
paniment of  banquets,  537 

Musical  instruments,  546,-  in 
Roman  army,  604 

Musical  contests,  38,  73 

Muster  or  Review  of  Roman 
soldiers,  603 

Mutules,  136 

Myrtis,  162 

Mysteries,  26 ;  of  Cabiri,  445  ; 
Elusinian,  493 

Mysteries  and  moralities,  287 

Mythic  cycle,  160 

Mythical  personages  connect- 
ed with  the  gods,  442 

Mythographers,  Greek,  247  j 
Roman,  364 

Mythology,  399  ;  utility  of  a 
knowledge  of,  402 ;  resem- 
blance between  classical 
and  oriental,  403, 410, 412  ; 
differences  between  Greek 
and  Roman,  403 
N. 

Narvius  Cneius,  297  ^ 

Nail,  ceremony  of  fixing  in 
the  temple  of  Jupiter,  572 

Names  of  Romans,  357,  620  f 
of  towns  in  England  end- 
ing in  cester,  613 

Natural  history  among  the 

Greeks,  264 ;  Romans,  386 

Naval  affairs  of  Greeks,  472, 
529, 542  ;  of  Romans,  616 

Naval  battle,  532,  616 

Naumachins,  165 

Nazarius,  328 

Nearchus,  251,  258 

Nemean  games,  499 

Nemesian,  317 

Nemesis,  433 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


749 


Nepos  Cornelius,  375 

Neptune,  413 

Nereids,  414 

Nero,  his  tyranny,  719  ;  his 
persecution  of  christians, 
378  ;  burning  of  Rome, 
553 

Netha,  Egyptian  deity,  421 

New   Testament,   books  of 
classified,  268;  literary  im- 
portance of,  269 ;  Apocry- 
phal, 270 

JVew-Platonists  and  Pythago- 
reans, 231 

New-year's  presents  at  Rome, 
571 

Nicander,  165,  196 

Nicetas,  166 

Nicolaus,  251 

Nigidius  Figulus,  355 

Niobe,  456 ;    and    children, 
statues  of,  102 

Noah,  language  of,  23 

Nobility,  Roman,  586 

Nones,  571,  700 

Nonius  Marcellus,  335 

Nonnus,  160,  196 

Nossis,  162 

Notation,  Greek,  544 ;  Roman, 
600 

Novels  or  imperial  edicts,  393 

Novum  Organum,  236 

Nox,  433 

Nubian  inscriptions,  53 

Numa,  his  influence  at  Rome, 
342,  555,  558;  fragments 
of  his  laws,  68 

Numbers,  designated  by  let- 
ters, Grecian,  544 ;    Ro- 
man, 600 
Nuptial  celebrations,  481,  550, 

621 
Nymphis,  251 
Nymphs,  444 


Oases,  Egyptian, 
Oaths,  of  Greeks, 


693 

486 ;  of  Ro- 
mans,  569,   602;    Roman 
soldiers,  603 
Obelisks,  130,  660,  693 
Obituary  inscriptions,  49 
Obliteration  of  Alss.46 
Obsequens  Julius,  386 
Ocellus  Lucanus,  233 
Occupations  of  men  in  early 

ages,  6 
Odea,  133,  660,  674 
QDconomists,  357 
O3nomaus  and  Pelops,  450 
Offences  penal  at  Rome,  592 
Offerings  to  the  gods,  468 
Official  robe  of  magistrates, 633 
Ogyges,  452 
Ointments  of  the  ancients, 

539,  480,  140 
Olbian  decree,  50,  52 
Old  and  new  style,  701 
Olen,  Greek  poet,  158 
Olympic  games,  498 
Olympiodorus,  239 
Olympus,  157  ;  residence  of 

the  eods,  411 
Omens,  562,  470 
Onesander,  248 
Onyx,  a  gem  representing  the 

apotheosis  of  Augustus, 

118,  119 
Opal,  of  Nonius,  111 
Oplitodrome,  103,  496 
Oppian,  165,  196 

65*   . 


Optatianus  Porphyrius,  294 

Oracles,  26,  469,  487,  489;  Sib- 
yline,  158 

Oratory  and  Orators,  Greek, 
199,  2;    Roman,   321  ; 
among  earlier  christians, 
277 

Orders,  in  architecture,  134 

Organ,  musical  instrument, 
547,  576 

Ori bas i us , Greek  physician ,263 

Oriental  tales, 232 

Origen,  273,274 

Orion,  443 

Orphan-house  at  Halle,  stud- 
ies in,  152 

Orpheus,  158,  176 

Ornaments,  architectural,  625, 
626 ;  personal  of  Romans, 
637  f  of  architecture,  137 

Orthography,  Roman  in  early 
times,  69, 82 

Oscan  language,  67 

Osiris,  441 

Ostracism,  511 

Ovation,  618 

Ovid,  291,  292,  307 

Ox,  symbol  of  Osiris,  441  ; 
bones  found  in  the  Egyp- 
tian pyramid,  442 


Pacatus  Drepanus,  328 

Pacuvius,  125,  299 

Paduan  coins,  82 

Pagan  fables,  coincidence  of 

with  scripture,  401 
Paganism  and  Popery,  456 
Paidotribes,  37 
Painted  vases,  97 
Painters,  ancient,  124,  125 
Painting,  ancient,  120ss, ;  ma- 
terials and   instruments 
used  in,  123  ;  periods  of 
in  Greece,  124  ;    remains 
of,  126,259,695 
Palace,  origin  of  the  word,  657 
Palaeography,  60 
Palamion,  292,  333 
Palsphatus,  247 
Palimpsest  Mss.  46 
Palladium,  420 
Palladias,  364 
Pallas,  statue  of,  104 
Palm,  token  of  victory,  573 
Pan,  434  ;  priests  of,  565 
Panathenaja,  38,  495 
Pandects,  393 
Pandora, 424 
Panegyrical  oratory,  202,  321, 

324 
Panegyrists,  Roman,  327 
Panic,  origin  of  the  word,  434 
Pantomime,  287 
Paper,  ancient,  32,  70 
Papinianus,  391 
Papirius,  his  collection  of 

laws,  67,  389 
Pappus,  244 

Papyri,  Egyptian,  or  manu- 
scripts, 62 
Papyrus,  material  for  writing 
on,  32 ;  manner  of  prepar- 
ing it,  70 
Paraphrase  of  John's  gospel, 

196 
Paraenetic  orations,  205 
Parchment,  33 
Parga,  fate  of,  667 
Parian  chronicle,  50 
Parks  of  the  Romans,  627 


Farmenides,  200 
Parnassus,  157,  445 
Parodies,  173,  174 
Parthenius,  248,  221 
Parthenon,  420 
Parthian  history,  710 
Pastes,  or  casts  of  gems,  117 
Pastoral  poetry,  164 
Paterculus  C.  Velleius,  377 
Patricians  and  plebeians,  583 
Patronage,  of  letters  by  Ro- 
man emperors,  44,  76 
Patrons  and  clients,  583,  631 
Paul,  Silentarius,  167 ;  of 
^Egina,  263  ,•  the  Apostle, 
340 
Paulus  Diaconus,  381 
Pausanius,  247 
Peace,  temple  of  Janus  in 

time  of,  409 
Pedestal,  134 
Pediment,  134 
Pedo  Albinovanus,  309 
Pegasus,  451 

Pelasgi,  21 ;  in  Italy,  65,  68 
Pelopidas,  456 
Pelops,  22,  452,  456 
Pen,  when  first  used,  33 
Pencil,  invention  of,  33 
Penny  of  the  N.  Test.  84 
Pentateuch  in  Ms.  62 
Pergamus,  Greek  literature 

at,  44 
Pericles,  oratorv  of,  200 
Peripatetics,  22*9,  345 
Periplus,  of  Hanno,  244 
Persecution  of  Christians,  378, 

594,  719 
Persephone,  416 
Persepolis,  ruins  of,  137,  686 
Perseus,  452 

Persian  sculpture,  96;  Chro- 
nology, outline  of,  710; 
kings,  their  residences, 
684 
Persius,  295,  311 
Perspective,  of  ancients,  124 
Pessinus,  origin  of  the  name, 

410 
Petalism,514 

Petrarch,  85 ;  his  Africa,  314 
Petrified  City,  695 
Petronius  Arbiter,  352 
Phasdrus,  293,;  311 
Phalanx,  Grecian,  525 
Phalaris,  221 
Phanodemus,  250 
Pherecydes,  250 
Phial  of  tears,  639, 640 
Philanthropists,  19 
Philemon,  173 
Philetas,  162,  164 
Philippus,  167 
Philistion,  175 
Philistus,  250 
Philo,  of  Biblus,  252;  Judceus, 

253 
Philochorus,  250 
Philology,  comparative,  22 
Philosophy,  favorite  study  of 
Greeks,  41 ;  general  view 
of  the  Greek,  224  ;  Chris- 
tian, 240, 270, 346;  Roman 
342;    authorities  respect- 
ing ancient,  232 
Philostratus,  uncle  and  neph- 
ew, 252,  259 
Phlegon,  eclipse  named  by ,252 
Phocylides,  183 
Phcebus,  417 
Phormis,  171 


750 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Phoenician  history,  709  ;  lan- 
guage and  writings,  23; 
art,  96 

Phoroneus,  452 

Photius,  218 

Phronto,  324,  341 

Phrynicus,  169,  217 

Phurnutus,  or  Cornutus,  258 

Physicians,  Greek,  264;  Ro- 
man, 383 

Physical  science  among 

Greeks,  263;  Romans,  386 

Pictor  a.  Fabius,  367 

Picture,  writing,  11 

Pictures,  earliest  Greek,  122  ; 
ancient  described  by  Phi- 
lostratus,  259 

Pierus,  445 

Pigments,  of  the  ancients,  122, 
123 

Pilasters,  136 

Pile,  or  Pyre,  funeral,  469 

Pillars,  or  columns,  53,  130, 
134,  135,  137,  660 

Pilpay,  233 

Pindar,  162,  185 

Pipe,  of  Pan,£c.  546,  547 

Pisastratus,  200,502 

Placidus,  366 

Placitus,  385 

Planudes,  167,  232,  354 

Plastic  arts,  87 

Plato,  his  philosophy,  228, 234  ; 
his  works,  234 

Platonists,  New,  236,346 

Plautus,  285,  298 

Plays,  of  the  Greeks,  445 ;  Ro- 
mans, 573,  631 ;  Plebei- 
ans, 585 

Pleiades,  tragic,  171 ;  the  con- 
stellation, 424 

Plinth,  134 

Pliny,  (the  elder)  his  Natural 
history,  351,  386 ;  account 
of  gems,  111 

Plinv  C.  Cheilitis,  (the  young- 
er), 324,  327,  340 

Plotinus,  239 

Plough,  Grecian,  542  ;  Roman 
597 

Plutarch,  237,251,257 

Pluto,  416 

Plutus,436 

Poetry,  origin  and  varieties  of 
Greek,  157  ;  of  Latin,  282 ; 
mythic,  405 

Poets,  first  philosophers  of 
Greece,  224  ;  influence  on 
religion  of  Greeks,465;  the 
Greek,  175  ;  the  Latin  296} 
early  Christian,  271,  290 

Polemarch  at  Athens,  506 

Polemo  Perigetes,  167 

Polignac,  his  poem  Anti-Lu- 
cretius, 301,  302 

Pollio,  Virgil's  4th  eel.  305;  C. 
Asinius,  369 ;  Trebellius, 
383 

Pollux,  Julius,  217;  and  Cas- 
tor, 455 

Polyeenus,  248 

Polybius,  250,  255 

Polycarp,  269 

Polycrates,  signet  of,  115 

Polygamy,  not  allowed  by  the 
Greeks,  548 

Polyhistor,  work  of  Solinus, 
361 

Polyhymnia,  445 

Polynices,  455 

Pomona,  437 


Pompeii,  implements,  &c.  dis 
interred  at,  126,  626,  627, 
629 

Pompeius,  grammarian,  334 

Pompey's  Pillar,  136 

Pomponius,  Atticus,  368;  Me- 
la, 360 

Pomptine  marshes,  652 

Pontiffs,  Roman,  5b2 

Poor,  at  Athens,  how  support- 
ed, 508  ' 

Populace,  Roman,  585 

Population  of  Rome,  554 

Fopulousness  of  ancient  na- 
tions, 503, 554 

Porphyrio,  334 

Porphyry,  239 

Porticos,  134,  660,  673,  678 

Portland  vase,  97,  596 

Portraits  and  busts  among 
Greeks,  125,  104 

Posidonius,  251 

Posts,  on  Roman  roads,  656 

Potamo,  231 

Pottery,  Roman,  596 

Pound,  Roman,  601 

PraGriti,  Hindoo  goddess,  410 

Praefects,  583 

Praetorian  soldiers,  618 

Prators,  Roman,  580 

Prayers,  of  Greeks,  466 ;    of 
Romans,  567 

Praxilla,  162 

Praxis,  261,  371 

Praxiteles,  100 

Preaching  of  first  centuries, 
works  on, 274 

Precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
means  of  settling  dates, 
703 

Priem,  palace  of,  131 

Priapus,  437 

Priests  and  priestesses,  Greek, 
466,  485  ;  imposture   of, 
487;  Roman,  560;  classes 
of  them  made  by  later 
writers,  567 

Priscian,  371,  388 

Prison  of  state,  at  Rome,  593  ; 
Sparta,  517 

Prizes,  in  the  musical  contests 
&c.  38 ;  funeral  games,551 

Prova  Falconia,  318 

Procession,  at  the  Circensian 
games,573;  triumphal,  618; 
funeral,  638 

Proclus,  239 

Proconsals,  583—- 

Procopius,  260 

Proculus  Sempronius,  390 

Prodicus,  207 

Professions,  not  separated  an- 
ciently, 35,  40 

Profiles  on  ancient  medals,  54, 
81 

Prologue  in  comedy,  285 

Pronunciation  of  Greek,  147; 
of  Latin,  278 

Propertius,  291,304 

Property,  among  Romans,  600; 
basis  bf  division  into  clas- 
ses, 584 

Proprietors,  584  """" 

Proqutestors,  5?4 

Prose  composition,  applied  first 
to  history,  249,  250 

Proserpine,  416,  433 

Prosper,  371 

Protocol,  34 

Provinces,  Roman,  554,  591 

Provincial  magistrates  of  Ro- 


mans, 583,  591 

Prudentius,  29J,  319 

Prytanes,  at  Athens,  510 

Psellus,  2b4 

Psyche,  and  Cupid,  story  of, 
352    423 

Ptolemy  Claudius,  242,  246 

Publicans  of  the  J\Tew  Testa- 
ment, 595 

Publius   Syrus,  287,  309' 

Pulpit,  eloquence  of,  273  j  ori- 
gin of  the  word,  576 

Punctuation,  ancient,  32,  60 

Punic  language,  299,  680 

Punishments,  Athenian,  51ft 
Spartan,  527  ;  Roman,593  j 
of  Roman  soldiers,  607 

Purifications,  Greek,  466,  485 ; 
Roman,  569 

Purple  dye,  its  costliness,  633 

Pygmies,  443 

Pylades,  287 

Pyramidal  tablets  for  writing, 
33 

Pyramids,  130,  442,  694 

Pyrgoteles,  gem-engraver,  115 

Pyrrhonists,  345 

Pythagoras,  founder  of  Italic 
school,  225;  fragments  of, 
184 

Pythagoreans,  345 

Pytheas,  242,  245 

Pythean  games,  38,  498,  4© 

a 

Q.U33Stors,  Roman,  581 
(luinquatria,  420 
Quintilian,  324,  331 
Quintus,  or  Cointus,  160,  137 
Quintus  Ourtiua,  379 
Quirites,  rights  of,  590 
auoit,  497,  573 

R 

Race,  Grecian  496:    Roman, 

573 
Races  or  families  at  Rome,  620" 
Raising  a  child,  622 
Rama,  Hindoo  deity,  427 
Ras  Sem,  the  petrified  city ,693 
Readers,  professed,  39,  73 
Reading-books,  or  Selection*, 

in  study  of  language,  150, 

Reed,  instrument  for  writing, 

33  w 

Reformation  by  Luther,  43 
Refugees  from  Constantinople, 

46, 153,  216 
Rehearsals  by  ancient  writer*. 

39,  73 
Religion  of  the  Greeks,  464. 

482  ;  the  Romans,  557 
Repasts,  of  Greeks  479,  534 
Revenue   of  Athens,  507  ;  of 

Rome,  595 
Reviewing  in    the    study  of 

languages,  150 
Rewards  at  Athens,514 ;  Spar- 

ta,519  ;  of  Roman  soldiers, 

607 ;  Roman  Generals,  617 
Rhadamanthus,  417 
Rhapsodists,  27,40,  160 
Rhetoricians,  discriminated 

from   Sophists,  207,  208  % 

Roman,  328 
Rhianus,  160 

Rhodes,  Greek  letters  at,  44 
Riches,  god  of,  436 
Riding  on  horseback,  477 
Rights,    of  citizens  and  sub- 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


751 


jects  of  Bome,  590,  591 

Ring,  of  Gyges,  416  ;  Polycra- 
tes,  115 

Rings,  gems,  in,  115 

Rites,  of  marriage,  550,  621 ; 
religious,  466,  486,  567 

Rivers  called  infernal,  416 

Roads,  Roman,  656 

Rolls,  ancient  form  of  books, 
34,  70  j  Herculanean,  62 

Roman  sculpture,  101 ;  archi- 
tecture, 138 ;  antiquities, 
553;  literature,  71,  76, 
277 

Romances,  220,  339 

Romanesque,  142 

Romans,  origin  of  65;  their 
empire,  554,  715;  most 
brilliant  era,  555 

Rome,  foundation  of,553  ,  gov- 
ernment of,  579  ;  extent  of 
empire,  554  ;  luxury  and 
decline,  555 ;  classes  or 
division  of  the  people,584  ; 
authenticity  of  its  early 
history,  66,  367  ;  popula- 
iton,  554  ;  topography  656  ; 
chronology  of,  715 

Rope-dancers,  574 

Roscius,  actor  at  Rome,  286 

Rosetta  stone  or  inscription ,51 

Rotunda  or  Pantheon,  659 

Rousseau,  on   invention  of 
language,  10 

Rowers,  their  benches  in  the 
ancient  galley,  532 

Royal  Society  of  Literature,  20 

Rubrick,  from  rubrica,  33 

Rufinianus,  330 

Rufus,  physician,  263;  histo- 
rian or  geographer,  357 

Runic  wands,  33 

Runners  among  the  Greeks, 
528 

Running,  one  of  the  games, 
496 

Rural  deities,  436 
Rutilius  Lupus,  331 
Rutilius  Numatianus,  320 


Sabinus,  Aulus,.  308 ;  Masuri 

us,  390 
9accas,231 

Sacred  poetry  of  Greeks,  158 
Sacrifices,    human,  409  ;  of 

Greeks,  467, 486;  R.omans, 

560,  567;  origin  of,  467 
Saddles  and  stirrups,  497 
Salamator  Memnon,  statue  of, 

432 
Sale  by  auction  600 
Salic  Hymns,  282 ;  Priests,  585 
Sallust,  Roman  historian,  373 
Salustius,     Greek    mythogra- 

pher,  249 
Salt  token  of  friendship,  537 
Salus,  goddess  of  health,  436 
Salvius  Julianus,  391 
Sammonicus,  387 
Sanconiathon,  252 
Sanscrit  language,  24 
Sappho, 162,  166,  182 
Saracenic  architecture,  142 
Sardonic  laugh,  680 
Satire  Roman,  295 
Saturn,  407 
Saturnian  verse,  282 
Satyre  dramatic  different  from 

satire,  173,  174 
Satyrs,  449 
Scaevola,  389 


Scaling  ladders,  613 
Scarabaei  gems,  113 
Sceptic  philosophers,  230,  345 
Sceptres,  579 

Schiva,  Hindoo  deity,  427 
Scholiasts,  Greek,  153,  216 
Schools,  of  painting  and  sculp- 
ture in  Greece,  99,  124  ;  of 
philosophy,    41,    225;    of 
medicine,  262,   384.     See 
Seminaries 
Scipio,   tomb  and  inscription 
of,  298,  79;  Africanus,  his 
love  of  philosophy,  342, 
343 
Scironian  rocks,  670 
Scolion  or  skolion,  101 
Scribonius  Largus,  387 
Scriptures,   Sacred,   in   the 
Greek  language,  267,  268 ; 
attested  in  Pagan  fictions, 
401 
Sculptors,  eminent  Greek,  100 
Sculpture,  ancient,  90  ss  ;  ma- 
terials used  in, 91 ; inven- 
tion  of,  94  ;  Asiatic,   96  ; 
among  the  Greeks,98 ;  his- 
tory of  in  Greece,  99,  100 ; 
remains  of,  102 
Scvlax,  241,245 
Scylla  and  Charybdis,  451 
Scymnus,  165 
Sea-fight,  616,  533 
Scythian  guards    at    Athens, 

674 
Seals,   sculptured   gems  used 
for,  115  ;  seal  of  Angelo, 
118  ;  of  Polycrates,  115 
Seatur,  German  deity,  407 
Sects  of  Greek  philosophy,  225 
Sedulius,  320 
Self-devotion,  569 
Semele,  425 

Seminaries  of  early  Chris- 
tians,   45  ;    of   ancient 
Greeks,    42 ;    Romans, 
73,75 
Semitic  languages,  23 
Sempronius  Proculus,  390 
Senate,  Athenian,  510  ;  Spar- 
tan, 517  ;  Roman,  588 
Seneca,  L.  Annreus,  284,  312, 
340,  349,  386  ;  M    Annae- 
us,  33 
Septimius,  arch  of,  105 
Septuagint,  origin  of,  267  ; 

chronology  of,  705 
Sepulchres,    Roman   in   Eng- 
land, 639 
Sequester,  361 
Serapis,  442 
Serenus  Septimius,  289 
Serpent,  emblem  of  health,436 
Sertorian  war,  649 
Servius  Sulpicius,  lawyer,  390 
Servius,  commentator  on  Vir- 
gil, 304,  334 
Sesterce,  value  of,  598 
Seth,  pillars  of,  5 
Sethus  Simeon,  233 
Seven,  sages  of  Greece,  225  ; 
wonders  of  the  world,241 
Severus  Cornelius,  308;  Sanc- 

tus,  290 
Sewers  of  Rome,  661 
Sextus  Empiricus.  238 
Sextus  Placitus,  385 
Shaft,  134 

Shield,  a  poem  ascribed  to  lie- 

siod,  130  ;  the  sacred,  565 

Shields,  ancient,  474,524,606  ; 

making  of,  204  ;  of  Hercu- 


les and  Achilles,  475 
Ships,  Grecian,  476,  529 ;  Ro- 
man, 616 
Shipwreck,  practice   of  those 

surviving,  568 
Shoes,  538,  636  ;  of  horses, 
Short  hand,  Greek,  35  ;  Ro- 
man, 70 
Shows  or  spectacles  at  Rome, 

573 
Siamese,  alphabet,  14 
Sibyls,  158  ;  books  of,  569 
Sidonian  artists,  26 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  342 
Sieges,  celebrated,  526,  613 
Sigffian  inscription,  48 
Signals  of  battle,  526 
Signets,  115,  116,  118 ;  that  of 

Polycrates,  115 
Silence,  god  of,  442 
Sileni,  449 

Silenus,  curious  image  of,  427 
Silius  Italicus,  269,  314 
Silk,  known  to  the  ancients, 

539,  634 
Silver  coins  of  Romans,  84 
Simonides,  162,  164,  166,  174 
Singing  at  feasts,  537 
Sirens,  443,  444 
Sisenna,  368 
Sistrum,  547 
Siva,  Hindoo  deity,  412 
Skeleton,    of  priest  found  at 

Pompeii,  82 
Skins,    material  for   writing, 

32 
Slaves  in  Greece,  482,  504  ;  at 
Sparta,  516  :    Rome,  620, 
624  ;  patron  goddess  of  th» 
freed,  433  ;  trade  in,  595, 
624  ;  republic  of  in  Sicily, 
681 
Sleep,  god  of,  448 
Sneezing,  ominous,  470 
Sobriquet  or  burlesque  name, 

620 
Social  entertainments,  534,631 
Society,  primitive  state  of,  8 
Socrates,  letters  of,  181,  222; 
philosophy,    226 ;  method 
of  teaching,  41 
Socratic  gems,  114 
Sofa-bed,  542 
Sol,  430 ;  statue  of  at  Rhodes, 

430 
Solar  Cycle,  701 
Soldiers,  classes  of    Grecian, 
473,   521  ;  of  Roman  603, 
604  ;  load   carried  by  Ro- 
man, 606,  613 
Solinus  C.  Julius,  361 
Solomon,  Song  of,  193 
Solon,  his  poetry,  183  ;  his  In- 
fluence  on    Alhsns,    200, 
225  ;  fragments,  183  ;  tab- 
lets of  his  laws,  32 
Songs  of  the  Greeks,  161. 163 
Sophists,  Greek,  207  ;  lives  of 

260 
Sophocles,  170,  187,  189 
Sophronists,  37 
Sophron,  174 
Soranus,  263 

Soul,  state  of  after  death,  416  j 
weighing  of  by  Egyptians, 
417 
Sparta,  under  Lycurgus,  461 ; 
rival  of  Athens,  462 ; 
changes  in  government, 
472  ■  system  of  education, 
37  ;  magistrates  of  516 ; 
public  meals,  518  ;  constti- 


752 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


tution,  515,  517  ;  topogra- 
phy, 677 
Spartianus,  383 
Spectacles  or  shows,  Roman, 

573 
Sphere  of  Chiron,  703 
Sphinx,  451 
Spintrian  medals,  80 
Spoils  of  war,  how  divided, 

477,  528 
Spoletto,  aqueduct  at,  651 
Spurinna,  289 
Spurs,  597 
Stage,  actors   on  Greek,  500  j 

parts  of  Roman,  576 
Staircases,  626 
Standards,  military,  Grecian, 

526 ;  Roman,  604 
Statius,  456,  289, 314 
Statues,  90  j  ancient  rude,  91 ; 
two  most  famous,  91, 100  ; 
Equestrian,  104;  classifi- 
ed, 92 ;  use  frequent,  100  ; 
more       numerous      than 
paintings,  125 ;  where 
placed,l01;  found  at  Pom- 
peii, 633;  at  Herculane- 
um,  104 
Stheno, 449 
Stephens,  family  of  printers, 

394 
Stephanus  of  Bvzantium,  248 
Stesichorus,  162,  165 
Stiletto,  71 
Stirrups,  597 
Stobaeus,  239 

Stoic  philosophy,  227,  344 
Stone,  used  for  tools,  6,  7 
Stonehenge,  468 
Storms,  goddesses  of,  447 
Strabo,  242,  245 
Strangers,    treatment    of   by 

Greeks,  537 
Strato,  167 
Strophes,  162,  169 
Stucco-painting,  626 
Studying  languages,  methods 
of,    148,  278;  in   London 
University,    151 ;    Boston 
Latin  school,  279 
Style,  instrument  for  writing, 

Stvlobate,  134 

Styx,  416 

Suetonius,  380 

Suidas,  218 

Suliotes,  bravery  of,  667 

Sulpicia,  296, 

Sulpicius  Rufus,  390 

Sun,  the  Fountain  of,  695 ; 
Statue  of  at  Rhodes,  432 

Sun -god,  409;  worship  430 

Superior  gods,  407 

Suppers  of  the  Romans,  630 

Supplicants,  467 

Survey  of  Roman  empire,  356 

Swimming  among  the    an- 
cients, 628 

Swords,  524 

Syenite,  693 

Symbolical,  language  of  the 
Bible,  268  ;  pictures,  11 

Symbols,  the  origin  of  the  Gre- 
cian gods,  26  ;  on  medals, 
54,  83 

Symmachus,  328,  341 

Symposia,  40 

Synagogues,  Jewish,  In  Gre- 
cian cities,  268 

Synchretistic  philosophy,  231 

■Syracuse,  constitution  of,  520, 
topography  of,  681 


3yria,  kingdom  of,  710 
Syriac  N.  T.  Ms.  copy  of,34,62 

T 
Table,  Iliac,  161 ;  of  Isis,  441  ; 
ancient  for  eating,  536,629 
Tables  and  charts,  705 
Tables  twelve,  59  4 
Tablets,  for  writing,  32,  70 
Tabula  Peutingeria,  361 
Tachygraphy,  35,  70 
Tacitus  C.  Cornelius,  324,  378 
Tactics,  Greek  writers  on,242- 

Roman,  356, 358 
Tantalus,  456 
Tapestry,  ancient,  548 
Tarpeian  Rock,  593,  657 
Tartarus,  416 
Tassie's  casts  of  ancient  gems, 

117 
Tatian,  272 
Tauchnitz,  classics  printed  by, 

395 
Taxes  at  Rome,  595  ;  Athens, 

507 
Teachers  in  Greek  schools, 42; 

at  Rome,  73 
Tears,  preservation  of,  639,640 
Telesille,  162 

Temples,  ancient,  131 ;  seven 
kinds  of,  132  ;  most  cele- 
brated, 132;  Grecian,  465, 
468 ;  in   time   of   Homer, 
467;     Roman,    559,    658; 
dedication  of,  &c.  568 ;  at 
Athens,    503 ;    of  Jupiter 
Ammon,  412,  695  ;  of  Isis, 
441  ;  Juno  Lacinia,  655 
Tents,  of  Greek  soldiers,  477 
Terence,  285,  300 
Terentianus,  Maurus,  292 
Terminus,  437 
Terpander,  163, 166 
Terpsichore,  445 
Tertullian,  346 
Thales,  founder  of  Italic 

school,  225 
Tbaletas,  162 
Thalia,  445 
Thamyris,  157 

Theatre,  form  of  ancient,  132 ; 
remains,  133;  performan- 
ces in,    175,  500  ;  of   Ro- 
mans, 576  ;  of  Greeks,500  ; 
views  of  early  Christians 
respecting,   288  ; 
Theban  war,  heroes  of,  455 
Thebes,  constitution  of,  520 
Themis,  411,  435 
Themistius,  213  j 
Themistocle3,    eloquence    of, 

200  ;  letters  of,  222 
Theocritus,  164,  192 
Theodorus    Prodromus,     166, 
198/   Gaza,  219.-   Priscia- 
nus,  388 
Theodosian  Code,  392;  table. 
361 


Theodulus,  219 

Theognis,  183 

Theogony,  Greek,  465 

Theomancy,  490 

Theon,  Greek  sophist,  212 

Theophilus,  272 

Theophrastus,     philosopher, 

236;  naturalist,  266 
Theopompus,  250 
Theromenes,  200 
Theseus,  454;    his  temple  at 

Athens,  673 
Thespis,  169 
J  Thomas  Magistor,  219 


Thracian,  school  of  poetry ,157 
Thucydides,  250,  254 
Thundering  legion,  238 
Thunder-stones,  6 
Thyrsus,  of  Bacchus,  426 
Tibullus,  291,  303 
Timseus,  of  Locri,  235;    the 

grammarian,  137 
Timon,  171,  174 
Titanides,  407 
Titans,  442 
Titles  of  ancient  books,  how 

written,  34 
Titus,  arch  of,  105 
Toilet,  Grecian,  539;  Roman, 

637 
Tomb,  of  Cyrus,   &c,    552 , 
Roman  at  Pompeii,   639; 
at  Cyrene,  695 ;  of  Virgil, 
653 
Tongues,  confusion  of,  5 
Tone,  or  accent,  in  Greek,  147 
Topography,  of  Rome,  656  ;  of 
Athens,  503,  671 ;  Sparta, 
677 
Torso,  the  statue,  103 
Totila,  Rome  laid  waste  by, 

553 
Towers,    ancient,    614,    616; 
Leaning  tower  of  Pisa,  142 
Towns,  with  names  ending  in 

Chester,  613 
Trade,  at  Rome,  595;  in  slaves, 

624 
Traditions  of  mythology,  399 
Tragedy,  Greek,  169;  Roman, 

283 
Transcribers,  35 
Translation,  practiced  by  Ro- 
man orators,  74  ;  utility  of 
the  exercise  of,  150 
Translations  of  the  classics, 

395 
Travels,  of  ancient  scholars, 

43,75 
Treasury,  Athenian,  508 ;  Ro- 
man, 594 
Treaties,  478,  564 
Trebellius  Pollio,  383 
Trees,  cultivated  by  Romans, 

596 
Trial,  of  persons  accused,  510, 

591 
Triban,  33 

Tribes,  of  Athens,  501,  502, 
503 ;  Sparta,  515 ;    Rome, 
584 
Tribonian,  Roman  lawyer,  393 
Tribunes,  Roman,  581 
Triglyphs,   136 

Tripods  consecrated  to  Apol- 
lo, 468,  48S,  489 ;  street  of, 
675 
Triremes,  529 
Trismegistus,  159,  424 
Tritons,  443 
Triumph  of  Roman  generate, 

617 

Triumvirate,  583,  598,  718 
Trogus  Pompeius,  381 
Trojan  history,  709 ;  cycle,160 
Trophies,  528,  469,  661 
Trumpets,  547 
Tryphiodorus,  160,  198 
Tryphon, 217 
Tubal-Cain,  424 
Tultecan  hieroglyphics,     12; 

architecture,  130  ' 
Tunnel  of  Pausilypus,  653 
Turnus,  Roman  satirist,  290 
Tusoan  order,  136,  138 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


753 


Tusks  of  the  Calydoniun  boar, 
668 

Twelve  Tabled,  laws  of,  67, 
389,  594 

Tympanum,  134 

Tyrannio,  his  library,  74 

Tyranny,  Roman,  over  prov- 
inces, 591 

Tyrants,  the  thirty,  502,  714 

Tyrtseus,  163,  181 

Tzetzes,  198,  219 

U 

Ulpian,  391 

Uncial  characters,  30,  60 

Unguentary  vases,  112 

Urania,  430 

Uranus,  445 

Urns,  for  depositing  the  ashes 

of  the  dead,  551,  639 
Utensils,    ancient,     found  at 

Pompeii,  82 ;    represented 

on  Egyptian  monuments, 

560 


Valerianus,  385 

Valerius,  Flaccus,  195,  313; 
Maximus,  377 ;  Probus, 
333 ;  Antias,  368  ;  Julius, 
his  account  of  Alexander, 
251  362 

Valley  of  Moffeta,  654 

Valpy's  classics,  395 

Variorum  classics,  395 

Varius  Lucius,  284,  288 

Varnish,  on  ancient  statues,  92 

Varro,  75,  295,333, 334, 363,368 

Vases,  Tuscan,  96,  105,  125 ; 
murrhine,  111:  Panathe- 
naic,  496 ;  sacrificial,  560 

Vegetius,  360,  385 

Veils,  538 

Velleius,  Paterculus,  377 

Vellum,  for  writing,  71 

Venus,  422 ;  de  Medici,  103  ; 
temple  of,  at  Paphos,  692 ; 
Anadyomene,  125,  423 

Verginius,  287 

Verres,  his  spoliations,  50, 101 

Verrius  Flaccus,  368 

Vertumnus,  437 

Vessels,  for  holding  wine, 632; 
of  war,  616;  sacrificial,560 

Vesta,  410,  428 

Vestal  virgins,  566,  429 

Vestritius  Spurinna,  289 

Vibius  Sequester,  361 

Vices,  deified,  440 

Victims,  in  sacrifice,  568 

Victor,  Sextus  Aurelius,  381 

Victorinus,  330 

Victory,  rewards  of,  617,  618 

Vigils,  or  watches  of  Romans, 
698 

Villas,  or  country  seats  of  Ro- 
mans, 627 

Vindicianus,  385 

Violet,  robe  of  office,  633 

Violin,  ancient,  546 

Virgil,  288,  290,  291,  304 

Virgo,  435 

Vishnu,  Hindoo  deity,  412 

Virtues,  deified,  440 


Vitrum  obsidianum,  117 
Vitruvius,  359 
Voconius,  324 
Volateme,  hypogea  of,  97 
Volutes,  136 
Vopiscus  Flavius,  383 
Voyages,  241 ;  imaginary,  220 
Voting,    Athenian    mode  of, 
509,  510  ;  Roman,  588, 590 
Vows,  568 
Vulcan,  423 
Vulcanalia,  424 

W 

Wages  of  Roman  soldiers,  606 

Walls,Roman  in  England,  680, 
141 

Wand  of  Apollo  or  Mercury, 
425 

War,  heroes  of  the  Theban, 
455  ;  of  the  Trojan,  456  ; 
affairs  of  among  Greeks, 
473,  521 ;  Romans,  601 ; 
declarations  of,  525,  564  ; 
the  Sertorian,  649;  of 
Troy,  Bryant's  view  of  it, 
456 

War-chariots,  523 

War-engines,  613 

War-galleys,  529,  616 

Wards  or  boroughs  of  Attica, 
501,  503 

Watch-word,  613 

Warwick  vase,  105 

Watches,  divisions  of  the 
night,  612,  570,  698 

Water-clock,  698 

Wax,  tablets  of,  33 

Wealth  and  luxury,  instances 
of  Roman,  600 

Weapons  or  arms,  of  the  an- 
cients, 474,  606 

Wedgewood's  imitations  of 
antiques,  96,  117 

Weeding,  goddess  of,  438 

Week,  known  to  Egyptians, 
700 

Weights  and  measures,Greek, 
544  ;  Roman,  597 

Well  of  Syene,  693 

Wind-instruments  of  music, 
546 

Wind,  woven,  539 

Windows,  of  Roman  houses, 
625 

Winds,  temple  of,  673 

Wines,  of  Greeks,  534  ;  of  Ro- 
mans, 631  ;  history  of,  534 

Wine-cellars,  626,  632 

Winfrid,  381 

Winter-quarters,  of  Roman 
soldiers,  613 

Wise  men,  the  seven,  225 

Wife  of  the  Rex  Sacrorum,  and 
of  the  Flamen  Dialis,  564, 
565 

Women,  condition  and  em- 
ployments of  among  the 
Greeks,  481,  544;  Romans, 
628 

Wonders  of  the  world,  seven, 
432,  241 

World,  as  known  to  the  an- 
cients, 643 


Wrestling,  497,  573 

Writing,  successive  steps  !n 
the  invention  of,  11 ;  Mex- 
ican, 11 ;  Egyptian,  12  ; 
Tultecan,  12;  Persepoli- 
tan  and  Babylonian,  14; 
Chinese  method  of,  13 ; 
Cherokee,  14;  Grecian, 30; 
materials  used  in,  32,  70  ; 
whether  practiced  in  time 
of  Homer,  35,  179  ;  Latin 
terms  respecting,  70,  71 

Writing  Greek  and  Latin, 
useful  exercise,  150,  278  ; 
helps  for,  154,  280 

Writers,  on  value  of  the  clas- 
sics, 19  ;  on  different  top- 
ics of  the  Archaeology  of 
Literature  or  Art,  20 ;  on 
inscriptions,  47,  77  ;  on 
coins  and  medals,  58,  83 ; 
on  manuscripts,  61,63,85; 
on  ^Esthetics,  89  ;  on  Tus- 
can remains,  97  ;  on  an- 
cient sculpture,  106,  107, 
108;  on  engraved  gems, 
118,  119;  on  paintings  a- 
mong  the  ancients,  126; 
on  ancient  architecture, 
130,  132,  141 ;  on  branches 
connected  with  Greek  lit- 
erature, 152  ss.  ;  Roman 
literature,  279  ss. ;  mod- 
ern Greek  literature,  51 ; 
on  mythology,  406 ;  on 
Greek  antiquities,  463fc 
Roman  antiquities,  556 ; 
Roman  military  affairs, 
602  ;  ancient  weights  and 
measures,  601 ;  classical 
geography,  154,  280  ;  chro- 
nology, 155,  280,  705 ;  to- 
pography of  Rome,  657; 
topography  of  Athens,  676; 
of  Sparta,  677  ;  Byzanti- 
um, 662 ,-  Babylon  and 
Nineveh,  491 ;  see  also 
references  under  specific 
subjects. 


Xenocrates,  262 

Xenophon,  of  Ephesus,  224  j 

of  Athens,  historian,  233, 

250,254 
Xiphilinus,  258 


Year,  division  of  by  the  an- 
cients, 570,  700 

Young,  time  of  burying  among 
the  Greeks,  551 


Zaleucus,  225 
Zenobia,  213 
Zenodotus,  215 
Zodiac,  of  Denderah,  693 
Zoilus,  215 
Zonaras,  261 
Zoology,  father  of,  263 
Zoroaster,  159 

Zosimus,    historian,    260;    of 
Egypt,  264 


[uar;vEiisiT7] 


V 


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